Remote Sensing Assessment of Karez Irrigation Systems And
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REMOTE SENSING ASSESSMENT OF KAREZ IRRIGATION SYSTEMS AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESOURCES IN MAYWAND DISTRICT, KANDAHAR PROVINCE, AFGHANISTAN By Copyright 2013 Antoinette C. Egitto Submitted to the graduate degree program in Anthropology and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ________________________________ Chairperson: John W. Hoopes ________________________________ Rolfe D. Mandel ________________________________ Philip Stinson ________________________________ Ivana Radovanovic ________________________________ Stephen L. Egbert Date Defended: April 10, 2013 The Dissertation Committee for Antoinette C. Egitto certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Remote Sensing Assessment Of Karez Irrigation Systems And Archaeological Resources In Maywand District, Kandahar Province, Afghanistan ________________________________ Chairperson John W. Hoopes Date approved: January 28, 2014 Abstract ii This dissertation focuses on the history, diffusion, and cultural significance of the karez, a form of traditional irrigation system, based on a case study of Maywand District in Kandahar Province, Afghanistan. Remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) technology, offers methods for studying and protecting cultural heritage remains in regions subject to conflict in wartime. A long history of invasions and occupations has both produced and destroyed cultural heritage in Afghanistan that includes landscapes with small- and large-scale features such as mounds, architecture, and traditional gravity-driven water systems that serve areas of extreme aridity. Remote sensing technologies such as satellite imagery, aerial photography, and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) have been successful for identifying and analyzing archaeological remains, especially when ground verification is not feasible as is the case in southern Afghanistan. Ethnographic and archaeological data, as well as concepts developed from landscape archaeology, are used to interpret karezes and related features identified in remotely sensed imagery. This research identifies karezes as cultural heritage that should be protected, revitalized, and promoted as well as a form of appropriate technology that provides renewable and sustainable sources of water. Karezes promote community cohesion over time by promoting and perpetuating indigenous knowledge based on long-term experience. They provide local stakeholders with the tools necessary for success before and after foreign occupation in southern Afghanistan. iii Acknowledgements They say it takes a village to raise a child, but They never say it takes a village to raise, or write, a dissertation. But it does. I started on this adventure by way of studying the archaeology of Costa Rica, the use of GIS, and the use of remote sensing technologies. The Department of History and Archaeology at the Museo Nacional de Costa Rica (MNCR) laid the foundation upon which this dissertation was built. As a volunteer with the National Museum, I not only participated in several excavations throughout the country but also saw first-hand how cultural heritage was threatened and damaged by urban and rural development. Through both formal and informal conversations, I learned a great deal from my teachers at the MNCR. Many thanks go to Myrna Rojas, Juan Vicente Guerrero, Ricardo Vazquez, Gabriela Villalobos, Adrian Badilla, and Dr. Francisco Corrales. I would also like to thank several individuals at the University of Costa Rica, particularly Dr. Silvia Salgado, and my dearest friends and colleagues, Monica Aguilar, Jeffry Petryquin, and Natalia Villalobos. I would like to thank Dr. John Hoopes (Department of Anthropology) and the other members of my doctoral committee—Dr. Rolfe D. Mandel (Department of Anthropology and Kansas Geological Survey), Dr. Ivana Radovanovic (Department of Anthropology), Dr. Phil Stinson (Department of Classics), and Dr. Stephen Egbert (Department of Geography)—for their patience and guidance during this process as well as for their support in allowing me to change my geographic study area. The U.S. Army Research Office (ARO) provided funding for this research under Contract #2950203- 908 (KU# FED 00066526) and U.S. Army Geospatial Center (USAGC) provided remote sensing imagery and data. The larger interdisciplinary research project, Modeling iv Cultural Landscapes and Water Resources: A Case Study in Afghanistan included Principal Investigator Mandel and investigators Hoopes, Stinson, Dr. William C. Johnson (Department of Geography), and Dr. Gwendolyn L. Macpherson (Department of Geography). Dr. Egbert, Dr. Doug Comer, Doug Shaver, Keith French, and Zane Price provided GIS and/or remote sensing support for my research in Costa Rica and/or Afghanistan. I am grateful for Mike Denning’s assistance in facilitating the delivery of my dissertation to the United States Army Geospatial Center (USAGC) and to the staff at the USAGC for their time to review my dissertation. Dr. James Shaffer, Omar Sultan, and Dr. Rita Wright provided expert advice on the archaeology and culture of Afghanistan and the region. Both Dr. Shaffer and Mr. Sultan were instrumental in helping me refine my classification scheme for the newly identified archaeological features in my study area. I am particularly grateful that Dr. Shaffer was able to fit me in to his office hours to review the gazetteer section of my dissertation and to share with me his own experiences of conducting archaeology in Afghanistan. Mr. Sultan provided a wealth of knowledge on the cultural significance of the karez system and he also helped to put the heterarchy/hierarchy discussion that I address into perspective. I appreaciate the time that Dr. Wright took out of her schedule to read and offer comments on one of my field statements and to help me understand the cultural chronology of the region as well as the situation at the site of at Mes Ayank. Conversations with Dr. Laurie Rush, Mark Yanaway, and Corrine Wegener assisted in helping me to understand archaeology and the military, parts of the Hague Convention, the protection of cultural property during wartime, and forced me to think outside of the box. I am grateful for having had the opportunity to attend a workshop v offered by the U.S. Committee of the Blue Shield, on the 1954 Hague Convention and the Horn of Africa. A big “thank you” goes to Anna Weiser for her expertise and support, and her friendship has been greatly appreciated. It was awesome to have someone to bang heads with and discuss research issues as well as the history of Afghanistan and the challenges of doing research in a country at war without putting boots on the ground. Special “thanks” go to my dearest friends and colleagues: Christina Keibler, Melissa Filippi, and Anne Kraemer-Diaz for their friendship, support, and guidance during my academic journey. Graduate secretaries make the work go ‘round. Judy Ross and Le-Thu Erazmus provided a wealth of support and guidance during this process. My family, particularly my grandmother, has been extremely supportive about ‘all my time in school’ and I am thankful for all the winter care packages that helped get me through cold Kansas winters. One of the best things about Lawrence has been the accessibility to art and classes, especially those classes available through the Lawrence Arts Center. The art community as a whole has been welcoming. As a result, I have made several friends that have been very supportive in both my ceramic and academic endeavors, especially Brian and Marilyn Horsch, Phil and Jane Flanders, Linda Bush, and Megan Hurt. Linda and Megan also provided excellent bird care that allowed me to make frequent trips to Costa Rica early in my graduate career. vi List of Figures................................................................................................................ xiv I. Chapter One..................................................................................................................1 1.1 Project Summary ....................................................................................................1 1.2 A Brief History of Cultural Heritage Protection........................................................3 1.3 The U.S. Military’s Role in Cultural Property Protection .........................................6 1.4 Cultural Landscape and Cultural Property..............................................................8 1.5 Introduction to the Theoretical Framework & Methodology ....................................9 1.6 Research Objectives.............................................................................................10 1.7 Research Assumptions.........................................................................................11 1.8 Research Significance ..........................................................................................12 1.9 Research Methods................................................................................................14 1.9.a Remote Sensing Methods..............................................................................14 1.9.a.1 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index.....................................................15 1.9.b Library Methods and Analysis ........................................................................16 1.9.c Laboratory Methods and Analysis ..................................................................16 1.10 Broader Implications ...........................................................................................18