Fourth-millennium-BC ‘leopard traps’ from the Negev Desert (Israel) Naomi Porat1, Uzi Avner2, Assaf Holzer3, Rahamim Shemtov2 & Liora Kolska Horwitz4

Stone-built installations known as ‘leopard traps’ are found throughout the deserts of the Middle East. They have generally been considered to be recent in date, and to have been built by Bedouin or other local communities to trap carnivores that threatened their flocks. But how much older Israel Jordan might they be? Survey in the hyper-arid ‘Uvda Valley of the southern Negev Desert Egypt in Israel discovered 23 ‘leopard traps’, 19 of ‘Uvda Valley them clustered in a relatively small area. This study describes the architecture and function of these structures and presents the first optically N stimulated luminescence ages for two of them. 0 km 50 These results demonstrate that the traps are ancient and were already in use before the late fourth millennium BC, not long after the adoption of herding by the desert dwellers. Keywords: Israel, Negev Desert, ‘Uvda Valley, leopard traps, Arabian leopard, OSL

Supplementary Table S1 is published online at http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/porat337/

Introduction Recent studies attest to the use of net traps and cordage technology from Upper Palaeolithic sites in Eurasia (Soffer et al. 2000; Soffer 2004; Kvavadze et al. 2009). Since organic remains are rarely preserved, archaeologists have argued that trapping technology may have been used in even earlier periods, aimed at increasing hunting efficiency and lowering risk, and serving as an indication of the cognitive abilities of early hominins (e.g. Campana & Crabtree 1990; Milo 1998; Lupo & Schmitt 2002; Wadley 2010). The most widespread and best preserved archaeological installations for catching prey are probably fish weirs and fish traps,

1 Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkhe Israel Street, Jerusalem 95501, Israel (Email: [email protected]) 2 Arava Institute and the Dead Sea and Arava Science Center, POB 3304, Eilat 88133, Israel 3 Desert Studies Center, Kibbutz Samar, Hevel Eilot 88815, Israel 4 National Natural History Collections, Faculty of Life Science, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel

C Antiquity Publications Ltd. ANTIQUITY 87 (2013): 714–727 http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/087/ant0870714.htm 714 n cai Srnbr olno 99 vr 95 ontn&Csao 1978; McNiven Cassavoy 1997; & Christensen Johnston 1988; 1975; Godwin Avery 1983; Clason 1969; Africa & Tomlinson Europe, America, Brinkhuizen & North (Strandberg of records Oceania Holocene and and Pleistocene Late the in ubiquitous (numbered) traps dated two the of location the and Valley ‘Uvda respectively) the of triangles, image small satellite b) and rectangle; a (large as traps shown ( Valley ‘Uvda small the and with Israel, large southern of showing map Location a) 1. Figure ecie shvn enue pcfial ota h rba epr ( leopard are Arabian and the Peninsula, trap Sinai to the to specifically Yemen used from been nimr East, having Middle as the found described of are They deserts stones. field the unworked as throughout from constructed Arabic) installations (in rectangular are locally trap’), known traps’, ‘Leopard traps’ ‘Leopard ie’o h orhmlenu Co ale htwr rmrl sdfrtapn ael in ‘desert gazelle (Holzer trapping the for Levant and used southern primarily the 2008), were of that Jordhøy earlier deserts 1982; or the BC (Barth millennium installations fourth Norway the stone-built Holocene of 2012), kites’ in (Sato Japan reindeer but in record, trapping pit-traps archaeological for the 000-year-old in 40 rare for are claims ungulates include trapping for installations built contrast, oee,w fe eea ecito ftegorpia itiuin rhtcueand architecture distribution, First, geographical BC. the installations. millennium hunting fourth of these late description of the of Valley general mechanism as ‘Uvda early a the as offer in least use we at in however, 1), were (Figure that Israel traps’ Desert, ‘leopard Negev stone-built the for dates absolute first the  c Google). ei17;A Jumaily Al 1976; Levi ; tal. et 06 Judas 2006; am Porat Naomi tal et 715 00 Nadel 2010; . urtal-nimr nusrat tal. et tal et 06 aqz&AuBkr2006; Baker Abu & Qarqaz 2006; . tal et ltrlymaig‘leopard meaning (literally 00.Hr epresent we Here 2010). . C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity ateapardus Panthera tal et 02.In 2012). .

Research Fourth-millennium-BC ‘leopard traps’ from the Negev Desert (Israel)

Mallon 2007; Mallon et al. 2008; Avner et al. 2011; Hadas 2011; Leopard Traps n.d.) This is supported by comments made by early travellers in the region such as Palmer (1871: 225) who noted: “on the watershed, where we stood, were some old stone ruins, a hermit’s deserted cell, and a leopard-trap, in front of which were recent traces of a huge beast of that species”. It cannot, however, be discounted that these traps were used to capture other carnivore species, as suggested by their name in the Yemen, where they are known as ‘wolf- traps’ (Brass & Britton 2004: 155; see also discussions in Avner et al. 2011 and below). There are also remarkably similar constructions dating to the nineteenth century in South Africa called ‘wolwehokke’ that are said to have been used to trap jackals and hyenas in addition to leopards (Walton 1989). The introduction of these traps into South Africa may pre-date the European colonists, since Thomas Pringle (1835: 133–37) attributed this technology to the ‘Hottentots’ (Khoi). The Middle Eastern traps consist of two parallel walls built of upright stones or several courses of stones, roofed by large cover slabs, with an opening at one end of the cell. A vertical stone slab was set through a narrow gap in the roof and suspended by a rope to form the door of the trap. At the other end of the trap the rope looped around a wooden stave, to which bait was attached (Figure 2). When the carnivore grabbed the bait it dislodged the rope, dropping the stone slab and closing the trap door. The chamber itself was reinforced with field stones piled on top and against both sides. Commonly, the traps were built on bedrock to prevent the trapped animal from digging its way out; in other cases the chamber floor was paved with flagstones for that reason. The trapped animal was left to starve (Judas et al. 2006: 13) or was speared through an opening in the roof (Figure 2; Levi 1976: 11–12). Traps vary in size geographically. Those from Yemen are reported to be 2.75–3m long and 1.5m high (Mallon et al. 2008), while in the Negev Desert two sizes of traps are found. The larger (Figure 3c & d) are 2–4m long and 1.5–2.5m wide while the internal dimensions of the chamber are c. 0.4m wide and 0.5m high. The smaller traps (Figure 3a & b) are around 1.5 × 1.0m, the chamber only 0.15–0.2m wide and 0.2–0.25m high. Irrespective of their size, both types of traps are identical in design and function. Logically, the larger traps suited large carnivores such as desert wolves, striped hyenas, leopards and possibly even cheetahs,animalswithmeanbodyweightsformalesof20kg and body lengths of 0.95m (Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov 1999). The smaller traps were built for small-sized carnivores, such as caracals and foxes, with mean body weights of 17kg and body lengths of 0.95m (Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov 1999). In the Negev traps, the chambers are too narrow for the trapped carnivore to turn around; in Yemen, on the other hand, the chambers of the more recently built traps are wide enough for the animal to turn around, facilitating their transfer to a cage. This modern adaptation has enabled the sale of live leopards to zoos or private buyers (Mallon et al. 2008). Throughout the Middle East, ‘leopard traps’ are considered to be recent in age, and to have been built by Bedouin or other local communities (Levi 1976; Qarqaz & Abu Baker 2006; Mallon 2007). Indeed, eye-witness accounts from the 1960s, 1990s and even up until 2007 note that local communities in Yemen, Jordan and the Sinai Peninsula used these traps to capture the Arabian leopard, in order either to rid the area of predators that attacked their herds or to capture the animals for sale (Levi 1976; Al Jumaily et al. 2006; Qarqaz & Abu Baker 2006; Mallon et al. 2008; Stanton 2010). C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

716 alyweems fteacaooia ie r lsee.A rao 60km of area An clustered. the are of between sites side eastern agreement archaeological the the peace on of concentrated the Avner most Uzi following where by headed Negev valley the team of the survey A redeployment into Egypt. the and Sinai Israel before from Department, Forces Antiquities Defense Archaeological Israel Emergency Israel Negev the the of by part a undertaken as Survey 1978 in began (Israel) Valley ‘Uvda Desert the Negev in Research southern Valley, ‘Uvda the in (modified traps’ text ‘Leopard the in described as parts different the with trap’ ‘leopard functioning a 1976). of Levi cross-section after schematic A 2. Figure anlrmis ohaia ubnr n ln utvto ea nti region of this less in or began cent cultivation per plant 3 and only been husbandry average also animal on have ass comprise Both domestic reptiles) remains. or birds, faunal wild (hares, settlement or taxa equids wild this of while remains of found, herds Scant comprising goats. base exclusively and almost sheep subsistence latter domestic the The of pastoralism, and Age). cultivation cereal Bronze was Early system and Chalcolithic Neolithic, eso w ye;acliae rao 20aognsdi lmn’t ans odwater; flood harness to ‘limans’ in organised 1200ha of area animal cultivated 86 a encampments; suited types; tent site of two each hundreds of persons); corrals, pens 20–80 containing (around family settlements extended stone-built one 186 to include sites recorded The urnl vr70acaooia ie n ntlain aebe eoddi surveyed a in Peninsula. 80km recorded Sinai around been and have only Desert installations Negev of and the area sites in archaeological the documented 700 contains yet over valley sites the Currently of ancient east of area density the this, highest Despite 000 evaporation. 10 potential last annual 4000mm the pattern. settlement during unusual of palaeoenvironment the discovery better the the understand into to to research attempting led is ongoing 2008–11 years 22 and in at sites, work of excavations survey new knowledge by of 330 the Resumption 1980 to patterns. information in more settlement followed immediate still early was contributing under excavations survey not subsequent The areas with briefly. development and sites, from only etc.), pressure zones, surveyed under training were operated army threat survey infrastructures, The airbase, recorded. new were (a sites 400 which in C(ve 90 98 06 Horwitz 2006; 1998, 1990, (Avner BC h Ud alyi ye-rdae,wt 5maeaeana rcptto against precipitation annual average 15mm with area, hyper-arid a is Valley ‘Uvda The 2 oto hmdtdt h it–hr ilni C(Late BC millennia sixth–third the to dated them of most , am Porat Naomi tal. et 717 01 Avner 2001; tal. et tal. et 03 Rosen 2003; C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity 2 a surveyed was tal et 2005). . c 6000 .

Research Fourth-millennium-BC ‘leopard traps’ from the Negev Desert (Israel)

Figure 3. Photographs of the ‘Uvda Valley ‘leopard traps’ studied here; a) the small ‘leopard trap’ BU160 before opening for sampling, looking towards the entrance; b) Trap BU160, after sediment sampling. Note flagstones forming the the floor of the trap; c) the large ‘leopard trap’ BU229 before sampling. Clearly visible are the large slabs covering the central cell and entrance; d) sampling Trap BU229 for dating—photographed towards the entrance. Note large cover slabs.

32 threshing floors; other farming installations; and many cult sites of various types (Avner 1990, 1998, 2002: chs. 2, 4 and 5, 2006; Avner et al. 2003). Within the surveyed area 23 carnivore traps were recorded, 13 large and 10 small. Nineteen traps are clustered in an area of 20km2 (Figure 1b) and form the highest density of such traps known to date in the Near East. During the first survey in the ‘Uvda Valley, several observations indicated that the ‘leopard traps’ were older than commonly believed, based on their proximity to ancient corrals and habitation sites that span the Late Neolithic to Early Bronze Age; the substantial dust fill in the trap chambers; the presence of uniform patination on the rocks from which the traps were constructed; and scatters of flint tools and debitage around most of the traps. Only two of the traps lacking these indications were attributed to the Bedouin population of recent C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

718 o-o 99,aloadls en eni h Ud alyi 99(Avner 1979 in Valley ‘Uvda the (Mendelssohn in today seen region being hyenas the last inhabit foxes, leopard still a caracals, species Yom-Tov 1999), wolves, these & of leopards, Most included cheetahs. also that have and possibly may intended and were herds traps endangered these which have for carnivores would The dating. radiometric by tested be erTa U2 sml U1) opoiea niaino h xeto lahn of bleaching of trap. extent the of the vicinity of the indication in an open provide the sediments in to of wadi sediments time BU-15), the the of (sample surface to BU229 the age Trap from in taken near closest was sediment sample layers and of analogue horizontal oldest modern interval the in A time is infill, abandonment. a sample sediment represents lowermost the spit the of Each whereby base 4). accumulation, Figure the 1; to (Table top thick the 15–25mm from (spits) trap, each at taken were drawn), and photographed slab cover (measured, a documented interior, replaced. been the later to had was access trap which gain To the chamber. after main from the removed taken within was were location samples a sediment and to cloth, at exposure (BU160), dark trap prevent a trap each with to no hilltop opening precautions trap’s Taking the but the dust. covering wadi, reached by uniform sunlight the have fine, in comprises could infill position origin sediment its Aeolian its to than owing other field (BU229) sediment of trap some waterborne first sediment but The some accumulated chambers. fine place received Very main have in the doors. within trap they could still visible the use, were were was of as thick, slabs dislodged, 50–150mm out roofing been sediment, been a had the long slabs and of had the 3c); covering Most Figure both stones (BU229) channel; disturbed. Although trap water hilltop. slightly (ephemeral large a only wadi a on were small sizes: situated a different (BU160), of of trap side are small the dating on for bedrock, chosen on built traps Valley ‘Uvda two The Methods are artefacts or matter archaeological organic with fixing where associated installations effectively sediments other sunlight, date and (Porat to to rows lacking grain used stone increasingly as mineral is such a It structures of burial. exposure of recent time This the 1998). most sedimentary of (Aitken the the dating absence (OSL) from the dates luminescence grains In stimulated method optically quartz dating. using for dated traps selected the we of were charcoal), infill two (bone, traps, remains Valley ‘Uvda organic the preserved of age the verify To dating OSL to period built Chalcolithic the Avner specifically as 20; were early 2002: as 1998, traps’ from 127, ‘leopard possibly 1989: (Avner predators, the from herds that caprine suggested early protect was it Accordingly centuries. h aigsoe n le h nesie ewe h tnso h hme al fe the after walls chamber the of stones the abandoned. between covered were interstices it traps the here filled considered and traps This stones the winds. paving In thus the strong abandonment. it their seasonal and or structures, by construction, man-made brought their within dust accumulating post-dates landscape, is the quartz on directly of settles source dust only the Valley, ‘Uvda the fe eoigtesrae23mta eeepsdt ih,fu eietsamples sediment four light, to exposed were that 2–3mm surface the removing After tal et 06 Outram 2006; . tal et am Porat Naomi 00 etes21) ntelmsoetranof terrain limestone the In 2012). Feathers 2010; . tal et 719 01.Ti yohssnee,hwvr to however, needed, hypothesis This 2011). . tal. et C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity tal et 2011). .

Research Fourth-millennium-BC ‘leopard traps’ from the Negev Desert (Israel) .

bold aedryears Calendar 5% of the + − 1999) and are text are in et al. e the number of grains lements are

30 AD 1770–1930 20 AD 1890–1930 60 AD 1030–1150 70 AD 1400–1540 190 2130–1750 BC 200 2910–2510 BC 240 3490–3010 BC 110 AD 208–500 60 AD 1680–1800 120 270 420 90 g yasb 2010) b. (years Age + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − 210 100 920 540 270 1999) and are presented with their 3950 4720 5260 1620

et al.

e D (Gy) 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.10.2 770 0.3 3450 0.40.2 6500 0.07 0.10.1 1250 0.2 0.07

+ − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − D(%) OD

values. o aliquots/grains No. e 36/87 91 4.3 21/42 48 1.9 33/71 70 5.6

29 24/25 58 0.25 29 24/24 28 0.92 29 21/25 7929 25/25 0.8 3529 33/33 3.7 36 6.9 29 23/24 6129 0.62 24/24 31 1.4 29 19/23 100 0.27

Gy/a) ( dose Total μ + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + −

values were calculated using the Central Age Model (Galbraith

e

Gy/a) ( Cosmic μ

Gy/a) ( Ext. μ γ

Gy/a) ( Ext. μ β

values were calculated using the Finite Mixture Model (Galbraith

e

Gy/a) ( Ext. μ α

h(ppm) Th

(ppm) U K(%) Trap BU160 on a hill top (IAU 254/65/3; Israel Grid 196930/427780)

Trap BU229 in a stream bed (IAU 254/75/11; Israel Grid 197590/425420) et (m) Depth 10% of the concentrations for Th. The multi-grain D

0 10/12 98 0.10 + − Location sediment floor slabs near trap 229

SG—single grain measurements; OD—over-dispersion; SE—standard errors Sample statistical uncertainty. BU-16 10–40mm 2.0 0.32 1.9 2.4 7 523 398 243 1171 presented with their standard errors, whereas the single grain D When two ages are listed for a sample, the upper oneconcentrations is for from K multi-grain measurements and and U, the and lower one from single grains measurements. Ages used in the Uncertainties on the ages include statistical and systematic sources, including a 1% uncertainty on source calibration. Errors on the radioactive e BU-18 110–140mm 3.0 0.32 1.9 2.4 7 523 398 229 1157 BU-13 Between floor 4.0 0.32 1.6 2.5BU-15 6 Surface 480 367 219 1072 No. aliquots/grains: for multi-grain—the number of aliquots used for age calculations from all those accepted. For single grains—the two numbers ar Table 1. OSL results. BU-12 Above floor 2.5 0.32BU-14 1.6 Between wall 2.5 6 5.0 480 0.32 367 1.6 236 2.5 1089 6 480 367BU-17 210 60–100mm 1063 BU-19 2.5 150–200mm 0.32 1.9 4.0Notes: 2.4 0.32 7 1.9 523 2.4 398 7 236 523 1163 398 219 1146 in the major component (see Supplementary Material) over the number of accepted grains with positive D BU-11 Top 15mm 2.0 0.32 1.6 2.5 6 480 367 243 1096 SG SGSG slabs stone and SG 41/72 79 5.1

C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

720 hc a aepeiiae.Ds eoeytssoe ag fpeet hwdta a 260 that at showed 10s preheats of preheat of fluorides a range any using a dissolve achieved over be to can tests HCl 100% recovery 16% of Dose in recovery precipitated. soaking have by with may removed etched followed which quartz were (HF), the feldspars and acid most dissolved hydrofluoric were and 42% feldspars minerals remaining heavy The separation. and magnetic (HCl) by acid hydrochloric 10% with sdt dniytems infiataepplto.Ti oe sue httesample the that D assumes differing model This with population. populations age Galbraith grain significant (FMM; most comprises model from the mixture grains identify finite suitable to The of used 15–25%. yield to the 3–5% increased (300 usual also holder (88–125 the this quartz sample measurements; the grain of micro-aliquot single size are the grain these small of the hole to each owing diameter), filled in grains several that observed was ssasadtemliganaea ice ihterltv oaino ahsml smlsB-1t U1 rmtpto top from BU-14 to BU-11 (samples sample each of location relative 2010). before the years with (in circle, age a its as and age bottom) multi-grain the and stars as ocretslrbecigeprecdb hsmnrl sn otn rcdrs(Porat procedures routine Using mineral. 88–125 this the by 2007), experienced bleaching solar concurrent orhnrdganhlswr esrdfrec apeadwr cendfrfrhrdata further Porat for screened in were defined accumulated. and it criteria sample rate each using what for processing more measured at provide were and to holes began grain expected traps hundred was the Four This in trap. sedimentation each when from about samples information (older) lower 1). the (Table on ages out the carried on errors the to propagated (SE), errors standard with value, filled was trap The roof. and walls slabs, in floor collected the were of that structure sediments the of showing 70mm BU160, Trap around through with cross-section A 4. Figure 00 n 32 lqoswr esrdfrec ape(xetfrtemdr analogue). modern Galbraith the (CAM; for model (except age sample central each The for Wintle measured & were Murray aliquots (SAR; 23–25 protocol regenerative and aliquot 2000) single modified a using aliquots 2mm ifrn opnns tas rvddifraino h ereo iigo h sediment. the of mixing of degree the on information provided also It components. different n etds rha f5 t220 at 5s of preheat dose test a and nyvr n adqat a rsn,atsigt ogdsac uttasotadthe and transport dust long-distance to attesting present, was quartz sand fine very Only oudrtn etrtesatrfudwti h ape,snl ri esrmnswere measurements grain single samples, the within found scatter the better understand To μ urzgan eeslce yseig abntswr dissolved were Carbonates sieving. by selected were grains quartz m ◦ Fgr e.Euvln oe (D doses Equivalent 5e). (Figure C am Porat Naomi tal et c. tal et 5msisfrOLdtn.Snl ri oe gsaeshown are ages model grain Single dating. OSL for spits 15mm 721 99 a sdt banarpeettv D representative a obtain to used was 1999) . 20;seas upeetr aeil.It Material). Supplementary also see (2006; . e aus n tatmt oietf these identify to attempts it and values, tal. et μ ◦ ,ats oeof dose test a C, ) nesne therefore, essence, In m). C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity e eemaue on measured were ) tal et 99 was 1999) . c. 3.5Gy μ m e

Research Fourth-millennium-BC ‘leopard traps’ from the Negev Desert (Israel)

Figure 5. OSL analyses and results for sample BU-13 (for details see the Technical Appendix at the end of the article): a) the natural OSL signal of an aliquot; b) dose response curve for one aliquot; c) preheat plateau; d) histogram showing all 25 De measurements; e) dose recovery tests over a range of preheat temperatures; f) radial plot of single grain results.

Water content in this hyper-arid region was estimated at 2−+1%. Burial depths for cosmic dose calculations included the sediment overburden and the overlying limestone blocks. Owing to the apparent homogeneity of the sediment in the field and the closely spaced samples, a single sediment sample was taken from each trap for chemical analyses. The gamma and cosmic dose rates could not be measured in situ with a portable counter on account of the confined spaces from which the samples were collected. Alpha, beta and gamma dose rates were calculated from the concentrations of radioactive elements in the sediment, measured by Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Mass Spectrometry (for U and C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

722 fu o10,adlresadr ros(al ) hsi asdb h lwrt of D measured rate of slow distribution the the by Nonetheless, deposited caused years. been is of have could This thousands that even 1). grains (Table or contains hundreds errors spit over sampled standard each large whereby and infill, sediment 100%, to up of ra ag ftmeaue eeosre Fgr c,ipyn htatemlystable thermally a a over that protocol plateaus implying preheat 5c), SAR feldspar D (Figure and significant The the observed measured. ratio) No is were that quartz. depletion signal temperatures indicating the IR of in the 5b), range place Recycling (using broad (Figure take 5a). observed that unity (Figure was changes component of contamination sensitivity bleach 5% any to for within easy corrects fast, mostly the are by ratios dominated are and bright n one gs ssol eepce rmsmlsdpstduiomyoe ogtime long a older over both uniformly with deposited samples grains from of expected mixture span. be even should an as ages, indicating younger 5d), and (Figure normal roughly is values measurements: Multi-grain stonework). Results and sediment (overlying depth burial calculated current was rate its dose using cosmic sample the while each K), for (for Spectroscopy Emission Atomic ICP or Th) ieyteegan rgnt rmodrds htudristepvn tns hsdust this stones; paving the underlies that dust older from originate grains these likely h risblne oee oppltoswt gsof ages with populations to however belonged grains the h raetfato fgan,4% aea g f5260 of age an gave 46%, grains, of fraction greatest The eietifil h gsfrtelreta B29 ag rm1250 270 from to range trap (BU299) trap the large of the base for ages the The at infill. measurement) sediment of year the 2010, h letadlretganpplto opie 9 ftegan n a naeof age an has and grains BU229, the Trap of of spit 49% lowest comprises the population from BU-19 grain sample 1620 largest In and 4. Figure oldest and the 1 Table in listed are of detrimental time no the has to calculation possible the as from close grains as zero-age deposited effect. grains, these oldest of removal the of construction, age trap the in interested are we oems o4%i h pems ape hs riswr eetdfo further the from in rejected 15% were around grains D larger negative from These handle the cannot BU160 sample. models section, statistical Trap uppermost current sediment the in the since the processing, increasing in data in 40% grains, sample to these the lowermost of younger) (and proportion higher the The grains’). age riswt eoo eaieD negative or zero with measurements: grains (micro-aliquot) grain Single deposition. that of time sediments the the at that bleached implying well and probably ages were indicating residual traps years, the low 100 entered around have of sediments age surface an overall gave 1) that Table (BU-15; sample analogue modern The lb fTa U6,cnandfiedfeetD different five contained BU160, Trap of slabs period. Byzantine h ut-ri gsfrtesalta B10 ag rm6500 from range (BU160) trap small the for ages multi-grain The eal fteaaye r on nteSplmnayMtra,adtesnl ri ages grain single the and Material, Supplementary the in found are analyses the of Details apeB-4 rmaceiebtentepvmn n n ftesadn wall- standing the of one and pavement the between crevice a from BU-14, Sample − + 1 er.Teta a hrfr bnoe only abandoned therefore was trap The years. 110 e h S inl rmteqat ihntesdmn ape are samples sediment the within quartz the from signals OSL the itiuinfralsmlsi ra,wt vrdseso values over-dispersion with broad, is samples all for distribution e aus rwt roslre hnteD the than larger errors with or values, am Porat Naomi 723 l ape otie ayn rprin of proportions varying contained samples all e tal. et opnnsta eeioae yFMM. by isolated were that components c 60yasao ..drn the during i.e. ago, years 1600 . c − + 00yaso le.Most older. or years 8000 . − + 4 er;aon 5 of 25% around years; 240 0yasa h o fthe of top the at years 60 C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity − + 0t 210 to 90 − + 2 er (before years 420 e e aus Since values. au (‘zero- value − + 0years. 30 e

Research Fourth-millennium-BC ‘leopard traps’ from the Negev Desert (Israel) predates the construction of the site, and introduced an over-estimation of age in the multi-grain measurements. However the major grain population in this sample, with an age of around 5300 years, represents post-construction dust accumulation. The samples immediately overlying the floor pavement are from the centre of the trap (BU-13 and BU- 12; Figure 4). This location was most likely dust-free when the trap was constructed, and the chance of contamination by older grains is lower. For sample BU-13, collected from immediately above the pavement, the largest De components, comprising 57% of the grains, gave an age of 4720−+200 years (Figure 5f). For the overlying sample BU-12, the largest component (41%) gave an age of 3950−+190 years. This sequence of single grain FMM ages for the sediment fill of Trap BU160 ranges from 5260−+240 (at the base) to 3950−+190 years, and is in stratigraphic order (Table 1; Figure 4). The multi-grain age for the uppermost sample, 270−+60 years, accords with this. The age for the lowermost sample, around 5300 years, approximately represents the earliest time when sediment started to accumulate in the trap; the similar age of the overlying sample, around 4700 years, supports this early age. The trap was thus abandoned before c. 3300 BC, but we cannot determine how much time had elapsed since it was built. Since the oldest sediment fill dates to Early Bronze Age I, it can be concluded that the trap pre-dates this and most probably was built during the Chalcolithic period. After abandonment, the chamber floor of the trap was gradually filled by environmental dust, which today attains a height of around 70mm, giving an average deposition rate of around 0.01mm/year for the last c. 5300 years. Indeed, each sampled spit of around 15mm was deposited on average over a period of 1300 years, an observation that explains the wide scatter in the multi-grain ages.

Discussion and conclusions Our results represent the first radiometric ages for ‘leopard traps’ in the Middle East, showing that at least some are older than around 5300 years. The ages support the hypothesis put forward here that most ‘leopard traps’ in the ‘Uvda Valley are ancient and were directly associated with at least some of the adjacent early settlements and corrals. The probable antiquity of ‘leopard traps’ in other parts of the Negev was previously estimated from archaeological finds recovered inside a trap excavated above the ‘Ein Gedi oasis in the Judean desert. Hadas (2011) found a fragment of a Roman oil lamp (30 BC–AD 70) inside the trap, while finds in the sediment immediately outside included lithic artefacts and a Chalcolithic pottery sherd, from a period slightly earlier than the time when the ‘Uvda Trap BU160 functioned. Together with the OSL ages presented here, this data attests to the antiquity of the Negev ‘leopard traps’. Leopards are known readily to enter baited cage or box traps, but the capture rate of other carnivores, such as lynx (equivalent to the Middle Eastern caracal), red fox and lion using such installations is much lower (e.g. Mowat et al. 1994; Baker et al. 2001; Frank et al. 2003). Furthermore, throughout the Middle East the ‘leopard traps’ were constructed in a manner that would encourage the capture of leopards: camouflaged by the use of local field stones and placed in appropriate locations. The traps were built on trails used by ungulates leading to pastures, water sources or to livestock corrals. Alternatively, they were located C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

724 A itr oe D model mixture rha sson etds rha t200 at preheat dose test shown, as preheat h aeds rccig onsadtetidpitwsmaue fe h RLsga IS elto ratio). depletion (IRSL signal IRSL an the after with measured fitted was were point points third D the data The and The points measurement. (recycling) the dose over of same integrated 4s the and last 40s, for the measured over was subtraction exponential signal background The BU-13. with sample 0.2s, of first aliquot one for curve response dose 0.97 ro as eemaue sn ag fpeettmeaue.Nt htwieteei cte nteD the in scatter a is there while that Note temperatures. preheat of range a using measured were bars) error .G;soni e) h itiuini ogl normal; 20 Circles at temperature. roughly preheat each dose is at test measured distribution were the aliquots Two red), temperatures. in shown 1.2Gy; h oi iei hr,odcmoet(%o grains). of (6% component old third, a is line solid the − + esrmnscridotfrsml U1.Atog hr salresatr(D scatter temperature; large preheat a the is there of Although function BU-13. a sample for as out vary carried not measurements do they aliquots, the among at power LED 1s, (within rapidly results; analyses OSL 5 Figure to Notes appendix P.Technical and of and Ehrlich version Mizrahi S. previous Yoffe, Y. a O. to to to contributed grateful who and reviewers are preparation, anonymous We sample the Center. manuscript. for thank this We Science Dolgin analyses. Z. Arava chemical to for and Shtober fieldwork, Sea D. the Dead with assistance the for by Smith funded was research the This in traditions human Acknowledgements certain of longevity the and BC possessed deserts, ethology millennium these animal region. fourth of of the inhabitants knowledge intimate least the the (Holzer by at demonstrate AD from installation century time, hunting These twentieth of of ungulates. early period capture the lengthy to to used a installations over stone-built functioned kites’, too ‘desert Eastern Near the in people, and traps traps’ desert of ‘leopard Valley. the the dating ‘Uvda of OSL by the association Additional the in herding clarifying herds. sites of by archaeological their argument adoption 7; protect this the support to 2007: may millennium after attempt Negev (Mallon fourth the an long frequent late in not the to BC, built than 6000 known been later around no are have use may leopards of it which out went BC, edges BU160 Trap cliff Since on 2011). Hadas or beds wadi in References ITKEN 2 h otne s f‘epr rp’wl notetetehcnuyehe htof that echoes century twentieth the into well traps’ ‘leopard of use continued The σ xod xodUiest Press. University Oxford Oxford: − + ag) htwsue o g acltos arwbn sascn,yugcmoet(7 fgrains); of (37% component young second, a is band narrow calculations; age for used was that range), 0.04; e ..1998. M.J. , o hsaiuti 3.24 is aliquot this for f) + ailpo fsml U1,soigsnl ri eut wtotngtv aus n h finite the and values) negative (without results grain single showing BU-13, sample of plot radial ierfi.Trerpa onsa h oeo G r l ihn05 fec te;toaeof are two other; each of 0.5% within all are 6Gy of dose the at points repeat Three fit. linear e opnns iesae adi h otfeun opnn 5%o ris showing grains, of (57% component frequent most the is band shaded Wide components. nitouto ootcldating optical to introduction An a) ◦ esta rha;triangle preheat; than less C h aua S inlo naiutfo apeB-3 oeta h inldecays signal the that Note BU-13. sample from aliquot an of signal OSL natural the − + 0.14Gy; c .24mW/cm c) ◦ .Aeaercvrdt ie aisfralpeettmeaue is temperatures preheat all for ratios given to recovered Average C. rha lta o apeB-3 lqos(hw scrlswith circles as (shown Aliquots BU-13. sample for plateau preheat am Porat Naomi 2 . ,idctn h oiac ftefs S component; OSL fast the of dominance the indicating ), = 725 rha sson etds rha t220 at preheat dose test shown, as preheat tal et A A VERY L tal. et J 00 Nadel 2010; . rhelgclBulletin Archaeological (Visvywers). fish-traps T nYemen. in UMAILY e) HOWABEH .17.Dsuso nteaeadueo tidal of use and age the on Discussion 1975. G. , oercvr et vrarneo preheat of range a over tests recovery dose ,M.,D.P.M a News, Cat = 06 ttsrpr nAainleopard Arabian on report Status 2006. . rha ssono h -xsand x-axis the on shown as preheat e d) = tal et ALLON C pca su :20–25. 1: issue special itga hwn l 5D 25 all showing histogram .G,sadr deviation standard 3.9Gy, 0(1/2) 105–13. (119/120): 30 h ot African South The niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity 00.Bt types Both 2010). . ..N A.K. , ASHER ◦ ;squares C; &N. b) = = e e

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