HISTORICAL NOTES

Early users of monsoon winds for navigation

Sila Tripati

The maritime history of can be traced back to the Harappan Civilization. Studies suggest that even at that time, monsoon winds and currents assisted in navigation. Recent archaeological exploration and exca- vations along the Indian margin, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and coasts of Southeast Asia provide convincing evidence about a maritime network and connections between mariners of India and other parts of the world in ancient times. The author of Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (PES) (60–100 CE) has credited (~45 CE), the Greek mariner, with the discovery of monsoon winds and the mid-ocean route to the Indian ports from the Mediterranean. However, archaeological findings of Harappan Civilization, as well as the Vedic and Sangam period texts, suggest that the mariners of India who were trading in the and adjoining seas had knowledge about monsoon winds much before Hippalus. In this paper, an attempt has been made to demonstrate the fact that knowledge of the monsoon winds was familiar to Indian mari- ners during the Harappan Civilization as well as in the later period.

The ‘monsoon’ refers to the seasonal information on the circulation of oceanic phenomena of the ocean, namely tides, wind; in other words, a seasonal reversal water; ‘The ocean flows round this world currents and waves were known to the in the direction of the wind is character- on all sides’, to which Eggeling’s com- seafarers of India18,19. istic of the Indian monsoon1,2. The word mentary adds, ‘accordingly turning to the As evident from the above, ancient In- ‘monsoon’ originates from the Arabic right (south) whence the ocean flows dian literature describes the phenomena word ‘mausim’ or ‘mausam’ meaning round this world (from the east) south- of winds and oceanic circulations vividly. seasonal winds3–5. Monsoon winds blow wards’. The review of the passage indi- Even the ship motif punch marked coins from the southwest during June to Sep- cates that it refers to the southwest (PMC) (6th–5th centuries BCE) have tember (summer monsoons) and from the monsoon which lasts from May to Sep- masts with criss-cross riggings which northeast from October–November to tember12. The Baudhayana Dharmasutra suggest that sails were used during those February–March (winter monsoon and explicitly mentions maritime naviga- days. Thus, the ship motif coins with trade winds) (the months of the season tion13. The Buddhist Jataka stories and mast(s) of the Satavahanas (2nd century are based on the current calendar; it the Jain Canonical mention ships mov- BCE to 3rd century AD), Salankayanas would have been 55 days later in 2000 ing by force of wind ‘Pavanabalasama- (300–440 CE) and Pallavas (6th to 9th 14 BC due to axial precession). Heavy rain haya’ . The Sangam period (3rd century century CE) are unambiguous evidences accompanies the former in the entire In- BCE to 3rd century CE) texts, namely of the knowledge of open sea navigation dian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Akananuru, Purananuru, Mathuraikan- and understanding of wind patterns20,21. The latter is dry and cold and flows out chi or Madurraikanchi mention that In addition to Indian literature, the au- of the interior of Asia from the northeast. Tamil mariners sailed with the help of thor of Periplus Maris Erithrei (60–100 15 Until the early historical period, Indian wind and sails . The Sangam texts also CE) mentioned ports, anchorages, along literature mentioned the use of monsoon refer to four types of wind blowing from with the Erythraean Sea which includes wind and currents in maritime trade6. different directions, viz. kontal (east the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, , However, Schoff7 and Hariharan8 referred wind), kotal (west wind), vatai (north Bay of Bengal and above all, also refers 7 to the Greek mariner, Hippalus (~45 CV) wind) and tenral (south wind) and the to the Southwest (summer) monsoon . who discovered the monsoon wind sys- movement of various sizes of vessels Similarly, in the Natural History, Pliny tem in the early centuries of the Christian with the help of wind in the mid sea and (77 CE) has also mentioned the southwest era. Subsequently, sailors of Rome, landing at the shore4. The extensive monsoon10. However, neither Periplus Greece, Arabia and Portugal used mon- maritime activity during the Mauryan nor Pliny has referred to the currents of soon wind and currents for their voyages Empire as outlined in the Arthasastra is the Indian Ocean. In the ‘Record of Bud- to India in different periods9–11. Therefore, a clear indication of the depth of knowl- dhistic Kingdoms’, Fa-Hien, the Chinese it is necessary to trace the origin of navi- edge of winds and currents of that traveller (414 CE) referred to his voyage gation in India with the aid of archaeo- period. Further, the Arthasastra mentions from Tamralipti to Ceylon and men- logical findings and literary sources that the administration of ports, navy and tioned the favourable Northeast (winter) deal with monsoon wind and currents, provides a set of rules and regulations for monsoon wind and currents along the which forms the objective of this paper. navigation16. Besides the above refer- east coast of India which enabled him to ences, in the Meghdoot Kalidas (4th cen- reach Ceylon in just fourteen days22. Reference to wind and currents in tury CE) has elaborately accounted the Indian literature arrival of monsoons in India17. Aryasura Hippalus and monsoon winds in the Jatakamala (4th century CE) men- The text, Satapatha Brahmana (9th–8th tions waves and currents with currents Periplus acclaimed Hippalus (Greek century BCE) furnishes the first recorded being termed as salila. Three physical mariner) as the ‘discoverer’ of the

1618 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 113, NO. 8, 25 OCTOBER 2017 HISTORICAL NOTES monsoon winds and direct monsoon not refer to any information about Hip- Nava, Ratha being the general terms for route to India7,8. Thus the credit of dis- palus in his writings, whereas Pliny boat or ship and Navya for navigation or covery of monsoon winds was bestowed stated that nothing of any individual sailor38. Among all these types of water upon Hippalus. Wheeler23 has applauded (navigator) named Hippalus is known; he crafts, nau was the sea vessel in which Hippalus and states, ‘Hippalus is one of knew Hippalus, the name of the wind, oars, sails, masts and anchors were car- the great names in the history of naviga- obviously the southwest monsoon10,33,34. ried. During favourable wind, sails were tion’. Further, Casson24 and Warming- Mazzarino26 remarked that Pliny was used so that naus could float and move ton10 have suggested that during the ignorant of the tradition adopted by Pe- with speed40,41. reign of Claudius (41–56 CE), Hippalus riplus, who initially suggested that Hip- discovered the mid-ocean route to the palus had discovered the monsoon. This Evidence of use of monsoon winds Indian ports and sailed with the aid of tradition originated among Egyptian during the Harappan Civilization monsoon winds. This route was consid- sailors. Many scholars have questioned ered to be the shortest between the Medi- on this content, and the argument must The discovery of vestiges of the Harap- terranean or Arabian ports and the Indian be rejected. The discovery of monsoon pan Civilization from the northwest coast. But recorded that dur- winds was made in successive stages; it region of the Indian subcontinent obvi- ing Ptolemy Lathyros, Eudoxos of Cyzi- was basically because merchants pre- ously indicates the existence of highly cos () (116 CE) made ferred new markets, that the new re- advanced urban civilization. The Meso- two overseas trips to India by the end of quirements of trade and commerce potamian cuneiform texts suggest mari- the second century BCE10, which indi- determined changes in navigational tech- time contacts and exchange of goods cates that monsoon winds were known to niques35. During monsoon, inclement between the Harappan and Mesopota- Eudoxos of Cyzicos earlier than Hip- weather does not continue all through the mian civilizations (Figure 1). Moreover, palus. Ptolemy VII was keen on develop- whole season. Hence the ships sailing the excavations at Harappa (Figure 2), ing the Red Sea maritime trade. As a from the Red Sea coast set sail before the Mohenjo-Daro (Figure 3) and Lothal result, direct sailing between India and Southwest monsoon and return during (Figure 4) have yielded evidence of boats was started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus the Northeast monsoon. The use of winds on seals, incised on pottery and terracotta in 120–110 BCE (ref. 25). Eudoxus of for navigation made it easy for seamen models that shed more light on the mari- Cyzicus followed the directions of an In- and traders from Egypt to stay a short time contacts of the Harappan Civiliza- dian and sailed to India following the while on the Indian coast before return- tion42–48. Regarding the maritime monsoon winds26 and that Indian is be- ing to their Red Sea ports thus increasing knowledge of the people of the Harappan lieved to be a surviving sailor of a ship- contacts with local Indians. Civilization, it is suggested that the wreck4. Monsoon was known to all efficiency of boats not only depended on mariners who sailed along the Arabian their size and design, but also on the and African coast from the time much Rig Veda and monsoon winds knowledge of mariners of the sea, before Hippalus27. The Indian and Arab weather conditions and awareness of sailors exploited monsoon winds to sail Though there are diverse opinions on the landmarks. Harbour facilities were between their countries much before the Rig Veda (Rg Veda) (1700 and 1100 BCE) equally important. There was every pos- westerners24. McCrindle28 had described and its period, it is believed that Rig sibility that a marine connection existed that incidental knowledge suggests that Veda is the oldest literary work of the from the mouth of the River Indus to there were regular voyages from the Indian subcontinent. There are several shores of Gulf of Khambhat and Kutch ports of the east coast of Africa to India hymns that have referred to the wind, region where smaller vessels were plied with the help of monsoon winds, long waves, tides, water, thunder and rain, to cater to the requirements of Bagasra, before Hippalus discovered the winds rivers, sea, etc.4,36,37. Similarly, many Kuntasi, Kanmer, Juni Kuran including and introduced the knowledge to the verses praise Parjanya (the thunder and Dholavira. Moreover the route was Roman world. Periplus and Pliny differ rain), which shows that the Rig Vedic shorter49. In an inscription, Sargon of in their accounts about the voyages to people were aware of the rainy season Agade (2300 BCE) stated that he built India using monsoon winds. Periplus which comes in a certain period every ships from Meluhha, Magan, and Dilmun mentioned that, before heading out to- year3. Monsoon winds are termed as ma- and tied those ships at the quay of wards the open sea, ships stop either at ruts in the Rig Veda, whereas in the later Agade. Similarly, Gudea of Lagash as- Qana or Aromata, whereas Pliny states Vedic texts, monsoon was referred to as serted that ships along with timber came that crossing of the Indian Ocean devel- salila vada (sahla vada) (the wind from to Lagash from Meluhha, Magan, and oped through various stages and it was the ocean, especially SW monsoon)38 and Dilmun as a tribute. The above informa- possible at last to sail directly from Oce- the Buddhist texts mentioned kalamegha tion shows that sailors involved in long lis to the west coast of India without any (dark clouds) and varshavalshaga (heavy distance trade crossed the Persian Gulf stopover29. rains)5,39. Despite the available informa- and must have observed the changes in Even the historiography of the naviga- tion on monsoon, rain, and wind in the the seasonal winds50,51. Moreover, some tor has questioned the very existence of Rig Veda, the following questions were merchant records suggest that seasonality Hippalus30 and scholars believed that often asked: was the sea known to the in maritime trade may have been because Hippalus was the name given to the Rig Vedic people? Were the Rig Vedic of monsoon winds52. wind31. Villiers32 mentioned that Hip- people familiar with seafaring? Numer- The southwest (summer) monsoon first palus gave his name to monsoon winds ous statements can be found in the Rig reaches the Konkan coast, then Porban- and it continued afterwards. did Veda concerning Samudra for sea, Nau, dar and after a month it hits Kachchh,

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 113, NO. 8, 25 OCTOBER 2017 1619 HISTORICAL NOTES

Sind and Makran coasts. The seafarers of ing from the west coast of India were not proposed that following the same degree the Harappan Civilization might have required to moor during July and August north latitude, sailors could travel from faced violent and stormy monsoons in at Sutkagen-Dor55. If the vessels of the Muscat to Lakhpat (the Great Rann). Fol- the Arabian Sea and other winds in the Mesopotamia or Gulf sailed in May, they lowing 2330 parallel they could travel Gulf. But it is clear that the inclement would have to anchor or dock during the from Ras al Hadd to the Gulf of Kutch. weather of the monsoon did not prevail rough monsoon months. In order to avoid Along the coast of the Gulf of Kutch, the throughout the whole monsoon period53. the stormy monsoon weather, the boats Harappan Civilization sites namely Ba- During the southwest monsoon, except of the Gulf and Mesopotamia sailed from gasra, Kuntasi, Shikarpur are located in off the Makran coast for an eastward the Gulf in September with the assistance bays and estuaries and experience severe journey, there was no sailing in other re- of westerly wind and made use of north- monsoon. Under such conditions, small gions. Probably sailors sailed either east monsoon wind and currents in mid seagoing vessels were probably used for before or after the southwest monsoon. November for the return journey53,54. maritime trade which could ply through- Sailing in the Gulf throughout the year54 During the winter season (October and out the year between Oman and the west was possible. The withdrawal of summer November) and in later months, the coast of India except during May and monsoon starts from September after northeast monsoon winds head towards July49. reaching Sind. Therefore the impact of the from India (Figure summer monsoon is very minimal along 5). The finding of the seal, ivory comb, the coast of Pakistan, and no cyclonic etc. at Ra’s al-Hadd, suggests that the activities take place along the Makran people of the Harappan Civilization ap- coast and weather conditions remain pear to have sailed directly between Gu- sunny. The monsoon does not reach jarat and Oman, and today, it is the Gwadar and sailing can continue be- natural landfall for ships using the mon- tween Muscat, Oman, Gwadar and India soon winds56. except in May and July. This implies that During the ancient period, maritime Indian ships were able to sail in the Ara- trade and shipping were based on knowl- bian Sea before the beginning of the edge of ship building, monsoon winds winds. This indicates that shipping in the and use of celestial bodies for naviga- Figure 2. a, b, The Harappan seal de- Harappan waters was restricted to the tion. It is believed that the people of picts a ship with mast and sail recovered Makran coast for three months until the Harappan Civilization were aware of from the excavations of Harappa. end of winter monsoon and the return these aspects and used them meticu- voyage was made with the westerly mon- lously. Periplus and Pliny have stated soon winds in the month of May53. The that for safe sailing, mariners had fol- settlement of the Harappan Civilization lowed one latitude to cross the Arabian at Makran coast was remarkable because coast (Ocelis) and reach , west the sea was free from danger in the vicin- coast of India. Further, Tchernia33 ob- ity of anchorage. The monsoon weather served that crossing of high seas was does not bring strong winds and currents possible if a sailor could stay on one par- at Sutkagen-Dor as it does on the west allel following the stars. Taking this into coast of India49. Moreover, vessels sail- account, in her recent work Ratnagar49

Figure 3 a, b. A seal and a terracotta amulet from Mohenjo–Daro depict ship with cabin and birds.

Figure 4. Clay model boats have been Figure 1. Figure showing the sites mentioned in the text. found from Lothal excavations.

1620 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 113, NO. 8, 25 OCTOBER 2017 HISTORICAL NOTES

Figure 5 a, b. Surface winds and currents during Northeast monsoon and Southwest monsoon over the Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf regions (Hellerman and Rosenstein and OSCAR data sets).

The above information suggests that direct contact between the Mesopota- sails were designed to utilize monsoon sailors of Harappan Civilization were mians and the Harappan Civiliza- wind force, and boats could sail with the aware of monsoon winds and followed tion53,54,57. Bowen42 and McGrail58 have aid of winds blowing from behind at an both coastal and mid-sea voyages. It was suggested that boats sailed, keeping the angle less than 30 from the dead not necessary that boats covered the en- coast in sight because frequent repairs, astern60,61. With the help of square sails, tire distance at a stretch from the mouth maintenance and replenishment were re- it might have been possible for a vessel of the Tigris and Euphrates to Sind or quired, even though the coastal route to sail from Gujarat or the Makran coast Gujarat. The Ur III period findings sug- lacked sheltered places. The northeast to Ra’s al-Junayz in three months with gest that Mesopotamian boats sailed to monsoon wind facilitated sailing from the support of surface current and wind Magan, then to Dilmun. Most of the Sutkagen-Dor to the coast of Oman. pressure, either by coastal or deep sea cargo acquired was certainly of Indian Without the northeast monsoon wind, a route. Moreover, square sails are suitable origin. It establishes the fact that the coastal route may not have been conven- for windward navigation, and their use is Mesopotamian and the Harappan Civili- ient. There were several coastal sites evidenced from the Harappan Civiliza- zation boats have sailed in the Tigris and which served as safe anchorages and re- tion seal (Figure 2)43,62. It would be in- Euphrates and Gujarat regions. fuelling stations, but they were not ports. teresting to know whether the stitched Sutkagen-Dor, the coastal and farthest The northeast monsoon winds and cur- boats of the Harappan Civilization were western Harappan site, served as an end rents were suitable for voyaging along able to resist the weather conditions of point for the boats coming from the Gulf the Makran coast. A vessel could turn the southwest monsoon or not. It de- outside monsoon point. The frequent south of Oman or north western for pended on the strength of construction of trips of different vessels, transhipment, Musandam or beyond after reaching stitched boats and quality of sails used; and storage of cargo would have increased Jask59. Further, there is no evidence of besides, the mariners of Harappan Civili- sea transport. In addition, archaeological the use of lateen sail during this period. zation had traditional knowledge to as- evidence and textual sources suggest As a result, in all probability, square certain the coast from the colour of the

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 113, NO. 8, 25 OCTOBER 2017 1621 HISTORICAL NOTES sea, landmarks and birds. The discovery (PES) or the Periplus Maris Erythraei 3. Das, P. K., The Monsoons, NBT, New of a terracotta amulet at Mohenjo-Daro (PME), in which a single passage that Delhi, 1968. by Dales45 corroborates that the people has dealt with Hippalus, has undergone 4. Rao, T. S. S. and Griffiths, R. C., Under- of Harappan Civilization used birds for many revisions, and cannot be precisely standing the Indian Ocean Perspectives finding directions in mid-sea (Figure dated, there is no reference to Hippalus. on Oceanography, UNESCO, Paris, 1998. 5. Panikkar, N. K. and Srinivasan, T. M., 3 b). The above evidence delineates the Therefore the theory of Hippalus can be Pro. R. S. Edinburg, 1971–72, 72, 263– acquaintance with coastal navigation, but completely ignored. The Indian literature 272. it cannot be ruled out that the people of of the pre- and post-Hippalus period 6. Mookerji, R. K., A History of Indian Harappan Civilization had no knowledge clearly describes the Indians’ knowledge Shipping, Longmans, Green & Co, Bom- of sailing across the seas. The recovery of monsoon wind and currents and their bay, 1912. of a large barbed copper/bronze fish use in maritime trade and navigation. 7. Schoff, W. H., Periplus of the Eryth- hook, 14 cm long along with fish bones Similarly, Casson24, Mazzarino26 and raean Sea, Oriental Books, Delhi, 1912. of different sizes from the excavations of Rao and Griffiths4 have mentioned that 8. Hariharan, K. V., J. Univ. Bombay, 1957, Padri, the Harappan Civilization site near Hippalus is not the discoverer of mon- 25(4), 9–16. the Gulf of Khambhat in Bhavnagar Dis- soon winds which was known to Indians 9. Casson, L., Trans. Am. Philolog. Assoc., 1980, 110, 21–36. trict and recovery of another copper fish much before him. Though there are many 10. Warmington, E. H., The Commerce bet- hook, 7 cm long from the excavations of varied opinions about the Rig Vedic peo- ween the Roman Empire and India, Bet Dwarka (Figure 6), Gulf of Kachchh, ple and their homeland, the Rig Veda Vikas Publishing House, Delhi, 1974. Gujarat, suggests that these hooks could itself, as well as the later Vedic period 11. Sila Tripati., Gaur, A. S. and Sundaresh, be used for deep sea fishng63,64. It im- texts, mention the monsoon winds, Maritime Archaeology and Shipwrecks plies that the people of Harappan Civili- knowledge of sea and terms related to off Goa, Kaveri Books, New Delhi, 2014. zation were familiar with deep sea ships and shipping. Similarly, the ar- 12. Eggeling, J. (tr.), The Satapatha- navigation. chaeological findings from Harappa, Brahmana, According to the Text of the Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal suggest that Madhyandina School, The Clarendon maritime trade existed between the Press, Oxford, 1894, p. 301. Discussion and conclusion 13. Olivelle, P. (ed.), The Dharmasutras: Mesopotamian and Harappan Civiliza- The Law Codes of Ancient India: The tions, and this is further substantiated by Monsoon is the lifeline of Indian subcon- Law Codes of Ancient India, OUP, New the cuneiform texts of Mesopotamia. York, 1999, p. 134. tinent, and the society and economy of Undoubtedly, people of the Harappan 14. Jain, J. C., Life in Ancient India as de- South Asia are dependent on monsoons. Civilization sailed across Arabian Sea picted in the Jain Canons, Munshiram Numerous publications have appeared on probably from Sutkagen-Dor to Ras al Manoharlal, New Delhi, 1984. the monsoon system, but only limited Junayz and Ras al Hadd. 15. Raghava Varier, M. R., In History of number deal with the historical aspects It appears that the mariners of Harap- Traditional Navigation (eds Rajaman- of monsoon winds in maritime trade, pan Civilization who sailed towards the ickam, G. V. and Subbarayalu, Y.), Tamil commerce, navigation including the dis- Gulf from Gujarat and Makran coast, University, Thanjavur, 1988, pp. 51–62. 16. Shamasastry, R., Kautilya’s Arthasastra, covery of monsoon winds, etc. From the used the north-easterlies and returned Mysore Printing and Publishing House, existing sources, it could be established during the south-westerlies. The north- that Hippalus is a myth. Moreover, Pliny Mysore, 1967. easterlies and south-westerlies wind 17. Majumdar, R. C. (ed.), The Classical ignores Hippalus as a man and names could quickly push the vessels of the Age, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, Hippalus as the monsoon wind. Other Harappan using square sails. Moreover, 1970. than the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea the representation of mast and square sail 18. Markanday, S. and Srivastava, P. S., In on the ships of Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro Oceanography: The Past (eds Sears, M. and Lothal clearly signifies that the peo- and Merriman, D.), Springer, New York, ple of Harappan had knowledge of har- 1980, pp. 551–561. nessing monsoon winds for navigation, 19. Gunawardana, R. A. L. H., In The Indian Ocean Explorations in History, Commerce, and it could be stated that the people of and Politics (ed. Chandra, S.), Sage Pub- Harappan Civilization were already using lications, New Delhi, 1987, pp. 54–89. monsoon wind and currents for maritime 20. Sarma, I. K., Coinage of the Satavahana trade and navigation in 2500 BCE. Kost- Empire, Agam Kala Prakashan, New man65 mentioned that collapse of mari- Delhi, 1980. time trade was one of the causes of the 21. Sarma, I. K., In Ajaya Sri, Recent Studies decline of Harappan Civilization. This in Indology (ed. Honda, D.), Sundeep further supports the theme of this paper, Prakashan, New Delhi, 1989, 1, pp. 313– that the people of Harappan Civilization 317. were aware of navigation by wind and 22. Giles, H. A., The Travels of Fa-hsien (399–414 AD), or Record of the Buddhistic currents. Kingdoms, CUP, Cambridge, 1923, p. 66.

Figure 6 a, b. Copper fish hooks have 23. Wheeler, M., Rome Beyond the Imperial been discovered during excavations at 1. Ramage, C. S., Monsoon Meteorology, Frontiers, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1955. Padri and Bet Dwarka (Photo sources: Academic Press, New York, 1971. 24. Casson, L., The Periplus Maris Eryth- Shinde et al., Padri; and Gaur et al., Bet 2. Gadgil, S., Resonance, 2007, 12(5), 4– raei, Princeton University Press, Prince- Dwarka). 20. ton, 1989.

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