Early Users of Monsoon Winds for Navigation
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HISTORICAL NOTES Early users of monsoon winds for navigation Sila Tripati The maritime history of India can be traced back to the Harappan Civilization. Studies suggest that even at that time, monsoon winds and currents assisted in navigation. Recent archaeological exploration and exca- vations along the Indian margin, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and coasts of Southeast Asia provide convincing evidence about a maritime network and connections between mariners of India and other parts of the world in ancient times. The author of Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (PES) (60–100 CE) has credited Hippalus (~45 CE), the Greek mariner, with the discovery of monsoon winds and the mid-ocean route to the Indian ports from the Mediterranean. However, archaeological findings of Harappan Civilization, as well as the Vedic and Sangam period texts, suggest that the mariners of India who were trading in the Indian Ocean and adjoining seas had knowledge about monsoon winds much before Hippalus. In this paper, an attempt has been made to demonstrate the fact that knowledge of the monsoon winds was familiar to Indian mari- ners during the Harappan Civilization as well as in the later period. The ‘monsoon’ refers to the seasonal information on the circulation of oceanic phenomena of the ocean, namely tides, wind; in other words, a seasonal reversal water; ‘The ocean flows round this world currents and waves were known to the in the direction of the wind is character- on all sides’, to which Eggeling’s com- seafarers of India18,19. istic of the Indian monsoon1,2. The word mentary adds, ‘accordingly turning to the As evident from the above, ancient In- ‘monsoon’ originates from the Arabic right (south) whence the ocean flows dian literature describes the phenomena word ‘mausim’ or ‘mausam’ meaning round this world (from the east) south- of winds and oceanic circulations vividly. seasonal winds3–5. Monsoon winds blow wards’. The review of the passage indi- Even the ship motif punch marked coins from the southwest during June to Sep- cates that it refers to the southwest (PMC) (6th–5th centuries BCE) have tember (summer monsoons) and from the monsoon which lasts from May to Sep- masts with criss-cross riggings which northeast from October–November to tember12. The Baudhayana Dharmasutra suggest that sails were used during those February–March (winter monsoon and explicitly mentions maritime naviga- days. Thus, the ship motif coins with trade winds) (the months of the season tion13. The Buddhist Jataka stories and mast(s) of the Satavahanas (2nd century are based on the current calendar; it the Jain Canonical mention ships mov- BCE to 3rd century AD), Salankayanas would have been 55 days later in 2000 ing by force of wind ‘Pavanabalasama- (300–440 CE) and Pallavas (6th to 9th 14 BC due to axial precession). Heavy rain haya’ . The Sangam period (3rd century century CE) are unambiguous evidences accompanies the former in the entire In- BCE to 3rd century CE) texts, namely of the knowledge of open sea navigation dian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Akananuru, Purananuru, Mathuraikan- and understanding of wind patterns20,21. The latter is dry and cold and flows out chi or Madurraikanchi mention that In addition to Indian literature, the au- of the interior of Asia from the northeast. Tamil mariners sailed with the help of thor of Periplus Maris Erithrei (60–100 15 Until the early historical period, Indian wind and sails . The Sangam texts also CE) mentioned ports, anchorages, along literature mentioned the use of monsoon refer to four types of wind blowing from with the Erythraean Sea which includes wind and currents in maritime trade6. different directions, viz. kontal (east the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, However, Schoff7 and Hariharan8 referred wind), kotal (west wind), vatai (north Bay of Bengal and above all, also refers 7 to the Greek mariner, Hippalus (~45 CV) wind) and tenral (south wind) and the to the Southwest (summer) monsoon . who discovered the monsoon wind sys- movement of various sizes of vessels Similarly, in the Natural History, Pliny tem in the early centuries of the Christian with the help of wind in the mid sea and (77 CE) has also mentioned the southwest era. Subsequently, sailors of Rome, landing at the shore4. The extensive monsoon10. However, neither Periplus Greece, Arabia and Portugal used mon- maritime activity during the Mauryan nor Pliny has referred to the currents of soon wind and currents for their voyages Empire as outlined in the Arthasastra is the Indian Ocean. In the ‘Record of Bud- to India in different periods9–11. Therefore, a clear indication of the depth of knowl- dhistic Kingdoms’, Fa-Hien, the Chinese it is necessary to trace the origin of navi- edge of winds and currents of that traveller (414 CE) referred to his voyage gation in India with the aid of archaeo- period. Further, the Arthasastra mentions from Tamralipti to Ceylon and men- logical findings and literary sources that the administration of ports, navy and tioned the favourable Northeast (winter) deal with monsoon wind and currents, provides a set of rules and regulations for monsoon wind and currents along the which forms the objective of this paper. navigation16. Besides the above refer- east coast of India which enabled him to ences, in the Meghdoot Kalidas (4th cen- reach Ceylon in just fourteen days22. Reference to wind and currents in tury CE) has elaborately accounted the Indian literature arrival of monsoons in India17. Aryasura Hippalus and monsoon winds in the Jatakamala (4th century CE) men- The text, Satapatha Brahmana (9th–8th tions waves and currents with currents Periplus acclaimed Hippalus (Greek century BCE) furnishes the first recorded being termed as salila. Three physical mariner) as the ‘discoverer’ of the 1618 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 113, NO. 8, 25 OCTOBER 2017 HISTORICAL NOTES monsoon winds and direct monsoon not refer to any information about Hip- Nava, Ratha being the general terms for route to India7,8. Thus the credit of dis- palus in his writings, whereas Pliny boat or ship and Navya for navigation or covery of monsoon winds was bestowed stated that nothing of any individual sailor38. Among all these types of water upon Hippalus. Wheeler23 has applauded (navigator) named Hippalus is known; he crafts, nau was the sea vessel in which Hippalus and states, ‘Hippalus is one of knew Hippalus, the name of the wind, oars, sails, masts and anchors were car- the great names in the history of naviga- obviously the southwest monsoon10,33,34. ried. During favourable wind, sails were tion’. Further, Casson24 and Warming- Mazzarino26 remarked that Pliny was used so that naus could float and move ton10 have suggested that during the ignorant of the tradition adopted by Pe- with speed40,41. reign of Claudius (41–56 CE), Hippalus riplus, who initially suggested that Hip- discovered the mid-ocean route to the palus had discovered the monsoon. This Evidence of use of monsoon winds Indian ports and sailed with the aid of tradition originated among Egyptian during the Harappan Civilization monsoon winds. This route was consid- sailors. Many scholars have questioned ered to be the shortest between the Medi- on this content, and the argument must The discovery of vestiges of the Harap- terranean or Arabian ports and the Indian be rejected. The discovery of monsoon pan Civilization from the northwest coast. But Posidonius recorded that dur- winds was made in successive stages; it region of the Indian subcontinent obvi- ing Ptolemy Lathyros, Eudoxos of Cyzi- was basically because merchants pre- ously indicates the existence of highly cos (Eudoxus of Cyzicus) (116 CE) made ferred new markets, that the new re- advanced urban civilization. The Meso- two overseas trips to India by the end of quirements of trade and commerce potamian cuneiform texts suggest mari- the second century BCE10, which indi- determined changes in navigational tech- time contacts and exchange of goods cates that monsoon winds were known to niques35. During monsoon, inclement between the Harappan and Mesopota- Eudoxos of Cyzicos earlier than Hip- weather does not continue all through the mian civilizations (Figure 1). Moreover, palus. Ptolemy VII was keen on develop- whole season. Hence the ships sailing the excavations at Harappa (Figure 2), ing the Red Sea maritime trade. As a from the Red Sea coast set sail before the Mohenjo-Daro (Figure 3) and Lothal result, direct sailing between India and Southwest monsoon and return during (Figure 4) have yielded evidence of boats Egypt was started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus the Northeast monsoon. The use of winds on seals, incised on pottery and terracotta in 120–110 BCE (ref. 25). Eudoxus of for navigation made it easy for seamen models that shed more light on the mari- Cyzicus followed the directions of an In- and traders from Egypt to stay a short time contacts of the Harappan Civiliza- dian and sailed to India following the while on the Indian coast before return- tion42–48. Regarding the maritime monsoon winds26 and that Indian is be- ing to their Red Sea ports thus increasing knowledge of the people of the Harappan lieved to be a surviving sailor of a ship- contacts with local Indians. Civilization, it is suggested that the wreck4. Monsoon was known to all efficiency of boats not only depended on mariners who sailed along the Arabian their size and design, but also on the and African coast from the time much Rig Veda and monsoon winds knowledge of mariners of the sea, before Hippalus27. The Indian and Arab weather conditions and awareness of sailors exploited monsoon winds to sail Though there are diverse opinions on the landmarks. Harbour facilities were between their countries much before the Rig Veda (Rg Veda) (1700 and 1100 BCE) equally important.