The Republic of the Union of Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry Forest Department

Comparative Study on the Control Measures of Beehole Borer ceramicus Wlk. (: ) in Teak Plantations

Khin Mar Myint Research Assistant-2 Forest Research Institute And Delver Htwe Assistant Research Officer Forest Research Institute

Auugust, 2013

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Comparative Study on the Control Measures of Teak Beehole Borer Xyleutes ceramicus Wlk. (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) in Teak Plantation at Katha District

Khin Mar Myint Research Assistant-2 And Delver Htwe Assistant Research Officer

Abstract

The research was carried out to compare the control measure of Xyleutes ceramica Wlk. in grandis Linn. f. in (1969-70 ) teak plantation in Katha Township (24°10' N and 96°20' E), Sagaing Region and also in Kayin State, 1980 Thandaung teak plantation from December, 2010 to October, 2012. The numbers of beehole from selected trees were counted based on their habitat at monthly intervals. Light traps were set up to record the emergence of adults from February to May, 2011 and 2012. Control measures such as chemical control, mechanical control and biological control were tested in August and September 2011. (1) 100 EC malathion 4.5ccs was injected after removing the rough fiber covering. (2) A thin wire was used to push into the tunnel to kill the larva. (3) Ants were lured by spraying molasses or sugar solution on the bark of the selected trees. The emerged from March to May in Katha. The infestation level in August was about 13.25 beeholes per 15 trees at the outset of launching control measures. The level of infestation significantly lowered in September 2011where the number was 8.13 beeholes per 15 trees. The infestation was further reduced in the following months and it was about 5.56 beehole per 15 trees from October 2011 to February 2012. All control measures significantly reduced the level of infestation compared to the check without any control measure with 13.18 beeholes per 15 trees. Chemical control was found to be the most effective one. Mechanical and biological controls were not significantly different. Study area in Thandaung Reserved Forest, Thandaung Township, Karen State from 2010 to 2012, found that teak beehole borer adults emerged in February and March in 2011and January and February in 2012. The statistical analysis there was slight significant between the three control methods; however effectiveness were serial in mechanical, biological and chemical control. They were quite statistically significant with the uncontrolled one.

Key words: Teak Beehole borer, Xyleutes ceramicus Wlk, Cossidae, pest, Chemical, Mechanical and Biology Control measures, Infestation, Katha and Thandaung Township.

Contents

pages

စာတမ်းအကျဉ်း i Abstract ii Content iii-iv 1. Introduction 1 2 Literature Review 1-3 3. Materials and Methods 3-5 4. Results 6-11 5. Discussions 12-15 6. Conclusions 15-16 7. Recommendations 16-17 8. Acknowledgement 18 9. References 19-20 10. List of Table Table (1) Recorded beehole numbers after conducting the control measure in August,2011 to February, 2012 6 Table (2) Effect of control measure on the beeholes in teak plantation at Katha Township 7 Table (3) Table.3.Adult emergence caught by light trap in 2011 and 2012 7 Table (4) and (5) Analysis of the effect of different control on Teak borer larva in 2012 10 11. List of Figure Figure (1) Numbers of beehole found before conducting any control measure in 2011,Katha Township 8 Figure (2) Numbers of beehole found after conducting any control measure in 2011,Katha Township 8

Figure (3) Number of Adult Emergence in the Neon Light Trap 9 Figure (4) The fluctuation of Beehole Population in 2011 10 Figure (5) Beehole population in before treatment 11 Figure (6) Beehole population in after treatment 11 10 Appendix (I) 21-24 11 Appendix (II) 25-28

Comparative Study on the Control Measures of Teak Beehole Borer Xyleutes ceramicus WLK. (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) in Teak Plantations

1. Introduction

Myanmar has launched a Special Teak Plantation Program in 1998 which has an annual plantation target of 8,000 ha in addition to the normal plantation scheme (Myanmar Forest Department 2000).With the private sector coming in a big way into teak cultivation in the 2010s, many intensively managed teak plantations came into existence. This is especially so where the intensive forest farming system is practiced, e.g. in well-irrigated plantations. As trees grow, the plantations of teak have been faced with the infestation of various insect pests. They often suffer severely from insect damage and outbreak of infestation has been occasionally reported. Among them, teak bee hole borer Xyleutes ceramicus Walker is one of the most serious problems that deteriorated the wood quality as well as the value of marketable timber.

The range of teak beehole borer occurrence is found in Myanmar, Thailand and , through Indonesia, the and New Guinea into the Solomon. It is not known to extend further into the Pacific (Bigger, 1988). The pest attack may take place at any age of the tree but persistence of the holes resulted in accumulation of hole numbers as the tree grows older with the year. Sixty-five beeholes per tree in 60 years old trees are considered average and the largest number recorded in a very old tree was 511(Bigger, 1998). The severity of infestation can be noticed at the time of timber cutting at the saw mill. It is easy, therefore, to see the economic importance of beehole in plantations where the teak is grown in 100 % pure crops as compared with an average concentration of about 12 % of the whole tree crop in natural teak forest (Calcutta, 1921).

X. ceramicus bore the stem of teak burrowing a long tunnel with the size of a bee’s head. It so is named as teak beehole borer. This species of is considered by some as “teak’s worst and least understood pest”. It is one of the most serious pests of teak plantations in Myanmar. Outbreaks of the teak beehole borer may occur in future, as has been recorded in Myanmar (Atkinson, D.J. 1936 and Beeson, 1941).

Nowadays, the infestation is widely spread in Myanmar, so that urgent control measures are needed. There is no effective chemical and biological method for controlling outbreaks of the beehole borer. Therefore; surveys were conducted in plantations to record the infestation of insect pests.

Objectives

- To observe the natural habits of the pest to formulate effective control measures - To access the emergence of the beehole borer adults. - To compare effectiveness of the chemical, mechanical and of biological control agents in the field.

2. Literature Review Stem borers cause severe damage; in young plantations (1-5 years old) damaged trees may die back or top break causing a reduction in growth rate and stem quality. In old Plantations, i.e., over 10 years, the beehole borer X. ceramicus is the most important stem borer. It causes severe damage to the standing trees and also reduces the value of timber, with a close relationship between site quality and the degree of damage caused by the beehole borer. Plantations established on good site quality have higher degrees of damage than those on poor site quality (Choldumrongkulet. al., 1989). The most evident indication of the beehole borer infestation is the presence of irregular scars under the bark resulting from larval burrowing. The beehole tunnel runs in radials towards the center of the tree and then, upwards at an angle of some 45º to the horizontal the tunnel averages about 2-3 inches in length after which the tunnel course becomes vertical and runs straight up the stem for about 5-9 inches. It is of course comparatively rarely that a board or plank happens to be cut so that a complete longitudinal section of a beehole is exposed, although the total length of a mature beehole averages less than one foot (Atkinson. D.J and Beeson, C.F.C.1941).

In Sabah, 20 - 30 percent of planted teak trees were attacked by X. ceramicus (Chey, V.K., 1996). Besides the teak beehole borer, a hepialid moth (Endoclita aroura Tindale) known as the teak collar ring borer, and two cerambycid beetles (Acalolepta cervina Hope and A. rusticator Fab.) have also been reported to attack teak and yemane in Sabah(Gotoh, T., Kotulai, J. R. & Matsumoto, K. 2003).

The bionomic of Teak beehole borer has been extensively studied in Myanmar, where the adult emergence, larval and oviposition behaviors have been described. The seasonal abundance of adults throughout a flying season has been analyzed for the first time in Thailand and a strong tendency for aggregation of emergence within stands has been also reported (Tadao Gotoh & Eungwijarnpanya, et al., 2007) The larvae of this moth bore into the heartwood of teak where it causes significant damage. Other host trees of insect are Callicarpaspp, Clerodendrumspp, Gmelinaspp, Tectonaspp (Lamiaceae), spp, Sesbania spp(Leguminosae), Spathodea spp(Bignoniaceae), and Duabanga spp(Sonneratiaceae). Predators of this pest are Bothriomyrmex sp, Crematogaster sp, Iredomyrmex sp, Monomorium pharaonis, Tapinoma melannocephalum(Hutacharern,C. & Tubtim, N.1995). Woodpeckers by means of their long beak kill many beehole borer larvae without additional damage to the timber; but when a woodpecker has to dig for a larva it leaves a large conical wound in the heartwood which the tree cannot heal. Such wounds are not very uncommon in converted teak.

2.1. Life Cycle Teak beehole borer females lay their eggs in cracks or beneath the scales of bark on the tree trunk. A female moth can lay up to 50,000 eggs, attached in strings in the crevices of bark (Beeson, C. F. C.1921). Nevertheless, females laid from 3,000 to 20,000 eggs, which were positively correlated to their body size (Gotoh, T. & Eungwijarnpanya, et al., 2007). The incubation period is about 10 days to 20 days depending on the temperature (Beeson, C. F. C.1921).The highest generation mortality occurred in the stages of eggs and newly hatched larvae before boring into teak. During these stages, percentage mortality was 18.34 and 80.84, respectively and ants were found to be the principal predators (Thai Journal of Forestry, January- July 1992).

After the eggs are hatched, the larvae produce silks which carry them away on a moderate breeze; by this mode, the larvae are dispersed widely. And also mortality of young larvae living in the bark was also found to be high, 0.127 to0.591 percent. Once the larvae had bored into the wood, the mortality rate dropped significantly to around 0.001 to 0.02 percent. Abiotic and biotic factors play an important role on the larvae inside the stem (Pianhanuruk, P&Hutacharern,C.et al, 1992).

Pupal stage is completed in the stem and it takes about two to three weeks (Beeson, C. F. C.1921). Pupal mortality of 0.008 percent was caused by ants, fungi and pathogen (Thai Journal of Forestry, January-July 1992). The female moth lives only about five days (Beeson, C. F. C.1921).

Some borers were able to prolong their life cycles for up to 2 years, although based on the average number of eggs produced; only 0.002 percent of the eggs developed to 2nd year larvae.

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1. Survey 3.1.1. Area (1) In Katha Township A survey was carried out to investigate the effective control measure of Xyleutes ceramicus in teak. The study was conducted at the teak plantation in Katha Township which was known as beehole borer area (24°10' N and 96°20' E), Sagaing Region starting from December, 2010 to October, 2012. A Randomized Complete Design (RCBD) was used with four replications, to compare the effectiveness among the chemical, mechanical and biological control. From each block, 4sample plots each measuring 20 m x 20 m consisted of 15 sample trees were randomly selected. At the time of survey, plantation was already 40 years old. The numbers of beehole from selected trees were counted based on their habitat at monthly intervals. To record the emergence of adults, light traps were used to catch them during February and May, 2011 and 2012. One trap for each block was set up.

3.2. Control measures

3.2.1. Area (1)

Teak beehole borer, X. ceramicusis an internal feeder and spending larval and pupal stages inside the stem before adult emergence, it is very difficult to control this pest. Nevertheless the following control measures were tested in the field.

3.2.2. Chemical control

The entrance of beehole was injected 50EC Malathion one percent solution into the tunnel after removing the rough fiber covering and then recovered with cotton wool (or) mastic, which the pest has made to close the entrance. 3.2.3. Mechanical control A thin wire was used to insert into the tunnel to kill the larva feeding inside of teak tree trunk. 3.2.4. Biological control

The abundance of predator such as ant was used to lure them by spraying molasses or sugar solution on the bark of the selected trees. 3.2.5. Statistical analysis

All data on the number of beeholes and emerged adults based on trap catches in each month in 2011 and 2012 were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means were separated by using LSD t- test. All analysis was done using SAS/STAT software (SAS Institute, 1989).

3. 3.1. Survey Area (2) in Thandaung Township

Field survey was conducted in 1980 (30 years old) teak plantation in Thandaung Reserved Forest, Thandaung Township, Kayin State and started from 2010,Decemberto 2012,December.

4 sample blocks (5 acres each) were randomly selected from the plantations for studying the teak borer outbreak and control measures. Each of the sample blocks was named as B1, B2, B3 and B4. Each sample block was divided into 4 sample plots (0.1 acre each), which were named as P1, P2, P3 and P4.

There were contained minimum of 7 to maximum of 14 teak trees in each plot. Thus, 7 trees were selected as samples, so there were 28 trees in each block. All together 112 samples trees in 16 sample plots.

Chemical control measure was carried out on the samples trees in B1P1, B2P1, B3P1 and B4P1, Biological Control was applied in B1P2, B2P2, B3P2 and B4P2, Mechanical Control was made in B1P3,B2P3,B3P3 and B4P3. Samples trees in B1P4, B2P4 B3P4 and B4P4 were not applied any control measure. A Randomized Complete Design (RCBD) was used with four replications, to compare the effectiveness among the chemical, mechanical and biological control.

All 112 sample trees were monitored every month throughout the year 2011 and 2012. To record the emergence adults were caught using light traps from January to April 2011 and December 2011 to April 2012. In each block was set up one trap.

3.3.2. Control treatments in Area (2)

In Thandaung, teak borer outbreak was studied in 2011 in the selected plot of 112 trees monthly from January to December. Light trap collection was begun from January to April, 2011 and again in December 2011 to April, 2012.

Teak beehole borers are nocturnal usually come out around 18:00-20:00 and UV light trap was used to attract adult beehole borer before systematic collection to know their behavior.

3.3.2.1. Chemical control (Insecticide)

Chemical control was done on the sample trees at B1P1, B2P1, B3P1 and B4P1. 50% EC Malathion insecticide was applied for chemical control. 9ccs of 50%EC Malathion was mixed with 1 gallon of water (Aung Zeya, 1980).One per cent solution of a non-residual contact- stomach-volatile insecticide injected into the tunnel through the entrance hole using a 50 cc plastic syringe and gauzed the hole after injecting insecticide.

3.3.2.2Biological Control (Attracting Ants) Biology control measure was carried out on the sample trees atB1P2, B2P2, B3P2 and B4P2 by applying Jaggery syrup as bait. The jaggery syrup bait prepared in this study included 5 Viss (8.25 kg) of jaggery mixed with 10 gallon of water and boiled until all jaggeries dissolved. Dipped a piece of cloth into the solution and tied at the tip of long bamboo rod. Jaggery syrup was dapped from the bottom up to 15 ft height of the sample tree trunks.

3.3.2.3. Mechanical Control (Thin Wire) Mechanical control measure was carried out on the sample trees at B1P3, B2P3, B3P3 and B4P3. One and a half feet long thin wire inserting into the larva tunnel with the intent to kill the larva.

3.3.2.3. Untreated (Control) Untreated treatment (control) was carried out on the sample trees at B1P4, B2P4, B3P4 and B4P4.

3.3.3. Statistical analysis in Area (2)

The resulted data were statistically analyzed using SAS/STAT software for ANOVA and means were separated by using LSD 1% and 5% level (SAS Institute, 1989). 4. Results 4.1. Field tests for the effective control 4.1.1 .Area (1) The infestation of beehole borer was investigated starting from December 2010 in Katha Township. The level of infestation was about 21.25 larvae/beeholes per 15 plants as indicated the number of holes found on a single tree was observed to be more than one in many cases. However, the incidence was not in progress in the following two months of January and February 2011. Within studied period in 2011 and 2012, the adult emergence was observed in March, April and May according to light trap catches. Adult emergence was about 1.25 adult per each block in March and 1.32 in April and 0.87 in May.

The development of the larvae to adult was about 3.43 moths from about 21.25beeholes from 15 trees. The successful emergence rate was about 16.9 percents. However, the problem encountered during the study period was the rain in May. On rainy days, were not active enough to emerge outside. Rain may also have effect on the activity of insect moth. After emergence period of adults, the level of new beehole infestation was observed about 10.06 to 12.31 beeholes per 15 trees in June and July 2011.

Table.1. Recorded beehole numbers after the control measure in August,2011 to February, 2012

t Grouping Mean N Month A 13.2500 16 August B 8.1250 16 September C 5.5625 16 October C 5.5625 16 November C 5.5625 16 December C 5.5625 16 January C 5.5625 16 February CV% 26.61825

Means with the same letter are not significantly different.

Control measures such as biological control, mechanical control and chemical control were tested starting from August 2011.The infestation level in August was about 13.25 beehole per 15 trees at the onset of launching control measures. The level of infestation significantly lowered in September 2011where the number was 8.13 beeholes per 15 trees. The infestation was further reduced in the following months and it was about 5.56 beeholes per 15 trees from October 2011 to February 2012 (Table.1). Table.2. Effect of control measure on the beeholes in teak plantation at Katha Township

t Grouping Mean N Control method A 13.1786 28 None B 5.8929 28 Biological B 5.1071 28 Mechanical C 3.9286 28 Chemical CV% 26.61825

Means with the same letter are not significantly different.

All control measures significantly reduced the level of infestation compared to the check without any control measure 13.18 beeholes per 15 trees. Chemical control was found to be the most effective one reducing the beehole number to 3.92 per 15 trees. On the other hand, the infestation level decreased about 70 percent. In turn mechanical was not significantly different from that of biological control where the number of beeholes was about 5.10 per 15 trees here biological control was about 5.89 per 15 trees (Table.2). Table.3.Adult emergence caught by light trap in 2011 and 2012

t Grouping Mean N Year

A 1.1458 48 2011 B 0.6042 48 2012 CV % 66.28339

Means with the same letter are not significantly different. Adult emergence in March to May, 2012 was (0.60 adult) was significantly lower than that of 2011(1.15 adults). It may be due to the effect of different control measures carried out in 2011(Table.3). Larval infestation following after adult emergence March to May 2012 was lower than that of respective months in 2011. The number was 3.75, 5.56, 5.81and 6 beeholes per 15 trees from June to September, 2012.

100

80

60 of

40

20 Number Number of beeholes (%)

0 Block 1 Block 2 Block 3 Block 4 2011 June July August

Fig 1,Numbers of beehole found before conducting any control measure in 2011,Katha Township

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Number of beehole Number of (%) 0 Block 1 Block 2 Block 3 Block 4 2012 June July August

Fig 2,Numbers of beehole found after conducting the control measure in 2012,Katha Township

4.1.2. Result from Field tests for the effective control for Area (2)

4.1.2.1. Neon Light Trap In Thandaung, teak borer outbreak was studied in 2011 in the selected plot of 112 trees monthly from January to December. Neon Light trap collection was done in January to April, 2011 and December 2011 to April, 2012. Teak beehole borers are nocturnal usually come out around 18:00-20:00and Neon light trap was used to attract adult beehole borer before systematic collection to know their behavior. Trapped adult beehole borer were showed in Fig.3.

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 11 11 11 12 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ p an Jul Jan J Jun Oct Apr Apr Feb Feb Feb Se Dec Aug Nov Mar Mar May

Fig.3. Number of Adult Emergence in the Neon Light Trap

4.1.2.2. Teak borer outbreak

The observations made in 2011on teak borer outbreak were highly significant at it was found that the number of larva was highest in the February, March and July. The month January, May, June, August, and September were observed higher than April, October, November and December (Fig 4).

The larvae wander upward or downward inside the trunk and bores into the heartwood for 2 or 3 inches horizontally and then vertically upward for 8-10 inches, making a J-shaped tunnel inside the trunk.

Pupae were found in January, February, March, August, October, November, and December. The observation was not of significant. Pupation takes place about 2- 3 weeks before the adult emergence.

Observations of the adult were also no significant, however, the adults emerge in January, February and March, and then the emergence declined toward the end of the month.

There were 652 holes, 67 larvae, 23 pupae and 8 adults found during the period of monitoring. 25 20 15 Adult 10 Pupa 5 0 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ t c Jul Jan Jun Ot O Apr Feb Sep Dec Aug Nov Mar May

Fig 4. The fluctuation of Beehole Population in 2011

4.1.2.3. Control Measures

In 2012, the following control measures were tested from Jan to April in the selected 4 blocks and the results are as follow:

Monthly treatment was highly significant in the different months. Mechanical control was the highest effective and no difference in effectiveness between biological control and chemical control for the period of larva outbreak (Table 4& 5).

Table 4& 5. Analysis of the effect of different control on Teak borer larva in 2012

Source DF Sum of Mean F Value Pr> F Squares Square Treat 3 604.949583 201.649861 2.99 0.0331 * Month 11 4098.320417 372.574583 5.52 <.0001 ** Month* treat 33 2334.594167 70.745278 1.05 0.4083

t Grouping Mean N treat A 8.044 48 Untreated B A 4.767 48 Biological B A 3.873 48 Chemical B 3.575 48 Mechanical Control measure conducted in the period of January to April for pupa, the monthly observation was highly significant and mechanical control was not effective also than biological and chemical (See in appendix). It was found to be significant for the monthly control for adult. The most effective measure was mechanical control and second effective was biological control and chemical control was the third effective measure in the experiment. The statistical analysis was of no significant in effectiveness between the three control methods; however effectiveness were ranked as mechanical, biological, and chemical control. They were quite statistically significant with the control block (See in appendix). The conditions of before treatment and after treatment were observed in this study; the number of hole and the population of larvae were increased in untreated plot after applying the treatments (Fig. 5 & 6).

4 3 2 Larva 1 Pupa 0 Adult Chemical Biological Mechanical Untreated

Before Treatment

Fig 5. Beehole population in before treatment

4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 Larva 1 0.5 Pupa 0 Chemical Biological Mechanical Untreated Adult

AfterTreatment

Fig 6. Beehole population in after treatment

4.2. Field observation

4.2.1. Sign of infestation

As the larvae are borer and an internal feeder and which are feeding on the heartwood, the damage cannot be observed until the tree is cut. As the newly hatched larvae live under the bark before they bore the stem, it is not easy to notice. After entering the stem, the entrance hole is covered with its feces and rough fibers. If the presence of timber dust and feces on the tree trunk, are indicates that the larva is already inside. Small larva has red stripes on white background and changes to pink color as it matured. As the hatching varied with regions, Larvae were found in July, they become abundant in August and September. However, different larval instars and up to mature larval stages were observed in December and January in northern Katha. In Thandaung the larvae were found in January and mature larva stages were found in September to November. The larval stage lasts about one year. Pupae stages were observed in February and sometime until April in Katha and in August, November and December until March in Thandaung. Pupa is dark brown in color and 5 to 6 cm in length. After the emergence of adult, the empty pupal skin can be observed on the tree trunk.

As the life cycle and habits changed with the weather conditions and locations, the time of adult emergence differs. However, in field observation revealed that the first adult emergence started from the first week of March in Katha District. The moths lived for seven days as average. The male is smaller than the female.

Normally, the total life cycle of X. ceramicus is about more than one year. Some borers were able to prolong their life cycles for up to 2 years, although based on the average number of eggs produced; only 0.002 percent of the eggs developed to 2nd year larvae (Pianhanuruk, P&Hutacharern. C, et al, 1992).

4.2.2. Laboratory study

Attempts were made for biological study under the laboratory conditions. Adults caught in the light traps were brought to the laboratory of Entomology Section at Forest Research Institute. Although females laid some eggs in confinement, no egg hatched. Therefore, no more information was available. According to literature, captive females laid from 300 to 600 eggs in the course of 4-6 days (Gotoh, T. & Eungwija- rnpanya, et al. 2007).

5. Discussion

As the beehole borer is a serious pest causing timber quality deterioration. The infestation was recorded for about two years. The adult emergence was observed in March to May. Control measures such as mechanical, biological and chemical were carried out. All control measures were found to be effective. However, chemical control was the most effective one, but it is not a feasible in a wide scale as in the case of forest plantation. Because of the use of chemical pesticides has been a major cause of disruption and undesirable side effects.

Woodpeckers dug holes were observed in study area at Katha District. According to the observations made by Atkinson (1937) in Myanmar, woodpeckers are believed to be its most important natural enemies. Woodpecker therefore should be encouraged to stay longer in the plantation. And also predatory ants are commonly found in teak plantation. The ants attack the larva, pupa and newly emerging adults. Whenever the infestation of beehole borer as indicated by the presence of entrance hole on the tree trunk, any type of control measure should be carried out so that to reduce the infestation level.

This investigation was conducted to check infestation level up to the breast height, therefore presence of beehole above the breast height could not be contained. If the investigation was conducted at young plantation, early infestation would have been checked in time. It is strongly advised to make regular inspection to notice beehole bore infestation in young plantations. Also, removal of heavily infested individual trees to reduce the probability of spread and further damage is strongly recommended especially in young plantation.

It is obvious that all forest pests had their origin in natural forests and are still present there. But due to a variety of natural control factors, both biological and physical, the populations of most insects remain small in natural forests. Thus the natural forest, far from being free of pests, is a reservoir of pests. However pest outbreaks are rare and their impact is therefore minimal. Our economics-based definition of pests is not adequate for natural forest situations. ‘Pest’ is primarily an agriculture and plantation-related concept.

In the future, effect of the climate change and pure plantations will be insect pest outbreak problem. Consequently, prevention and control of pest in forest plantations will become more and more important. Natural forest existed long ago and stabilized with diversity of plants, pests, natural enemies, birds and wildlife. Natural ecological equilibrium position was maintained until human interference. Due to the mismanagement, manmade forest plantations become defenseless and host of a variety of insect pests.

5.1. Field tests for the effective control As the larvae bore upward, the entrance hole can be plugged with cotton wool soaked in with 50 EC Malathion one percent solutions after removing the rough fiber covering. The fumigant emitted from the insecticide will cause death of the larva feeding inside, because it is inside already and the damage was done whether the larva is dead or alive. Plugging with fumigant poison and pushing thin wire can be effective only for the early stage of larvae. When the larvae become mature, the tunnel was about 10 inches long upwards and rough fibers are placed before pupation at the entrance. By this time, the damage of destruction of wood was already done but one less larva for reproduction and propagation of the pest prolong. By putting Gas toxin, a chemical with fumigant action, in the tunnel and sealing the entrance with cotton wool or mastic, the larvae inside can be killed. As the newly hatched larvae live under the bark before they bore the stem. There is a high mortality of larvae in these instars due to the natural enemies like ant belonging to the formicidae beside it is not easy to notice. In 1941, Beeson described eventually a survivor larva reaches the surface of the sapwood and excavates a shallow patch which is the beginning of the actual beehole; this deepened gradually into a tunnel which, in the course of 4 months reaches a length of 1-2 inches in the sapwood and is scarcely the diameter of a pencil, in the following months the beehole into the heartwood for 2 or 3 inches. In the experiment of biological control by luring the predators in this case were ants; masses of ants entering into the stem were found. Biological control was useful. Therefore, according to observation, biological control should be done before and after larvae enter the stem. As a mechanical control a thin wire was pushed into the tunnel to kill the larva feeding inside. This technique is cheap and causing no harm to the environment, it is preferable to apply.

In our study, chemical, mechanical and biological control were conducted to control the larvae in August and September 2011. For practical purposes the chemical and mechanical control measures should be applied during June and August before the survivor of insect are in horizontal tunnel. The presence of timber dust and feces indicates that the larva is already inside. Early detection means they can be destroyed before long tunnel could be made. Population of adult was not very high during that time of observation although the past attacks were done noticeable from 2009-2010 in Thandaung Township, Reserved Forest. It might have been caused by control measures or environmental factors.

Larval stage is nearly 1 - 2 years depends on location and environmental factors, and changing the sites depends on availability of sufficient food (callus or sap) at the boring sites (Beeson, C. F. C.1921).In this study, the larval stage lasts about one year in Thandaung.

Emergence monitoring in 2011 indicates that the emergence of Teak Beehole Borer adults occurs Feb and March in Thandaung. In Thailand adult also emerge in March, at the end of dry season. Newly emerged female are not active fliers due to their heavy mature ovaries, but they may become strong fliers after having laid some of their eggs (T.Gotoh & Eungwijarnpanya, et.al. 2007).

Practical control measures on teak beehole borer have never been done before in Myanmar. In most cases of borer attack, successful control methods are lacking except silvicultural practices which can reduce the insect populations (V.V. Sudheendrakumar, 2011). Measures other than silvicultural method are needed and so these studies are carried out.

Insecticides can be harmful and might be environmental not friendly although pesticides are usually used to kill a particular target pest. Many ants are attracted to the sweet material. The predator ants are of genus Crematogaster commonly found in all teak plantations. The predator ants (Crematogaster spp) have opportunity to find and feed on the borer’s eggs which are laid on the rough surface and in crevices of the tree as well as larva in the tunnel, pupa and newly emerging adult of the beehole borer (Dumdorng Ghaiglom 1966). Strong aggressiveness and a mass recruiting system enable the ants in finding the food and happened to defend the host plant against many pest insects (Christopher& Walker. 2009).

Not like the case of defoliation being a visible process, timely control measures can be easily adopted. However, infestation by borers becomes visible only at later stage of infestation. Mechanical control measure can only be applied before the adult emergence, but it is a disadvantage as it can’t be performed earlier before any damage done by beehole borer. It may need a lot of time money and labor.

This study was to determine the effectiveness of different control measures on teak beehole borer. In this study, due to statistical data analysis, there are no significant differences between the three control methods; however effectiveness could be ranked as mechanical, biological, and chemical control. It was quite statistically significant with the control block.

6. Conclusions

Teak beehole borer, X. ceramicus is an internal feeder and spending larval and pupal stages inside the stem before adult emergence. It is very difficult to control this pest and thus effective control methods must be found out by continuous monitoring and research. Insect pests can adapt to the environment and survive in any situation. Therefore, pest infestation will persist and severe losses will occur in every country. As the weather changes, new infestation will come up. Currently beehole borer control is an important issue and it will be a challenge for the future. 7. Recommendations

7.1. For Integrated Pest Management

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an ecologically based control strategy that relies heavily on natural mortality factors such as natural enemies and seeks out control tactics that disrupt these factors as little as possible.

IPM uses pesticides, but only after systematic monitoring of pest populations and natural control factors indicates a need. Ideally, an IPM program considers all available pest control actions and evaluates the potential interaction among various control tactics (Nopompeth, B. 1984). Pest management is comprehensive approach to pest control that uses combined means to reduce the status of pests to tolerable labels while maintaining a quality of environment. Females lay their eggs exposed on the surface of bark, the possibility of being destroyed naturally by predators. Besides, the abundance of predator can be lured by spraying molasses or sugar solution on the bark.

If the occurrence (time and place) of different growth stages such as adult, egg, larva and pupa, can be predicted exactly, control measures can be formulated timely. Light traps can be set up to catch adults and they can be killed to prevent new generations. Thinning of infested trees should be done to kill the larvae inside the tree within December. If the thinning is delayed, the pest will be in pupal stage and survives as adult after some time. The teak beehole borer is a real threat to teak plantations in Myanmar. Long term monitoring should be conducted at several plantations since the risk of outbreak increases as trees become older. If outbreaks occur, severely beehole trees should be thinned out before pupation take place. Early detection of infestation can reduce heavy infestation. Severely infested trees should be removed by thinning. As we all known English proverbs such as “prevention is better than cure” “A Stitch in time save nine” In the same way, prompt action at an early stage may prevent serious trouble in the future. Therefore, a continuous monitoring is necessary to assess the condition of the infested plantation, especially the site quality at different points of time, will help in scheduling tending operations according to requirements.

According to the outcome of the research, the effectiveness of the three methods is not distinct from each other, but it has a specific effect from each method. The use of all the 3 methods or any one of them is recommended.

In another observation apart from this study, in 2009 teak beehole borer outbreak occurred in teak plantation in Thandaung Reserved Forest. After making inspection by Forest Research Institute, injection of insecticides, applying jaggery syrup bait, inserting of thin wire were performed. As the borers are internal feeders and the life cycle is between 1-2 years, it is difficult to breed them in laboratory. Therefore a breeding center is implemented at the place near the outbreak area. There was also the outbreak at the 12 nos. of plant in front of 11 mile nursery center. The 12 teak plants are covered from the bottom to the top by net and it is preserved as a nurturing centre to study the biology of teak beehole borers.

By covering with net it is easy to make a record of the time of outbreak, the growth of the borer step by step, the exact classification of the borer and the effect of retardation of the population growth and it is advisible also to be used in young plant than the old one.

In plantations where only teak is extensively grown, there should be a center for each plantation to observe continuously.

There is effectiveness in injection method to some extent but the cost is high and there is a danger in handling the insecticide and which effect on environment. It should be used as the last choice.

Applying jiggery syrup bait and inserting thin wire method are cheap and have no effect on environment, so it is appropriate to recommend to use these methods. Applying net traps when and where ever beeholes are found trapping the adults before they can reproduce by laying eggs. And it is also, if feasible, eradicating the flying moths at night in the teak areas, before they can lay their eggs.

In the future, mixed plantations with other native tree species should be considered to maintain the infestation of pest outbreak from diversity of natural enemies.

Acknowledgements

We would like to express my heartfelt thanks to Director General of Forest Department and Director of Forest Research Institute for their kind permission to conduct this research. Sincere thanks to Academy of Forestry for their paper guide lines and correction.

I am deeply indebted to Dr. Myint Thaung, Retire Rector, Yezin Agricultural University for his supervision and invaluable guidance.

Sincerely thanks are also to Forest Staff of Katha District and Katha Township, Sagaing Division for their help throughout my fieldwork.

And then, we would like to thanks all peoples who helped for collection sample trees and support with information for this paper.

Last but not the least I also wish to express my gratitude to the Thandaung Township Forest Officer U Paw Maung and his staff for logistics support and information during this research.

References

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Appendix I(I)

Beehole numbers of Xyleutes ceramicus, Katha Township, December, 2010

Larva Block 1 Block 2 Block 3 Block 4

P1 P2 P3 P4 P1 P2 P3 P4 P1 P2 P3 P4 P1 P2 P3 P4

Dec 22 19 20 23 20 18 21 20 25 24 21 20 20 20 24 23

Recorded in 2011

(Plot) P2 P3 P4 P1 P2 P3 P4 P1 P2 P3 P4 P1 P2 P3 P4 P1

Jan 22 19 20 23 20 18 21 20 25 24 21 20 20 20 24 23 Feb 22 19 20 23 20 18 21 20 25 24 21 20 20 20 24 23 Avg. 22 19 20 23 20 18 21 20 25 24 21 20 20 20 24 23

Emergence adults Recorded from Light trap in 2011

trap 1 trap 2 trap 3 trap 4 Mar 6 5 4 5 April 6 6 4 5 May 3 3 4 4 Avg. 5 4.66 4 4.66

Beehole numbers of Xyleutes ceramicus in2011

P1 P2 P3 P4 P1 P2 P3 P4 P1 P2 P3 P4 P1 P2 P3 P4 June 11 10 11 11 10 10 9 10 11 8 10 11 10 9 10 10 July 13 14 13 14 12 14 12 12 12 11 11 14 13 12 13 11 Avg. 12 12 12 13 11 12 10.5 11 11.5 9.5 10.5 13 12 11 12 11

control Con Bio Mec Che Con Bio Mec Che Con Bio Mec Che Con Bio Mec Che August 14 15 14 14 12 14 12 13 14 12 11 14 12 14 14 13 Sep 14 8 7 5 12 8 7 6 14 7 6 6 12 7 7 4 Oct 14 4 3 2 14 5 4 2 13 4 3 2 12 3 3 1 Nov 14 4 3 2 14 5 4 2 13 4 3 2 12 3 3 1 Dec 14 4 3 2 14 5 4 2 13 4 3 2 12 3 3 1 Jan 14 4 3 2 14 5 4 2 13 4 3 2 12 3 3 1 Feb 14 4 3 2 14 5 4 2 13 4 3 2 12 3 3 1 Avg. 14 6.1 5.1 4.1 13.4 6.71 5.57 4.1 13.3 5.6 4.57 4.3 12 5.1 5.1 3.1

Emergence adults Recorded from Light trap in 2012 Mar 2 1 2 5 April 2 3 2 5 May 1 1 2 3 Avg. 1.07 1.37 2 4.3

Recordedbee holes, 2012 Jun 7 3 3 4 4 3 2 2 5 2 3 2 4 6 5 5 Jul 7 5 6 6 6 7 5 5 5 4 6 5 6 6 5 5 Aug 7 6 6 7 6 6 5 5 6 5 6 5 6 6 5 6 Sep 7 6 6 7 6 7 5 5 6 5 6 5 6 6 7 6

Avg. 7 5 5.25 6 5.5 6.25 4.25 4.25 5.5 4 525 4 5 6 5.7 5.3 P = plot Avg. = Average Bio = Biological control Mec = Mechanical control Che = Chemical control Appendix I (II)

month 12 January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December.

Treat 4 Chemical (1) juice(2) Thin wire(3) Untreated(4)

Number of Observations Read 192 Number of Observations Used 192

Table 1. Analysis of the observation of teak borer larva in 2011

Source DF Sum of Mean F Value Pr> F Squares Square Model 47 7037.86417 149.74179 2.22 0.0002 **

Error 144 9713.27500 67.45330

Corrected 191 16751.13917 Total

Table 2. Analysis of the effect of different control on Teak borer larva in 2012

Source DF Sum of Mean F Value Pr> F Squares Square Treat 3 604.949583 201.649861 2.99 0.0331 *

Month 11 4098.320417 372.574583 5.52 <.0001 **

Month* treat 33 2334.594167 70.745278 1.05 0.4083

Table 3. Analysis of the observation of teak borer pupa in 2011

Source DF Sum of Mean F Value Pr> F Squares Square Model 47 1839.344948 39.134999 1.21 0.1955

Error 144 4652.147500 32.306580

Corrected 191 6491.492448 Total Table 4. Analysis of the effect of different control on Teak borer pupa in 2012

Source DF Sum of Mean F Value Pr> F Squares Square Treat 3 139.5218229 46.5072743 1.44 0.2338

Month 11 880.7980729 80.0725521 2.48 0.0071 **

Month* treat 33 819.0250521 24.8189410 0.77 0.8102

t Grouping Mean N treat

A 2.979 48 Chemical A A 2.085 48 Untreated A A 1.788 48 Biological A A 0.596 48 Mechanical

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Table 5. Analysis of the observation of teak borer adult in 2011

Source DF Sum of Mean F Value Pr> F Squares Square Model 47 1495.089792 31.810421 1.06 0.3924

Error 144 4334.695000 30.102049

Corrected 191 5829.784792 Total

Table 6. Analysis of the effect of different control on Teak borer adult in 2012

Source DF Sum of Mean F Value Pr> F Squares Square Treat 3 62.6743750 20.8914583 0.69 0.5571

Month 11 743.1760417 67.5614583 2.24 0.0151 * month* treat 33 689.2393750 20.8860417 0.69 0.8899

t Grouping Mean N treat

A 0.894 48 Chemical

A 0.298 48 Biological

A 0.000 48 Mechanical

A 1.488 48 Untreated

Appendix II

Plate 1. Study area in Katha District and Thandaung

Plate 2.Larva Covered with rough fiber after entered into the stem

Plate 3. Found the eggs masses in the field and laboratory

a

Plate 4, Found before and after mature larvae in the field

Plate 5, Pupa stage and pupa skin

Plate 6,(a). X. ceramicus moth rest on the trunk , (b) Caught with light trap

Plate 7, Plug with cotton wool soaked in Plate 8, Push thin wire into the tunnel to kill malathion insecticide the larva Plate 12,

Plate 9, Ants were encouraged by spraying molassesPlate 10, Gregarious Red Ants

Plate 13, Usefulness of ants existed in the field

Plates 14, Beehole under the bark before Plate 15,Larva covered the hole with the larva reach the sapwood rough fiber after reached the wood

Plate 16, Woodpeaker dug hole

Plate 17, Young Teak trees covered with net. Plate 18, Teak trees infested by X. ceramicus.

Plate 19, X. ceramicus trapped in the net Plate 20, Female adult laying eggs