Paul F. Hoffman Series

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PAUL F. HOFFMAN SERIES

eDepartment of Earth Science provenance data from the Elatina Fm. University of California suggest that glacial sediment may have Santa Barbara, CA, USA 93106 been partially sourced from the cratons of Western Australia and that the SUMMARY Whyalla Sandstone, even if stratigraph- The Elatina Fm. records the younger ically correlative, was not a sediment Cryogenian ice age in the Adelaide Rift source. The remainder of the Elatina Complex (ARC) of South Australia, Fm. stratigraphy mostly records the which has long-held the position as the deglaciation and can be divided into type region for this low-latitude glacia- three facies: a slumped sandstone, tion. Building upon a legacy of work, dropstone diamictite, and current- we document the pre- and syn-glacial reworked diamictite. The relative sea The End-Cryogenian sedimentary rocks to characterize the level fall within the upper Elatina Fm. Glaciation of South dynamics of the glaciation across the requires that regional deglaciation ARC. The Elatina Fm. records an array occurred on the timescale of ice sheet Australia of well-preserved glacial facies at many – ocean gravitational interactions

a,b different water depths across the basin, (instant) and/or isostatic rebound Catherine V. Rose , Adam C. 4 a a including ice contact tillites, flu- (~10 years). Structures previously Maloof , Blair Schoene , Ryan C. vioglacial sandstones, dropstone inter- interpreted as soft-sediment folds with- Ewingc, Ulf Linnemannd, Mandy d e vals, tidal rhythmites with combined- in the rhythmite facies that were used Hofmann , and John M. Cottle flow ripples, and turbidites. The under- to constrain the low-latitude position of South Australia at the time of the a lying Yaltipena Fm. records the pro- Department of Geosciences glacial influx of sediment from Elatina glaciation are re-interpreted as Princeton University encroaching land-based ice sheets. The stoss-depositional transverse ripples Guyot Hall, Washington Road onset of the glaciation is heralded by with superimposed oscillatory wave Princeton, NJ, USA 08544 the major element ratios (Chemical ripples. These combined-flow ripples Index of Alteration) of the pre-glacial across the ARC attest to open seas b Department of Earth and Planetary facies across the platform that show a with significant fetch during the initial Sciences reduction in chemical weathering and a retreat of local glaciers. In addition, Washington University in St. Louis deterioration in climate towards the this interpretation no longer requires 1 Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO, USA base of the Elatina Fm. The advancing that the magnetization be syn-deposi- 63130 ice sheets caused soft-sediment defor- tional, although we have no reason to E-mail: [email protected] mation of the beds below the glacial believe that the low-latitude direction is diamictite, including sub-glacial push a result of remagnetization, and posi- cDepartment of Geology and Geophysics structures, as well as sub-glacial erosion tive reversal tests and tectonic fold Texas A&M University, MS 3115, of the carbonate unit beneath. Meas- tests are at least consistent with syn- College Station, Texas, TX, USA 77843 ured stratigraphic sections across the depositional magnetization. Together, basin show glacial erosion up to 130 m these paired sedimentological and dSenckenberg Naturhistorische Sammlungen into the carbonate platform. However, chemostratigraphic observations reveal Dresden δ13C measurements of carbonate clasts the onset of the glaciation and advance Museum für Mineralogie und Geologie within the glacial diamictite units were of the ice sheet from land to create a Königsbrücker Landstrasse 159, D-01109 used to assess provenance and relative heavily glaciated terrain that was Dresden, Germany timing of δ13C acquisition, and suggest incised down to at least the base of the that at least 500 m of erosion occurred pre-glacial Trezona Fm. somewhere in the basin. Detrital zircon

SOMMAIRE Formation d’Elatina représente princi- colloquially referred to as the older La Formation d’Elatina représente la palement la déglaciation, laquelle peut ‘Sturtian’ and younger ‘Marinoan’ low- phase précoce de l’âge glaciaire du être divisée en trois faciès : un grès latitude glaciations (Hoffman and Cryogénien de l’Adelaide Rift Complex plissé, une diamictite à galets de Schrag 2002; Hoffman 2005, 2011). (ARC) dans le sud de l’Australie, région délestage, et une diamictite remaniée Banded iron formation within the thick qui a longtemps été la région type de par des courants. La baisse du niveau Sturtian diamictite units, and sedimen- cette glaciation de basse latitude. À relatif de la mer dans la partie tologically and geochemically distinc- partir d’un legs de travaux, nous nous supérieure de la Formation d’Elatina tive ‘cap’ carbonate sequences that sommes appuyés sur l’étude des roches suppose une déglaciation régionale sur consistently drape both glacial deposits sédimentaires préglaciaires et syn- une échelle de temps de l’ordre de celle (Williams 1979; Kennedy 1996; glaciaires pour caractériser la de la nappe de glace – interactions Kennedy et al. 1998; Hoffman et al. dynamique de la glaciation à travers gravitationnelles de l’océan (instanta- 2007; Rose and Maloof 2010), may l’ARC. La Formation d’Elatina ren- nées) et/ou rebond isostatique (~ 104 indicate long-term isolation of the ferme une gamme de faciès glaciaires ans). Des structures décrites ocean from the atmosphere. Together, bien préservés correspondant à dif- précédemment comme des plis de sédi- these observations led to the contro- férentes profondeurs d’eau à travers le ments mous dans des faciès de rhyth- versial ‘snowball Earth’ hypothesis, bassin, dont des tillites de contact mites qui impliquait une position de wherein an ice-albedo runaway feed- glaciaire, des grès fluvioglaciaires, des basse latitude pour l'Australie du Sud à back caused ice to advance rapidly to intervalles à galets de délestage, des l'époque de la glaciation Elatina, sont the equator and seal the entire ocean in rythmites tidales avec des combi- réinterprétées comme des rides sédi- ice for millions of years (Kirschvink naisons de rides d’écoulement, et des mentaires transverses asymétriques 1992; Hoffman et al. 1998, 2002). turbidites. La Formation sous-jacente avec des rides de vagues oscillatoires Early work on these enigmatic de Yaltipena est constituée de sédi- superposées. Ces combinaisons de low-latitude glaciations focused on ments proglaciaires provenant de rides d’écoulement à travers l’ARC identifying and describing the glacial lentilles de glace en progression. Le confirment l’existence d’un milieu deposits around the world (Spencer début de la glaciation est reflété dans marin ouvert d’une ampleur certaine au 1971; Deynoux and Trompette 1976; les ratios des éléments majeurs (indice moment de la retraite initiale des gla- Hambrey and Harland 1981; Deynoux d’altération chimique) des faciès ciers locaux. En outre, cette interpré- 1985; Lemon and Gostin 1990). How- préglaciaires de la plateforme qui mon- tation ne nécessite plus que la magnéti- ever, this focus on the glacial deposits tre une réduction de l’altération chim- sation soit synsédimentaire, bien que led to different interpretations and ique et une détérioration du climat à nous n'ayons aucune raison de penser some workers proposed a debris flow l’approche de la base de la Formation que l’orientation magnétique de basse origin for the conglomeratic beds d’Elatina. La progression des nappes latitude soit le résultat d’une ré-aiman- (Schermerhorn 1974; Eyles 1993; de glace a entraîné une déformation tation, et que les tests de réversibilité Arnaud and Eyles 2006). Eyles and des lits de sédiments meubles sous la positifs et les tests de plissement tec- Januszczak (2004) argued that both the diamictite glaciaire, montrant entre tonique sont au minimum conformes à glacigenic deposits and associated car- autres des structures de poussée sous- une magnétisation synsédimentaire. bonate rocks could be explained by glaciaires ainsi que de l’érosion sous- Ensemble, ces observations sédimen- continental rifting, with carbonate glaciaire de l’unité de carbonate sous- tologiques et chimiostratigraphiques deposited in restricted basins starved jacente. Les mesures de coupes strati- mettent en lumière le début de la of clastic input. Although not wide- graphiques à travers le bassin montrent glaciation et l'avancée du couvert de spread, high-latitude carbonate and que l’érosion glaciaire a enlevé jusqu’à glace continental menant à une région evaporite rocks coexist with glacigenic 130 m du carbonate de la plateforme. fortement englacée qui a été incisée sediments today (Walter and Bauld Toutefois, les signatures isotopiques jusqu'à à la base de la Formation 1983). A close examination of the pre- δ13C de fragments de carbonate dans préglaciaire de Trezona. and post-glacial Neoproterozoic rocks les unités de diamictites glaciaires util- in the North Atlantic region, however, isées pour établir la provenance et la INTRODUCTION determined that these carbonate units chronologie d’acquisition relative de la At least two Neoproterozoic glacigenic, were probably deposited in warm signature δ13C des fragments, permet poorly sorted conglomeratic units are water and thus climatic fluctuations de penser qu’il y a eu au moins 500 m present on all continents except between ‘balmy’ and ‘icy’ conditions d'érosion quelque part dans le bassin. Antarctica, commonly interrupting car- occurred quite rapidly (Fairchild 1993). Les données de provenance sur zircons bonate platform sequences, and in The snowball Earth hypothe- détritiques de la Formation d’Elatina some cases found near the paleomag- sis (Kirschvink 1992; Hoffman et al. permettent de penser que les sédiments netic equator. Therefore, at least twice 1998; Hoffman and Schrag 2002) was glaciaires provenaient partiellement des during this era, continental glaciers proposed by Kirschvink (1992) in an cratons de l'Australie occidentale et que reached sea level in the low-latitudes attempt to explain the presence of le grès de la Formation de Whyalla, (Embleton and Williams 1986; Schmidt banded iron formation within the thick bien que stratigraphiquement corrélé, and Williams 1995; Sohl et al. 1999; older Cryogenian diamictite units, n'a pas été une source de sédiments. Evans 2000; Macdonald et al. 2010). which were deposited near the equator. Ce qui reste de la stratigraphie de la These two Cryogenian glaciations are Further work also identified the dis- 258 tinctive ‘cap’ carbonate sequences that diamictites in isolation, we also build a (Lemon and Gostin 1990; Lemon and consistently drape both glacial deposits comprehensive multidisciplinary Reid 1998; Williams et al. 2008). How- (Williams 1979; Kennedy 1996; dataset from the adjacent strata to eval- ever, it has been suggested that the Kennedy et al. 1998; Hoffman et al. uate both the transition into and out of upper Elatina Fm. consists of glacially 1998, 2007), which were not explained the ice-house event. This study demon- influenced debris flows resulting from by previous models. Both of these strates that an approach that integrates local slope collapse (Le Heron et al. observations imply perturbations to basin-scale analysis with detailed sedi- 2011a; Le Heron 2012), and some seawater chemistry that are consistent mentology and chemostratigraphy, workers have even proposed that the with long term isolation of the ocean when set in the context of the pre- and entire succession records tectonically from the atmosphere. Hence, since its post-glacial sediments, can provide new triggered mass flow deposits (Scher- most recent formulation in 1998, tests insights into the dynamics of extensive merhorn 1974; Eyles et al. 2007). of the snowball Earth hypothesis glaciations of the Cryogenian. Williams (1989, 1991, 1998, turned their attention to the geochem- The Elatina Fm. is of global 2000) and Williams et al. (2008) istry of the cap carbonates (Williams importance because: 1) its sedimentol- described rhythmic laminations within 1979; Fairchild 1993; Hoffman et al. ogy is diverse and well preserved, siltstone of the upper Elatina Fm. at 1998; Grotzinger et al. 2000; James et recording transitions in glacial facies at Warren Gorge, Pichi Richi Pass in the al. 2001; Kennedy et al. 2001; Shields different water depths across the basin; southern Flinders Ranges, and Marino 2005; Hoffman and Schrag 2002; Hig- 2) it represents the type region for the Rocks south of Adelaide (Fig. 1 [2, 4]). gins and Schrag 2003; Hoffman et al. Marinoan glaciation (Williams et al. The rhythmites consist of 1–2 cm- 2007; Rose and Maloof 2010; Hoff- 2008); 3) it has yielded the most robust thick bundles of mm-scale couplets man 2011). Despite advances toward paleomagnetic data for any late Cryo- that were originally interpreted as understanding this non-uniformitarian genian glacigenic succession (Evans varves deposited in a periglacial lake climate state, relatively little recent and Raub 2011), and 4) the recently (Williams 1981), where each clastic work has been done on the glacial sedi- established Ediacaran System and Peri- lamina represents annual deposition of ments themselves. This inattention od (Knoll et al. 2006) has its Global sediment by glacial meltwater (Williams arises in part because these deposits Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) at 1981, 1985; Williams and Sonett 1985). are spatially heterogeneous and diffi- the base of the Nuccaleena Fm. over- Williams (1985) argued that the period- cult to interpret. Recently, some limited lying the Elatina Fm. in the central ic deposition of cyclic laminae corre- observations of thick glacial deposits Flinders Ranges. The glacial origin of lated with sunspot cycles, though the intercalated with wave-rippled and the Elatina Fm. was first recognized by mechanism by which Marinoan climate hummocky cross-stratified interglacial Mawson (1949) following his discovery was controlled by sunspots was not sandstones (Allen and Etienne 2008; of diamictite containing faceted and clearly articulated. Furthermore, astro- Le Heron et al. 2011a,b) indicated ice- striated clasts in Elatina Creek in the nomical models suggest that the front mobility or advance–retreat central Flinders Ranges, and he pro- sunspot cycle during the Neoprotero- cycles (Christie-Blick et al. 1999; Con- posed the term ‘Elatina glaciation’ zoic was 3-10% shorter than today don et al. 2002; Leather et al. 2002; (Williams et al. 2008; Fig. 1 [17]). Since (Noyes et al. 1984), whereas the Elati- Rieu et al. 2007b; Allen and Etienne these initial observations, several stud- na Fm. data suggest that the mean 2008). These studies present their ies have been published on the Elatina cycle was ~8% longer at that time observations as a challenge to a ‘hard’ Fm. Additional mapping extended (Williams 1988). By comparing the snowball scenario, which completely observations of the Elatina Fm. lateral- Elatina rhythmites to two other puta- encompasses the world with ice, ques- ly across the ARC (Dalgarno and John- tively correlative rhythmite deposits in tioning the ideas that sea ice would be son 1964; Leeson 1970). This careful Southern Australia, the Reynella Silt- globally present and that moisture work led to Elatina Creek being nomi- stone Member and Chambers Bluff from sea-ice sublimation alone would nated as the type section (Dalgarno Tillite, Williams determined that the have been sufficient to drive the and Johnson 1964) and to correlations packages of laminae represent fort- dynamics of polythermal ice with to other Elatina Fm. sections in the nightly cycles of spring-neap lunar tide active subglacial hydrology. However, southern (Binks 1968; Miller 1975; deposits as a distal part of an ebb- glacial diamictite successions may be Jablonski 1975) and northern (Coats et flood tidal delta (Zahnle and Walker deposited entirely during deglaciation, al. 1973; Preiss and Forbes 1981) 1987; Williams 1988). The literature and such arguments for advance– Flinders Ranges. Lemon and Gostin since has focused on correlating rhyth- retreat cycles may not be relevant to (1990) presented a detailed sedimento- mite periodicities with tidal periodici- peak snowball conditions. Yet, impor- logical study of the Elatina Fm. within ties and elucidating the implications for tantly, these few studies highlight the the central Flinders Ranges, which the history of the Earth-Moon orbit need for a re-evaluation of low-latitude established three correlative facies for (Williams 1997, 1998, 2000). Under glacial deposits themselves. Our work the Elatina Fm. that were interpreted this model, one couplet represents a re-focusses attention back to the glacial as recording the advance of the ice and semi-diurnal or diurnal depositional deposits, investigating the Marinoan- subsequent deglaciation. Most workers cycle, strictly constraining the rate of age Elatina Fm. in the Adelaide Rift document the advance of grounded ice bedform migration and aggradation of Complex (ARC), South Australia. or scouring by icebergs, which attest to the rhythmite sequences. However, rather than studying the the glacial nature of the Elatina Fm. The rhythmites also are the GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 259

120 130 140 150 10 10 Fig. 7 N o o o LEGEND a 138 139 140 o Adelaide 47 V 30 PERMIAN-QUATERNARY syncline axis 20 20 undiferentiated Rift 46 anticline axis 45 sedimentary rocks Complex IV major fault 43 CAMBRIAN-ORDOVICIAN 38 44 30 30 40 sections 41 volcanic rocks 0 200 400 600 800 1000 39 km 37 110120 130 140 150 160 42 36 33 CAMBRIAN 32 N 31 35 30 0 Ma 34 sandstone, siltstone, shale, limestone, conglomerate, tuf III 29 N635 Ma 28 NEOPROTEROZOIC II Gammon Ranges I WILPENA GROUP: sandstone, siltstone, shale, dolomite 27 o UMBERATANA GROUP: diamictite, sandstone. siltstone, 26 31 limestone, dolomite, conglomerate, shale

24 Fig. 6 BURRA GROUP: siltstone, sandstone, dolomite Blinman CALLANNA GROUP: siltstone, sandstone, carbonate, 23 21 evaporite, basalt, diapiric breccia 20 22 PALEO-MESOPROTEROZOIC 18 19 Stuart 17 16 undiferentiated Paleo-Mesoproterozoic rocks Shelf 15 Flinders Ranges 9° paleonorth STUART NW ADELAIDE RIFT SE b SHELF Delamerian orogeny 490 Ma -10 -5 0 5 10 13 Cambrian 14 542 Ma o Ediacara biota 12 Fig. 8 32 Wilpena Group Gaskiers 11 Glacial Ediacaran 10 635 Ma 9 Marinoan 8 6 7 Glacial 4 5 ADELAIDE Umberatana Group Cryogenian 3 T D R I F Sturtian RIFT 777 Ma Sturtian 659.7 Ma Glacial 2 COMPLEX R I F T R I F Burra Gp Neoproterozoic Bitter Tonian Springs PALEOPROTEROZOIC Stage BASEMENT OF THE Callanna 1 GAWLER CRATON Gp

-10 -5 0 5 10 13 δ Ccarb (‰ VPDB)

Figure 1. (a) Simplified geological map of the study area within the Adelaide Rift Complex (ARC) adapted from Preiss and Robertson (2002). Locations of measured stratigraphic sections are denoted by red circles and labeled with numbered squares. Fold axes within the Adelaide Rift Complex are denoted by dashed lines and labeled with Roman numerals: (I) Mount Morris anticline; (II) Mount Jeffery syncline; (III) Arkaroola syncline; (IV) Umberatana syncline; and (V) Mount Fitton anticline. The large grey boxes represent the areas of the detailed maps presented in Figures 6, 7 and 8. (b) Schematic NW-SE stratigraphic cross-section of the Adelaide Rift Complex, highlighting the rift-to-drift transition and major sequence boundaries (adapted from Lemon and Gostin 1990). δ13C profile adapted from Halverson et al. (2005) time-aligned with the right-hand edge of the stratigraphic cross-section. A SHRIMP U–Pb zircon age of 659.7 ± 5.3 Ma from a tuffaceous horizon in the Wilyerpa Fm., just above the Appila (Sturtian) diamictite, provides a maximum age for the base of the interglacial sedimentary units (Fanning 2006). The overlying Nuccaleena Fm. is dated by correlation to the uppermost Marinoan glacial deposits and the associated cap dolostone in Oman (Bowring et al. 2007; Rieu et al. 2007a), Namibia (Hoffmann et al. 2004) and South China (Condon et al. 2005), which contain ID–TIMS U–Pb zircon ages of ~635 Ma. centre-piece of a key paleomagnetic (ChRM) was syn-depositional in age ed a paleolatitude of 2.7 ± 3.7º constraint for Cryogenian low-latitude and constrained the Elatina glaciation (Schmidt et al. 2009). Raub and Evans glaciation and the snowball Earth to an equatorial paleolatitude (<10º) (2008) and Schmidt et al. (2009) found hypothesis. Results of a fold test on (Sumner et al. 1987). A stratigraphically a steeper mean inclination for the Nuc- putative soft-sediment folds within consistent polarity reversal test con- caleena Fm. of 27º, possibly due to the these rhythmites indicated that the firmed the primary component of less-compacted carbonate lithology, characteristic remnant magnetism ChRM in the Elatina Fm. and suggest- which results in a paleolatitude of 14 ± 260

2º (Evans and Raub 2011). The syn- residual constituents (Al3+, Ti4+) during exposed (Abbot et al. 2011). sedimentary fold test represents the chemical weathering, which is In this paper, we present most reliable paleomagnetically derived enhanced during humid and warm cli- detailed sedimentological observations low-latitude constraint for a late Cryo- mate conditions. In contrast, low CIA paired with high resolution δ13C and genian glacial deposit. The ‘fold’ struc- values indicate the near absence of major element data from the pre-glacial tures used are spaced ~50 cm apart chemical weathering, and consequently carbonate platform and syn-glacial sed- within the rhythmite facies, have been might reflect cool and/or arid condi- iments of the Marinoan glaciation documented in Warren Gorge and tions. Such compositional variation of across the ARC, South Australia. We Pichi Richi Pass, and have been inter- siliciclastic rocks has been used to eval- quantify the degree of erosion, charac- preted as gravity slides that were trig- uate Paleoproterozoic, Cambro- terize the provenance, and establish the gered by storm waves (Williams 1996). Ordovician, Neogene and Quaternary style of the glaciation across the basin. The existence of multiple glaciations (Krissek and Kyle 1998; A total of 47 stratigraphic sections reversals suggests that the Elatina gla- Young 2002; Dobrzinski et al. 2004; document the syn-glacial facies that cial epoch lasted for several 105 to a Bahlburg and Dobrzinski 2011). Sever- corroborate the seminal work of few 106 years (Schmidt and Williams al Cryogenian glacial successions Lemon and Gostin (1990), and extend 1995; Sohl et al. 1999). Similarly, multi- record low CIA values within the gla- analysis to the entirety of the basin. ple magnetic reversals recorded in the cial diamictites and relatively high CIA We document a regression within the Nuccaleena Fm. cap dolostone suggest values in intercalated siltstone, includ- upper Elatina Fm. that suggests that that it took >105 yrs for its deposition ing the Port Askaig Fm., Scotland the regional deglaciation occurred on (Trindade et al. 2003; Kilner et al. (Panahi and Young 1997), the Nantuo the timescale of gravitational with- 2005; Raub and Evans 2006; Schmidt Fm., South China (Dobrzinski et al. drawal (instant) and/or isostatic et al. 2009). However, the giant wave 2004), the Huqf Fm., Oman (Rieu et rebound (~104 years). We propose that ripples present in cap dolostone units al. 2007c) the Smalfjord and Morten- the ‘soft-sediment folds’ in the rhyth- around the world indicate extremely snes Fms., northern Norway, and mite facies across the ARC are com- fast aggradation (Hoffman et al. 2007; Ghaub Fm., Namibia (Bahlburg and bined-flow ripples, which attest to Raub and Evans 2008; Lamb et al. Dobrzinski 2011). However, this geo- open seas with significant fetch during 2012). This sedimentological constraint chemical proxy has not been per- the initial retreat of local glaciers. The implies that the multiple polarity formed on the siliciclastic-dominated current and wave ripples also cast chrons in the Nuccaleena Fm. are per- glacial Elatina Fm., or assessed in mul- doubt on the veracity of the syn-depo- haps not true reversals but are a rare tiple sections across a basin to deter- sitional paleomagnetic constraint, recording of geomagnetic excursions mine the variable role of provenance, requiring that the low-latitude direction that can occur in less than ~2 ky diagenesis, and grain size on CIA val- only need be pre-Late Cambrian fold- (Gubbins 1999; Hoffman et al. 2007). ues. ing in age. We quantify the amount of Thus the timescale for the duration of The ARC provides a unique glacial truncation across the platform the Elatina glacial epoch remains con- opportunity to examine the three- from 29 δ13C chemostratigraphic sec- troversial. dimensional paleo-landscape and the tions through the pre-glacial carbonate Although carbonate carbon evolution of the glaciation that may platform. This work allows correlation and bulk organic carbon records have allow us to test specific predictions of of formations across facies transitions played key roles in understanding the the snowball Earth hypothesis. We aim to unify and simplify the pre-existing pre-glacial (Rothman et al. 2003; Fike to establish the extent of sub-glacial stratigraphic classifications across the et al. 2006; Swanson-Hysell et al. 2010; erosion and advance–retreat cycles to basin. We show that δ13C–δ18O values Rose et al. 2012) and post-glacial car- test the predictions of a cold-based ice for 269 carbonate clasts within the bonate succession (Hoffman et al. sheet, an attenuated hydrological cycle, diamictite were acquired before glacial 1998; Grotzinger et al. 2000; Kennedy and rapid onset and deglaciation erosion, and that deep glacial incision et al. 2001; Hoffman and Schrag 2002; assumed to be required by a snowball into the carbonate platform likely was Higgins and Schrag 2003; Hoffman et Earth. We aim to determine the prove- responsible for exhumation of clasts al. 2007; Rose and Maloof 2010), few nance of the glacially transported sedi- that record the full stratigraphic range studies have looked beyond the sediments to test the snowball Earth pre- in δ13C values. We present detrital zir- mentology with regard to the glacial diction that the onset of the glaciation con data from the ARC and Stuart diamictite units. The Chemical Index in the tropics is represented by the Shelf to establish possible temporal of Alteration (CIA) is a weathering advance of sea-ice onto the continents and spatial changes in the provenance proxy that uses ratios of major ele- (Hoffman et al. 2002). Furthermore, of the glacial sediments. Finally, we ments in siliciclastic rocks (Nesbitt and we aim to establish if open water exist- present new bulk compositional data Young 1982, 1989; Fedo et al. 1995; ed on shallow platforms during the (major elements) from 13 sections to McLennan et al. 1993; Nesbitt and Marinoan glaciation, which has been test whether CIA records are coherent Young 1996; Colin et al. 1998; Corco- cited in opposition to the ‘hard’ snow- basin-wide, and may record paleo- ran and Mueller 2002; Sheldon et al. ball Earth model. Such an open water weathering intensity, or whether the 2002; Scheffler et al. 2003). High CIA scenario would be compatible with a CIA proxy is controlled by the second- values reflect the removal of mobile Jormungand climate state where a thin ary processes of sorting and/or diage- cations (Ca2+, Na+, K+) relative to stable strip of the tropical ocean remains nesis. GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 261

BASEMENT MAP OF AUSTRALIA LEGEND SEDIMENTARY BASINS Neoproterozoic-Cambrian Major Lineament PCI Mesoproterozoic Map of Adelaide Archean-Early Proterozoic Rift Complex RJI (Fig. 1) CI AGES AFP: Albany-Fraser Province Nd:1.85-2.33 Ga, U-Pb: 1.0-1.3 Ga M Ad: Adelaidian Rift Complex 800-550 Ma K A Am: Amadeus Basin Neoproterozoic V A: Arkara Gneiss U-Pb: 1.58 Ma MDS AI: Arunta Inlier Nd: 2.12-2.19 Ga Ba: Bangemall Basin 1.45-1.3 Ga HCI Bi: Birrindudu Basin 1.56 Ga TCI BH: Broken Hill Block Nd: 2.2-2.26 Ga Ge CI: Coen Inlier Nd: 1.94-2.13 Ga GI FR: Flinders Range Bi AI GAB: Gascovne Block Nd: 2.20-3.52 Ga PP MII GDS: Gairdner Dyke Swarm and Willouran Volc. 827.9 Ma PB Ng GB: Gawler Block Nd: 2.54-2.69 Ga, U-Pb 2.55 and 2.31 Ga H GV: Gawler Volcanics U-Pb: 1.58-1.60 Ga GI: Georgetown Inlier Nd: 2.17-2.29 Ga, U-Pb: 1.7-1.55 Ga Am Ge: Georgina Basin, Neoproterozoic Sa

Ba TASMAN FOLD BEL HCI: Halls Creek Inlier Nd: 2.13-2.29 Ga MB H: Hammersley Basin 2.77-2.20 Ga GAB K: Kimberley Basin <1.87-1.40 Ga ~500 Ma LB: Leeuwin Block U-Pb: 1200-1050 Ma, 800-650 Ma, 580-500 Ma MuDS Of M: McArthur Basin 1.80-1.43 Ga MII: Mount Isa Inlier Nd: 2.14-2.30 Ga, U-Pb: 1.62-1.52 Ga FR MP NHI YB GB MP: Mount Painter Block Nd: 2.01 Ga GV SS T MDS: Mundine Well Dyke Swarm 755.3 Ma MuDS: Mugamurra Dyke Swarm 748.2 Ma (K-Ar) Ad BH MB: Musgrave Block Nd: 1.77-1.89 Ga, U-Pb: 1.0-1.3 Ga Ng: Ngalia Basin, Neoproterozoic GDS AFP NHI: Northampton Inlier LB Nd: 2.02-2.08 Ga, U-Pb ~1.08 Ga, detrital zirc.<2.04 Ga Of: Ofcer Basin Neoproterozoic PP: Paterson Province ~500 Ma w/ 690 Ma Crofton Granite PB: Pilbara Block Igneous/Metamorphic Ages felsic volc. & gneiss: Nd: 3.17-3.44 Ga, U-Pb: 3.45 Ga granite: Nd: 3.12-3.20 Ga, U-Pb 2.76 Ga 0.7-0.5 Ga PCI: Pine Creek Inlier Mafc Dike Swarm 1.3-1.0 Ga gneiss: Nd: 2.23-2.62 Ga, U-Pb 2.47 and 1.86 Ga Outline of the Centralian Super Basin, RJI: Rum Jungle Inlier 1.6-1.5 Ga gneiss & granite: Nd: 2.71-3.3 Ga representing the maximum fooding of Sa: Savory Basin, Neoproterozoic the continents between 800-500 Ma 1.7-1.6 Ga SS: Stuart Shelf 1.8-1.7 Ga Tasman Line, representing maximum TCI: Tennant Creek Inlier eastward extent of pre-Neoproterozoic Nd: 2.27-2.50 Ga, U-Pb 1.87 Ga 1.9-1.8 Ga crust. Unlike Laurentia, the 87Sr/86Sr V: Victoria River Basin 1.2 Ga = 0.706 isopleth (measured in YB: Yilgarn Block 2.0 Ga Phanerozoic granites) does not follow granite: Nd: 2.60-2.75 Ga, U-Pb: 2.68 and 3.21 Ga xenocrystic zircon: U-Pb 3.4 Ga 2.6 Ga a smooth line in Australia

Figure 2. Map of Australia denoting the ages of basement complexes and outlining the Precambrian sedimentary basins. The U–Pb ages of the Gawler Craton and Adelaide Rift Complex (ARC), as well as the Musgrave Block, Albany-Fraser Province, Paterson Province, and Leeuwin Block, are highlighted in blue in the key (adapted from Pell et al. 1997).

GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND 2001). The basement beneath the ARC atana and Wilpena Groups (Preiss The Adelaide Rift Complex (ARC) is has only limited exposure but may be a 1987, 2000). The ARC was a zone of part of a continental margin formed to distinctly younger geological province deep subsidence, punctuated by the present-day east of the Stuart Shelf than most of the Gawler Craton episodes of syn-sedimentary faulting (Preiss 2000; Fig. 1a). The basement (Preiss 2000). It is likely that there was and diapiric mobilization of Callanna beneath the Gawler Craton to the west a late Paleoproterozoic precursor basin Group evaporites (Preiss 1987; Fig. of the ARC is composed of late occupying much the same area as the 1b). Neoproterozoic sediment accumu- Archean–early Mesoproterozoic mag- Neoproterozoic ARC, with sedimenta- lation is attributed to a succession of matic lithologies and metasedimentary tion and volcanism between ~1.75– rift and thermal subsidence phases, rocks (Fig. 2). Similarly, the Curna- 1.65 Ga, and orogeny at ~1.6 Ga with the main rifting commencing at mona Province to the east, and the Mt. (Preiss 2000). ~827–802 Ma (Fanning et al. 1986; Painter Inlier to the south of the ARC Paleoproterozoic to Mesopro- Jenkins 1990; Wingate et al. 1998). It is consist of Paleoproterozoic–Mesopro- terozoic cratonic basement of the not known exactly when rifting termi- terozoic granite, gneiss and metasedi- ARC is overlain by a 7-12 km thick nated, but large-scale crustal normal mentary rocks (Willis et al. 1983; Preiss Neoproterozoic to Cambrian sedimen- faulting is thought to have diminished 2000; Compston et al. 1966; Coats and tary package that is subdivided into by the Cryogenian Period (Preiss Blisset 1971; Teale 1993; Elburg et al. four units: the Callana, Burra, Umber- 2000). Deposition ceased and the sedi- 262 mentary rocks were folded during the STRATIGRAPHY OF ADELAIDE RIFT COMPLEX AND STUART SHELF Cambro-Ordovician Delamerian orogeny (ca. 514–490 Ma; Drexel and STUART SOUTH CENTRAL NORTH THIS Preiss 1995; Foden et al. 2006) to cre- SHELF FLINDERS FLINDERS FLINDERS STUDY Group ate a region of elevated topography Wilpena Nuccaleena Fm Nuccaleena Fm Nuccaleena Fm Nuccaleena Fm ~635 Ma forming the Flinders and Gammon Reynella Reynella Balparana Ranges (Thomson et al. 1964). Siltstone Mbr Siltstone Mbr Sandstone Whyalla Elatina Fm Elatina Fm Mt. Curtis Elatina Fm Stratigraphy of the Adelaide Rift Sandstone Tillite Complex Fortress Hill Fm The Burra Group consists of basal Subgroup Yerelina carbonate rocks with evaporite and Yaltipena clastic units (Preiss 1987), and the Wilmington Fm Wilmington Fm Yaltipena Fm Fm Umberatana Group is characterized by equivalent Trezona Fm Amberoona Fm Trezona Fm a ~4.5 km thick interglacial succession bounded by the older Sturtian-equiva- Enorama Shale Enorama Shale lent and younger Marinoan-equivalent glacimarine deposits (Fig. 1b). These Amberoona Fm

CryogenianAngepena Fm Ediacaran Angepena Fm Etina Fm Etina Fm Yankaninna Fm glacial deposits within Australia are Upalinna Subgroup equivalent Sunderland Fm referred to as the ‘Sturt’ and ‘Elatina’ Balcanoona Fm glaciations respectively, because these Group Umberatana Brighton Lst Tapley Hill Fm Tapley Hill Fm

terms are consistent with local stratig- Sturtian Marinoan raphy (Williams et al. 2008). The Wilpena Group records the end-Cryo- Tapley Hill Fm Tapley Hill Fm Tapley Hill Fm Tapley Hill Fm Tapley Hill Fm Nepouie genian post-glacial sequence, which Subgroup then shallows upwards in two parase- 643+/-2.4 Ma quences from deep marine siltstone to 659.7+/-5.3 Ma shallow marine sandstone. These Appila Tillite Appila Tillite Wilyerpa Fm Lyndhurst Fm Wilyerpa Tillite sequences are followed by transgressive Subgroup Early Cambrian shallow-marine sand- Yudnamutana stone and deeper water carbonate and U-Pb dates: ash within glacial Ghaub Fm., Namibia (Hofmann et al. 2004) shale (Preiss 1987). ash within Doushantuo cap carbonate, China (Condon et al. 2005) The interglacial succession Re-Os date: basal Tindelpina Shale Mbr. (Kendall et al. 2006) between the Sturtian and Marinoan U-Pb date: ash at top Wilyerpa Fm. (Fanning 2006) glacials of the Umberatana Group consists of the Tapley Hill Fm., Etina Figure 3. Cryogenian stratigraphy of the Adelaide Rift Complex (ARC) and neigh- Fm., Enorama Fm., and Trezona Fm. bouring Stuart Shelf (modified from Preiss et al. 1998). The two Cryogenian (Fig. 3). The Tapley Hill Fm. consists glacially related series represent lower and upper deposits of the Umberatana of dark grey, laminated siltstone Group and are assigned to Sturtian and Marinoan time divisions (Preiss et al. 1998). deposited during the post-Sturt glacial Note the name changes between each area in South Australia, which historically has sea level rise. This unit shoals up into made detailed correlations of the interglacial stratigraphy difficult. The final col- the Etina Fm., which consists of shal- umn outlines the formation names that are used in this study for the end-Cryogen- low marine sandstone, grey cross-bed- ian interglacial–glacial stratigraphy across the entire ARC in an attempt to simplify ded oolitic grainstone and sandy lime- and unify current nomenclature. stone, and microbial reefs interbedded with green dolomitic siltstone and The Enorama Fm. is followed by a towards the north of the ARC (Rose et shale (Fig. 4a). The base of the Enora- gradual coarsening and shoaling- al. 2012; Fig. 1). In the south, the tem- ma Fm. marks a major flooding sur- upward sequence that culminates in poral equivalent of the pre-glacial Tre- face and consists of finely laminated intraclastic limestone breccia, stroma- zona Fm. is a thick, dark red, mud- grey-green and minor red shale with tolite bioherms, oolitic grainstone and cracked sandstone and siltstone deposit minor fine sandstone beds. To the siltstone of the Trezona Fm. The Tre- with medium-coarse grit lenses north, the nomenclature for the Tapley zona Fm. contains putative fossil (Yaltipena Fm.; Fig. 4b–d). These sedi- Hill–Enorama Fm. stratigraphy con- debris in packstones that onlap and mentary units inter-finger with the sists of the Balcanoona, Yankaninna, drape the stromatolite bioherms and nearshore channelized limestone grain- and Amberoona Fms. (Preiss et al. that have been interpreted as sponge- stones, stromatolites and associated 1998; Fromhold and Wallace 2011; Fig. grade metazoan body fossils (Maloof facies of the Trezona Fm. in the cen- 3). The extent to which these forma- et al. 2010). Detailed mapping and 26 tral region (Fig. 4e, f), and transition to tions are laterally correlative to one measured stratigraphic sections show stormy outer shelf carbonate ribbonite another and to the stratigraphy within that the Trezona carbonate facies and grey-green calcareous shale in the the central Flinders Ranges is debated. record a progressive deepening north (Fig. 4g). The overlying syn-gla- GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 263

cial Elatina Fm. exhibits impressive facies variability, from marine sandstones in the south, to ice-contact tillites, fluvioglacial and shallow marine sandstones in the central region, and debris flows and turbidites in the north (Coats 1981; Preiss 1987; terglacial sedimentary Eyles et al. 2007; Fig. 5). To the west, the Elatina Fm. transitions to the periglacial-eolian

within Fm. the at Yaltipena Tre- Whyalla Sandstone on the Stu- olite bioherm (under the 30 cm

dded carbonate ribbonite and grey- art Shelf (Williams and Tonkin

acial Trezona acial Fm., RangesTrezona Trezona (Fig. 1985; Williams 1986, 1994). The Elatina–Nuccaleena Fm. contact marks the onset of the post-glacial transgression, the base of the Wilpena Group (Williams 1977; Plummer 1979; Dyson 1992; Kennedy 1996) and the beginning of the Ediacaran Period (Knoll et al. 2006). The Nuccaleena Fm. consists of buff-colored dolomite grainstone that is overlain by red laminated siltstone and fine-grained sandstone of the Brachina Fm. Many irregular breccia bodies mapped throughout the ARC have been interpreted as syn-sedimentary diapirs (Webb 1960; Coats 1965; Dalgarno and Johnson 1968). These bodies formed by the intru- sion of evaporite from the Callana Beds with subsequent dissolution near the surface, leaving a cap of insoluble interbeds and other rocks dragged to the surface by halite. Active salt diapirism is thought to have occurred at least throughout the deposition of the Etina Fm. and lower two thirds of the Enora- ma Fm. (Lemon 2000). Thick- ening of these formations towards the diapir in the central Flinders Ranges, which is particularly evident at the northern fold axis of the central anticline, shows that this interval was a time of active salt withdrawal and diapir Sedimentology of the (a) Fms. pre-glacial and Cross-bedded Trezona Yaltipena coarse grainstone with quartz grains within the in growth (Lemon 2000; Fig. 1a). long hammer) (Maloof et al. 2010; 1 Fig. [18]). A 3D reconstruction of one such fossil is shown in the inset image. (g) Interbe green calcareous shale of the Fm. Trezona in the northern Flinders Ranges, Umberatana 1 (Fig. [40]). Figure 4. rocks of the Etina Fm., Moolooloo 1 (Fig. [24]). (b-d) Mud-cracked siltstone, mud-chip breccia and symmetric ripples micro-wave zona Bore, indicating intermittent subaerial exposure (e) and Stromatolites very within shallow respectively. thewater, pre-gl 1 [18]). (f) Outcrop of the Fm. Trezona showing skeletal putative morphologies in fossil debris onlapping and draping a stromat 264 GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 265

Figure 5. (previous page) Sedimentology of the syn-glacial Elatina Fm. (a) Coarse grit lenses and trains within a pink slumped sandstone of the Elatina Fm., Elatina Creek (Fig. 1 [17]). (b) Poorly sorted diamictite with angular and facetted clasts of a range of basement lithologies within a red silt matrix, Trezona Bore (Fig. 1 [18]). (c) Ripple cross-laminated sandstone derived from the reworking of underlying diamictite, Bunyeroo Gorge (Fig. 1 [15]). (d) Glacially striated green microgabbro clast within red silt matrix of diamictite, Trezona Bore (Fig. 1 [18]). (e) Plan view of green basalt clasts forming lag deposits within red silt matrix of diamictite, Bulls Gap (Fig. 1 [22]). (f) Plan view of lag within coarse, poorly sorted, pink slumped sandstone, Trezona Bore (Fig. 1 [18]). (g) Elatina Fm. diamictite resting unconformably on tidal flat sandstone of the Yaltipena Fm. as a result of ice-contact deposition, Trezona Bore (Fig. 1 [18]). (h) Soft-sediment deformation in the upper sandstone of the Elatina Fm., Trezona Bore. (i) Sub-glacial push structure lying unconformably on the Yaltipena Fm. (right of image) at Trezona Bore. Note hammer for scale (circled). The scoured basal contact and contorted diamictite beds indicate local ice-contact deposition. (j) Wave ripples within the upper Elatina Fm., Warren Gorge (Fig. 1 [4]). (k) Plan view of geometric bifurcations of secondary ripples, Warren Gorge (Fig. 1 [4]). (l) Cross-section through large-scale ripple showing lamination bundles and couplets in the southern Flinders Ranges, Warren Gorge (Fig. 1 [4]). (m) Plan view of grainflow originating from crest of a ladder ripple, War- ren Gorge (Fig. 1 [4]). (n) Cross-section of lamination couplets in the northern Flinders Ranges, Oodnaminta Hut (Fig. 1 [33]). (o) Granitoid clast within microbialite bioherm of the Trezona Fm. at Punches Rest (Fig. 1 [36]). (p) Trezona Fm. fossiliferous packstone clast within the glacial diamictite of the Elatina Fm., near Oodnapanicken Bore (Fig. 1 [32]). (q) Diamictite of the Curtis Tillite with quartzite, granite, basalt, and rare dolomite clasts, near Mt. Curtis (Fig. 1 [44]). (r) Diamictite reworked by graded debris flows within the Elatina Fm., Billy Springs (Fig. 1 [47]).

Radiometric Age ran and Mueller 2002; Scheffler et al. m resolution from 23 measured strati- Constraints 2003), and is expressed as: graphic sections from across the ARC. There are no direct age constraints for Clean dolostone and limestone without Al2O3 the onset or duration of the Elatina CIA = x 100 siliciclastic components, secondary Al O + K O + Na O + CaO* Fm. A SHRIMP U–Pb zircon age of 2 3 2 2 (Eq.1 ), veining or cleavage were targeted. A 659.7 ± 5.3 Ma from a tuffaceous hori- total of 2439 samples were slabbed zon in the Wilyerpa Fm., just above using molar proportions. CaO* repre- and polished perpendicular to bedding the Appila (Sturtian) diamictite, pro- sents CaO present in silicate minerals, and 5 mg of powder were micro- vides a maximum age for the base of as opposed to carbonate or phosphate drilled from individual laminations for the interglacial sedimentary rocks (Fan- minerals (Nesbitt and Young 1982). isotopic analysis. Note that data from ning 2006). A black shale in the Tin- CIA is expressed as a dimensionless 1042 of these samples have been pre- delpina Shale Member of the lower- number between 0 and 100. viously published in Rose et al. (2012). X-ray fluorescence (XRF) most Tapley Hill Fm. has given a Re- At the University of Michigan Stable determination of the major element Os age of 643.0 ± 2.4 Ma (Kendall et Isotope Laboratory, all powders were compositions of 63 samples (Li B O - al. 2006). The post-glacial Nuccaleena 2 4 7 heated to 200ºC to remove volatile fused glass pellets) was carried out at Fm. ‘cap dolostone’ may be ~635 Ma. contaminants and water. Samples were Michigan State University using a then placed in individual borosilicate This age is determined by correlating Bruker AXS S4 Pioneer instrument. the formation, based upon sedimentol- reaction vessels and reacted at 76ºC Inorganic carbon content of each sam- with 3 drops of H PO in a Finnigan ogy and chemostratigraphy, to the late 3 4 ple was determined at Northwestern MAT Kiel I preparation device cou- Cryogenian glacial deposit and base- University using a UIC CM5012 pled directly to the inlet of a Finnigan Ediacaran cap dolostone in Namibia Coulometer. The results were used to MAT 251 triple collector isotope ratio (635.5 ± 0.6 Ma; Hoffmann et al. calculate the carbonate-derived calcium mass spectrometer. δ13C and δ18O data 2004) and South China (635.2 ± 0.6 content (wt %). XRF analyses for the were acquired simultaneously and are Ma; Condon et al. 2005), respectively, remaining 70 samples were made at reported in the standard delta notation where zircons collected from ash Actlabs using a Panalytical Axios as the ‰ difference from the VPDB deposits intercalated within the forma- Advanced wavelength dispersive XRF standard. Measured precision was tions have been dated using the U–Pb spectrometer. Inorganic carbon con- maintained at better than 0.10‰ (1σ) system. tent of each sample was determined at for both δ13C and δ18O. At Princeton Actlabs using an Eltra CW-800 analyz- University, all carbonate powders were METHODS er and the coulometric technique. The heated to 110ºC to remove water. Sam- results were used to calculate the car- ples were then placed in individual Chemical Index of Alteration bonate-derived calcium content (wt %). borosilicate reaction vials and reacted

Methods For all samples, the dolomite and cal- at 72ºC with 5 drops of H3PO4 in a The chemical index of alteration (CIA) cite molar ratio was determined using GasBench II preparation device cou- is a proxy for evaluating paleoclimatic X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis by a pled directly to the inlet of a Thermo conditions using ratios of major ele- Rigaku MiniFlex XRD at Princeton DeltaPlus continuous flow isotope ments in siliciclastic rocks (Nesbitt and University. ratio mass spectrometer. δ13C and δ18O Young 1982, 1989; Fedo et al. 1995; data were acquired simultaneously and McLennan et al. 1993; Nesbitt and δ13C Methods are reported in the standard delta nota- Young 1996; Colin et al. 1998; Corco- Carbonate rocks were sampled at ~1.0 tion as the ‰ difference from the 266

VPDB standard. Precision and accura- ple material at Princeton University Elatina Fm. unconformably overlies cy of data are monitored through using standard methods. These con- the Trezona Fm. and the Yaltipena Fm. analysis of 21 standards that are run centrates were annealed in an oven at of the Upalinna Subgroup (Lemon and for every 59 samples. Measured preci- 900ºC for 3 days before being mount- Gostin 1990; Lemon and Reid 1998). sion is maintained at better than ed in resin blocks and polished to half The Trezona Fm., as defined by Dal- 0.10‰ (1σ) for both δ13C and δ18O. their thickness. The zircon grains were garno and Johnson (1964), is mainly analyzed for U, Th and Pb isotopes restricted to, and attains its maximum Geochronology Methods using a Laser Ablation Multi-Collector thickness, around the central anticline Twelve zircon concentrates were sepa- Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass of the Flinders Ranges (Fig. 6). Pale rated from 2 to 4 kg of sample materi- Spectrometer (LA–MC–ICP–MS) sys- red and grey thin interbedded silt, al at the Senckenberg Naturhistorische tem housed at the University of Cali- microbialite, and intraclastic breccia Sammlungen Dresden using standard fornia, Santa Barbara. Instrumentation characterize the lower part of the Tre- methods. Zircon grains of all grain consists of a Nu Plasma MC–ICP–MS zona Fm. These decimetre-thick sizes and morphological types were (Nu Instruments, Wrexham, UK) and a parasequences typically contain gutter hand-picked, mounted and analyzed 193 nm ArF laser ablation system casts and rip-up clasts, indicating a for U, Th, and Pb isotopes by (Photon Machines, San Diego, USA). storm-dominated shelf environment LA–ICP–MS techniques at the Muse- Analytical protocol is similar to that (Myrow 1992). Up-section, microbialite um für Mineralogie und Geologie described by Cottle et al. (2009a,b,c). transitions into stromatolitic facies (GeoPlasma Lab, Senckenberg U-Th-Pb analyses were conducted for with stromatolite flake breccia and bio- Naturhistorische Sammlungen Dres- 15 s each using a spot diameter of 24 clast packstone filling the space den), using a Thermo-Scientific Ele- µm, a frequency of 4 Hz and 1.2 J/cm2 between stromatolite heads with up to ment 2 XR sector field ICP–MS cou- fluence (equating to crater depths of one metre of synoptic relief (Rose et pled to a New Wave UP–193 Excimer approximately 4 µm). U–Th–Pb data al. 2012). The upper Trezona is domi- Laser System. U–Th–Pb analyses were from 4 samples were collected over 4 nated by large stromatolitic mounds conducted for 15 s background acqui- days of continuous instrument opera- and oolitic and intraclastic breccia sition followed by 30 s data acquisition, tion. A primary reference material, limestone. Stromatolites within the using a laser spot-size of 25 and 35 ‘91500’ zircon (1065.4 ± 0.3 Ma Trezona Fm. commonly are large, µm, respectively. A common-Pb cor- 207Pb/206Pb ID–TIMS age and 1062.4 ± round mounds up to several metres in rection based on the interference- and 0.4 Ma 206Pb/238U ID–TIMS age height, but can be elongate lobate background-corrected 204Pb signal and (Wiedenbeck et al. 1995)) was mounds with cuspate valleys between a model Pb composition (Stacey and employed to monitor and correct for them (Fig. 4e). To the north, the Tre- Kramers 1975) was carried out if nec- mass bias as well as Pb/U and frac- zona Fm. consists of cm-thick lime- essary. The necessity of the correction tionation. To monitor data accuracy, a stone laminite deposited below storm was judged on whether the corrected secondary reference zircon ‘GJ-1’ wave base that alternate with greenish- 207Pb/206Pb lay outside of the internal (608.5 ± 0.4 Ma 207Pb/206Pb ID–TIMS grey laminated calcareous shale and errors of the raw, measured ratios. Raw age (Jackson et al. 2004) and 601.7 ± siltstone (Fig. 4g). The amount of silt- data were corrected for background 1.3 Ma 206Pb/238U ID–TIMS age) was stone between these ‘ribbonite’ pack- signal, common Pb, laser-induced ele- analyzed concurrently (once for every ages increases to the north, until at mental fractionation, instrumental 5–7 unknown samples) and corrected Tower Gap the Trezona Fm. reaches mass discrimination, and time-depend- for mass bias and fractionation based ~600 m in thickness with barely any ent elemental fractionation of Pb/Th on measured isotopic ratios of the pri- limestone beds (Fig. 7 [38]). To the and Pb/U using an Excel spreadsheet mary reference material. Analyses of south, the Trezona Fm. interfingers program developed by Axel Gerdes the GJ-1 secondary reference zircon with and transitions into the partially (Institute of Geosciences, Johann during the analytical period yielded a correlative Yaltipena Fm (Fig. 8). Wolfgang Goethe-University Frankfurt, weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 603.9 The Yaltipena Fm. was first Frankfurt am Main, Germany). Report- ± 0.6, MSWD = 0.9. Data reduction recognized and distinguished from the ed uncertainties were propagated by was carried out using Iolite version overlying Elatina Fm. by Dalgarno and quadratic addition of the external 2.1.2 (Paton et al. 2010). All uncertain- Johnson (1964), leading to Bulls Gap reproducibility obtained from the ref- ties are quoted at the 95% confidence being nominated as its type section erence zircon ‘GJ-1’ (~0.6% and 0.5- or 2σ level and include contributions (Lemon and Reid 1998). Previously, 1% for the 207Pb/206Pb and 206Pb/238U, from the external reproducibility of Lemon and Reid (1998) determined respectively) during individual analyti- the primary reference material for the that the Yaltipena Fm. commences cal sessions and the within-run preci- 207Pb/206Pb and 206Pb/238U ratios. with a transgressive, red intraclastic sion of each analysis. All uncertainties conglomerate, comprised of flat dis- are quoted at the 95% confidence or RESULTS coidal pebbles of lithified micrite in a 2σ level. For further details on analyti- Sedimentology matrix of sand-sized intraclasts that is cal protocol and data processing, see in disconformable contact with under- Gerdes and Zeh (2006). Pre-glacial Trezona and Yaltipena lying stromatolitic, oolitic and intraclas- Eleven zircon concentrates Formations tic limestones of the Trezona Fm. were separated from 2 to 4 kg of sam- In the central Flinders Ranges, the However, this nominated bed is indis- GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 267 C 13 C 10 δ 13 ‰ 5 δ 0 carb CIA C -5 13 δ NORTH 50 75 100 -10 C data and 13 δ

24 Moolooloo FM BRACHINA BRACHINA 0 100 200 300 800 900 1400 1100 1200 1300 1000 10 ‰ igure 1. Pre-glacial 5 0 carb CIA C -5 13 δ 50 75 100 -10 31°20’ 31°40’ 139°0’ 31°10’ N 13 #$ 23 erentiated units erentiated 16 Angorichina 0 "! 100 Brachina Fm Fm Brachina Fm Nuccaleena Fm Elatina Fm Trezona Fm Enorama Fm Etina undi ery from the negative Trezona ion of the mapped area within the hale with no associated oolooloo sections [24]. Differential 10 ‰ 5 ! 19 138°50’ 138°50’ 139°0’ 0 carb 20 CIA C 21 -5 13 δ 50 75 100 -10 22 Bulls Gap 0 400 300 100 200 500 18 C 10 13 ‰ 17 δ 5 22 24 0 carb 14 15 CIA C -5 13 ection δ 23 50 75 100 -10 anomaly point Trezona in 138°30’ 138°40’ 138°30’ 138°40’ 20 Donkey Gully Well Gully Donkey 0 100 200 10 C data indicate truncation of the reproducible carbon isotopic trend in the ‰ 13 5 δ 0 carb CIA C -5 13 δ glacial diamictiteglacial 50 75 100 -10 sandstone C data within the post-glacial Nuccaleena Fm. cap dolostone are denoted by open siltstone shale 13 δ 19 Bennett Springs (‰ VPDB) (‰ 0 siliciclastic units 100 200 300 carb Nuccaleena cap dolostone cap Nuccaleena limestone Chemical IndexChemical Alteration of C 13 δ 10 ‰ 5 0 carb CIA C -5 13 δ 50 75 100 -10 18 Trezona Bore Trezona 0 400 100 200 300 microbialite / intraclast breccia intraclast / microbialite packstone grainstone 10 ‰ oolite stromatolite 5 ribbonite carb 0 CIA C marl 13 -5 δ

rst appearance of Trezona fossils Trezona of appearance rst

50 75 100 -10 carbonate units carbonate

LITHOFACIES FM BRACHINA BRACHINA 17 Elatina Creek Elatina 0 100 600 800 900 200 500 700 10 ‰ 5 0 carb CIA C -5 13 δ 50 75 100 -10

Emu Gap FM

0 YALTIPENA

400 ETINA 800 900 300 100 200

1400 1000 1200 1300 1100 meter level meter FM 10 ENORAMA ‰ 5 0 carb CIA C -5 13 δ 50 75 100 -10 Selection of stratigraphic sections from the central anticline of the Adelaide Rift Complex (ARC) numbered to correspond with F

Warcowie

0 FM FM

100 TREZONA 200 ELATINA STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS IN THE CENTRAL FLINDERS RANGES SECTIONS IN STRATIGRAPHIC SOUTH NUCCALEENA FM NUCCALEENA anomaly. TheFm. thins Yaltipena untilanomaly. it is missing entirely [13], at Elatina the Creek Warcowie [17], Angorichina [23], and M glacial erosion truncated Fm. the during Yaltipena the ice Furthermore,advance. the Trezona Fm., Trezona thereby quantifying the degree and lateral variability of glacial erosion. Note that the Enorama Fm. consists of s data within the Etina are and Fms. denoted Trezona by solid blue circles and Figure 6. blue circles (Rose and Maloof 2010). All sections are hung from a datum chosen at the inflection point at the base of the recov therefore is not shown in the stratigraphic sections The for average clarity. thickness of the Enorama Fm. is ~300 m. The locat ARC is outlined by a grey box in Figure 1. 268 o o 31 30 10 ‰ 5 o 0 carb CIA C NORTH 25 km -5 13 C values δ 140 13 50 75 100

-10

δ Gammon Ranges Gammon 47 46 40 Umberatana 33 26 ection 0 43 30 29 100 200 40 point in 35 39 10 ‰ 42 34 5 C data points in this 45 0 carb 41 CIA C 13 44 o -5 13 δ δ 31 50 75 100 -10 32 139 C 28 27 13 37 38 δ 36 39 Taylor Creek Taylor ned by a grey box in Figure 1. 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 N Trezona Trezona anomaly 10 ‰ 5 0 carb CIA C -5 13 δ 50 75 100 -10 C anomaly. Fewer Fewer C anomaly. C data within the Etina and Fms. Trezona 13 13 δ δ 38 Tower Gap Tower 0 100 900 200 300 800 400 500 600 700 1000 1100 10 ‰ 5 0 carb CIA C -5 13 δ 50 75 100 -10 37 Lookout Hill Lookout 0 100 200 300 10 ‰ 5 carb 0 CIA C 13 -5 δ 50 75 100 -10 36 Punches Rest Punches 0 100 200 300 800 400 500 600 700 10 ‰ 5 0 carb CIA C -5 13 δ 50 75 100 -10 35 Idinha Spring 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 10 ‰ 5 0 carb CIA C -5 13 δ 50 75 100 -10 C inflection point. The Enorama Shale is of unknown thickness with contacts determined by the 34 Winyagunna 0 13 100 200 300 400 500 600 δ 10 ‰ 5 0 carb CIA C -5 13 δ 50 75 100 -10 glacial diamictite C data within the post-glacial Nuccaleena Fm. cap dolostone are denoted by open blue circles (Rose and Maloof 2010). All 13 sandstone 32 Oodnapanicken Oodnapanicken Bore δ (‰ VPDB) (‰ siltstone shale cover 0 carb 100 200 300 800 400 500 600 700 Nuccaleena cap dolostone Nuccaleena limestone IndexChemical Alteration of C 13 δ 10 ‰ 5 0 carb CIA C -5 13 δ 50 75 100 -10

Nannipinna Creek Nannipinna

0 FM FM

100 TREZONA 900 200 300 800 400 500 600 700 TAPLEY HILL HILL TAPLEY 10 ‰ 5 0 carb CIA microbialite / intraclast breccia breccia intraclast / microbialite breccia / tepee C packstone grainstone -5 13 oolite stromatolite δ ribbonite 50 75 100 -10 Stratigraphic sections of the northern Flinders Ranges numbered to correspond with Figure 1. Pre-glacial rst appearance of Trezona fossils Trezona of appearance rst marl

carbonate unitscarbonate siliciclastic units

29 Weetootla FM? FM

LITHOFACIES 0

ENORAMA ENORAMA

100 ETINA 200 300 400 500 600 FM level meter SOUTH ELATINA STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS IN THE NORTHERN FLINDERS RANGES SECTIONS IN STRATIGRAPHIC NUCCALEENA NUCCALEENA FM are denoted by solid blue circles and Figure 7. of the underlying Etina Fm. and Fm. Trezona overlying The location of the mapped area within the Adelaide Rift Complex is outli region make correlations whententative using this sections are hung from a datum chosen at the inflection point at the base of the recovery from the negative Trezona GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 269

tinguishable from many of the intra- 10

‰ clastic beds within the Trezona Fm. 5 0 carb CIA C and the disconformity is not laterally -5 13 δ 50 75 100

-10 continuous. We propose the base of the red siltstone to represent the begin-

ning of the Yaltipena Fm. Partacoona 12

0 FM

ENORAMA ENORAMA FM 400 600 300 100 NORTH 200 500 The Yaltipena Fm. (<100 m)

TREZONA is a coarsening upwards sequence, with

10 red siltstone grading upwards into ‰ 5 0 carb very-fine sandstones that transition to CIA C -5 13 δ medium-grained sandstones upsection C data within the Etina and 50 75 100 -10 13 aide Rift Complex is outlined δ (Lemon and Reid 1998). The base of the thick siltstone interval is character- 11 Pettana Creek Pettana

0 ized by low-amplitude starved ripples 100 200 and lenticular bedding. Further up section, these beds become generally well- 10

‰ laminated and show many indications 5 0 carb CIA C of shallow water, including small wave- -5 13 δ 50 75 100

-10 length (~20 mm) symmetrical and lin- guoid ripples, planed-off ripples, ladder ripples, and interference ripples (Fig. 10 Middle Gorge

0 4d). Abundant desiccation cracks and 400 300 100 200 possible raindrop impressions indicate intermittent subaerial exposure (Fig. 4b). Thin channels of clean, white quartz sandstone with mud rip-up 9

Buckaringa Gorge 0 FM clasts at the bases are the first indica- 400 600 300 100 200 500

TAPLEY HILL HILL TAPLEY tion of the coarser interval above the siltstone (Fig. 4c). These coarser sand- 10 ‰

5 stones are both planar and trough 0 carb CIA C -5 13 cross-bedded with foresets between δ glacial diamictite 50 75 100 -10 0.05-0.2 m thick. Glacial clasts up to 1 sandstone grain trains grain grit laminations planar laminations cross cross-bedding trough rst appearance of of appearance rst silt f fossils Trezona rhythmite m across pierce the top of the

7 Yaltipena Fm. and the upper contact Steve’s Gorge Steve’s 0 100 200 typically is contorted and scoured (Fig. 5g, i).

10 In the southern Flinders ‰ 5 0 carb Ranges, the Yaltipena Fm. (referred to CIA C -5 13

δ locally as the Wilmington Fm.) consists microbialite / intraclast breccia intraclast / microbialite 50 75 100 packstone grainstone -10 oolite stromatolite

ribbonite of thinly bedded red siltstone, with (‰ VPDB) (‰ C data within the post-glacial Nuccaleena Fm. cap dolostone are denoted by open blue circles (Rose and Mal- marl carb 13 limestone cap dolostone Nuccaleena Chemical IndexChemical Alteration of

C mudchips, desiccation cracks, and short 13

δ 6 carbonate unitscarbonate siliciclastic units

Cockroach Valley Cockroach FM

0 LITHOFACIES ETINA ETINA wavelength interference ripples, but the 300 100 200 formation reaches a thickness of >500 m (Fig. 8). Near the base of the formation, rare discontinuous metre-scale

Warren Gorge Warren

FM stromatolite bioherms are present that

0 FM

YALTIPENA YALTIPENA

ELATINA 400 600 300 100 200 500 meter level meter likely are correlative to the Etina Fm. SOUTH NUCCALEENA FM NUCCALEENA Towards the top of the formation, the siltstone layers coarsen up into grey- N green and red-brown, fine to medium- 32°0’ 32°20’ 32°40’

5 km grained well-sorted, planar cross-bed-

12 ded quartzite, sandstone, sandy silt-

1 stone, and minor arkose. The Yaltipena 8 10 7

5 Fm. progressively thins towards the 3 9 2 6 11 138°0’ central anticline and at Bulls Gap the 4 basal contact is transitional as the red Selection of stratigraphic sections from the southern Flinders Ranges numbered to correspond with Figure 1. Pre-glacial 10 siltstone interfingers with the intraclast erentiated units erentiated f km N limestone of the upper few metres of Elatina Fm Elatina Brachina Fm Fm Brachina Fm Nuccaleena Fm Trezona Fm Enorama Fm Etina undi 0 the Trezona Fm. (Fig. 6 [22]). There- STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS IN THE SOUTHERN FLINDERS RANGES SECTIONS IN STRATIGRAPHIC Trezona Fms. are Fms. denoted Trezona by solid blue circles and oof 2010). All sections are hung from a datum at the base of the Nuccaleena Fm. The location of the mapped area within the Adel by a grey box in Figure 1. Figure 8. fore, the Yaltipena Fm. was being 270 deposited in the south during deposition of the Enorama and Trezona Fms. in the central anticline (Fig. 8). 25 Panaramatee EASTERN FLINDERS 0 40 80 160 Syn-glacial Elatina Formation 120 200 240 280 320 360 31°20’ 31°40’ 139°0’ 31°10’ N 13

Central Flinders Ranges km erentiated units erentiated 16 f 10 Etina - 106 m >1 km Trezona Brachina Fm Fm Brachina Fm Nuccaleena Fm Elatina Fm Trezona Fm Enorama Fm Etina undi Brachina 24 A thin basal conglomerate and overly- Moolooloo 0 20 40

ing massive boulder diamictite up to 5 0 19 Elatina Fm. can be 138°50’ 138°50’ 139°0’ 20 m thick are present locally in the cen- 21 tral Flinders Ranges. These discontinu- 35 m

ous diamictite beds at the base of the Trezona - 23 Yaltipena y box in Figure 1. Angorichina 0 20 40 60 18 Elatina Fm. are contorted, have a e giant ripples wave to red silty 17 and trough cross-bedding; 2) a 22 24 olosiltite. olosiltite. All sections are hung from 14 15 scoured basal contact, and contain ith gravel distinctive lags and ripple large (~1 m) extrabasinal boulders of 23 138°30’ 138°40’ granitic gneiss that pierce the top of 138°30’ 138°40’ the underlying Yaltipena Fm. (Lemon 430 m Trezona - Yaltipena 22 Bulls Gap

and Gostin 1990; Fig. 5g-i; Fig. 9 [18, 0 20 40 60 80 19, 22]). Some of the clasts in the 100 diamictite beds are faceted and striated, attesting to their glacially influenced 50 m 21 Yaltipena deposition, with the striations typically Yards Drafting 0

20 40 60 chert

oriented parallel to the long-axes of silt

diamictitequartzite one the clasts (Mawson 1949; Dalgarno and sandstonedolost mean clast orientation

Johnson 1964; Preiss 1987; Lemon and granite limestone gneiss basalt

Gostin 1990; Fig. 5b, d). This clast lithology clast 110 m Yaltipena 20 suite consists predominantly of basalt, Well Gully Donkey 0 20 40 60 80 well-rounded quartzite, and granitic 100 120 gneiss. bedded diamictite turbidites The remainder of the glacial diamictite reworked diamictite dropstone slumped sandstone 150 m Trezona - Yaltipena 19 3 Facies 2 Facies 1 Facies Bennett Springs facies overlying these discontinuous facies Elatina Fm 0 20 40 60 80 diamictite beds can be traced across 100 120 the central anticline of the Flinders Ranges (Fig. 1), and can be described glacial diamictite sandstone by three distinct facies (Lemon and trains grain grit laminations planar laminations cross cross-bedding trough siltstone Gostin 1990): 1) a lower slumped sand- rhythmite siliciclastic units 400 m Trezona - Yaltipena Trezona Bore Trezona stone; 2) a middle interval of drop- 18 0 stone diamictites; and 3) an upper 20 40 60 80 interval of current reworked diamictite. The first facies consists of a suite of coarse, slumped sandstone beds that microbialite / intraclast breccia intraclast / microbialite packstone grainstone

may directly overlie the basal uncon- oolite stromatolite ribbonite 1 km 200 m Trezona Brachina - Yaltipena marl Elatina Creek Elatina 17

formity at the base of the Elatina Fm. 0 20 40 60 80 carbonate units carbonate Approximately 5 m of channeled, LITHOFACIES cross-bedded, coarse-grained sandstone are present at the base of the 90 m m 90 Yaltipena 16 Emu Gap unit (Lemon and Gostin 1990). This 0 20 40 60 80 sandstone grades upwards into flaser- 100 120 140 160 bedded, muddy sandstone, and is over- m lain by several 1 m beds with large ball- 73 Trezona 15 Bunyeroo Bunyeroo Lookout 0 and-pillow structures (Lemon and 20 40 60 Gostin 1990; Fig. 5h). Above this soft sediment deformation, lies a ~50 m thick interval of white, pink- to red- 100 m Yaltipena 14 Arkaba 0 dish-brown, poorly sorted feldspathic 20 40 sandstone (Facies 1). These feldspathic Detailed stratigraphic sections of the Elatina Fm. across the central Flinders Ranges numbered to correspond with Figure 1. The sandstone beds contain sub-angular to

sub-rounded quartz and feldspar 75 m

Trezona

13 Warcowie

0 FM 20 40 ELATINA 60 80 grains, plus lithic fragments and heavy CENTRAL FLINDERS FM, THROUGH ELATINA SECTIONS STRATIGRAPHIC 100 NUCCALEENA FM NUCCALEENA Figure 9. mineral grains (Preiss 1987), and gener- described by three distinct facies (Lemon and Gostin 1990): 1) a coarse, slumped lower, sandstone with contorted granule layers middle interval of well-laminated red siltstone dropstone diamictite; and 3) an upper interval of current-reworked diamictite w Thecross-laminations. Nuccaleenaoverlying Fm. cap dolostone varies from buff cross-stratified dolomite grainstone with m-scal dolomite ribbonite with low-angle cross-stratified laminations (Rose and Maloof 2010). The facies‘ribbon’ consists of swaley d a datum at the base of the Nuccaleena Fm. The location of the mapped area within the Adelaide Rift Complex is outlined by a gre GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 271 ally are bimodal, marked by a dominance of coarse silt to fine sand and very coarse sand to granule fractions.

The sandstones lack distinct bedding 47 0 20 40 60 80 but have thin, discontinuous, and com- 100 120 monly contorted granule layers (Fig. 100 m Brachina 46 Mt. Brook Billy Springs

5a). The less deformed intervals con- 0 20 40 60 80 tain slumped, trough cross-bedded sets 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 up to 1 m thick with normal grading. l sections are hung 35 m 18 m Fortress Brachina 45 Wadmore 0

Rare isolated pebbles to large over- 20 40 60 80 sized clasts also may be present in 100 120 140 160 180

these sandstone layers, typically associ- a grey box in Figure 1. 60 m

Fortress t 44 Mt. CurtisMt. 0

20 40 60 80 ated with dolomite, quartz and granite 100 120 140 160 cher silt

diamictitequartzite

one

fragments. sandstonedolost mean clast orientation

e one The slumped sandstone beds granit limest 300 m Fortress 43

Bend Well Bend

gneiss basalt

0 20 40 60 80 lithology clast grade upward into a massive to well- 100 120 140 160 180 laminated red siltstone with a few 30 m dropstones (Facies 2). These diamictite 270 m Fortress Brachina 42 Fortress Hill Fortress 0 beds are dominated by carbonate clasts 20 40 60 80 bedded diamictite that have been presumed to originate sandstone silt laminated turbidites from the underlying Trezona Fm., and facies Elatina Fm 41 0 basalt clasts (Lemon and Gostin 1990). 20 40 60 Finally, current-reworked diamictite glacial diamictite 135 m Trezona 40 grain trains grain grit laminations planar laminations cross cross-bedding trough sandstone beds dominate the top third of the Umberatana 0 20 40 60 siltstone Elatina Fm. (Facies 3). These diamic- rhythmite tites have undergone significant siliciclastic units 120 m Brachina 39 reworking, creating prominent beds of Creek Taylor 0 20 40 60 80 distinctive gravel lags and lonestones 100 capped by mm- to cm-scale ripple cross-laminated fine- to very fine- microbialite / intraclast breccia intraclast / microbialite packstone grainstone 38 Tower Gap Tower grained sandstone within an otherwise oolite stromatolite 0 ribbonite 20 40 60 massive unit (Fig. 5c, f). Sections meas- marl carbonate units carbonate ured at the northern rim of the central LITHOFACIES 36 Punches RestPunches Mt. Lyndhurst 0

anticline and between Elatina Creek 20 40 60 80 and Trezona Bore record another 100 120 140 160 diamictite at the top of the formation 60 m Trezona 35 Idinha Spring 0

within the current-reworked interval 20 40 60 80 (e.g. Moolooloo; Fig. 9 [24]). These 100 120 140 160 beds contain basalt clasts and, in con- 30 m Trezona 33 Hut 0 trast to previous observations by 20 40 60 Lemon and Gostin (1990) and o Williams et al. (2008), we did not note o 31 - 30 Etina 50 m clasts of ooid and algal limestone from 815 m Brachina Trezona 32 Oodnapanicken Bore 0 o the Trezona Fm. (Fig. 5e). 20 25 km

140 North Flinders Ranges Ranges Gammon 47 Despite variations in thickness of each - 46 Etina 33 26 800 m 43 Trezona 31 30 Nannipinna Creek Nannipinna 29 0 facies, the total thickness of the Elati- 20 40 40 na Fm. remains relatively uniform 35 39

(~70–100 m) in the central anticline. 42 6 m 34 Trezona 30 Mt. McTaggart Mt. 45 0 20 40

However, to the east and north, the 41 44 o

Elatina Fm. thickens to >300 m and 31 32 139 11 m 28

eventually the diamictites transition 47 m Trezona 27 Brachina 28 37 38 0 into stratified debris flows and tur- 20 bidites (Fig. 5q, r; Fig. 10). At Punches 36 N Detailed stratigraphic sections of the Elatina Fm. across the northern Flinders Ranges numbered to correspond with Figure 1. Al 45 m 190 m Rest, isolated rounded ~0.2–1.0 m Trezona Brachina 27 Maynards Well Maynards Well Nobblers Oodnaminta 0 diameter granite and gabbro clasts are 20 incorporated within the upper two 26 Chambers Gorge 186 m

metres of a Trezona Fm. stromatolite Trezona

0 FM 20 ELATINA 40 60 80 13 NORTHERN FLINDERS FM, THROUGH ELATINA SECTIONS STRATIGRAPHIC NUCCALEENA FM NUCCALEENA bioherm that records the highest δ C Figure 10. from a datum at the base of the Nuccaleena Fm. The location of the mapped area within the Adelaide Rift Complex is outlined by 272 following the Trezona anomaly (Rose the first influx of lithic et al. 2012; Fig. 5o; Fig. 7 [36]). This granules (Fig. 11). The for- Etina 200 m - 600 m Trezona Brachina 12 Partacoona

layer is laterally discontinuous on the mation can be split into a 0 20 40 60 80 km-scale and has not been document- lower member of grey, fine 100 ed elsewhere. sandstone with granule Overall, there are three broad trains, a middle member of Etina 140 m 11 facies to the Elatina Fm. in the north purple siltstone and fine Creek Pettana 0 Flinders Ranges: a laminated siltstone, sandstone with scattered 20 40 60 a diamictite, and a coarse feldspathic coarse grains, and an upper l sections are hung sandstone. These three facies are later- member of pale grey, fine Etina 260 m - Yaltipena ally widespread but are not always all sandstone with trough 10 Middle Gorge 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 present at every locality. The first facies cross-bedding (Jablonski a grey box in Figure 1. consists of grey-green (weathering red- 1975; Miller 1975). The dish-brown), finely laminated siltstone middle purple siltstone CIA with rare scattered pebbles, cobbles, member commonly grades 50 75 100 and gritty lenses. Known as the into a planar laminated unit 110 m 9 Yaltipena Fortress Hill Fm., this siltstone is over- within the upper 50 m of Buckaringa Gorge 0 20 40 60 80 lain sharply by sandstone and a diamic- the Elatina Fm. This facies 100 tite layer. This diamictite is the second outcrops almost continu- facies, referred to locally as the Mount ously between Saltia Creek 90 m

Curtis Tillite, and consists of sparse to Buckaringa Gorge, 8 Yaltipena Graham’s Creek Graham’s 0 20 40 60 80 lonstones of pebble- to boulder-size in although the best exposure 100 a grey-green, massive and laminated, is at Warren Gorge where sandy siltstone matrix. Diamictite clast the unit is ~30 m thick. lithologies are mostly quartzite, lime- The following descriptions 7 Steve’s Gorge Steve’s 0 20 40 60 80

stone and dolostone, and less com- are based on observations 100 monly granite and gneiss, and the long made at Warren Gorge axes of clasts retain a general east-west (Fig. 1 [4]). orientation (Fig. 10 [31]). Some of the The planar lamina- Etina 250 m - 6 Yaltipena CockroachValley 0

clasts are faceted and striated, and rare tions consist of ~1–2 cm- 20 40 60 80 granite boulders may reach up to 3 m x thick bundles of thickening 100 8 m (Williams et al. 2008). Sub-angular and thinning, normally limestone packstone clasts of the Tre- graded very fine sandstone 5 zona Fm. (~20 cm), which contain dis- to siltstone couplets (Fig. South Gorge 0 20 40 60 80 140 tinctive skeletal fossil debris (Maloof et 5l, n). The number of cou- 100 120 al. 2010), are present as clasts within plets within each bundle the Elatina Fm. diamictite near Punch- varies, however, fifteen is turbidites bedded diamictite 140 m 4 Yaltipena es Rest and Oodnapanicken Bore (Fig. the maximum number per Gorge Warren 0 5f). The third facies consists of pale bundle. These rhythmites 20 40 60 80 grey and brownish grey, medium- document a nested hierar- CIA 50 75 100

grained, feldspathic sandstone with chy of periodicities consis- sandstone reworked rhythmites sandstone slumped interbeds and lenses of calcareous silt- tent with the number and samples rhythmite Elatina Fm facies Elatina Fm 3 Blue Ridge Gorge stone and pebble conglomerate and relative thickness of cou- 0 20 40 60 80 100 overlies the Mt. Curtis Tillite (referred plets that are interpreted to grainstone ribbonite to locally as the Balparana Sandstone). be tidal in origin (Williams units carbonate

The clasts are mostly of vein quartz, 1989, 1991, 1998, 2000). laminations planar laminations cross cross-bedding trough 2 Pichi Richi Pichi rhythmite siltstone cover 0 with some quartzite, siltstone and gran- Superimposed on these 20 40 60 ite clasts. At Billy Springs, which is the laminae throughout the most northern locality within the ARC, stratigraphy are three cate- glacial diamictite the Elatina Fm. consists of decimetre- gories of bedforms, which trains grain grit sandstone

Hancock Hancock Lookout

0 FM ELATINA 20 ELATINA siliciclastic units to metre-thick reverse-graded turbidites are herein referred to as LITHOFACIES that coarsen upwards from planar lami- primary, secondary, and ter- FM NUCCALEENA N

nated fine sand to coarse sand with tiary bedforms. The pri- 32°0’ 32°20’ 32°40’ quartzite and sandstone clasts (Fig. 5q, mary bedforms have the 5 km 12

r; Fig. 10 [47]). largest wavelength, typically 1 8 10 7 5 Detailed stratigraphic sections of the Elatina Fm. across the southern Flinders Ranges numbered to correspond with Figure 1. Al 3 between 20 and 40 cm, and 9 2 6 11 138°0’

South Flinders Ranges a mean amplitude of 1.3 4 In the southern Flinders Ranges, the cm (n=44) (Fig. 12a). The 10 erentiated units erentiated f km N Elatina Fm Elatina Brachina Fm Fm Brachina Fm Nuccaleena Fm Trezona Fm Enorama Fm Etina undi

base of the Elatina Fm. is not always bedforms are very slightly 0 STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS THROUGH ELATINA FM, SOUTHERN FLINDERS SOUTHERN FM, ELATINA THROUGH SECTIONS STRATIGRAPHIC from a datum at the base of the Nuccaleena Fm. The location of the mapped area within the Adelaide Rift Complex is outlined by clear, but was taken to coincide with asymmetrical with a pale- Figure 11. GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 273

a 40 70 b 10 Oodnaminta Hut Blue Ridge Gorge 35 Warren Gorge 60 5

30 0 50 20 12

25 15 40 10 20 30 5 3

15 Frequency 0

20 10 Warren Gorge primary 15

secondary [m] height stratigraphic Oodnaminta

Warren Gorge stratigraphic height [m] 5 Oodnaminta 10 10 primary secondary 5 0 0 vy/vx ratio 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 Wavelength [cm] -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Figure 12. (a) Graph plotting the wavelengths for the primary and secondary ripples at Warren Gorge and Oodnaminta Hut versus stratigraphic height. (b) Histogram of bedform climbing vectors at Blue Ridge Gorge, Warren Gorge, and Oodnaminta Hut, where vy = rate of accumulation and vx = rate of migration determine the angle of climb of the bedforms (Rubin and Hunter 1982). Mean values are denoted with solid circles and 1σ errors are shown with a shaded box behind the histogram. Note that the ripples at Oodnaminta Hut show the greatest lateral migration in two directions. The inset shows cross-sections of the primary (1) and secondary (2) ripples at Warren Gorge, and the primary ripples at Oodnaminta Hut (3). oflow towards 325º, and have gently as the bedding surface becomes cov- strong asymmetry to the NW and weak sinuous, bifurcating crestlines (Fig. 5j; ered with interference ripples of equal asymmetry to the SE. The rhythmites Fig. 12b). The secondary bedforms wavelength that creates a polygonal in the Flinders Ranges have been cor- have a wavelength between 4 and 12 distribution of crests. The number of related to the Reynella Siltstone Mem- cm and a mean amplitude of 0.8 cm couplets recorded on either side of the ber of the Marino Arkose, near Ade- (Fig. 12a). These smaller symmetrical crest of an individual bedform does laide, suggesting a wide area of deposi- bedforms occur within the troughs of not vary systematically, suggesting that tion across the basin (Preiss 1987). the larger ripples and have linear crest- the bedforms do not influence the Two observations of the lines perpendicular to the crests of the rhythmic laminations. Above the rhyth- upper Elatina Fm. contact with the primary bedforms (Fig. 5j), creating a mite unit is a reappearance of a fine overlying Nuccaleena Fm. suggest that ladder ripple morphology (Fig. 5j). In sandstone with some granule layers there is not a low-angle unconformity plan view, the crestlines terminate with and scattered coarse grit throughout on outcrop scale (Forbes and Preiss distinct geometric bifurcations (Fig. (Jablonski 1975; Miller 1975). 1987; Lemon and Gostin 1990; Preiss 5k). In cross-section, the primary and An isolated outcrop of similar 2000; Williams et al. 2008). Firstly, the secondary ripples show vertical aggra- cyclically laminated facies also can be basal Nuccaleena Fm. contact does not dation of crestlines for many metres found in the northern Flinders at Ood- display an angular cross-cutting rela- with only very slight sinuous laterally naminta Hut (Fig. 1 [33]; Fig. 5n). At tionship in any of our 47 measured migrating crestlines (Fig. 5l; Fig. 12b). this locality, the rhythmic laminations sections (Rose and Maloof 2010). Sec- There is evidence of rare micro-fault- are most pronounced at the base of ondly, the contact may be winnowed, ing showing mm-scale normal offset the section and typically display silt knife sharp, or transitional with silt and on the limbs of the secondary bed- drapes. At the base of the rhythmites, ice-rafted debris. This variably sharp forms. The tertiary bedforms have par- there are isolated rounded granules <1 contact may suggest the presence of a allel to slightly oblique crestlines to cm, suggesting overlying ice was pres- local disconformity between the two those of the secondary bedforms and ent at least at the onset of deposition. formations. However, although it is have a wavelength of 4–8 cm. These Further up-section, the primary bed- uncertain as to how much time is miss- crestlines are typically discontinuous forms are well developed with few ing in each section, it is known that the and decrease in amplitude towards the examples of secondary ripples. The basal cap carbonate was deposited centre of the secondary troughs (Fig. average wavelength and amplitude of when glaciers were present (Rose and 5k, m). Grainflows from the crests of the primary bedforms are ~30 cm and Maloof 2010). the secondary bedforms are common 0.9 cm, respectively. In contrast to the and can extend up to 27 cm and typi- bedforms in the south, these have Geochemistry cally trend to 030º (Fig. 5m). Further strongly sinuous laterally migrating up-section, the distinction between pri- crestlines, leading to truncation of the Chemical Index of Alteration mary and secondary ripples is blurred planar laminae (Fig. 12b) and record a A total of 133 samples from 13 strati- 274 graphic sections across the ARC record a decline in CIA values through the CHEMICAL INDEX OF ALTERATION LITHOFACIES Yaltipena Fm. from the underlying carbonate units siliciclastic units COMPOSITE SECTION packstone sandstone grainstone siltstone interglacial stratigraphy to the lowest stromatolite values in the glacial diamictite, before CIA recovering to pre-glacial values in the 50 60 70 80 overlying Brachina Fm. (Fig. 13; Fig. 14; S1 in supplementary online material). The transition in the Yaltipena Fm. declines from ~67 to ~58 at the basal FM

Elatina Fm. contact. There is signifi- BRACHINA cant scatter in CIA values within the NUCCALEENA 0 Elatina Fm. However, this scatter has a FM broad geographic distribution with sec- FM

tions in the central Flinders Ranges ELATINA typically recording values below 60, 100 whilst sections to the northern regions record values greater than 60. FM To the north, the Punches Rest section records CIA values YALTIPENA 200 between 56 and 72 (Fig. 7 [36]). The Enorama records a mean of 70 that gradually declines through the Trezona Fm. to values between 64 and 68 within the glacial facies. Similarly, the CIA 300 SOUTH values at Nannipinna Creek show a Blue Ridge Gorge gradual decline in the CIA values FM TREZONA Steve’s Gorge towards the glacial unit but recover to Buckaringa Gorge a relatively high index (72) within the 400 diamictites (Fig. 7 [31]). The CIA CENTRAL dataset in the southern Flinders Ranges Emu Gap is limited, which in part is due to the Elatina Creek limited outcrop and arenaceous facies 500 Trezona Bore that reduces the sampling selection. Bennett Springs The Yaltipena and Elatina Fms. record Donkey Gully Well similar CIA values of 65–66. Four FM Bulls Gap rhythmite samples from Blue Ridge 600 Angorichina Gorge and Buckaringa Gorge have ENORAMA consistently low CIA values between Moolooloo 59 and 61. NORTH 700 Carbon isotopes Nannipinna Creek The Etina Fm. is characterized by sus- Punches Rest tained high δ13C values with a mean of ~+8‰. An increase in scatter and a 3 pt moving decrease in mean δ13C values occur level meter average along parasequence boundary surfaces 16 Emu Gap 50 60 70 80 between limestone and siltstone, likely CIA representing local secondary fluid alteration. The Enorama Fm. consists of Figure 13. Stratigraphic variations in the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) ~300 m of shale with no associated weathering proxy through the Umberatana Group. Each formation with CIA data δ13C data. There is no evidence to sug- from stratigraphic sections across the Adelaide Rift Complex was adjusted to fit the gest unconformities at either the top of thickness of the correlative formations within the nominated Emu Gap reference the Etina Fm. or the base of the Tre- section (Fig. 6 [16]). Low CIA values are associated with glacial conditions inferred zona Fm. Thus, all stratigraphic sec- from sedimentological facies, and relatively high CIA values are associated with tions within the central anticline of the pre- and post-glacial deposits. The upper Yaltipena Fm. and Elatina Fm. record ARC show an inferred dramatic shift lower minimum CIA values compared to those of the other pre-glacial and post- in δ13C from ~+9‰ to ~–9‰ within glacial formations. Note that the stratigraphic section is simplified and all the sam- the Enorama Fm. The overlying pre- ples analyzed for major elements were siltstones or the siltstone matrix of the glacial Trezona Fm. remains at –9‰ diamictites. GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 275

Al O Al O a 2 3 2 3 CIA b ues of 269 carbonate clasts of the FORMATIONS SECTIONS Elatina Fm. (Fig. 15). Collectively, the Brachina Fm Blue Ridge Gorge 13 90 Steve’s Gorge Elatina Fm diamictites record δ C variability Buckaringa Gorge Yaltipena Fm 80 Emu Gap between –9‰ and +10‰. However, Trezona Fm Elatina Creek 13 Enorama Fm Trezona Bore the distribution of δ C values for indi- thering 70 Bennett Springs wea vidual diamictite localities can vary dra- Donkey Gully Well 60 Bulls Gap matically, even on a short spatial scale. Angorichina 50 Moolooloo For example, the Trezona Bore and Nannipinna Creek Enorama Creek localities are less than granite tonalite Punches Rest 1 km apart but the clast δ13C data vary granodiorite

sor from –5‰ to +10‰ and 0‰ to ting +2.5‰, respectively. At Oodnapanick-

provenance en Bore, clasts of the distinct Trezona fossiliferous packstone facies were ana- 13 CaO* + Na2O CaO* + Na2O K2O lyzed and record a mean δ C value of –7.3‰ compared to a mean of –5.4‰ Figure 14. Compositional variations of siltstone samples of the pre-, syn-, and for δ13C of generic carbonate clasts post-glacial stratigraphy illustrated in A–CN–K (Al2O3–CaO+Na2O–K2O) compo- from the same locality. Note that there sitional space, which are colour-coded by formation (a) and stratigraphic section are numerous clasts with δ13C values (b). The trend defined by the data with low Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) between 0‰ to +4‰, which fall in ‘no values roughly follows that expected from variable extents of chemical weathering man’s land’ because these carbon iso- of a granodioritic source (solid black star). However, this trajectory diverges with tope values are rarely recorded within higher CIA values, indicating a change in source and/or diagenesis. Based on the either the pre-glacial stratigraphy of weathering trajectory being parallel to the A-CN boundary and minimal field evi- the Etina or Trezona Fms. (Fig. 15). dence for a diagenetic origin, we calculate that 45% of the trend can be explained by weathering and 55% is a result of a change in provenance. Detrital zircons U–Pb LA–ICP–MS ages have been for up to 150 m before gradually to the south are severely truncated, determined for detrital zircons from 22 recovering towards 0‰. The upper with the upper value of the Trezona samples across the ARC within the ~15 m of the Trezona Fm. typically Fm. reaching only ~–8‰ (Fig. 7 [29, pre-glacial Trezona and Yaltipena Fms., record a ~1‰ decline in δ13C, with an 31-32]). The entire Trezona δ13C trend and the syn-glacial Elatina and Whyalla increase in scatter and a decrease in is missing from both the Winyagunna Fms. (Fig. 16; S2 in supplementary mean δ18O values (Rose et al. 2012). and Idinha Spring sections (Fig. 7 [34- online material). The zircon-age spec- However, these characteristics are trun- 35]). tra for the Trezona Fm. show a single cated in the Warcowie, Elatina Creek, To the south of the Flinders ~1.2 Ga peak. Two samples were ana- Angorichina and Moolooloo sections, Ranges, the Etina Fm. laterally pinches lyzed for detrital zircon from the where the Yaltipena Fm. also is entirely out to intermittent, thin stromatolitic Yaltipena Fm. at Trezona Bore (Fig. 1 missing (Fig. 6 [13, 17, 23-24]). bioherms that record ~+9‰ values [18]). The spectra show peaks at ~690 Despite the increase in silt- (e.g., Cockroach Valley; Fig. 8 [6]). Sim- Ma, ~1.1 Ga and ~1.7 Ga producing a stone towards the north of the ARC, ilarly, the Trezona Fm. thins and at more varied signal than the underlying sections record a similarly dramatic Partacoona the formation spans less Trezona Fm. to the north. ~18‰ shift in δ13C across pre-glacial than 15 m, recording δ13C values of Eleven detrital zircon spectra Etina- and Trezona-equivalent forma- ~–2‰, before laterally transitioning from the syn-glacial Elatina Fm. all tions. The Nannipinna Creek section into the siliciclastic Yaltipena Fm. fur- record dominant peaks at ~1.1 Ga and (Fig. 7 [31]) records the most complete ther south. ~1.2 Ga. In addition, localities to the record of the Etina-equivalent any- In paleomagnetic studies, a north and south show young peaks at where within the ARC. The δ13C values conglomerate test is used to determine Halletts Cove (~665 Ma), Lame Horse gradually increase from 0‰ towards whether clasts in a conglomerate were Gully (~760 Ma), and Chambers ~+10‰. All other northern sections magnetized prior to transport and dep- Gorge and Walters Well (~730 Ma). record a portion of this Etina-equiva- osition (preserving random magnetic The Stuart Shelf records a prominent lent enriched δ13C signature. The Tre- directions) or after deposition (preserv- ~1.7 Ga peak throughout the stratigra- zona-equivalent Fm. records a similar ing uniform magnetic directions, phy from the Mesoproterozoic Pandur- δ13C trajectory as the central sections. despite random clast orientations). ra Fm. to the directly overlying Elatina- The complete Trezona δ13C trends are Analogously, we performed an isotope equivalent Whyalla Fm. In addition, the present in the most northerly sections conglomerate test (DeCelles et al. Whyalla Fm. shows ~1.6 Ga, ~1.1 Ga within the ARC basin, for example, 2007; Husson et al. 2012) on the Elati- and ~1.2 Ga peaks from five samples Taylor Creek shows a gradual rise from na Fm. diamictites at 8 localities across across the shelf. –9‰ to –2‰ (Fig. 7 [39]). In contrast, the ARC to assess the provenance and the Weetootla, Nannipinna Creek and relative timing of acquisition of δ13C DISCUSSION Oodnapanicken Bore δ13C trajectories and δ18O by measuring the isotopic val- The eastern edge of the Gawler Cra- 276

a CLASTCLAST δ13C HISTOGRAMS HISTTOGRAMS b NorthNorth BBoreore OodnapanickenOodnapanicken 1 0.4 0.4 + δ13C TrezTrez pcpckstkst δ13C - δ13C µ = 33.6.6 µ = -7.4-7.4 µ = -5.2-5.2 0.3 σ = 2.5 0.3 σ = 0.5 σ = 0.9 n = 11 n = 18 n = 43 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0 0 --1010 0 10 -10-10 0 10 TowerTToower Gap Gap OodnapanickenOodnapanicken 2 0.404 13 13 0.404 - δ C + δ C TrezTrez pckst δ1313C - δ1313C c µ = -1.4-1.4 µ = 22.7.7 FINGERPRINTINGFINGERPRINTING 0.3 0.3 µ = -7.3 µ = -5.6 σ = 1.0 σ = 2.0 σ = 0.5 σ = 1.0 TREZONATTREZONAA FFMM n = 16 n = 10 n = 11 n = 4444 0.2 0.2 250 0.1 0.1 0 0 --1010 0 10 -10-10 0 10 200 AnzacAnzac BBoreore OodnaOodnapanickenpanicken 3 0.4 0.4 - δ13C TrezTrez ppckstckst δ13C - δ13C µ = -4.1 0.3 0.3 µ = -7.1 µ = -5.5-5.5 σ = 1.2 σ = 0.3 σ = 0.8 150 n = 23 n = 6 n = 32 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 100100 0 0 -10-10 0 10 -10 010 TrezonaTrezona BBoreore EnoramaEnorama CreekCreek 0.4 0.4 - δ1313C + δ1313C + δ1313C 50 µ = -3.6 µ = 4.6 µ = 1.41.4 0.3 σ = 11.9.9 σ = 33.0.0 0.3 σ = 0.6 n = 17 n = 24 n = 1144 1 2 e 0.2 0.2 e ap n n n 3 or or e e e G B

0.1 00.1.1 -10-10 13 -5-5 r δ C e w ona B o nzac B

0 0 Gap Tower T To Anzac Bore A Emu GapGap ez -10 0 10 -10 010 r interpolatedinterpolated datdataa Bore Trezona T

1313 1313 dnapanick dnapanick dnapanick δ C (‰)(‰‰) δ C (‰)(‰) realreal dadataata o o o OodnapanickenO 1 OodnapanickenO 2 OodnapanickenO 3 18 13 1010 10 ) d δ OOv vs.s. δ C CROSSPLOT CROSSSPLOT ) ‰ ‰ ( StratigraphicStratigraphic sesectionsctions ( C (‰) C (‰) 3 3 13 1 EtinaEtina aandnd TTrezonarezona FFmsms 5 13 1 5 S δ ’ δ S TrezonaTrezona ffossiliferousossiliferous packspackstonetone ’ AN AN LAND L M AND OM ClastsClasts within ElaElatinatina FFmm LAND L LA

0 O 0 MAN’S NO N NO MAN’S MAN’S NO M NorthNorth BBoreore TowerTToower GGapap -5 -5-5 AnzacAnzac BBoreore OOodnapanickenodnapanicken 1 OOodnapanickenodnapanicken 2 -10-10 -10-10 OOodnapanickenodnapanicken 3 TrezonaTrezona BBoreore δ18O (‰)(‰‰) δ18O (‰)(‰) EnoramaEnorama CreekCreek -15-15 -15-15 -20-20 -15-15 -10-10 -5 0 5 -20-20 -15-15 -10-10 -5 0 5

Figure 15. (a) Histograms of δ13C for carbonate clasts within the Elatina Fm. The clast count locations are labeled on Figure 1. Note that the purple and red histogram bars at Oodnapanicken correspond to data from carbonate clasts and Trezona fossiliferous packstone (pckst) clasts, respectively. Hollow histogram bars indicate where the sample size for clasts with positive or negative δ13C values was too small to be included in statistical ‘fingerprinting’ analysis. The positive and negative δ13C values are treat- ed as different clast populations that are putatively sourced from the Etina Fm. and Trezona Fm., respectively. Dots denote the mean δ13C for positive and negative δ13C values and/or Trezona fossiliferous packstone clasts at each location, and the pale shaded areas mark the range of δ13C covered by one standard deviation from either side of the mean for each clast group. (b) Fossiliferous packstone clast from the Trezona Fm. and generic grey limestone clasts within the glacial diamictite of the Elatina Fm., near Oodnapanicken Bore. (c) Trezona Fm. ‘fingerprinting’ solutions for carbonate clasts within the Elatina Fm. Both the interpolated and real δ13C data sets for the Trezona Fm. are depicted. Coloured bars mark the stratigraphic range of possible sourcing for the clasts. Hollow bars indicate unreliable ‘fingerprinting’ solutions due to a non-normal distribution and/or small sample size (n<20) (Chen 2012). (d) Crossplots showing δ18O vs δ13C data from the Etina and Trezona Fms. from the Emu Gap, Elatina Creek, Trezona Bore, Bulls Gap and Moolooloo stratigraphic sections (Fig. 1; Fig. 6 [16-18, 22, 24]), and data from carbonate clasts within the Elatina Fm. The crossplot on the right shows the mean and standard deviation (1σ) of δ13C and δ18O for each dataset. The stratigraphic Etina and Trezona Fms. ellipses are opaque and highlighted with a dashed border. Note that many of the δ13C values of the carbonate clasts predominantly fall in ‘no man’s land’ between –2.5‰ to +5‰, where the stratigraphic sections of the Trezona and Etina Fms. rarely have δ13C values within this zone. GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 277 n=28 n=45 n=117 n=119 0 m, n=24 Age (Ma) Age Age (Ma) Age 28 m, n=47 Lame Horse *Trezona Bore *Trezona *Trezona Bore *Trezona 10 *†Billy Springs 4 4 Nannipinna Bore Nannipinna Bore 11 9 9 durra and Whyalla Fms.

1000 2000 3000 1000 2000 3000

635 635 ircon could be sourced from within the Whyalla Fm on the con grains (<690 Ma) from the ier Province within Australia, e probability distribution func- ELATINA ELATINA Fm Fm. Note that ~1.7 Ga zircon TREZONA Fm YALTIPENA Fm NORTHERN FLINDERS RANGES PRE-ELATINA STRATIGRAPHY PRE-ELATINA enoted by an asterisk (*). Sections sheet did not act as the main source n=39 n=34 n=34 n=48 n=43 n=119 n=186 †Emu Gap Age (Ma) Age 2 †Moolooloo *Walters Well *Walters 6 *Black Hill Well *Black Hill *†Elatina Creek *†Elatina 7 Chambers Gorge Chambers 1 †Bennett Springs 3 8 5

1000 2000 3000

635 Relative probability Relative

ELATINA ELATINA Fm CENTRAL FLINDERS RANGES FLINDERS CENTRAL n=47 n=107 n=106 n=91 n=106 *n=129 *n=120 *n=103 14 13 12 12 Age (Ma) Age Age (Ma) Age *Hallet Cove ~1.2 Ga ~0.7 Ga PEAK AGES WITHIN ELATINA FM (Ga) undifferentiated Paleo- undifferentiated rocks Mesoproterozoic undifferentiated sedimentary rocks PALEO-MESOPROTEROZOIC PERMIAN-QUATERNARY syncline axis anticline axis sample localities major fault

1000 2000 3000 1000 2000 3000

635 635 sandstone, siltstone, shale, limestone, conglomerate, tuff volcanic rocks CALLANNA GROUP WILPENA GROUP UMBERATANA GROUP UMBERATANA BURRA GROUP CAMBRIAN NEOPROTEROZOIC CAMBRIAN-ORDIVICIAN WHYALLA Fm ELATINA Fm WHYALLA Fm PANDURRA Fm SOUTHERN FLINDERS RANGES STUART SHELF STUART o o o 31 32 30

o th

140

AIDE AIDE

Gammon Ranges Gammon RIFT RIFT 11

9° paleonor COMPLEX

8 ADEL 1 10 2 o 5 9 139 Blinman

6 7 3 Flinders Ranges Flinders o 138 Map of sample localities and individual probability distribution functions for U–Pb detrital zircon ages collected from the Pan 14 12 o 635 Ma 13 N 137 Shelf Stuart 0 Ma N Gawler Craton Gawler N Figure 16. on the Stuart Shelf, and and from Elatina the fromYaltipena Fms. Trezona, across the Adelaide Rift Complex (ARC). Note that th tion for Elatina Creek includes zircon grains collected from Thetwo samples. samples yielding the youngest zircon grains are d with samples taken from more than 50 m the above base of the formation are denoted with a cross (†). The ~1.7 Ga zircon grains Stuart Shelf are sourced from the underlying Pandurra Fm. Samples from locality 15 are from the eolianite facies of the Whyalla grains are not found within the pre-glacial or Elatina Fm. stratigraphy within the indicating ARC, that the Whyalla eolian sand of sediment during the glaciation. Likely sources for the ~1.2 Ga zircons within the ARC are the Musgrave Block and Albany-Fraz and/or the Wilkes Province of East the Antarctica. north To of the the ARC, Elatina Fm. records an ~0.7 Ga peak for which the z the Mt. Crofton Granite in Province Paterson and/or the Leeuwin Complex of Australia. Note Western that 8 potentially young zir Elatina and Whyalla been have Fms. dated using ID–TIMS S3 (Table in supplementary online material). 278 ton runs approximately north-south there is a distinct relationship between records the encroaching glaciation. A and it is this paleo-coastline and the lateral facies variability in the pre- and drop in sea level and/or an increase in deepening of the ARC basin to the syn-glacial sedimentary rocks and the siliciclastic sediment supply caused the north that controls the variability in axes of three 50-km scale south verg- tidal flat and beach facies to prograde depositional environments and facies ing-open folds (Rose and Maloof 2010; towards the east and north, until mud- of the Etina–Elatina succession. The Fig. 1I–V). Generally, across each fold cracked siltstone interfingered with the cross-bedded oolitic and sandy facies the pre-glacial Etina Fm. records grain- carbonate reef of the Trezona Fm. of the Etina Fm. was deposited under stone and stromatolite facies south of (Fig. 17). The progradation of the tidal predominantly high-energy conditions, the fold axis and siltstone, shale and flat is linked to the advancing ice possibly as migrating shoals that were olistostromes to the north (Coats et al. sheets as glacial clasts up to 1 m across intercalated with small stromatolite 1973; Preiss 1987; Giddings and Wal- pierce the top of the Yaltipena Fm. bioherms and calcareous siltstone. lace 2009). Similarly, the Trezona Fm. and the upper contact typically is con- Preiss (1987) proposed that the pres- transitions from siltstone and lime- torted and scoured. Associated soft- ence of quartz throughout the Etina stone ribbons on the southern fold sediment deformation of the Yaltipena facies is evidence for an influx of sand limb to turbidites on the northern limb silt layers below the diamictite suggests from the Gawler Craton. Towards the (Coats et al. 1973). The Elatina Fm. the silt was unlithified and was rucked south, the Etina Fm. is restricted to a facies change from laminated siltstone up during glaciation by overriding ice few small stromatolite bioherms (<5 and rarer boulder tillite on the south- (Rose et al. 2012). Furthermore, in the m) surrounded by siliciclastic sand. ern fold limbs to conglomeratic debris northern ARC, isolated rounded gran- These stromatolites may have been col- flows, diamictite, and massive gritty ite and gabbro clasts within the upper onizing the edges of tidal channels that siltstone on the northern limbs (Rose two metres of a Trezona Fm. stroma- were prograding out towards the shelf and Maloof 2010). We propose that tolite bioherm, which records the high- along the Gawler Craton coastline the sedimentary facies and the pres- est δ13C following the Trezona anom- (Preiss 1987). The basin deepens ence of basin-bounding normal faults aly, represent the onset of glaciation towards the north, resulting in the stro- influenced the subsequent Delamerian (Rose et al. 2012). This ice-rafted matolitic and oolitic facies of the cen- tectonic deformation to create the dis- debris requires floating, debris-laden tral region transitioning to siltier facies. tinct relationship between lateral facies icebergs in water possibly no deeper There is a prograding reef complex to variability in the pre- and syn-glacial than the photic zone during terminal the northeast at Oodnaminta Hut that stratigraphy and the axes of the folds carbonate deposition on the outer shelf is eroded, creating a submarine escarp- (Rose and Maloof 2010). We agree (Fig. 17). In addition to the sedimen- ment with large olistoliths that mark with the interpretation of Giddings tology, the geochemistry of the pre- the shelf–slope transition (Giddings et and Wallace (2009) that the pre-glacial and syn-glacial sedimentary rocks can al. 2009). Farther north, the facies Etina Fm. facies variation marks a reef provide information about the deepen to silt and carbonate ribbonite margin to slope setting across the encroaching ice sheet and the Cryogen- interbeds that record δ13C values of up Arkaroola syncline (Fig. 1 III), and fur- ian climate state. to +10‰. Thus, we provide geochemi- ther suggest that the abrupt lateral The major-element geochem- cal evidence that the Balcanoona, facies changes across the folds to the istry of siliciclastic rocks depends on Yankaninna and Amberoona Fms. are north represent the transition from the the intensity of chemical weathering the northern equivalents of the Etina outer ramp or upper slope to the lower and, thus, should preserve a record of Fm. Farther to the northwest, the slope (Rose and Maloof 2010). Above severe climatic changes (Nesbitt and Etina Fm. consists of carbonate tepee the Etina Fm., the Enorama Fm. is Young 1982, 1996; Johnsson 1993; breccia, which indicates subaerial expo- present both north and south of the Fedo et al. 1997b; Corcoran and sure. This tepee breccia is restricted in fold axes and represents a marine Mueller 2002; Rieu et al. 2007c). The lateral extent and surrounded by silt. transgression that caused inundation of CIA values for the Elatina Fm. have a Such a juxtaposition of facies suggests the central Flinders Ranges carbonate mean value of 63 ± 5 (1σ error). If the that a paleo-high or promontory exist- platform and silt deposition. This for- CIA values accurately reflect the inten- ed in the north of the basin. Such mation of finely laminated green silt- sity of chemical paleoweathering, then paleotopography, which occurs over a stone and claystone lacks current or this low value corroborates the short spatial scale, may have been gen- wave ripples, cross-bedding or coarser glacigenic interpretation of the Elatina erated by salt diapirs that caused a clastic interbeds, until near the contact Fm. based on independent sedimento- fringing reef to become periodically with the Trezona Fm., indicating that logical evidence (Fig. 13). This CIA exposed. The closest diapir to this deposition occurred in a quiet, marine value is typical of other Marinoan gla- paleohigh crosscuts the lower 50 m of setting. cial successions around the world the Trezona Fm. in map view to the (averages: Ghaub Fm., 63 ± 5; Morten- northwest of Nannipinna Creek, sug- The Advance of Land Ice snes and Smalfjord Fms., 66 ± 1; Port gesting that diapirism was active The onset of the glaciation is not Askaig Fm., 70 ± 5; all 1σ errors; throughout the deposition of the Etina recorded at the top of the Trezona Bahlburg and Dobrzinski 2011). Fm. (Fig. 1 [31]). Fm. by a basin-wide disconformity Although the Enorama and Trezona In addition to abrupt lateral and/or karsted surface (Lemon and Fms. record values of 68 ± 4 and 67 ± facies changes over short spatial scales, Gostin 1990). The Yaltipena Fm. 4 (1σ error), respectively, which are GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 279

4 glacial erosion and ice-rafted debris 8 cap dolostone deposition

ice sheet

F3 F2 F1

3 push moraine 7 global deglaciation

ice sheet

F3 F2 F1 GLACIATION DEGLACIATION 6 isostatic rebound and/or loss of ice sheet 2 prograding Yaltipena Fm gravitational attraction ice sheet

F3 F2 F1

5 local ice sheet retreat 1 sea level ice sheet

F2 F1 proglacial tidal fat reef slope SNSN

LEGEND Elatina Fm debris laden icebergs Facies 1 Facies 2 Facies 3 diamictite rhythmite current-reworked Brachina Fm Yaltipena Fm diamictite Trezona Fm stromatolites slumped sandstone dropstone Nuccaleena Fm diamictite sandstone siltstone siltstone cap dolostone

Figure 17. Schematic depositional model for the Elatina glaciation and deglaciation across the southern, central, and northern regions of the Adelaide Rift Complex. During the onset of the glaciation, ice-contact deformation of the Yaltipena Fm. and glacial truncation of the Trezona Fm. occured in the central fold [3]. To the north, synchronous deposition of dropstones within stromatolites is recorded in the uppermost Trezona Fm. [4]. During the deglaciation, slumped sandstone (F1) and dropstone diamictite (F2) were deposited in the central anticline [5]. As the local ice sheet continued to retreat, loss of ice sheet gravitational attraction and/or isostatic rebound led to a regression and current reworking of the underlying diamictite (F3) [6]. The global deglaciation is recorded by a final diamictite within the upper Elatina Fm. and the precipitation of the Nuccaleena Fm. cap dolostone and overlying Brachina Fm. [7-8]. lower than expected for a pre-glacial error)) attests to the onset of the glacial and post-glacial formations. The warm, tropical carbonate platform, glaciation with an overall lowering of mean CIA value for the overlying these CIA values still show a relative sea level and progradation of the tidal Brachina Fm. is 67 ± 5 (1σ error), indi- decline across the Yaltipena Fm. The flat facies across the basin. In addition, cating a recovery to pre-glacial values. tight downturn in CIA from 68 to ~55 the upper Yaltipena Fm. and Elatina However, important factors other than recorded in three sections across the Fm. record lower minimum CIA values climate need to be considered when Yaltipena Fm. (average 62 ± 5 (1σ compared to those of the other pre- evaluating the major element composi- 280 tion of siliciclastic sediments and sedi- ues (Cox et al. 1995). We interpret the Overall, the CIA results indi- mentary rocks, including the influence variability in the CIA values for the cate that compositional variations in of source rock composition (McLen- Elatina Fm. to reflect in part sediment major element geochemistry within the nan et al. 1993; Fralick and Kronberg derived from the underlying Yaltipena ARC provide limited information when 1997), sediment recycling (McLennan Fm., which may record progressive evaluating the paleoclimatic signifi- et al. 1993; Cox et al. 1995), tectonic weathering of sedimentary material cance of the Marinoan siliciclastic suc- setting (McLennan et al. 1993; Corco- under an equatorial climate over a cession because it is hard to accurately ran and Mueller 2002), relief series of recycling events. The determine the degree to which a vari- (Grantham and Velbel 1988; Johnsson Yaltipena Fm. sediment may have orig- able source rock and climate controlled 1993), sediment transport (Malmon et inated from different basins that expe- the CIA values. Despite the lack of an al. 2003), and diagenesis (Nesbitt and rienced a different number and/or unambiguous interpretation for the Young 1989; Fedo et al. 1995, 1997a). intensity of weathering regimes. Based syn-glacial CIA values, we interpret the The geochemical composition on the weathering trajectory being par- large scale CIA record to represent real of sediments is strongly controlled by allel to the A-CN boundary and mini- climatic shifts during the pre- and the composition of the rocks and mal field evidence for a diagenetic ori- post-glacial transitions to and from the regolith from which the sediment is gin, we calculate that ~45% of the Elatina glaciation. Therefore, the evi- derived (Nesbitt and Young 1989; trend can be explained by weathering dence for the Yaltipena representing McLennan et al. 1993; Fedo et al. 1996; and ~55% is a result of a change in encroaching land-based ice is a) the Fralick and Kronberg 1997). An provenance. architecture of the Yaltipena Fm. as a

A–CN–K (Al2O3–CaO+Na2O–K2O) An alternative hypothesis for prograding tidal flat complex, b) the ternary plot shows that the major ele- why the Elatina Fm. samples plot presence of glacial dropstones in the ment composition of samples from the towards the K-apex in A–CN–K com- stromatolites beyond the tidal flat edge, Trezona, Yaltipena and Elatina Fms. positional space is that the formation c) the sub-glacial deformation of the that have been little affected by chemi- experienced burial diagenesis, with unlithified Yaltipena sediments, and d) cal weathering were derived from rocks potassium metasomatism changing the the tight declining CIA trend that with an average granodioritic composi- bulk composition, and consequently reaches a nadir of 55 towards the basal tion (Nesbitt and Young 1984, 1989; the CIA, of sedimentary rocks (Fedo contact of the Elatina Fm. Fig. 14a). However, data from the et al. 1995). Potassium metasomatism Elatina Fm. are shifted towards the is suspected when the compositional Subglacial Erosion

K2O apex, suggesting that the glacia- variations in a sedimentary succession Local glacial erosion variably truncates tion introduced rocks derived from a deviate from the ideal weathering the Yaltipena Fm., such that this for- more granitic sediment source. In addi- trend, showing enrichment in potassi- mation is entirely missing in parts of tion, the trend of the complete data set um and thus diagenetically lowered the central Flinders anticline (Fig. 6 in the A–CN–K plot does not perfect- CIA values. However, the underlying [17, 23]). The minimum amount of ly parallel the A–CN boundary (Fig. Yaltipena Fm. records a tight declining glacial incision into the underlying car- 14b). This drift mostly is represented CIA trend that reaches a nadir of 55, bonate platform may be quantified by by samples from northern sections, and neither formation shows any phys- correlating the stratigraphic sections, suggesting that there may be some ical evidence for pervasive diagenesis, using the inflection point at the base of variation in the composition of the such as significant liesegang commonly the recovery from the Trezona negative sediment source rocks specific to this associated with migrating alteration δ13C anomaly, and assuming that the region. This observation is corroborat- fronts. Thus, the drop in mean CIA maximum thickness of the Trezona ed by the detrital zircon suites from values from pre-glacial to glacial facies Fm. in the central Flinders Ranges is the Elatina Fm. that record <760 Ma is more likely a result of climate deteri- recorded in the Emu Gap section, to young zircon peaks in the northern oration and/or different weathering which all sections within the central Flinders Ranges (Fig. 16 [7-8]), and sources. anticline are referenced (Halverson et interestingly, both the Leeuwin Com- CIA values strongly depend al. 2002; Fig. 1 [16]). Thus, the minimum plex and Paterson Province of the Yil- on the abundance and composition of amount of glacial incision is calculated garn Craton, which are proposed clay minerals, and therefore may be from the stratigraphic thickness of the sources for these young zircon grains, influenced by the effects of hydrody- Trezona δ13C signature recorded above are granitic. namic sorting during deposition. the inflection point. A total of 9 meas- The observed weathering Although this study is limited to silt- ured sections through the Trezona- trend also reflects the degree to which stone rocks in order to reduce the Elatina Fms. across central Flinders recycled sedimentary rocks have been effect of differential sorting on com- Ranges show that up to ~130 m have mixed and incorporated into the position, subtle differences in grain been truncated by glacial erosion. To glacigenic deposits (Bahlburg and size may exist between the samples. the north, although the stratigraphic Dobrzinski 2011). Glacial deposits However, the magnitude of variability correlations are more tentative and the recycle large quantities of sediment in CIA within the Elatina Fm. is not Trezona Fm. could consist entirely of that may retain CIA values reflective of likely to be a consequence of such siltstone, it appears that the complete progressive weathering in previous cli- minor facies differences between sam- Trezona Fm. and overlying stratigra- mates, causing scatter in the CIA val- ples. phy, up to 500 m thick, have been GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 281 removed and the Elatina Fm. is in con- advance. However, while a meteoric Etina Fm. Active salt diapirism tact with the Enorama Shale (Brench- diagenesis hypothesis for the Trezona throughout the deposition of the Etina ley-Gaal 1985; Fig. 7 [34]). Progressive Fm. can be made consistent with the Fm. and much of the Enorama Fm. truncations of beds within the Trezona timing of exposure of the platform, it are thought to be responsible for Fm. indicate that the unconformity is is inconsistent with top-down modifi- entraining brecciated blocks of the more pronounced to the north, west cation of the platform by meteoric flu- underlying stratigraphy and bringing and south of Trezona Bore. The sec- ids (Swart and Kennedy 2012) and them to the surface (Lemon 1985; tions north of Punches Rest do not with the lack of permeability-depend- Lemon and Gostin 1990; Lemon record glacial truncation, and we inter- ent δ13C spatial variability between dif- 2000). In map view, many of the pret these sections that record hun- ferent lithofacies across the platform diapirs cross-cut the Etina Fm. and the dreds of metres of stratigraphy with (Rose et al. 2012). lower two-thirds of the Enorama Fm. δ13C values remaining at ~–2‰ in the The negative δ13C clasts with in the central region (Lemon 2000), upper Trezona Fm. (Fig. 7 [38-40]) to values < –2‰ can be attributed to the whilst in the north they impinge on the record a deeper environment and an upper ~180 m of the Trezona Fm. lowermost ~50 metres of the Trezona increase in accommodation space. (Fig. 15c). The fossiliferous packstone Fm. Despite the small Oratunga diapir Further information on the clasts have consistently lower δ13C val- in the central region that cross-cuts the extent of glacial incision comes from ues in comparison to generic limestone Umberatana Group stratigraphy, for the carbonate clasts within the diamic- clasts at Oodnapanicken Bore. This the most part diapirs were emergent tites. Previous work determined that all δ13C value is characteristic of these and most active before deposition of carbonate clasts in the central anticline packstone units, as they are most com- the Trezona Fm. and Elatina Fm. in the Elatina Fm. are thought to monly associated with the initial prolif- (Webb 1960; Coats 1965; Lemon derive from the underlying Trezona eration of stromatolites within the 2000). Fm., due to distinctive ooid clasts iden- lower half of the Trezona Fm. stratig- One possibility is that the iso- tified near Bulls Gap (Lemon and raphy in the central anticline of the topically-heavy clasts originated from a Gostin 1990; Fig. 15). Although we ARC. Only the Weetootla, Nannipinna, distal diapir that sampled the Etina find clasts of fossiliferous packstone and Winyagunna sections in the north- Fm., and was then eroded and trans- near Oodnapanicken Bore (Fig. 15b), ern Flinders Ranges document trunca- ported by the ice sheet. Many of the the remaining carbonate clasts are tion of the Trezona δ13C anomaly to clasts fall between –2‰ and +5‰, generic cream to grey limestone with- the inflection point of –9‰ (Fig. 7 which are not values recorded in either out unique sedimentary features to [29, 31, 34]). This observation suggests the Etina or Trezona Fm. stratigraphy. determine their origin. If the clasts that either the clasts were not trans- These values may represent diagenesis acquired their δ13C values in situ on the ported a long distance from Nannipin- of the Etina clasts but this seems carbonate platform, then they should na Creek or the site of erosion is not unlikely given that the values are highly exhibit a random collection of values exposed within the ARC. At Oodna- variable within a 5 m x 5 m cross-sec- representing the full isotopic range panicken Bore, the δ13C values of the tional area of diamictite. The only present in the eroded carbonate plat- clasts ranges from –3‰ to –9‰, and place in the interglacial stratigraphy form δ13C profile at the time of almost record the full isotopic range of that records these values is the transi- diamictite deposition (DeCelles et al. the Trezona Fm.; the δ18O values, how- tion from the Tapley Hills Fm. found 2007; Husson et al. 2012). In contrast, ever, are ~5‰ more negative than below the Etina Fm., suggesting that if the extremely negative δ13C values those of the Trezona Fm. stratigraphy either erosion of a diapir or a nearly 1 (down to –9‰) in the carbonate plat- (Fig. 15d). This observation suggests km deep glacial incision at an unob- form are a result of post-depositional that diagenesis has locally altered the served locality sourced these deeply diagenesis, then clasts from individual δ18O values. The timing of this diagen- buried formations. Alternatively, the diamictite beds should either (a) reflect esis is unknown, but because only the shale of the Enorama Fm. might tran- the original pre-diagenetic isotopic val- clasts at Oodnapanicken Bore show sition to carbonate facies, presently ues in the platform (i.e., not extremely modified δ18O compared to the other unobserved, and record the full iso- depleted in δ13C), or (b) have consistent northern clasts (Fig. 15a), it likely topic down-turn of the Trezona δ13C diagenetic values that are roughly reflects late stage diagenesis local to anomaly from +5‰ at the top of the homogeneous within diamictite units. Oodnapanicken Bore, rather than pan- Etina Fm. to the –9‰ nadir at the The wide variability of the clasts basin early alteration during transporta- base of the Trezona Fm. Thus, the car- shows that they record the full isotopic tion of broken clasts in δ18O-depleted bonate clasts might reflect at least range from –9‰ to +10‰ present in glacial meltwater. ~500 m of glacial incision, possibly the carbonate platform δ13C profile, The clasts with isotopically- outside of the ARC. The Jakobshavn and thus, rules out late-stage burial dia- enriched δ13C values between +5‰ Isbræ ice stream in Greenland creates a genesis (Fig. 15a). This isotope conglomer- and +10‰ can be attributed to the fjord ~700 m deep (Holland et al. ate test (DeCelles et al. 2007; Husson et Etina Fm. and northern equivalents 2008) and paleofjords during the Ceno- al. 2012) does not preclude that the (Fig. 15a). However, nowhere within zoic are thought to have incised up to clasts reflect early meteoric diagenetic the ARC does glacial erosion remove 1 km below sea level in Antarctica alteration of the carbonate platform all of the Trezona and Enorama Fms., (Young et al. 2011). Thus, although δ13C profile prior to local glacier juxtaposing Elatina Fm. on top of the erosion of a diapir could source the 282 clasts, given a sufficiently large ice cap upper sandstone facies consists of pale parallel to the secondary crests. The in Australia it seems likely an ice grey and brown feldspathic sandstone tertiary crests may indicate a change to stream would be capable of eroding with lenses of calcareous siltstone and a shallower water depth and the gener- the entire Etina Fm. pebble conglomerate. We interpret this ation of ripples of a shorter wave- Balparana Sandstone to reflect the length. Thus, a relative sea level drop The Retreat of the Ice Sheet basin-wide shallowing within the also is recorded within the upper The basal diamictite of the Elatina Fm. northern ARC. Overall, water levels rhythmites before continued shallowing has a scoured contact and contorted deepened through deposition of the that is marked by the gritty sandstone diamictite beds at the base of the first two units (Elatina Facies 1 and 2), further up section. We interpret the Elatina Fm. at the Trezona Bore sec- shallowed during the deposition of the upper rhythmites to correlate with the tion, indicating local ice-contact and upper unit (Facies 3), before the post- Facies 2–3 transition within the Elatina sub-glacial push structures formed dur- glacial sea level rise recorded with the Fm. ing an ice advance (Lemon and Gostin deposition of the Nuccaleena and The Balparana Sandstone, the 1990; Fig. 5g-i; Fig. 17). Although Brachina Fms. (Fig. 17). current-reworked diamictite, and the numerous ice sheet advances could The rhythmite facies within tertiary combined-flow ripples in the have occurred, these preserved facies the Elatina Fm. consists of very fine rhythmite unit are time-synchronous record a singular major advance within sandstone uniformly distributed facies across the ARC that all record a the Elatina Fm. The overlying Elatina throughout ~30 m of stratigraphy and regression. This basin-wide relative sea facies consist of cross-bedded channel- across at least ~4500 km2. At Warren level fall occurs in the upper part of ized fluvioglacial sands that grade into Gorge, the previously interpreted par- Facies 2 and Facies 3 within the overall shallow-marine sands with pervasive allel cuspate folds within the rhythmite transgressive deglaciation sequence of slumping (Facies 1) and dropstone facies (Williams 1996) have a character- the Elatina Fm. This regression could diamictite deposits (Facies 2). These istic wavelength and show birfurcating be caused by the retreat of local gla- facies record the transgression associat- crestlines in plan view (Fig. 5j, k). In ciers and the associated instantaneous ed with the subsequent deglaciation. cross section, these bedforms have loss of gravitational attraction that the Despite observations of some ripple slightly asymmetric crestlines and show ice sheet had on the nearby ocean. cross-laminated and cross-stratified preservation of the entire crest of the During the Pleistocene-Holocene, uni- sandstone intercalated with diamictite bedform (Fig. 5l; Fig. 12b). At Ood- form melting across the Greenland ice throughout the succession (Le Heron naminta in the north Flinders Ranges, sheet of a volume of ice that would et al. 2011a; Le Heron 2012), we docu- these bedforms have strongly sinuous have been equivalent to raising global ment that the top third of the Elatina laterally migrating crestlines in cross- sea level by 1 m, would have generated Fm. is dominated by current-reworked section, often with reversing trunca- between ~2–10 m of local sea level fall diamictite beds with distinctive gravel tions of the topsets of the bedforms. around the Greenland coast (Mitrovica lags and lonestones capped by mm- to In addition, there is no evidence for et al. 2009; Kopp et al. 2009). cm-scale ripple cross-laminated fine- to soft-sediment deformation at any scale Although this value varies with paleo- very fine-grained sandstone (Facies 3). throughout these bedforms. Together, geography and the geometry of the This final facies which occurs through- these observations are not compatible melting ice sheet, a similar sea level out the central and southern Flinders with the previous interpretation as par- fluctuation would be significant Ranges records upward shallowing and allel cuspate folds and slump struc- enough to generate the regression reworking of the underlying diamictite tures, particularly as the slumps likely recorded in the Elatina Fm. Alterna- beds. These observations and interpre- would migrate only in the direction of tively, the regression could be in part tations corroborate those of the semi- gravity and generate a variety of soft- or solely caused by longer term (104 nal work of Lemon and Gostin (1990). sediment deformation at a range of years) isostatic rebound associated with The upper part of Facies 3 is correla- spatial scales. Thus, we interpret these the shrinking ice sheet. However, if tive to the terminal shallowing sedimentary structures to be stoss- regional isostatic rebound represents a sequence that transitions into gritty depositional, reversing three-dimen- significant part of the sea level signal sandstone in the southern Flinders sional bedforms with superimposed then the characteristic timescale for Ranges. In the central region, a thin symmetrical bedforms that orthogonal- isostatic rebound, which is controlled diamictite is present in the upper part ly intersect the primary crestlines primarily by mantle viscosity, con- of Facies 3, just below the Nuccaleena (Rubin and Hunter 1982). The geome- strains the retreat of local glaciers from cap carbonate, which we correlate to try of these bedforms indicates com- the basin to at least 104 years before the gritty sandstone just below the cap bined flow between unidirectional and the global deglaciation. This scenario dolostone at Warren Gorge and the oscillatory currents. The overall east- would suggest that regional isostatic surrounding region (Fig. 9 [24]; Fig. 11 ward migration of the primary crests rebound occurred prior to the global [4]). Despite the northern Flinders indicates an off-shore transport direc- glacio-eustatic sea level rise that con- Ranges predominantly consisting of tion with ongoing wave action generat- trolled deposition of the overlying deep marine diamictite, there are three ing the secondary crestlines in a marine Nuccaleena Fm. cap dolostone. broad facies to the Elatina Fm.: a lami- setting above fair weather wave base. Together, our sedimentological obser- nated siltstone, a diamictite, and a Tertiary crests appear near the top of vations suggest that local ice likely was coarse feldspathic sandstone. The the rhythmite section that are mostly present until the Elatina Facies 2–3 GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 283 transition (Fig. 17). This persistence of syn-depositional. That said we have no metres and the very fine sand coarsens local ice suggests that the instanta- reason to believe that the low-latitude upwards throughout the section, with neous loss of gravitational attraction is direction is a result of remagnetization, shorter wavelength secondary ripples the more parsimonious explanation for and the positive reversal tests (Sohl et only documented at the top of the sec- the regression within the upper Elatina al. 1999) are at least consistent with tion, indicating a shallowing. The pri- Fm. syn-depositional magnetization. Tauxe mary ripples have convex-up profiles The wave component of the and Kent (1984) showed that the detri- typical of oscillatory waves. These bed- ripples within the rhythmite facies in tal remnant magnetization of hematite forms record a strong asymmetry, with the southern ARC requires open tropi- in the modern Soan River deposits, ripples climbing to the northwest and a cal seas with significant fetch that is northern Pakistan, may record an incli- weaker asymmetry to the southeast, prior to, or at least contemporaneous nation (e.g. 25º) that is significantly suggesting that the offshore current with local ice retreat. This timing con- shallower than the inclination of the in responsible for the bedforms was not trasts with the model proposed for evi- situ field (e.g. 50º). Similarly, laboratory constant but fluctuated in strength. dence of open water during peak experiments have shown that crystallo- The current was strongest to the glaciation, where local glaciers are graphic orientations of hematite crys- northwest, and during periods when starved of moisture and ice is subli- tals, which are determined by the prin- the current weakened or ceased the mated away from restricted basins cipal susceptibility axis, are dominated oscillatory flow became more domi- (Halverson et al. 2004). If the clasts by depositional rather than magnetic nant and the bedforms drifted to the within the upper diamictite in Facies 3 field conditions (Lovlie and Torsvik southeast. These consistently oriented represent an extra-basinal source they 1984), such that the inclination of the bedforms throughout the stratigraphy could be derived from the melting of detrital remanent magnetization held suggest perhaps that the waves were distant debris-laden icebergs during the by hematite is significantly shallower refracted within a protected embay- global deglaciation (Fig. 17). This than the ambient field. These results ment. arrival of far-traveled icebergs to the suggest that sorting by oscillatory, The bedform characteristics basin would shift the onset of the wave-induced currents may align platy outlined above, particularly the vertical global deglaciation from the basal con- hematite grains with the rhythmite aggradation and small mm-scale faults tact of the Nuccaleena Fm. to within laminations, which could account for on the limbs of some bedforms at the upper Elatina Fm. (Raub and the positive fold test (Sumner et al. Warren Gorge, are indicative of rapid Evans 2008). However, a large propor- 1987). sedimentation rates. However, workers tion of the clasts within this diamictite The minimal winnowing of for more than 35 years have argued for in the northern region of the central the bedform crests, the limited migra- a tidal origin for the rhythmite facies in Flinders Ranges are basalt and previ- tion of crestlines, and the absence of the southern Flinders Ranges. ous work attributed the source of the finer sand and clays in the troughs Although a single periodic variation in clasts to active diapirism. Such an intra- indicate that sediment was not distrib- the rhythmites could suggest any num- basinal source could represent a uted or sorted solely by wave action ber of sources, time series analysis regional readvance that results from across the region. Williams (1989, shows a nested hierarchy of bundles moisture derived from the opening 1991, 2000) proposed a distal ebb-tidal that contain ~15 couplets (Williams oceans feeding the continental glaciers. delta for the depositional setting where 1989, 1991, 2000; Budnick 2012). Diur- However, there is no evidence that gla- fine-grained sediment is entrained by nal and seasonal fluctuations in sedi- ciers reached the extent of those that ebb-tidal currents and transported ment delivery by glacio-fluvial and/or deposited Facies 1 given the lack of mainly in suspension by turbid currents katabatic wind sources could generate subglacial deformation and proximal and jets via the main ebb channel to the individual couplet and annual peri- deposits. Future work could test these deeper water offshore. With increasing odicities. In fact, eolian delivery of hypotheses by determining the clast distance of transport, such jets trans- sand by daily katabatic winds may provenance and detrital zircon signa- form to hyperpycnal plumes and sort- explain why the couplets record a diur- ture of the upper diamictite, gritty ed, suspended sediment settles to form nal, and not the expected semi-diurnal, sandstone, and the Balparana Sand- normally graded laminae in distal set- signal dominant in most tropical stone across the ARC. tings. Similarly, glaciofluvial outlets at regions today. However, the cyclic the terminus of a glacier could gener- nature of the couplets strongly sug- Tides During the Deglaciation ate vast plumes of suspended sediment gests a neap-spring tidal origin that The re-interpretation of the putative that would be delivered in diurnally operates on the order of 14-15 days. soft-sediment folds as ripples weakens and seasonally controlled pulses that, Thus, we agree with a tidal interpreta- the iconic syn-sedimentary fold test in addition to the tidal signal, might tion, which can explain most of the that constrained the low-latitude posi- have influenced the deposition of periodicities recorded in the rhyth- tion of South Australia at the time of rhythmite couplets and bundles. mites. the Elatina glaciation. While the tec- At Oodnaminta Hut, rare A tidal origin places a time tonic fold test still requires that the quartz and feldspar granules at the constraint for the deposition of the low-latitude paleomagnetic direction is onset of the rhythmite facies suggest rhythmites: using the number of pre-Late Cambrian (Foden et al. 2006), overlying debris-laden icebergs. Clay spring-neap bundles and assuming that the magnetization no longer must be drapes are restricted to these lower few it takes a month to deposit two bun- 284 dles, the rhythmite stratigraphy at War- rhythmites, as well as constrain the source for the rhythmites must either ren Gorge took a minimum of 33 direction of ice transport, the extent of be sub-glacially derived or from anoth- years to accumulate. At Oodnaminta ice coverage, and the maximum age of er sand sheet. Hut, the rhythmite laminations are not the glaciation. Previous work has pro- Throughout the Trezona– as well preserved as those at Warren posed that the Whyalla Fm. acted as a Elatina Fm. stratigraphy in the central Gorge. However, a minimum of 19 source for the Elatina Fm. across the ARC and the Nannipinna and Billy bundles are deposited whilst the bed- ARC (Lemon and Gostin 1990; Springs localities to the north, the zir- form migrates to the northwest, and a Williams et al. 2008). This work report- con age spectra record a dominant minimum of 9 bundles are counted as ed that the slumped sandstone unit at ~1.2 Ga peak (Fig. 16). Several grani- the bedform migrates to the southeast. the base of the Elatina Fm. is marked toid suites were intruded into the Mus- Thus, the tidal timescale implies that by a dominance of coarse silt to fine grave Block in central Australia that the hyperpycnal current delivering the sand and very coarse sand and granule yield U–Pb zircon ages of sediment was active for ~10 months, fractions (Lemon and Gostin 1990; ~1225–1190 Ma, associated with but diminished or switched off for the Williams et al. 2008). The Whyalla Fm. Grenville-age orogeny and the amalga- following ~5 months. This temporal includes the missing medium to coarse mation of Rodinia (Maboko et al. variability in the current strength could sand fraction, and it is suggested that 1991; Dalziel 1991; Hoffman 1991; represent a seasonally controlled sub- spatial sorting by eolian reworking gen- Moores 1991; Camacho and Fanning glacial or glacial-fluvial source. erated the different grain size distribu- 1995). Similarly, the quartz monzonite The Whyalla Fm. on the adja- tions in the Whyalla and Elatina Fms. plutons and gneiss of the Albany-Fras- cent Stuart Shelf could have acted as (Lemon and Gostin 1990; Williams et er Province outcrop near the southern the eolian sediment source for the al. 2008). The fine sediment would margin of the Yilgarn Block and are rhythmites. Winds reworking this have been transported to the Elatina dated at ~1175 Ma (Pidgeon 1990) and eolian sand sheet may have entrained Fm. by wind, whereas the very coarse ~1200 Ma (Black and Shaw 1992), and transported the very fine sand and sand fraction would have been deliv- respectively. Thus, the ~1.2 Ga peak silt fraction offshore to supply the ered by fluvial systems. However, if recorded in the Flinders Ranges is con- rhythmite facies, and the silt fraction fluvial systems were draining the Stuart sistent with an Australian intra-conti- would continue to be blown to more Shelf or adjacent uplands, it seems nental source from central and/or distal localities. Winds capable of unlikely that only the coarse, and not western Australia. Alternatively, this transporting very fine sand in suspen- the medium sand fraction, would be peak could originate from the sion would need to be 56 km/h and to transported from the Whyalla Fm. Fur- Grenville-age Wilkes Province of East blow most days to supply sediment for thermore, detrital zircon data show Antarctica that abutted Australia the diurnal couplets for the entire that the provenance of the sand in the throughout the Neoproterozoic duration of rhythmite deposition Whyalla and Elatina are different. (Goodge et al. 2008). (Eastwood et al. 2012). The variability Many zircon grains within the Elatina- In the northern Flinders in couplet thickness would be modulat- equivalent Whyalla Fm. have similar Ranges between the Moolooloo and ed by the spring-neap tidal cycle, where ages to the Elatina Fm. within the Lame Horse Gully localities, the domi- the stronger spring tide would deposit ARC (~1.6 Ga, ~1.1 Ga and ~1.2 Ga nant peaks in the detrital zircon spectra more sand due to enhanced current peaks; Fig. 16). However, a pervasive are between ~665–760 Ma (Fig. 16 [7- speed and tide volume, but the weaker ~1.7 Ga peak present throughout the 9]). Within the Australian continent, neap tide would not be able to entrain Whyalla Fm. is absent from all the pre- the Paterson Province to the east of sand, resulting in deposition of thin silt glacial and Elatina Fm. stratigraphy the Pilbara Craton and the Leeuwin laminae. Katabatic winds at the steep throughout the ARC. These zircon Complex to the southwest of the Yil- terminus of coastal ice slopes are grains likely are derived from the Yava- garn Craton in Western Australia are among the strongest surface winds; pai-Mazatzal Province of Laurentia the only regions hosting such young localities in Antarctica can experience and/or East Antarctica that was juxta- Neoproterozoic magmatic events (Fig. yearly average winds in excess of ~70 posed to Australia for the previous 300 2). The Paterson Province consists of km/h (Turner et al. 2009). Thus, simi- my (Karlstrom and Bowring 1988; granite, such as the Mt. Crofton Gran- lar winds could have supplied a diurnal Hoffman 1991; Goodge et al. 2008) ite, with ages between ~600–700 Ma and seasonal source of sand for the and sourced locally from the Pandurra (McNaughton and Goellnicht 1990; rhythmites. However, this scenario Fm. that underlies the Whyalla Fm. in Nelson 1995). The Leeuwin Complex requires that wind blown sand would many localities across the Stuart Shelf. is dominated by granitic gneiss with be transported and evenly distributed The majority of the zircon grains ages that suggest that the protoliths of over an extensive area every day for responsible for the 1.7 Ga peak are less the gneiss formed over 600 million ~33 years while glaciers remain in the than 80 µm and would require similar years in distinct magmatic pulses at vicinity. windspeeds as the larger, fine sand 1200–1050 Ma, 800–650 Ma, and fraction for them to be carried in sus- 580–500 Ma (Nelson 1996, 1999, 2002; Sediment Provenance and pension. Thus, it seems unlikely that Collins and Fitzsimons 2001; Wilde Direction of Ice Transport the Whyalla sand sheet supplied sedi- and Nelson 2001). Both of these Detrital zircon data may shed light on ment for the glacial deposits in the source areas suggest that ice likely cov- the source of sediment for the Elatina central region, and suggests that the ered at least half of the Australian GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 40 2013 285 continent. Zircons ranging from ment basin into the Ronne Ice Shelf stratigraphic sections and carbon iso- ~600–750 Ma previously have been (Joughin and Bamber 2005), but some topes were used to quantify ~130 m of reported in sedimentary rocks from the Antarctic ice streams can drain basins glacial erosion across the carbonate ARC (Compston et al. 1987), Lachlan of >100 000 km2 (Dowdeswell et al. platform and at least 500 m of erosion Fold Belt (Williams et al. 1988), and 2006). The young age of these zircon is inferred based upon the correlation New Zealand and Marie Byrd Land, grains suggests that such a Cryogenian of carbonate clasts within the diamic- Antarctica (Ireland et al. 1994), but the ice stream would have had to flow at tite to the underlying regional source regions for the sediment still least 2000 km across the continent chemostratigraphy. The δ13C measure- remain a matter of conjecture. It has from Paterson Province and/or ments of carbonate clasts within the been suggested that the sediment ini- Leeuwin Complex in Western Aus- glacial diamictites give insight to the tially was deposited in a sub-marine tralia. Alternatively, these young zircon relative timing of δ13C acquisition. The turbidite fan fed from the rising grains (<760 Ma) may represent differ- wide variability of the clasts shows that Delamerian-Ross Orogen of eastern ent zircon populations transported by a they record the full isotopic range Antarctica and southeastern Australia more local ice stream from sources in from –9‰ to +10‰ present in the (Coney et al. 1990). Thus, another pos- southeastern Australia and/or eastern carbonate platform δ13C profile. This sibility is that the ~665–760 Ma zir- Antarctica. isotope conglomerate test supports the cons are derived by recycling sediment Previous geochronological conclusion that the Trezona δ13C from a regional eastern Antarctic and studies in the Adelaide Rift Complex anomaly was recorded long before bur- southeastern Australian source, or if, have placed constraints on the maxi- ial diagenesis could have occurred since the sediment being recycled has mum age of the Elatina glaciation. Ire- (Rose et al. 2012). ~760 Ma zircons, it too could be tap- land et al. (1998) noted several young Evidence for sub-glacial ero- ping the cratonic sources in Western detrital zircons at ca. 650 Ma from the sion of the carbonate platform by ice Australia. correlative Marino Arkose Member in streams and ice-front instability within The predominance of <760 the Hallett Cove area south of Ade- an overall deglacial sequence remains Ma young zircons at several northern laide. In particular, a detrital zircon compatible with snowball Earth mod- Flinders localities suggests that perhaps U–Pb age of 657 ± 17 Ma was els (Donnadieu et al. 2003; Halverson an additional or different source sup- obtained for a single grain that may et al. 2004). Our evidence suggests that plied sediment to this region compared place an upper limit on the deposition- the local deglaciation and instanta- to the rest of the ARC. Furthermore, al age of the Marino Arkose (Ireland et neous loss of gravitational attraction of this area coincides with the localities al. 1998; Preiss 2000). Our data cor- the ice sheet on the nearby ocean that record the deepest glacial incision roborate these findings: the youngest caused a relative sea level fall, which into the carbonate platform (Fig. 7). zircon grains between ca. 650–665 Ma may be comparable to Greenland dur- The modern Antarctic ice cap is are found within the Marino Arkose at ing Pleistocene deglaciations. Current drained by ice streams where regions Halletts Cove (Fig. 16), the Elatina Fm. and wave-generated combined-flow of rapidly moving land ice are in con- at Elatina Creek and Walter’s Well (Fig. ripples across the ARC attest to open tact with slower moving ice on either 16 [3,7]), and in the correlative Whyalla seas with significant fetch during the side (Alley et al. 2004). Although they Fm. on the Stuart Shelf (n=7; Fig. 16 initial retreat of local glaciers. The cur- account for only 10% of the volume [13,14]). rent and wave-generated combined- of the ice sheet, ice streams are size- flow ripples also figure prominently able features, up to 50 km wide, 2000 CONCLUSIONS into determining the low-latitude of m thick, and can reach up to 700 km The basin scale architecture and wide the Elatina glaciation. We re-interpret long (Joughin et al. 2001). These fast range of sedimentary facies of the pre- the folds used in the syn-sedimentary flowing zones can erode up to a kilo- and syn- late Cryogenian glacial sedi- paleomagnetic fold test, as stoss-depo- metre deep into bedrock (Young et al. mentary rocks of the ARC establish sitional transverse ripples with super- 2011) and represent conveyor belts important constraints on the dynamics imposed oscillatory wave ripples. that potentially could transport sedi- of the Elatina glaciation in South Aus- Although these observations weaken ment to the ice sheet margins. Studies tralia, providing insight into several the existing paleomagnetic constraint have indicated that ice streams have contentious aspects of the snowball because the low paleolatitude is now high sediment fluxes between Earth hypothesis. The Yaltipena Fm. only required to be pre-Late Cambrian, ~100–1000 m3 yr−1 per metre of ice tidal flat sediments interfingered with there is no evidence to suggest that the front, and sediment transport to conti- and prograded over the pre-glacial car- low-latitude direction is a result of nental shelves by paleo-ice streams was bonate platform, which heralded the remagnetization, and the positive rever- even greater (Alley et al. 2007). The onset of the glaciation. This influx of sal tests are at least consistent with estimated sediment flux for the Nor- sediment and possible associated sea syn-depositional magnetization (Sohl et wegian Channel paleo-ice stream is level fall suggests that ice originated al. 1999). 8000 m3 yr−1 per metre width of the ice from land, and thereby challenges a Detrital zircon data provide stream front (Nygard et al. 2007). This corollary of the snowball Earth model new constraints on the provenance of sediment is derived from large interior that suggests the first ice in the tropics the glacial sediment. The distribution basins. The Rutford Ice Stream in West would arrive by the advance of sea gla- of zircon ages indicate that at least Antarctica drains a ~45,600 km2 catch- ciers (Hoffman et al. 2002). Measured some glacial sediment derived from the 286 cratons of Western Australia. Addi- Wingate and Kacey Lohmann and at zircon chronology of prograde Pro- tionally, zircon data from the late Cryo- Princeton University by Laura Poppick. terozoic events in the Central and genian periglacial Whyalla Fm., which Some major element analyses for the Southern Provinces of the Arunta long has been held as the stratigraphic CIA samples were run at Michigan Block, central Australia: Australian equivalent and potential source for the State University by Tom Vogel, and Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 39, p. Elatina Fm., are sufficiently different carbonate content of these samples 153–171, http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1080/08120099208728012. from the Elatina Fm. to infer that the was determined at Northwestern Uni- Bowring, S.A., Grotzinger, J.P., Condon, Whyalla Fm. does not provide a signifi- versity by Petra Sheaffova and Brad D.J., Ramezani, J., Newall, M.J., and cant source of sediment to the Elatina Sageman. We are thankful to Gerald Allen, P.A., 2007, Geochronologic Fm. Poirier and Nan Yao for help with the constraints on the chronostratigraphic Environmental and climatic XRD analyses at Princeton Institute framework of the Neoproterozoic conditions are challenging to interpret for the Science and Technology of Huqf Supergroup, Sultanate of from the spatially heterogeneous glacial Materials. Andrew Kylander-Clark and Oman: American Journal of Science, sedimentary rocks, especially when Gareth Seward are thanked for assis- v. 307, p. 1097–1145, studied in isolation. 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