DOCSLIB.ORG

Gorter and the Americanization of Dutch Science

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Gorter and the Americanization of Dutch Science Gorter and the Americanization of Dutch Science To what extent was Dutch science Americanized and how did this process manifest in Gorter’s career? Suzette Obbink, 3360512 11-1-2017 Supervisors: David Baneke and Ad Maas Abstract After the Second World War, Dutch scientists had to cope with an enormous knowledge gap between them and American scientists; hence transformations in the Dutch science system were necessary to remain part of the international scientific community. In this thesis, I surveyed whether this process of transforming developed in such a way that it followed American standards: to what extent was Dutch science Americanized? For this purpose, I focused on several aspects of this process – such as the adoption of reorganizational structures in science and education, or the embracement of American norms and values – by examining the career of experimental physicist C.J. Gorter and the institute he worked for: Leiden University. Both appeared to orient immediately towards America: many proposals for transformations were based on the American model. However, the universities’ preservation of their old dogma’s, and the conservative attitude of Dutch professors determined whether suggestions were actually implemented or not. Recommendations regarding reorganizations, such as an increase in the number of professors, often opposed the old principles, and hence were ignored. On the other hand, suggestions that were in line with the existing principles were realized, such as an extraordinary focus on fundamental science and the creation of a students’ community. Furthermore, American norms and values, such as the democratic attitude, were adopted only within the board of the prevailing conservatism. Consequently, the process of Americanization of Dutch science was most clearly visible in new organizations, in which new principles needed to be formulated. The existing institutes with a fixed regime, such as Dutch universities, got into a transitional phase in which new ideas were proposed – often in accordance with American examples – but were not implemented yet, due to the fact that its professors held on to the prevailing, and occasionally old-fashioned principles. 1 Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 4 1.1. My research question .............................................................................................................. 7 1.2. Prof. C.J. Gorter ....................................................................................................................... 8 Chapter 2 Dutch and American science before the Second World War: Did Americanization occur? 12 2.1. Dutch and US science during the interwar years .................................................................. 12 2.2. Gorter’s study and early career ............................................................................................. 17 2.2.1. Gorter’s Nuclear Magnetic Resonance program ........................................................... 18 2.3. Dutch views on the American educational system ............................................................... 22 2.4. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 24 Chapter 3 Gorter, Bloembergen and the early postwar recovery ........................................................ 26 3.1. Bloembergen and Gorter – how did they come into contact? ............................................. 27 3.2. Opposite effect of the war on USA and the Netherlands ..................................................... 29 3.3. Diminishing the knowledge gap: scientists and politicians ................................................... 31 3.3.1. Efforts of Dutch scientists .............................................................................................. 32 3.3.2. Efforts by Dutch politicians ........................................................................................... 34 3.4. Diminishing the knowledge gap: Gorter, Bloembergen & Leiden University ....................... 37 3.4.1. Plea for a students’ community .................................................................................... 37 3.4.2. Gorter and Bloembergen: raise the number of scientific workers ............................... 40 3.4.3 Funding .......................................................................................................................... 42 3.4.4. Harvard-Leiden Institute ............................................................................................... 44 3.4.5. Bloembergen back to Harvard ....................................................................................... 45 3.5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 47 Chapter 4 Gorter, Americanization and the Verbond voor Wetenschappelijke Onderzoekers ............. 49 4.1. International control on nuclear science .............................................................................. 50 4.1.1. The possibility of control on nuclear energy: Baruch and Gromyko Plan ..................... 51 2 4.1.2. What the Netherlands could do (I): Gorter’s internationalism ..................................... 53 4.1.3. What the Netherlands could do (II): cooperation between small countries ................ 56 4.2. Military research ................................................................................................................... 59 4.3. Science and Society ............................................................................................................... 64 4.3.1. Relation between university and society ...................................................................... 64 4.3.2. Reorganization of the university board ......................................................................... 68 4.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 70 Chapter 5 The aftermath: Casimir Committee ...................................................................................... 73 5.1 The Casimir Committee ......................................................................................................... 74 5.2. Content of the report ............................................................................................................ 75 5.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 79 Chapter 6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 81 6.1. General developments .......................................................................................................... 81 6.2. Gorter’s suggestions .............................................................................................................. 83 6.3. Absence of implementations ................................................................................................ 84 6.4. Final conclusions .................................................................................................................... 86 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... 89 References ............................................................................................................................................. 89 Archives ............................................................................................................................................. 89 Oral interviews .................................................................................................................................. 89 Books and articles.............................................................................................................................. 89 Internet sources ................................................................................................................................ 93 3 Chapter 1 Introduction In his speech on 7 April 1941, Johan Huizinga (1872-1945), head of the Humanities and Social Sciences Division in the ‘Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences’ (Koninklijke Nederlandse Academie voor Wetenschappen, or ‘KNAW’) said: ‘This is and remains one of the most valuable characteristics of Dutch intellect, that it is able to experience strange influences and to consider foreign thoughts, without even slightly losing the spirit of its own nationality.’1 He pointed out that the Netherlands had been sensitive to external influences, yet it kept its own identity. In this thesis, I will survey whether Dutch scientists were able to maintain this attitude after the Second World War, when Dutch science had to cope with new, strong external influences, mainly from America. After the development and usage of nuclear weapons by the US military in 1945, Dutch scientists realized that the Netherlands were behind in scientific development. They started to fear that they would be left out of international scientific discussions. In order to
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Business History Publication Details, Including Instructions for Authors and Subscription Information
    This article was downloaded by: [Boersma, Kees] On: 25 August 2008 Access details: Access Details: [subscription number 901861184] Publisher Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Business History Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713634500 Transitions in industrial research: the case of the Philips Natuurkundig Laboratorium (1914-1994) F. Kees Boersma a; Marc J. de Vries b a Faculty of Social Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam b Faculty of Technology Management, Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands Online Publication Date: 01 July 2008 To cite this Article Boersma, F. Kees and de Vries, Marc J.(2008)'Transitions in industrial research: the case of the Philips Natuurkundig Laboratorium (1914-1994)',Business History,50:4,509 — 529 To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/00076790802106786 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00076790802106786 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
    [Show full text]
  • Anne Kox JAPES 1..216
    Physics as a Calling, Science for Society Studies in Honour of A.J. Kox Edited by Ad Maas and Henriëtte Schatz LEIDEN Publications The publication of this book has been made possible by grants from the Institute for Theoretical Physics of the University of Amsterdam, Stichting Pieter Zeeman- fonds, Stichting Physica and the Einstein Papers Project at the California Institute of Technology. Leiden University Press English-language titles are distributed in the US and Canada by the University of Chicago Press. Cover illustration: Albert Einstein and Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, photographed by Paul Ehrenfest in front of his home in Leiden in 1921. Source: Museum Boerhaave, Leiden. Cover design: Sander Pinkse Boekproducties Layout: JAPES, Amsterdam ISBN 978 90 8728 198 4 e-ISBN 978 94 0060 156 7 (pdf) e-ISBN 978 94 0060 157 4 (e-pub) NUR 680 © A. Maas, H. Schatz / Leiden University Press, 2013 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the written permission of both the copyright owner and the author of the book. Contents Preface 7 Kareljan Schoutens Introduction 9 1 Astronomers and the making of modern physics 15 Frans van Lunteren 2 The drag coefficient from Fresnel to Laue 47 Michel Janssen 3 The origins of the Korteweg-De Vries equation: Collaboration between Korteweg and De Vries 61 Bastiaan Willink 4 A note on Einstein’s Scratch Notebook of 1910-1913 81 Diana K.
    [Show full text]
  • Einstein and the Early Theory of Superconductivity, 1919–1922
    Einstein and the Early Theory of Superconductivity, 1919–1922 Tilman Sauer Einstein Papers Project California Institute of Technology 20-7 Pasadena, CA 91125, USA [email protected] Abstract Einstein’s early thoughts about superconductivity are discussed as a case study of how theoretical physics reacts to experimental find- ings that are incompatible with established theoretical notions. One such notion that is discussed is the model of electric conductivity implied by Drude’s electron theory of metals, and the derivation of the Wiedemann-Franz law within this framework. After summarizing the experimental knowledge on superconductivity around 1920, the topic is then discussed both on a phenomenological level in terms of implications of Maxwell’s equations for the case of infinite conduc- tivity, and on a microscopic level in terms of suggested models for superconductive charge transport. Analyzing Einstein’s manuscripts and correspondence as well as his own 1922 paper on the subject, it is shown that Einstein had a sustained interest in superconductivity and was well informed about the phenomenon. It is argued that his appointment as special professor in Leiden in 1920 was motivated to a considerable extent by his perception as a leading theoretician of quantum theory and condensed matter physics and the hope that he would contribute to the theoretical direction of the experiments done at Kamerlingh Onnes’ cryogenic laboratory. Einstein tried to live up to these expectations by proposing at least three experiments on the arXiv:physics/0612159v1 [physics.hist-ph] 15 Dec 2006 phenomenon, one of which was carried out twice in Leiden. Com- pared to other theoretical proposals at the time, the prominent role of quantum concepts was characteristic of Einstein’s understanding of the phenomenon.
    [Show full text]
  • De Nobelprijzen Komen Eraan!
    De Nobelprijzen komen eraan! De Nobelprijzen komen eraan! In de loop van volgende week worden de Nobelprijswinnaars van dit jaar aangekondigd. Daarna weten we wie in december deze felbegeerde prijzen in ontvangst mogen gaan nemen. De Nobelprijzen zijn wellicht de meest prestigieuze en bekende academische onderscheidingen ter wereld, maar waarom eigenlijk? Hoe zijn de prijzen ontstaan, en wie was hun grondlegger, Alfred Nobel? Afbeelding 1. Alfred Nobel.Alfred Nobel (1833-1896) was de grondlegger van de Nobelprijzen. Volgende week is de jaarlijkse aankondiging van de prijswinnaard. Alfred Nobel Alfred Nobel was een belangrijke negentiende-eeuwse Zweedse scheikundige en uitvinder. Hij werd geboren in Stockholm in 1833 in een gezin met acht kinderen. Zijn vader, Immanuel Nobel, was een werktuigkundige en uitvinder die succesvol was met het maken van wapens en stoommotoren. Immanuel wou dat zijn zonen zijn bedrijf zouden overnemen en stuurde Alfred daarom op een twee jaar durende reis naar onder andere Duitsland, Frankrijk en de Verenigde Staten, om te leren over chemische werktuigbouwkunde. In Parijs ontmoette bron: https://www.quantumuniverse.nl/de-nobelprijzen-komen-eraan Pagina 1 van 5 De Nobelprijzen komen eraan! Alfred de Italiaanse scheikundige Ascanio Sobrero, die drie jaar eerder het explosief nitroglycerine had ontdekt. Nitroglycerine had een veel grotere explosieve kracht dan het buskruit, maar was ook veel gevaarlijker om te gebruiken omdat het instabiel is. Alfred raakte geinteresseerd in nitroglycerine en hoe het gebruikt kon worden voor commerciele doeleinden, en ging daarom werken aan de stabiliteit en veiligheid van de stof. Een makkelijk project was dit niet, en meerdere malen ging het flink mis.
    [Show full text]
  • Kamerlingh Onnes Laboratory and Lorentz Institute
    europhysicsnews 2015 • Volume 46 • number 2 Europhysics news is the magazine of the European physics community. It is owned by the European Physical Society and produced in cooperation with EDP Sciences. The staff of EDP Sciences are involved in the production of the magazine and are not responsible for editorial content. Most contributors to Europhysics news are volunteers and their work is greatly appreciated EPS HISTORIC SITES by the Editor and the Editorial Advisory Board. Europhysics news is also available online at: www.europhysicsnews.org General instructions to authors can be found at: www.eps.org/?page=publications Kamerlingh Onnes Laboratory Editor: Victor R. Velasco (SP) Email: [email protected] and Lorentz Institute Science Editor: Jo Hermans (NL) Email: [email protected] Leiden, The Netherlands Executive Editor: David Lee Email: [email protected] Graphic designer: Xavier de Araujo ‘The coldest place on earth’ Email: [email protected] Director of Publication: Jean-Marc Quilbé Editorial Advisory Board: Gonçalo Figueira (PT), Guillaume Fiquet (FR), On 9 February 2015, the site of the former Physics Zsolt Fülöp (Hu), Adelbert Goede (NL), Agnès Henri (FR), Martin Huber (CH), Robert Klanner (DE), Laboratory of Leiden University was officially Peter Liljeroth (FI), Stephen Price (UK), recognised as one of the ‘EPS Historic Sites’ Laurence Ramos (FR), Chris Rossel (CH), Claude Sébenne (FR), Marc Türler (CH) of the European Physical Society. On that day © European Physical Society and EDP Sciences EPS president-elect Christophe Rossel unveiled EPS Secretariat the commemorative plaque near the present-day Address: EPS • 6 rue des Frères Lumière 68200 Mulhouse • France entrance to the complex (since 2004 the location Tel: +33 389 32 94 40 • fax: +33 389 32 94 49 of Leiden University’s Law Faculty).
    [Show full text]
  • Stabilization of Phenomenon and Meaning
    European Journal for Philosophy of Science manuscript No. (will be inserted by the editor) Stabilization of Phenomenon and Meaning On the London & London episode as a historical case in philosophy of science Jan Potters Received: date / Accepted: date Abstract In recent years, the use of historical cases in philosophy of science has become a proper topic of reflection. In this article I will contribute to his research by means of a discussion of one very famous example of case-based philosophy of science, namely the debate on the London & London model of superconductivity between Cartwright, Su´arezand Shomar on the one hand, and French, Ladyman, Bueno and Da Costa on the other. This debate has been going on for years, without any satisfactory resolution. I will argue here that this is because both sides impose on the historical case a particular philosophical conception of scientific representation that does not do justice to the historical facts. Both sides assume, more specifically, that the case concerns the discovery of a representational connection between a given experimental insight { the Meissner effect { and the diamagnetic meaning of London and London's new equations of superconductivity. I will show, however, that at the time of the Londons' publication, neither the experimental insight nor the meaning of the new equations was established: both were open The author would like to acknowledge the Research Foundation { Flanders (FWO) as funding institution. Center for Philosophical Psychology, Department of Philosophy, University of Antwerp, Grote Kauwenberg 18, 2000 Antwerpen, Belgium E-mail: [email protected] 2 Jan Potters for discussion and they were stabilized only later.
    [Show full text]
  • Discovery of the Electron: II. the Zeeman Effect
    UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) The discovery of the electron: II. The Zeeman effect Kox, A.J. Publication date 1997 Published in European Journal of Physics Link to publication Citation for published version (APA): Kox, A. J. (1997). The discovery of the electron: II. The Zeeman effect. European Journal of Physics, 18, 139-144. General rights It is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). Disclaimer/Complaints regulations If you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or (privacy) interests, please let the Library know, stating your reasons. In case of a legitimate complaint, the Library will make the material inaccessible and/or remove it from the website. Please Ask the Library: https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact, or a letter to: Library of the University of Amsterdam, Secretariat, Singel 425, 1012 WP Amsterdam, The Netherlands. You will be contacted as soon as possible. UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (https://dare.uva.nl) Download date:27 Sep 2021 Eur. J. Phys. 18 (1997) 139–144. Printed in the UK PII: S0143-0807(97)78091-7 The discovery of the electron: II. The Zeeman effect A J Kox Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of Amsterdam, Valckenierstraat 65, 1018 XE Amsterdam, The Netherlands Received 18 September 1996 Abstract. The paper gives an account of the discovery, in the Sammenvatting.
    [Show full text]
  • Can Anyon Statistics Explain High Temperature Superconductivity?
    Can Anyon statistics explain high temperature superconductivity? Ahmad Adel Abutaleb Department of Mathematics, Faculty of science, University of Mansoura, Elmansoura 35516, Egypt August 10, 2018 Abstract In this paper, we find a reasonable explanation of high temperature superconductivity phenomena using Anyon statistics. 1 Introduction Superconductivity is a phenomena occurring in certain materials when cooled below some characteristic temperature called a critical temperature. In a su- perconductor, the resistance drops suddenly to zero when the material is cooled below its critical temperature. This phenomena was first discovered by the dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, which received the Nobel prize of physics in 1913 for discovering this phenomena and the related work regarding liquefac- tion of helium [1]. There is another phenomena related to superconductor called (Meissner effect), which is the expulsion of a magnetic field from a supercon- ductor during its transition to the superconducting state. This phenomena was discovered in 1933 by Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld [2]. Although the microscopic theory of superconductivity was developed by Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS theory) in 1957 [3], other descriptions of the phenomena of the superconductivity were developed [4-6]. Whereas ordinary superconductors usually have transition temperatures be- low 30 Kelvin, It is well known that some materials behave as superconductors at unusually high critical temperatures and this materials called high tempera- arXiv:1702.00692v1 [physics.gen-ph] 27 Jan 2017 ture superconductors or (HTS). The first HTS was discovered in 1986 by Georg Bednorz and K. Alex Muller, who were awarded the 1987 Nobel Prize in Physics [7]. Although the standard BCS theory (weak-coupling electron–phonon inter- action) can explain all known low temperature superconductors and even some high temperature superconductors, some of high temperature superconductors cannot be explained by BCS theory and some physicist believe that they obey a strong interaction.
    [Show full text]
  • Journal of Management History Quarter’S Product
    The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/1751-1348.htm JMH 13,2 Managing between science and industry An historical analysis of the Philips Research 122 and Development Department’s management Kees Boersma Department of Culture, Organization and Management, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Abstract Purpose – This paper seeks to deal with the history of Research and Development (R&D) management. It takes the history of the R&D Department of the Royal Philips Electronics of The Netherlands as an example to unravel the dynamics behind industrial R&D management. Design/methodology/approach – This paper is based upon historical and theoretical studies on industrial R&D institutions and research cultures. Findings – The paper proposes that the directors of the Philips R&D Department continually shaped and reshaped the organization in order to retain researchers with creative ideas, and to stimulate innovativeness. The R&D-management was the outcome of a search process that comprehended a mixture of scientific and industrial (management) skills, knowledge and expertise, which together shaped an industrial research culture. One of the most difficult questions for the research managers was to find a balance between the professional status and motives of individual researchers on the one hand and the Philips company production strategy on the other. Over the years, the research leaders stimulated individual creativity in their own way, taking specific business and economic circumstances into account. They operated during different historical periods that reflect their management ideas. Originality/value – Nowadays, the Philips research takes place at the High Tech Campus.
    [Show full text]
  • Exploration of the Quantum Casimir Effect
    STUDENT JOURNAL OF PHYSICS Exploration of the Quantum Casimir Effect A. Torode1∗∗ 1Department of Physics And Astronomy, 4th year undergraduate (senior), Michigan State University, East Lansing MI, 48823. Abstract. Named after the Dutch Physicist Hendrik Casimir, The Casimir effect is a physical force that arises from fluctuations in electromagnetic field and explained by quantum field theory. The typical example of this is an apparent attraction created between two very closely placed parallel plates within a vacuum. Due to the nature of the vacuum’s quantized field having to do with virtual particles, a force becomes present in the system. This effect creates ideas and explanations for subjects such as zero-point energy and relativistic Van der Waals forces. In this paper I will explore the Casimir effect and some of the astonishing mathematical results that originally come about from quantum field theory that explain it along side an approach that does not reference the zero-point energy from quantum field theory. Keywords: Casimir effect, zero point energy, vacuum fluctuations. 1. INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY The Casimir effect is a small attractive force caused by quantum fluctuations of the electromagnetic field in vacuum (Figure 1). In 1948 the Dutch physicist Hendrick Casimir published a paper predict- ing this effect [1, 2]. According to Quantum field theory, a vacuum contains particles (photons), the numbers of which are in a continuous state of fluctuation and can be thought of as popping in and out of existence [3]. These particles can cause a force of attraction. Most generally, the quantum Casimir effect is thought about in regards to two closely parallel plates.
    [Show full text]
  • Introduction to Superconductors SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
    Introduction to superconductivity http://hyscience.blogspot.ro/ Outline • Introduction to superconductors • Kamerlingh Onnes • Evidence of a phase transition • MEISSNER EFFECT • Characteristic lengths in SC • Categories of SC • Magnetic properties • Critical current density Introduction to superconductors SUPERCONDUCTIVITY • property of complete disappearance of electrical resistance in solids when they are cooled below a characteristic temperature. This temperature is called transition temperature or critical temperature. Superconductive state of mercury (TC=4.15 K) was discovered by the Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911, several years after the discovery of liquid helium (1908). Dirk van Delft, Freezing physics. Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and the quest April 8, 1911 for cold, Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam 2007 Nobel prize 1913 ‘for his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, inter alia, to the production of liquid helium’ From: Rudolf de Bruyn Ouboter, “Heike Kamerlingh Onnes’s Discovery of Superconductivity”, Scientific American March 1997 Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (far right) shows his helium liquefactor to three theoretical physicists: Niels Bohr (visiting from Kopenhagen), Hendrik Lorentz, and Paul Ehrenfest (far left). Dirk van Delft, Freezing physics. Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and the quest for cold, Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam 2007 Kamerlingh Onnes From: Rudolf de Bruyn Ouboter, “Heike Kamerlingh Onnes’s Liquefied He 1908 Discovery of Superconductivity”, Scientific American March 1997 •Non transition elements •Transition elements •Intermetallic compounds •Alloys Until 1983 record Tc=23.3 K was that of Nb3Ge alloy. High-Temperature SC Until 1986, the highest known critical temperature of any SC was 23.3 K. Various theories predicted that it would be impossible to have much higher critical temperatures.
    [Show full text]
  • How Liquid Helium and Superconductivity Came to Us
    IEEE/CSC & ESAS EUROPEAN SUPERCONDUCTIVITY NEWS FORUM (ESNF), No. 16, April 2011 Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and the Road to Liquid Helium Dirk van Delft, Museum Boerhaave – Leiden University e-mail: [email protected] Abstract – I sketch here the scientific biography of Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who in 1908 was the first to liquefy helium and in 1911 discovered superconductivity. A son of a factory owner, he grew familiar with industrial approaches, which he adopted and implemented in his scientific career. This, together with a great talent for physics, solid education in the modern sense (unifying experiment and theory) proved indispensable for his ultimate successes. Received April 11, 2011; accepted in final form April 19, 2011. Reference No. RN19, Category 11. Keywords – Heike Kamerligh Onnes, helium, liquefaction, scientific biography I. INTRODUCTION This paper is based on my talk about Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (HKO) and his cryogenic laboratory, which I gave in Leiden at the Symposium “Hundred Years of Superconductivity”, held on April 8th, 2011, the centennial anniversary of the discovery. Figure 1 is a painting of HKO from 1905, by his brother Menso, while Figure 2 shows his historically first helium liquefier, now on display in Museum Boerhaave of Leiden University. Fig. 1. Heike Kamerling Onnes (HKO), 1905 painting by his brother Menso. 1 IEEE/CSC & ESAS EUROPEAN SUPERCONDUCTIVITY NEWS FORUM (ESNF), No. 16, April 2011 Fig. 2. HKO’s historical helium liquefier (last stage), now in Museum Boerhaave, Leiden. I will address HKO’s formative years, his scientific mission, the buiding up of a cryogenic laboratory as a direct consequence of this mission, add some words about the famous Leiden school of instrument makers, the role of the Leiden physics laboratory as an international centre of low temperature research, to end with a conclusion.
    [Show full text]