IMPACT OF MALAYSIAN STUDENTS’ EXCHANGE DIPLOMACY ON THAI GRANTEES, 2008-2012
BY
ORACHA RAKDEE
A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Political Science
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences International Islamic University Malaysia
JUNE 2016
ABSTRACT
This study examines the impact of the Malaysian student exchange diplomacy on Thai grantees, who received the Sixty Malaysian Government Scholarships to study in secondary schools in Malaysia between 2008-2012. It uses a combination of methods in data collection, namely documentary study, non-participant observation, survey and unstructured interview. It finds that there are at least three impacts of the Malaysian exchange diplomacy. Firstly, it helps create a positive opinion of Malaysia and Malaysia’s image as a middle power country. Secondly, it assists in increasing the knowledge and understanding of the Malaysian culture, whereby, reducing hostile stereotypes. Thirdly, it helps create the Thai grantees’ role as cultural mediators, who can raise knowledge about culture and correct the misunderstanding between the people of the host and home countries. In addition, this study finds three factors that contribute to the role of the cultural mediator, namely: the multicultural networks; the intercultural competence; and the knowledge of the host country’s culture. This study also affirms the increasing influence of Malaysia’s “soft power” among the Thai grantees via the attractiveness of the Malaysian culture.
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ﻣﻠﺨﺺ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ABSTRACT IN ARABIC
ﺗﺘﻨﺎول ﻫﺬﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ آ ر ﺳﻴﺎﺳﺔ ﺗﺒﺎدل اﻟﻄﻼب اﳌﺎﻟﻴﺰﻳﲔ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ اﳌﻨﺢ اﳌﺎﻟﻴﺰﻳﺔ اﳌﻤﻨﻮﺣﺔ ﻟﻠﻄﻼب اﻟﺘﺎﻳﻼﻧﺪﻳﲔ، ﻓﻘﺪ ﺣﺼﻞ ﺳﺘﻮن (60) ﻃﺎﻟﺒﺎ ً ﻣﻨﻬﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻨﺢ اﳊﻜﻮﻣﺔ اﳌﺎﻟﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺪراﺳﺔ ﰲ اﳌﺪارس اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻮﻳﺔ ﰲ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ 2008 -2012م. ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪم ﻫﺬﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻷﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ ﰲ ﲨﻊ اﻟﺒﻴﺎ ت، وﻫﻲ دراﺳﺔ و ﺋﻘﻴﺔ، واﳌﺮاﻗﺒﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻏﲑ اﳌﺸﺎرﻛﲔ، واﻟﺪراﺳﺔ اﻻﺳﺘﻘﺼﺎﺋﻴﺔ، واﳌﻘﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻏﲑ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ. وﺟﺪت ﻫﺬﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ أن ﻫﻨﺎك ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﻗﻞ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ آ ر ﻣﻦ ﺟﺮاء ﺳﻴﺎﺳﺔ ﺗﺒﺎدل اﻟﻄﻠﺒﺔ اﳌﺎﻟﻴﺰﻳﲔ. أوﻻ ً: ﻓﺈن ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪة ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﻠﻖ ﺗﺼﻮر إﳚﺎﰊ ﻟ ﺼ ﻮرة ﻣﺎﻟﻴﺰ ، ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻌﺪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﺰ دوﻟﺔ وﺳﻴﻄﺔ ذات اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ. ﻧﻴﺎ: ﻓﺈن اﳌﺴﺎﻋﺪة ﰲ ز دة اﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ واﻟﻔﻬﻢ ﻟﻠﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﳌﺎﻟﻴﺰﻳﺔ، ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻀﻊ ﺣﺪا ً ﻟﻠﺼﻮر اﻟﻨﻤﻄﻴﺔ اﳌﻌﺎدﻳﺔ. ﻟﺜﺎ: ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪة اﻟﻄﻠﺒﺔ اﻟﺘﺎﻳﻼﻧﺪﻳﲔ اﳊﺎﺻﻠﲔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﳌﻨﺢ اﻟﺪراﺳﻴﺔ ﰲ ﺧﻠﻖ دور وﺳﻄﺎء اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ، ﳑﺎ ﳝﻜﻨﻬﻢ ﰲ ﻧﺸﺮ اﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺣﻮل اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ وﺗﺼﺤﻴﺢ ﺳﻮء اﻟﻔﻬﻢ ﺑﲔ اﻟﺒﻠﺪ اﳌﻀﻴﻒ واﻟﺒﻠﺪ ا ﳌ ﻤ ﻨ ﻮح اﳌﻨﺢ. و ﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﱃ ذﻟﻚ، وﺟﺪت ﻫﺬﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻋﻮاﻣﻞ ﺗﺴﻬﻢ ﰲ دور اﻟﻮﺳﻴﻂ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﰲ، وﻫﻲ: ﺷﺒﻜﺎت ﻣﺘﻌﺪدة اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت، واﻟﻜﻔﺎءة ﺑﲔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت. وﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺒﻠﺪ اﳌﻀﻴﻒ. ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﺆﻛﺪ ﻫﺬﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﺗﺰاﻳﺪ ﻧﻔﻮذ "اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻨﺎﻋﻤﺔ" اﳌﺎﻟﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﺑﲔ اﻟﺘﺎﻳﻼﻧﺪﻳﲔ اﳊﺎﺻﻠﲔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﳌﻨﺢ ﻋﱪ ﺟﺎذﺑﻴﺔ اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﳌﺎﻟﻴﺰﻳﺔ.
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APPROVAL PAGE
The dissertation of Oracha Rakdee has been approved by the following:
______Tunku Mohar Tunku Mohd. Mokhtar Supervisor
______Wahabuddin Ra’ees Internal Examiner
______Jaran Maluleem External Examiner
______Mohd Kamarulnizam Abdullah External Examiner
______Abdi Omar Shuriye Chairman
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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigation, except where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.
Oracha Rakdee
Signature…………………....………. Date …….……………….
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COPYRIGHT
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH
IMPACT OF MALAYSIAN STUDENTS’ EXCHANGE DIPLOMACY ON THAI GRANTEES, 2008-2012
I declare that the copyright holder of this dissertation are jointly owned by the student and IIUM.
Copyright © 2016 Oracha Rakdee and International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights reserved.
No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except as provided below
1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.
2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.
3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieved system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.
By signing this form, I acknowledged that I have read and understand the IIUM Intellectual Property Right and Commercialization policy.
Affirmed by Oracha Rakdee
……..…………………….. ……………………….. Signature Date
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DEDICATION
To My Mom and My Family
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, Alhamdulillah I would like to thank Allah for what He has given me during the long journey of Ph.D. His being merciful is concretely demonstrated in many forms and through many people around me.
Without the support of these people, my Ph.D. may not have been accomplished. Firstly, it is my pleasure to express my appreciation to my supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tunku Mohar Tunku Mohd Mokhtar who spent tireless time supervising me through this long Ph.D journey. He believes in my ability to complete this project. My appreciation also goes to Prof. Dr. Wahabuddin Ra’ees for his encouragement and help in times of crisis, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ishtiaq Hossain for offering invaluable materials and comments, Prof. Dr. Abdul Rashid Moten for his full support while I was on the verge of giving up, Prof. Dr. El Fatih Abdullahi Abdelsalam for introducing me to the academic world of the Arab-Israeli conflict, Assoc. Prof Dr. Garout Suliman Eisa for his patience with my Thaiglish accent and all the other academic staff of the Political Science Department.
I also wish to express my deep gratitude to the external examiners: Prof. Dr. Jaran Maluleem of Thammasat University, Thailand and Prof. Dr. Mohd Kamarulnizam Abdullah of Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia. And my appreciation is also extended to Prof. Dr. Abdi Omar Shuriye, the dean of CPS and the other members of my dissertation committee.
In addition, I would like to take this opportunity to thank the government of Thailand, Prince of Songkla University and Faculty of Political Science, the Pattani campus for the scholarship and financial support. The staff of the Royal Thai Embassy in Kuala Lumpur is also in my appreciation. Moreover, this project could not have been completed if I had not got the data from the Thai grantees, their parents and the other key informants including the officers in the Ministry of Education, Southern Border Provincial Administrative Centre (SBPAC). I thank them all for their kind assistance. Thanks to my colleagues and Thai friends who always gave support and assistance, A. Nui, A. P. Pari, A. Den, A. Sri, A. Piya, A.Samart, A. Hafiz, A. P. Hong, Surainee, Amini, Dr.Abdulai M. Kaba, A. P. Mung and family, Ummu and Abu Manal, Nida and B. Majid, Rose and Nun, Ummu Amnee and also Nawas and his family. My course mates also showed me the meaning of friendship: Selva, Abdulhakeem, Zahir, Hawas, Bilal, Habib, Aliyu, Kamal, Azlina, Amnah, Ida, Nadheerah and Aamal. We were the great team.
Finally, I dedicate this work to my mom and my family, who gave me the support and patience, my husband who is always beside me from the beginning till the end of this project. He showed his endless love and took care of me when the world seemed to fall apart. My sons, Shifan and Shafi, who were patient and went with their ummi everywhere ever since they were born. May Allah accept our good deeds and award us with Jannah.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ...... ii Abstract in Arabic ...... iii Approval Page ...... iv Declaration ...... v Copyright ...... vi Dedication ...... vii Acknowledgements ...... viii List of Tables ...... xii List of Figures ...... xiv List of Abbreviations ...... xv
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background of the Study ...... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem...... 3 1.3 Significance of the Study ...... 4 1.4 Research Objectives...... 5 1.5 Research Questions ...... 5 1.6 Literature Review ...... 5 1.6.1 Public diplomacy of the developed countries ...... 6 1.6.2 Public diplomacy of developing countries ...... 10 1.7 Theoretical Framework ...... 12 1.8 Hypotheses ...... 21 1.9 Operational Definitions ...... 22 1.10 Methods of Data Collection ...... 24 1.11 Chapter Outlines ...... 28
CHAPTER TWO: THE HISTORY OF THAILAND – MALAYSIA EXCHANGE DIPLOMACY ...... 30 2.1 Introduction...... 30 2.2 The Beginning of Exchange Diplomacy and Its Continuity ...... 31 2.3 The 2007 Memorandum of Understanding on Educational Cooperation ...... 34 2.3.1 The Sixty Malaysian Government Scholarship Programme ...... 37 2.3.1.1 The Process of Thai Grantees’ Recruitment ...... 38 2.3.1.2 Schools of Thai Grantees ...... 43 2.3.1.3 Causes of Withdrawal of Thai Grantees from the Programme ...... 48 2.3.1.4 Constraints in Admission to Thai Universities ...... 53 2.3.1.5 The Lessons Learnt from the First Cohort of Thai Grantees ...... 54 2.3.1.6 The Thai Students’ Parents of the Malaysian Government Scholarship Club (The Club) ...... 57 2.4 Conclusion ...... 61
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CHAPTER THREE: THAI GRANTEES’ OPINION OF MALAYSIA’S IMAGE ...... 63 3.1 Introduction...... 63 3.2 Country’s Image as A Middle Power Country ...... 64 3.2.1 Malaysia’s Image as a Middle Power Country ...... 67 3.2.1.1 Capacity ...... 68 3.2.1.2 Concentration...... 69 3.2.1.3 Creativity ...... 71 3.2.1.4 Coalition-building ...... 72 3.2.1.5 Credibility ...... 73 3.3 THe Survey Result ...... 75 3.3.1 Opinion of Malaysia ...... 76 3.3.1.1 Opinion of Malaysia before Arriving in Malaysia ...... 77 3.3.1.2 Opinion of Malaysia after Staying in Malaysia ...... 78 3.3.2 Opinion of Malaysia as a Middle Power Country ...... 81 3.4 The Interview Data ...... 83 3.4.1 Opinion of Malaysia before Arriving in Malaysia ...... 83 3.4.2 Opinion of Malaysia after Coming to Malaysia ...... 86 3.4.3 Malaysia’s Image as a Middle Power Country ...... 87 3.5 Conclusion ...... 90
CHAPTER FOUR: THE THAI GRANTEES’ UNDERSTANDING OF MALAYSIAN CULTURE ...... 93 4.1 Introduction...... 93 4.2 The Malaysian and Thai Cultures ...... 94 4.2.1 Malaysian Culture ...... 94 4.2.2 Thai Culture ...... 96 4.3 The Survey Result...... 99 4.3.1 Residence Variable ...... 102 4.3.2 Duration Variable ...... 105 4.4 The Interview Data ...... 106 4.4.1 Language as a Window to Know ...... 106 4.4.2 Cuisine and Eating Pattern ...... 108 4.4.3 The Malaysian Attire ...... 111 4.4.4 Sources of the Increased Understanding and Knowledge on the Malaysian Culture ...... 112 4.5 Conclusion ...... 114
CHAPTER FIVE: THE ROLE OF THAI GRANTEES AS CULTURAL MEDIATORS ...... 117 5.1 Introduction...... 117 5.2 Cultural Mediator...... 118 5.3 The Survey Result...... 119 5.3.1 Thai Grantees as Cultural Mediators ...... 120 5.3.1.1 Role of the Cultural Mediator as Translator ...... 122 5.3.1.2 Role of the Cultural Mediator as Synthesiser ...... 125 5.3.2 Residence Variable ...... 130 5.3.3 Duration Variable ...... 130 5.4 The Interview data ...... 131
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5.4.1 The Role of the Cultural Mediator as Translator ...... 132 5.4.1.1 The Role of the Cultural Mediator as Translator of the Malaysian Culture ...... 133 5.4.1.2 The Role of the Cultural Mediator as Translator of the Thai Culture ...... 134 5.4.2 The Cultural Mediator as Synthesiser ...... 136 5.4.2.1 The Role as Cultural Mediator as Synthesiser of the Malaysian Culture ...... 136 5.4.2.2 The Role of the Cultural Mediator as Synthesiser of the Thai Culture ...... 137 5.5 Conclusion ...... 139
CHAPTER SIX: FACTORS EXPLAINING THE ROLE OF THAI GRANTEES AS CULTURAL MEDIATORS ...... 142 6.1 Introduction...... 142 6.2 Factors Contributing to the Role of the Cultural Mediator...... 142 6.2.1 The Multicultural Networks Variable ...... 143 6.2.2 The Intercultural Competence Variable ...... 144 6.2.3 The Knowledge of the Host Country Culture ...... 145 6.3 The Survey Result...... 147 6.3.1 Influencing Variables to Cultural Mediator ...... 149 6.3.2 The Multicultural Networks Variable ...... 151 6.3.3 The Intercultural Competence Variable ...... 153 6.3.4 The Cultural Knowledge of Host Country Variable ...... 155 6.4 The Interview Data ...... 157 6.4.1 The Malaysian Teachers (The Secondary Network)...... 157 6.4.2 The Malaysian Friends (The Third Network) ...... 159 6.4.3 The Second Language Proficiency ...... 161 6.4.4 The Ability to Deal with Psychological Stress ...... 163 6.4.5 The Cultural Training...... 164 6.5 Conclusion ...... 166
CHAPTER SEVEN: SUMMARY, LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 170 7.1 Introduction...... 170 7.2 Summary of the Major Findings ...... 171 7.2.1 The Thai Grantees’ Opinion of Malaysia’s Image ...... 171 7.2.2 The Understanding of Malaysian Culture ...... 174 7.2.3 The Creation of Cultural Mediator...... 175 7.2.4 Factors Influencing the Role of the Cultural Mediator ...... 177 7.3 Limitations and Recommendations of the Study ...... 180 7.4 Conclusion ...... 183
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 186
APPENDIX I: LIST OF THE INTERVIEWEES ...... 196 APPENDIX II: INTERVIEW GUIDE ...... 197 APPENDIX III: QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 199 APPENDIX IV: THE 2007 MOU ...... 206
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Number of Thai grantees according to school and year of study 48
Table 3.1 Numbers of Thai grantees categorised by residence group 76
Table 3.2 Demographic profile of respondents 77
Table 3.3 Compared mean scores of opinion between before and after staying in Malaysia 79
Table 3.4 Compared statements concerning the Thai grantees’ future plan 80
Table 3.5 Mean score on Malaysia’s image as a middle power country 82
Table 3.6 Mean score result of the duration variables 83
Table 4.1 Mean score by statements 100
Table 4.2 Mean score of opinion classified by residence variables 102
Table 4.3 Mean score of major statements of the Deep South group 103
Table 4.4 Mean score of major statements of the Upper South group 104
Table 4.5 Mean score of major statements of the Central group 104
Table 4.6 Mean score of duration variable 105
Table 5.1 Ranking mean score statements 121
Table 5.2 Mean score of cultural mediator and sub-type 121
Table 5.3 The comparison mean score of the cultural mediator as translator of the Malaysian culture to Thai culture 123
Table 5.4 Mean score of cultural mediator as synthesizer 126
Table 5.5 Compared mean score of the cultural mediator by residence variable 130
Table 5.6 Mean score of cultural mediator by duration variable 131
Table 6.1 The coefficient result of multicultural networks, intercultural competence and cultural knowledge of host country by Linear Regression 150
Table 6.2 The correlation between cultural mediator and independent variables 150
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Table 6.3 The coefficient result of multicultural networks sub-variables using Linear Regression 151
Table 6.4 The correlation between the cultural mediator variable, secondary network variable and third network variable 152
Table 6.5 The coefficient result of intercultural competence sub-variables using Linear Regression 153
Table 6.6 The correlation between the cultural mediator and the intercultural competence 154
Table 6.7 The coefficient result of the cultural knowledge of the host country culture sub-variables using Linear Regression 155
Table 6.8 The correlation between cultural mediator and cultural knowledge variables 156
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Impact of exchange diplomacy 18
Figure 2.1 The cycle of Thai grantees’ recruitment 41
Figure 2.2 Causes of withdrawal of Thai grantees from the programme 51
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AFTA ASEAN Free Trade Area BIC Bureau of International Cooperation CHN Cooper, Higgott and Nossal CLMV Cambodia Lao Myanmar and Vietnam EAEC East Asian Economic Cooperation EAEG East Asian Economic Group EU European Union EUVP European Union Visitors Program GAT General Aptitude Test IDB Islamic Development Bank IFSB Islamic Financial Service Board IPC International Islamic Peace Committee JDS Joint Development Strategy JC Joint Commission KISAS Kolej Islam Sultan Alam Shah MOE Ministry of Education MOU Memorandum of Understanding MTCP Malaysian Technical Cooperation Program O-NET Ordinary National Education Test PAT Professional and Academic Aptitude PKO Peace Keeping Operations PLO Palestinian Liberation Organization PMR Penilaian Menengah Rendah PSU Prince of Songkla University SBPAC Southern Border Provincial Administrative Centre SBPIG, InteGOMB Sekolah Berasrama Penuh Integrasi Gombak SBPIR, SEPINTAR Sekolah Berasrama Penuh Integrasi Rawang SBT Sekolah Berprestasi Tinggi SEAMEO Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization SMAPK Sekolah Menengah Agama Persekutuan Kajang SMAPL Sekolah Menengah Agama Persekutuan Labu SMKAKL Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama Kuala Lumpur SPM Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia UMK University Malaysia Kelantan UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNPKO United Nations Peace Keeping Operations UNSC United Nations Security Council USIA United States Information Agency UTP Universiti Teknologi Petronas ZOPFAN Zone of Peace Freedom and Neutrality
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Public diplomacy is a foreign policy tool which is used to influence attitudes towards foreign countries, affecting a country’s soft power. Public diplomacy is implemented in five ways. One of them relates to education, which is an exchange of persons or
“Exchange Diplomacy.”1 Like many other countries, Malaysia also employs exchange diplomacy in its foreign policy agendas.
Malaysia has been employing diplomatic tools and establishing its missions in international arenas for quite some time. In the view of a former Malaysian diplomat, public diplomacy plays an important role in helping to communicate Malaysian interests abroad, as well as to promote its foreign policy to other countries.2 The
Department of Information and Public Diplomacy, under the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs or Wisma Putra was established in 19703 (earlier known as the External
Information Division). Its main task is to update and provide accurate information about the country as well as to project the country’s positive image in order to maintain a favourable environment for Malaysia’s trade, investment, tourism and development.4
Although it seems that Malaysian public diplomacy increasingly emphasises information distribution, other elements such as cultural and exchange diplomacy, also
1 See five components of public diplomacy in Nicholas J. Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 1945-1989, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008). 2 Aznan Mat Piah, “Public Diplomacy,”
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helps to promote the country’s national interest. The exchange of persons or exchange diplomacy can be seen not only in the form of the exchange of persons, but also shared experiences, information and knowledge in both technical and non-technical fields, which include trainings and scholarships.
One of the oldest training and scholarship programmes in the Malaysian exchange diplomacy is the Malaysian Technical Cooperation Programme (MTCP), established in 1980.5 Some MTCP schemes, such as short and training courses, have been in practice from the beginning while long-term courses (scholarships) have been offered since 1992.6 In 2006, there were 136 MTCP recipient countries, in which
Thailand was ranked seventh.7
Malaysia’s exchange diplomacy is also conducted through the signing of
Memorandums of Understanding (MOU) with other governments on a variety of cooperative areas. An MOU signifies the intention of states to strengthen their cooperation with other states. In 2007, the Malaysian government signed an MOU with the Thai government on educational cooperation, specifically in strengthening and broadening mutual cooperation in the context of education and skills training. As a result of this agreement, the Malaysian government awarded 60 scholarships to Thai
Muslim students annually to pursue their secondary studies in five Malaysian boarding schools: 1) Sekolah Menengah Agama Persekutuan Kajang (SMAPK), 2) Sekolah Menengah Agama Persekutuan Labu (SMAPL), 3) Sekolah Berasrama Penuh Integrasi Gombak (SBPIG, InteGOMB), 4) Sekolah Berasrama Penuh
5 National Institute of Public Administration (INTAN), “Malaysian Technical Cooperation Programmes,”
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Integrasi Rawang (SBPIR, SEPINTAR), and 5) Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan
Agama Kuala Lumpur (SMAKL, SMKAKL).8
The total number of students who received the scholarships from 2008 to
September 2012 was 288,9 whereas the number of Malaysian exchange students to
Thailand in 2012 was 60.10 The considerable number of Thai students receiving
Malaysian scholarships indicates that the Malaysian exchange diplomacy is well- received by its neighbouring country.
The general objective of the exchange diplomacy is to create understanding and to influence the government of the host country towards the people of the home country. This study investigates the impact of the Malaysian exchange diplomacy since the 2007 MOU on the scholarship recipients.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Since the 2007 MOU came into effect, and its expiry in 2013, there has been no academic study about this programme. Moreover, many MOUs signed between governments usually do revolve on the governments’ matters while neglecting people aspect. The Sixty Malaysian government scholarship programme of the 2007 MOU which is part of the Malaysian exchange diplomacy includes this people aspect, since it directly affects the people, particularly the Muslim minority of Southern Thailand.
8 MarateeYusoh, Interview by Author, Ampang Kuala Lumpur, 13 September 2012. 9 MarateeYusoh, Interview by Author, Ampang Kuala Lumpur, 13 September 2012. However, on the day of questionnaire circulation on January 2013, the number of Thai grantees decreased to 278. 10 Royal Thai Embassy, “Thai-Malaysian Social Education Youth and Cultural Relations,” 17 July 2013.
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The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of the Malaysian exchange diplomacy on Thai grantees, i.e. the school students who received scholarships to study in Malaysia between 2008 and 2012.
It is argued that the impact of the Malaysian exchange diplomacy does not only result in the reinforcement of Malaysia’s image as a middle power, but also in assisting to create a positive image of Malaysia on the Thai grantees. Moreover, as a result of Malaysian training and education, the Thai grantees are perceived to sustain a role as cultural mediators, which can increase an understanding of the Malaysian culture in their home country, Thailand.
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The insurgency in southern Thailand which re-erupted almost a decade ago has caused deterioration of those affected areas. The people in this territory have suffered turbulence, both in terms of security and the socio-economic factor. Due to such circumstances, the cooperation between the Thai and Malaysian governments in education through the exchange of students aims to ease unavoidable trouble in the southern part of Thailand.
Although exchange diplomacy is a long-term process, it is imperative to study its impact, particularly on the host country. This study targets to highlight significant benefits of exchange diplomacy, and to propose policies for the attention of policymakers. This study expects to place greater emphasis on exchange diplomacy, especially in education. The result of this study signifies the importance of the MOU and its resulting cooperation between governments, which leads to the creation of a long-lasting peaceful relationship between the neighbouring countries.
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1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this study are as follows:
i. To investigate the Thai grantees’ opinion of Malaysia.
ii. To verify the impact of the Malaysian exchange diplomacy in
understanding the Malaysian culture among Thai grantees.
iii. To investigate the impact of the Malaysian exchange diplomacy in shaping
Thai grantees as cultural mediators.
iv. To ascertain factors affecting the Thai grantees’ role as cultural mediators.
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
To achieve the objectives of the study, this study addresses research questions as follows:
i. What is the impact of the Malaysian exchange diplomacy on Malaysia’s
image in the Thai grantees’ opinion?
ii. How does the Malaysian exchange diplomacy affect the Thai grantees’
understanding of the Malaysian culture?
iii. Does the Malaysian exchange diplomacy help Thai grantees develop their
roles as cultural mediators?
iv. What are the factors which explain the Thai grantees’ role as cultural
mediators?
1.6 LITERATURE REVIEW
Public diplomacy scholars, such as Nancy Snow, Philip M. Taylor and Jan Melissen acknowledge that public diplomacy is dominated by developed countries, particularly
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by the U.S. and the Anglophone world.11Numerous studies by Giles Scott-Smith,
Nancy Snow, or H. Efe Sevin on public diplomacy focus on exchange diplomacy in developed countries. The same cannot be said on exchange diplomacy in the developing countries.
This section discusses literature on public diplomacy in two categories: public diplomacy in developed countries trying to promote soft power and maintain their interest or influence, and public diplomacy in developing countries aiming at economic interest.
1.6.1 Public diplomacy of the developed countries
Within the category of public diplomacy of the developed countries, this study purposely distinguishes U.S. public diplomacy from that of the other developed countries. This is because most of the public diplomacy studies concern the U.S. as it historically employs public diplomacy in its foreign policy through various elements and towards many different target groups.
Studies by Kraus and Van Evera,12 the Bipartisan Policy Center,13 and
Michael Egner14 show the attempt of the U.S. government in using public diplomacy towards Arab and Muslim countries, particularly in the Middle East. The major impact of these studies is that America’s soft power particularly influences values of democracy and human rights. The study by the Bipartisan Policy Center on the
11 Please see Nancy Snow and Philip M. Taylor, “Preface and Introduction,” in Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy, edited by Nancy Snow and Phillip M. Taylor, (New York: Routledge, 2009), x. Jan Melissen, “Introduction,” in The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations, edited by Jan Melissen (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), xx. 12 Peter Kraus and Stephen Van Evera, “Public Diplomacy: Ideas for the War of Ideas,” Middle East Policy vol. XVI, no. 3 (Fall, 2009): 106-134. 13 Bipartisan Policy Center, “Strategic Public Diplomacy: The Case of Egypt,”
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Egyptian uprising was an example of the success of American soft power on democratic values because the U.S. strategy in Egypt was to support and promote democracy. This impact is consistent with what Joseph S. Nye Jr., Harvard’s political science professor, has said, that public diplomacy is “a fundamental means of promoting a country’s soft power.”15
William Colona’s study16 also reveals the impact of public diplomacy in promoting America’s soft power and its influence via the new media channels of the
American public diplomacy such as “DipNote”, the State Department’s weblog, the social media video YouTube, and social networking site Facebook.
Another impact of public diplomacy is the perception of the U.S. image.
Kinsey and Zatepilina’s study17 shows that visual public diplomacy produces mixed perceptions of the U.S.’s image both in the negative and positive ways. Interestingly, they discover that it is hard to predict perceptions of a country’s image, especially when it concerns the positive image because some respondents perceive the U.S. as a hypocrite and an insincere great power. Moreover, it is harder to control positive and negative images toward one’s country as scholars of public diplomacy, as Cowan and
Arsenault admit, “image” is a monologue communication.
Considering the educational aspect in the U.S. public diplomacy, studies by
Yuegen Yu18 and Christopher Medalis19 uncover that education is a major factor affecting other countries with American ideas. Simultaneously, it has been the key
15 Joseph S. Nye Jr,, “Public diplomacy and Soft Power,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 616 (March 2008): 94. LexisNexis, via EBCO 16 William Colona, “Social Media and the Advancement of America’s Soft Power by Public Diplomacy,” (Master thesis, Georgetown University, 2012). 17 Dennis Kinsey and Olga Zatepilina, “The Impact of Visual Images on Non-US Citizens’ Attitudes About a United States: A Q-Study in Visual Public Diplomacy,” Exchange the Journal of Public Diplomacy,
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element in bilateral relations between the U.S. and China, and the U.S. and Hungary.
However, a study by William Thayer Epps,20 using a Gramscian perspective, argues that public diplomacy on education is a strategy to maintain American power and its hegemony in Ecuador. Wayne Nelles’s work21 on public diplomacy reviews three presidential periods: Reagan, Clinton and George Bush Jr. Nelles’ argument indicates that the U.S. public diplomacy is not only a foreign policy tool that influences foreign views, but is also used as pseudo-education, enforcing the U.S. advantage over weaker states.
Assessing U.S. public diplomacy through exchange programmes, William
Kiehl,22 Scott-Smith (2006),23 Scott-Smith (2008),24 and Carol Atkinson25 in different studies explore different targets of the U.S. exchange diplomacy. The results reveal that public diplomacy is a successful tool to reduce misunderstanding of the
American policy, since it promotes and projects the soft power of the United States and also efficiently maintains the country’s alliance network. Finally, the studies by
Nancy Snow26 and H. Efe Sevin27 discuss the role of sojourners in the Fulbright
20 William Thayer Epps, “Maintaining the Empire: diplomacy and Education in U.S.-Ecuadorian Relations, 1933-1963,” (Ph.D. Thesis, University of Texas at Austin, 2009). 21 Wayne Nelles, “American Public Diplomacy as Pseudo-Education: A Problematic National Security and Counter Terrorism Instrument,” International Politics, vol. 41 (2004):65-93. 22 William Kiehl, “Where the Rubber Meets the Road: PD as It is Practiced Abroad,”
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programme acting as cultural mediators or “cultural ambassadors”, in Sevin’s term, between the U.S. and their home countries,
Other developed countries, such as Australia and Britain, also practice public diplomacy. Caitlin Byrne and Rebecca Hall’s28 studies about international education in Australian public diplomacy, find that the potential role of the Australian public diplomacy in the area of international education remained untapped in forwarding the agenda of the country’s soft power. Even Liechtenstein,29 a small-sized state, directs its consular staff to do extra work in encompassing efforts in public and cultural diplomacy. Jozef Batora’s study30 on Norway’s and Canada’s diplomacy with small and medium-sized states reveal the conduct of public diplomacy to pursue their soft power in international affairs.
At the European Union (EU) level, a study on European Union Visitors
Programme (EUVP) conducted by Scott-Smith31 shows the potential of projecting the
EU’s soft power through exchange programmes. The EU exchange diplomacy of sponsoring higher education in developing countries, particularly in Southeast Asia, also aims to advocate its power and influence on this region, which can be seen in
William J. Jones’s work.32
28 Caitlin Byrne and Rebecca Hall, “Australian’s International Education as Public Diplomacy: Soft Power Potential,” Discussion Paper on Diplomacy, Netherlands Institution of International Relations ‘Clingendael’ No. 121 (July 2011).
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