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Index

aberration of light 174, 178, 184 Apollonius: eccentric circles and above-atmosphere rocketry epicycles 35–7 317–19 Aquinas, Thomas: Aristotelian- 186, 261, 265 Christian synthesis 75 achromatic lens 236 Archer, F. S.: photography 233 active optics 309 and Aristarchus 34 Adams, John Couch 163; meteors Arcturus 239, colour described by 244; Neptune discovery 164 Herschel 254 Adams, W. S.: H–R diagram 262 Arecibo Observatory 322 Adelard of Bath: translations 58 Argelander, F. W. A.: Bonner of the Universe 300, 305 222; solar Airy, George Biddell: Neptune apex 176 discovery 163–4 Ariel discovered 244 Albert of Saxony: Aristotelian Aristarchus: distances of the view 88 and the 34; motion of the Alexander, Stephen: spiral Milky Earth 34 Way 274 Aristotle 19, 75; celestial spheres Alfvén, H.: early 251 32; celestial–terrestrial Alfonsine Tables 58, 78, 95 dichotomy 141–2; Earth at Algol: Sufi’s drawing 59; eclipsing centre of the Universe 28; Earth binary 258; variable 172 at rest 28; elements 27–8; algorithms 53 Galileo’s enmity 119; On the Alpetragius (Abu Ishaq al-Bitruji): Heavens and the Earth 88; in planetary models 60 medieval astrology and Alpha Centauri: annual parallax medicine 73; in medieval 189 universities 74–5; Meteorology Alpher, Ralph A.: Big Bang 28, 96; projectiles 82, 101; residual radiation 316 spherical Earth 28, 94 altazimuth mountings 187, 309 armillary spheres 49 al-Zarqali (Azaquiel): Toledan Association of Universities for Tables 58, 74 Research in Astronomy 307–8 Alvan Clark & Sons: 30-inch asteroids discovered 160–2 refractor 237 astrarium (Giovanni de’ Dondi’s Anaximander’s cosmology 25 ) 81–2 Andromeda : Cepheid astrolabe 63–7; as clock 81; variables 292–4, 295–6; combined with quadrant 79; distance and size 295–300; mariner’s 63; transmission to Huggins’s ‘planetary system’ West 72–3 286; photographed 286; radial astrology: Babylonian 20; velocity 288; S Andromedae conjunctions of 169–70; 287 and cosmology 27; Islamic angel: nine orders 77; mover of opposition 55–7; Kepler 170; sphere 84 Mayan 12; medieval 73; and Ångstrom, A. J.: hydrogen in solar observation 21; ’s atmosphere 227; wavelengths Tetrabiblos 40 of Fraunhofer lines 227 Astronomical Journal 221–2 annual parallax 101, 112, 177–89 Astronomical Society of London Apollo Moon landings 319 221

347

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348 Index

astronomical unit 92, 179, 185 Bethe, H. A.: nuclear energy in Astronomische Gesellschaft 222 267, 272 Astronomische Nachrichten 221, Big Bang 315–17, 323; residual 222 radiation 316 Astronomischer Jahrsbericht 222 Big Dipper – see Great Bear Astronomy and Astrophysics binary stars: eclipsing 257–8, 265; Abstracts 222 John Michell’s concept 235; Astrophysical Journal 238 spectroscopic 257–8, 265 Atkinson, R. d’E.: nuclear energy Bishop, George: observatory in in stars 266 Regent’s Park 217 atmospheric interference 309; Bitruji, Abu Ishaq al- refraction 173–4, 178 (Alpetragius): planetary models atomic 166 60 Auzout, Adrien: wire micrometer black holes 189 146 blink microscopes 289 Averroës (Muhammad ibn blue giants 267, 297 Rushd): eccentrics and Board of 152, 153 epicycles 59–60 Bode, Johann Elert 159, Piazzi Azarquiel (al-Zarquali): Toledan correspondence 161; Uranus 161 Tables 58 Bode’s ‘law’ 158–63 Boethius: translations of Aristotle Baade, Walter 269; Andromeda and Plato 68 Nebula’s distance 297–300; Bohlin, Karl: size of the Cygnus A. 314; novae and 278–9, 280 supernovae 270; pulsars 269 Bohr, Niels: atomic model 263 Babylonian astronomy 19–21, 50; Bok, Bart J.: evolution of stars 273 contact with Greeks 33 Bolton, John G.: Crab Nebula Bailey, Solon I.: Cepheids and radio source 314 distances of stars 277 Bond, George Phillips: Donati’s Ballochroy standing stones 8–10 Comet 240; ’s rings 249 Balmer, Johann: hydrogen Bond, William Cranch: Saturn’s spectroscopy 321 rings 249 Barasana (Colombian) Bondi, Hermann: Steady State 15–16 cosmology 315 Barnard, E. E.: dark nebulae 282–3 Bonner Durchmusterung 222 Bartholin, Erasmus: longitude of Bonnet, Charles: Contemplation Hven observatories 151 de la nature 158–9 Battani, Muhammad al- 58 Boulliau, Ismael: variable stars Bede: On the Divisions of 171 71–2 Bowditch, Nathaniel: Laplace’s Bell, Jocelyn: pulsar 321 translator 156–7 Bellarmine, Cardinal Robert: Bowen, Ira S.: chemical censure of Galileo 116–17 composition of the stars 264 Ben Gerson, Levi: cross-staff 80 Bradley, James 174; aberration of Ben Mahir, Jacob (Profatius the light 184; Astronomer Royal Jew): new quadrant 79–80 174–5; nutation of the Earth’s Bentley, Richard, and Newton’s axis 174; speed of light 183–4; fixed stars 190 zenith sector 182–3 Berlin Observatory 164 Brahe, Tycho 5–103, 110; Bérulle, Pierre de, and Descartes cosmology 101–3, 117; ’s 120 and Saturn’s variations 154–5; Bessarion, Johannes, and Epitome Moon’s variations 141–2; of the Almagest 85–6 observations 106–7; refraction Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm 175; 61 tables 174; Cygni 186, 188; divided-lens 100–1, 152 micrometer 187; Fundamenta Bredikhin, F. A.: classification of astronomiae 175–6; heliometer comets 239 187; Sirius’s irregular motion Brera Observatory 245 267 brightness – see magnitude Beta Centauri 5 British Catalogue 153, 184 Beta Persei – see Algol Buffon, Comte de: origin of Betelgeuse’s colour 254–5 planets 250

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Index 349

Bunsen, Robert: spectroscopy of Cepheid variables 278–80, 303; in elements 225–6 Andromeda Nebula 292–4; Burbidge, Geoffrey: element light curve 294; in Small formation 323 Magellanic Cloud 277; in Virgo Burbidge, Margaret: element 311 formation 323 Ceques (Inca radiating lines) 10 Buridan, Jean: impetus 83–4 Ceres asteroid discovered 160–1 Cerro Tololo Observatory 308 caesium identified 225 Chadwick, James: neutrons 268 Cairo Observatory 56 Challis, James: Neptune search Calcidius: translations from 163–4 Greek to Latin 69 Chamberlin, T. C.: planetesimal : Babylonian 20–2; hypothesis 250–1 Barasana (Colombian) 15–16, Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan: Chinese 48–9; Easter 71–2; mass limit for white dwarfs Egyptian 22–4; ephemerides 21, 268, 320 220; Islamic 51–3; Julian 71–2; Chaucer, Geoffrey: astrology and Mayan 12–14; Misminay medicine 73 (Andean) 16; Mursi (Ethiopian) Chéseaux, J.-P. L. de: starlight 195 15; prehistoric 2; Stonehenge? 48–9 5–7 Chladmi, Ernst: origins of Callippus on planetary meteorites 243 retrogression 31–2 Christian IV of Denmark: Tycho Caltech Submillimeter Brahe’s patron 103 Observatory 308 Christina, Queen of Sweden: Cameron, A. G. W.: element Descartes’s patron 120 formation 323 chromatic aberration 125, 127 Campbell, W. W.: radial velocities chromosphere of the Sun 231 of stars 257 chronometers 154 Cape Observatory 253 Cicero: Dream of Scipio 70–1; Capella spectroscopic binary 257 and Boethius 68–9 Capella, Martianus, and Crates of Clairaut, Alexis-Claude: Mallus 71; and perturbed orbit of Halley’s 69–70, 102–3 Comet 148; Newtonian Carrington, R. C.: magnetism and consequences 148–50 sunspots 229 Clark, Alvan Jr: Sirius’s Carte du Ciel 223 companion 267 Cartesianism 119–23, 135–6, Clarke, Samuel: Leibniz 144–6; see also Descartes, René correspondence 193; Rohault’s Cassini, Gian Domenico: aerial translator 145 telescopes 146; Paris Academy Cleomedes on atmospheric of 146; rotation of refraction 174 Jupiter 247; Saturn’s 140 Clerk Maxwell, James: Cassiopeia : 1572 electromagnetic theory 300; on nova 96–7 Saturn’s rings 249 Catherine the Great: Leonhard Clerke, Agnes C.: island Euler’s patron 149 universes rejected 287 CCDs (photosensitive charge- cluster variables 298–9 coupled devices) 309 Colbert, Jean Baptiste: Paris celestial mechanics: limits to Academy of Sciences 146 precision 165–7 colour index 259, 265, 284 celestial spheres: Chinese Columbus’s lunar eclipse 86 astronomy 48; Christianized comet sweepers: Caroline 77; Copernicus 94; fixed stars Herschel’s 201–2 28; inflexible 32; Kepler 105–6; comets: 1577 56, 96–8, 102; 1680 Macrobius 70; medieval 140; 1882 252–3; Aristotle 28, conception 29; music of 96–7; Chinese astronomy 49; 109–11; physically real 45; Descartes 122; Donati’s 239–42; separate 60; solidity disproved Halley’s 49, 96, 147, 147–8; 96–8, 102–3; theological 188, 306; Hooke 137–8; Laplace problems 76 155; Newton 137, 140–1; Centaurus in Mursi calendrics 15 spectroscopy 242–3

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350 Index

Comte, Auguste, on Deimos discovered 244 unknowability of the chemical Delambre. J.-B. J.: Uranus’s orbit composition of stars 226–7 163 conjunctions: Chinese astronomy Delta Cephei 269, 278; light 48; Jupiter–Saturn 95, 169 curve 279 Connoissance des Temps 220 Descartes, René 95, 119–24; Cook, James: praise for Harrison Principles of Philosophy 123, chronometer 154 144; vortices 122, 131 Copenhagen Observatory 129 Dicke, Robert H.: Big Bang Copernican system 114; Galileo’s residual radiation 316–17 outline 114 Ditton, Humphry: longitude Copernicanism 116–18; defended 152 by Galileo 111; Galileo’s 116 Dollond, John: achromatics 128; Copernicus, Nicholas 86–8; and divided-lens micrometer 187 Aristarchus 33–4; and al- Donati, Giovan Battista: Battani 8; and Capella 70; spectroscopy of comets 242 Commentariolus 89, 62; De Donati’s Comet 240, 241 revolutionibus 89–90, 91, 93, Doppler, Christian 256 116; equant avoided 41, 43, 61; Doppler shift 256, 257, 303–4 and Peuerbach 85; planetary Dorpat observatory 186–7 motions 107 double stars – see binary stars corona of the Sun 230–1, 233 Draper, Henry: Henry Draper ‘coronium’ element 233 Catalogue 259–60; stellar Cosimo II de’ Medici: Galileo’s spectral types 259; patron 112 spectrum photographed 252 cosmogony 208–11, 250–2 Dresden Codex: Mayan solar cosmology: Big Bang 315–17, 323; eclipse table 12–14; Venus table Christianized 77; Dark Ages 13 69–71; Greek 24–33; Kant 200; Duncan, J. C.: M 33 variable stars Lambert 200; observational 290 301–3; Pythagorean 26–7, 70, dwarf stars 264, 267, 271 109; Steady State 315–17; Tycho Brahe 101; Wright Earth: central to Universe 101–2, 196–200 102; cylindrical 25; flat 49; Crab Nebula 59, 270, 314 flattened at Poles 142, 146–7; Crates of Mallus: cosmology 71 interacting with Sun and Moon cross-staff 79–80 133–4; magnetic field 131–2, Crossley 36-inch reflector 238, 228–9; motion 34, 48, 82, 88, 285 91, 95, 102, 184; nutation of Curtis, Heber D.: Great Debate axis 174, 178, 184; orbiting Sun 290; obscuring matter 288; 90–93; perturbations 167; spiral nebulae 283 spherical 26, 94; tides 166; 61 Cygni 186, 188 unmoving 101–2 Cygnus A radio source 314 Easter date 71–2 Easton, Cornelis: spiral Milky d’Alembert, Jean le Rond: Way 274 Newtonian consequences 149 eccentric circles 35, 59–60, 82 d’Arrest, Heinrich Louis: nebulae eclipses: artificial 231–3; Chinese 217 astronomy 48–9, 150–1; solar dark matter 282–4 13–14, 230–3, 301; Stonehenge 5 darkness at night 193–4 eclipsing binaries 258 Darwin, G. H.: fission of Earth Eddington, Sir Arthur 301; 252 Cepheid variables 269; The Dawes, Rev. W. R.: Saturn’s rings Internal Constitution of the 249 Stars 267; mass– De la Rue, Warren: sunspot relation 264–5; Stars and photographs 233 Atoms 265; white dwarfs 267, De Sitter, Willem: cosmology 302 320 De’ Dondi, Giovanni (early Edessa school 50 clockmaker) 81–2 Edlén, Bengt: chemical decans (Egyptian calendrics) 3 composition of stars 264; deferents 35–6 ‘coronium’ explained 233

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Index 351

Egyptian calendars 22–4 Fowler, R. H.: degenerate matter Einstein, Albert: Relativity 166, 268 265, 301 Fowler, William: element element formation 322 formation 323 elements: Aristotle 27–8; Fraunhofer, Joseph: divided-lens formation 264, 265–6, 322–3; micrometer 187; Dorpat spectroscopy 225–7, 263–5 refractor 186–7, heliometer elliptical orbits 135–6; dynamics 187; solar spectrum 224–6 135–6; Galileo’s rejection 118; Frederick II of Denmark: Tycho Halley and Newton 139; and Brahe’s patron 103 inverse-square law 134–5; Frederick the Great: Leonhard Kepler 106–7, 130; Ptolemy’s Euler’s patron 149 approximation 35–6 Friedmann, A. A.: cosmology 302 Empyreum (eleventh sphere) 76 Frost, E. B.: radial velocities of Encke, J. F., and Schiaparelli 244 stars 251 Enuma Anu Enlil (Babylonian tablets) 18–21 (extragalactic nebulae): ephemerides 21 as island universes 286–95; epicycles 35–6, 59, 82 receding 316–17; as spiral equant point 41–3, 59–61, 82, 89, nebulae 286–299; 109, 130 velocity–distance relation 303; equatorial mountings 187 see also 111–19 2 Galileo Galilei 95, 111–19; Eratosthenes on the size of the annual parallax 178; and Earth 26 Copernicus 101; Dialogue on Eta Argus (Eta Carinae) outbursts the Two Great World Systems 256 114, 117–18; Letters on Euclid: Elements 18 Sunspots 116; longitude 150–1; Eudoxus: Moon’s motions 29–30; Starry Messenger 113–14, 116, planetary retrogression 30–1 125; telescopes 112–13, 114, Euler, Leonhard: lunar 125; topographical backsights 8 calculations 153; variations in Galloway, Thomas: planetary orbits 154–5 176–7 European Southern Observatory Gamma Draconis: annual 308 parallax 179, 182 evolution of stars 209–11, 255, Gamow, George: Big Bang 270–3, 322 residual radiation 316–17 expansion of the Universe 300–5 Gascoigne, William: micrometer 128–9 Fabricius, David: 1596 nova 170; Gauss, Carl Friedrich, and sunspots 114 Benjamin Gould 221–2; Ceres Fabricius, Johann: sunspots 114 asteroid discovery 161; curved Fallows, Fearon (Royal - 300; terrestrial Astronomer, Cape of Good magnetism 228–9 Hope) 213 Geissler, Johann: inventor of glass Ferguson, James, and William tubes 227 Herschel 202 Gellibrand, Henry: The Strange Ficino, Marsilio: transmission of and Dangerous Voyage of Greek texts 87 Captaine Thomas James 150 First Mover 77 George III: ’s Fixlmillner, Placidus: Uranus’s pension 205 orbit 163 Gerard of Cremona: translations Fizeau, A.-H.-L.: daguerreotype of from Arabic to Latin 74 solar disc 233 Gerbert of Aurillac (Pope Flamsteed, John: Astronomer Sylvester II); transmission of Royal 153; British Catalogue Islamic learning 72 153; 184; and Halley 135; Giant Branch stars 262, 271–2 theory of comets 138; Uranus giant stars 261, 264, 267, 271 recorded (1690) 163 Gilbert, William: magnetical Foucault, J. B. L.: daguerreotype philosophy 131–2 of solar disc 233; silver-on-glass Gill, David: early photography of reflector 237 comets 253

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352 Index

Giotto spacecraft: Halley’s Comet Harriot, Thomas: early telescopic 306–7 observations 125; sunspots 114 God 78; in Cartesian system Harrison, John: chronometers 122–3; Kepler’s geometer 153–4 104–5, 157; in Newtonian Harvard Catalogue of Stellar system 141, 144, 192–3; in Spectra 259 Wright’s Universe 196–7 Harvard College Observatory 236, Gold, Thomas: Steady State 254, 257, 259–60; 15-inch cosmology 315 refractor 248 Goodricke, John: Dollond heavenly spheres – see celestial achromatic 128; variable stars spheres 172–3, 278 helium: discovered 232–3; Göttingen Observatory 228 formation in stars 264–6, Gould, Benjamin Apthorp: 272–3, 323–4 Astronomical Journal 221 Hellenistic astronomy 33–47 Graham, George: zenith sector Helmholtz, Hermann von: energy 182 of the Sun 234–5 gravitation: Earth and Moon 142–3; Hencke, K. L.: asteroids 162 Einstein 301; Hooke (gravitating Henderson, Thomas: annual power) 133–4; Newton 136–44, parallax of Alpha Centauri 188–9 145; stars 210, 323 henge monuments 5–7 Great Bear constellation 96 Henry Draper Catalogue 260 Greek astronomy 24, 50; contact Heraclides of Pontus: motion of with Babylonians 33–5 the Earth 34; Venus and Greenwich Observatory 153–4, Mercury 69 175 constellation 176 Gregory, David: Astronomiae Herman, Robert: Big Bang elementa 157–8; distance of residual radiation 316 Sirius 179–80 Hermann the Cripple: astrolabe Gresham College 150; genesis of treatises 72 Newton’s Principia 131–2 Herschel, Caroline 201–2, 206–7 Gresham, Sir Thomas 132 Herschel, John 201, 212; Milky Grubb, Thomas: 48-inch reflector Way structure 273–4; nebulae 237 and star clusters 212–13, 215; Guillemin, A.: Donati’s Comet 278, 283; praise for Bessel 188; 241 scepticism about star- formation 210; southern H1 and H4 (Harrison’s observations 213–15, 256; and chronometers) 153–4 South 212; A Treatise on Hale, George Ellery 223, 238; and Astronomy 168 Harlow Shapley 277–8; Herschel, William 201–12; 7-foot International Union for Co- reflector 159, 203–4; 20-foot operation in Solar Research 223 reflectors 205–6, 213; 40-foot Hall, Asaph: Martian moons 244 reflector 209; ‘Catalogues of the Hall, Chester Moor: achromatic Comparative Brightness of the lens 128 Stars’ 171; Ceres asteroid Halley, Edmond 135; comet – see discovery 162; evolution of Halley’s Comet; Moon’s stars 156, 209–11; Galaxy apparent acceleration 154; mapped 208–9; gravitation nebulae 203; and Newton 135, between stars 204–5, 210; 138–41, 144; proper motions of Milky Way structure 273–4; stars 173; Omega Centauri star nebulae 205–12; Oberon cluster 278; southern discovery 244; star colours 254; observations 214; starlight 194; Sun’s direction 176; Titania stellar magnitudes 258 discovery 244; Uranus Halley’s Comet 49, 96, 147–8, discovery 159–60, 204 188, 306 Hertzsprung, Ejnar: evolution Harding, K. L., and Heinrich of stars 271; H–R diagram Schwabe 228 260–1 harmony in the universe: Kepler Hesiod on predicting 10 106, 109; Pythagorean 26–7, Hevelius, Johannes: Mira variable 109 star 170; telescopes 126

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Index 353

Hewish, Antony: pulsar discovery humanist movement 84–5 321 Humason, Milton.: colleague of Hey, James S.: early radio Hubble 292, 303; radial astronomy 312 velocities of galaxies 303–4 Hicetas: motion of the Earth 34 Humboldt, Alexander von: high energy astronomy 322–3 meteor displays 243; sunspot Hind, John R.: nebula in Taurus cycle 228 217 Huygens, Christiaan 135; aerial Hindu astronomy 58 telescope 126; Cosmotheoros Hipparchus 18–19, 37–8; lunar 157; Earth flattened at poles eclipses as time signals 150; 146; micrometer 128; nebulae motion of the Moon 37; motion 203; orbital motion 135; of the Sun 37–8; precession of 152; telescopes the equinoxes 39, 142; 126; Saturn’s rings 114; Sirius’s Ptolemy’s borrowings 37, 39 distance 179 Hodgson, Richard: sunspots 229 Hven observatories 103 Holwarda, Johannes Phocylides: hydrogen in stars 264, 272–3 Mira variable star 170 Holywood, John of – see Ibadi, ibn Ishaq al-: translations Sacrobosco from Greek 51 Hooke, Robert 133; Attempt to Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen): Prove the Motion of the Earth: planetary models 60 133; Cometa 138; inverse- Ibn Rushd, Muhammad square problem 137–8; and (Averroës): eccentres and Newton 136–7, 144; epicycles 59–60 ‘suppositions’ (gravity and Ibn al-Shatir: equants and orbital dynamics) 133–4, 139; eccentric circles 61–2 128; zenith telescope 181–2 Ibn Yunus, Abd al-Rahman: Hooker, J. D.: philanthropist 239 Hakimi Zij 58–9 Hopi horizon calendar 17 Inca radiating lines 11 Hornsby, Thomas: Uranus inertia (Newton) 139 discovery 159 Infrared Astronomical Satellite House of Wisdom, Baghdad 50–1, 318 53, 58 International Astronomical Houtermans, F.: nuclear energy in Union 223–4 stars 266 International Ultraviolet Explorer Hoyle, Fred: element formation 318 323; Steady State cosmology International Union for Co- 315 operation in Solar Research 223 H–R diagram 260–2, 267, 271–2, interplanetary plasma 321 283, 297 inverse-square law 134, 137, Hubble, Edwin P. 292; Cepheid 138–9, 140, 141, 149, 163 variables and island universes Io explored 318 292–5; Crab Nebula 270; Islamic astronomy 50–62; in expansion of the Universe medieval Latin universities 75 302–4; The Realm of the island universe theory 286–94, Nebulae 304; Van Maanen 302 controversy 294–5 Istanbul Observatory 56–7 Hubble Space Telescope 309, 311 Jansky, Karl: early radio Hubble’s Constant 303–4 astronomy 311–12 Hubble’s Law 303 Janssen, Jules: artificial eclipses Huggins, Margaret: collaborator of the Sun 232 of William Huggins 255 71–2 Huggins, William 255; Jump Cannon, Annie: Harvard Andromeda Nebula a planetary spectroscopic survey 260 system 286; radial velocities of Jundishapur school 50 stars 251; stellar spectra Juno asteroid discovered 162 photographed 252–3; true Jupiter 252; apparent acceleration nebulosity 255–6 154, 155–6; conjunction with Hulse, Russell A.: binary pulsar Saturn 95, 169–70; discovery 322 –Jupiter gap 157–9, 184,

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354 Index

Jupiter (cont.) Lamont, John: magnetism 229 222; moons 112–13, 139–40, Laplace, Pierre-Simon de 155; 150–1; Ptolemy 44, 45, 47; determinacy of celestial orbital perturbations 142–3, mechanics 166; Exposition du 148; space probes 318–19 système du monde 156, 250; Newtonian consequences 149; K 302 Traité de mécanique céleste Kant, Immanuel, on the Milky 156; variations in planetary Way 200 orbits 154, 155–6 Kapteyn, J. C. 276; Plan of Lassell, William 235; Neptune Selected Areas 276–7 satellite 244 Keck telescopes 310 latitude determined: from Keeler, James E.: nebula altitude of the Sun 80–1; with photography 285–6; radial cross-staff 79 velocities of stars 251; Saturn’s Le Verrier, Urbain Jean Joseph rings 247–9 163; Neptune discovery 163–4; , William Thomson, Lord: Vulcan 164–5 energy of the Sun 234–5 Leavitt, Henrietta: period– Kelvin–Helmholtz contraction luminosity relationship 234–5, 270 277–8 Kepler, Johannes 95, 103–11; Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm: Cosmographic Mystery 106–7; Samuel Clarke correspondence Dissertation with the Starry 193 Messenger: 118; Epitome of Leiden Observatory 282, 312 Copernican Astronomy 110, Leonid meteor showers 242–3 130; and Galileo 111, 118; Lescarbault: Vulcan ‘discovered’ Harmony of the World 109, 165 110, 131; laws 43, 109, 111, Leviathan of Parsonstown (Lord 131, 135–6, 136, 137–41, 155; Rosse’s telescope) 215–16 1604 nova 169–70; New Lick Observatory 283, 308; Astronomy 109, 119, 130; Crossley 36-inch reflector 238, planets 130–1, 157; Rudolphine 286 Tables 110; telescope 125, 128; Liebig, Justus von: silver-on-glass and Tycho Brahe 100, 106–7 reflector 236 Kew Observatory: ‘autographic’ Lindblad, Bertil: orbital patterns recording of solar disc 233 in the Galaxy 281 Khalili’s table of orientations to line-of-sight velocities – see radial Mecca 54–5 velocities Khwarizmi: Baghdad prayer- Locke, John: radiant point of tables 53; zij 58 meteors 243 Kirchhoff, Gustav: atomic Lockyer, Sir Norman 231; spectrography 225–6 artificial eclipses of the Sun Kitt Peak observatory 308 232; evolution of stars 271–2; Kohlschütter, Arnold: H–R on megalithic monuments 5 diagram 262 longitude 150–4 Lorentz, H. A.: space and time Lacaille, Nicholas-Louis de: 300 southern skies 176–7, 214–15; Louis XIV and the Paris star catalogue 160 Observatory 146 La Palma observatory 308 Lowell, Percival: Martian canals La Silla observatory 308 246 Lagrange, Joseph Louis: Lowell Observatory 246, 282, Newtonian consequences 149; 288 periodic variations in orbits luminosity 186, 260–1, 264–5; 154; secular variations 154–5 quasars 321 Lalande, J.-J. L. de: Ceres asteroid Luna 3 mission 318 discovery 161 lunar maps: Cassini 146–7 and solar apex Lundmark, Knut; distance of 176 Andromeda Nebula 296 Lambert, Johann Heinrich: Lyapunov, Mikhail V.: true cosmology 200; Mars–Jupiter nebulosity 217 gap 157 Lyrid meteor showers 243–4

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M 7; Halley’s observation 214 Mecca direction 54–5 M 31 – see Andromeda Nebula mechanical philosophy, Cartesian M 33; variable stars 290 123, 135–6 M 51 286; John Herschel’s Medicean Stars – see Jupiter, drawing 216; Lord Rosse’s moons drawing 216 medieval astronomy: Islamic M 101; van Maanen’s rotation 50–62; Latin 68–93 289 megalithic monuments 2, 7 Mach, Ernst: concepts of space Melbourne Observatory: 48-inch and time 300; Doppler Effect reflector 237 256 Melvill, Thomas: solar spectrum Macrobius, Ambrosius 225 Theodosius, on Cicero’s Dream Menelaus: spherical triangles 53 of Scipio 70 Menorcan taula sanctuaries 4 Maffeo Barberini (Pope Urban Mercury: in Capellan system 69; VIII): condemnation of Galileo Halley’s observations 214; 116 perihelion advance 164–5, 300, Magellanic Clouds 307; Halley’s 301; Peurbach’s model 46; observation 214; period– Ptolemy 44, 45, 46, 47; solar luminosity relationship 278 transit predicted by Kepler 110; magnetic field and sunspots space probes 318–19 228–30, 263 Merope nebulosity 282 magnetical philosophy of William Merz & Mahler: 15-inch refractor Gilbert 131–2 235–6 magnitude 191–2; absolute 186, Messier, Charles: Halley’s Comet 261, 265 – see also luminosity; 148; nebulae 205–6 defined 258–9; and spectral metals identified in Sun 225–6 type 260–2; variable 169–73; meteors: Aristotle 96; Chinese visual and photographic 253–5, astronomy 49; 1860s showers 259 242–4 Main Sequence stars 262, 266, Metonic cycle: Babylonian 267, 271–2, 283, 298 astronomy 21; Easter date Ma’mun, Caliph al- 51 71–2 Maragha Observatory 57, 62 Michell, John: black holes 189; marine timepieces 153–4 gravitation between stars 185 Mariner space probes 246, 319 Michelson, Albert A.: light and mariner’s astrolabe 80 ether 300–1 Mars: Kepler’s elliptical orbit micrometers: divided-lens 187; 106–7; Lowell’s ‘canals’ 245–6; wire 128–9 Mars–Jupiter gap 157–9, 222; microwave background radiation moons 159, 244; Ptolemy 44, 316 45, 47; Schiaparelli’s canali midsummer sunrise: Stonehenge 245–6; space probes 318–19 2, 5–6 Maskelyne, Nevil: Nautical Milky Way 273–85; drifting Almanac 153; Uranus among spirals 288–9, Galileo’s discovery 159 resolution into stars 112–13; mass–luminosity relation 264–5 Herschel 208–9; Kant 200; masses of the stars 265, 267, 272 Lambert 200; Macrobius 70–1; Mauna Kea observatories 308, Misminay (Andean) calendar 310 16; nebulae avoiding plane of Maupertuis, P. L. M. de: elliptical 287; size 295–6; structure star systems 200 273–85, 312–13; Stukeley Maury, Antonia: spectroscopic 193–4; Wright 196–8 binaries 257 Miller, W. A.: spectra of stars and Maxwell, James Clerk – see Clerk nebulae 255–6 Maxwell, James Miller, William: metals and Mayan astronomy 10–14 spectral lines 225 Mayer, Julius R.: energy of the Minkowski, Rudolph: Cygnus A Sun 234 314 Mayer, Tobias: Moon tables 153; Mira variable star 170, 172; proper motions 175; Uranus colour 255 recorded (1756) 163 Miranda visited 318–19

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356 Index

mirrors: active optics 309; Hubble Herschel (William) 203–4, Space Telescope 311; Next 205–12; irresolvable 283; Generation Telescopes 310; in Messier 206; photographed seventeenth- telescopes 237–8; planetary 255–6; 126–7; speculum-metal 235, reflection 282; solar system 237 origins 156; spiral 274–6, 283, Misminay (Andean) calendar 16 285–300, 303; stellar 207–10, Mizar spectroscopic binary 257 256; true 207–10, 217–18, Molyneux, Samuel: aberration of 256 light 174–5; annual parallax of nebular hypothesis 156, 250 Gamma Draconis 182 Neptune: discovered 162–4; Monatliche Correspondenz 220 moons 244; space probes Moon: apparent acceleration 154–; 319 Babylonian astronomy 20; and neutron stars 273, 321–2 1577 comet 96; distance from (NGC) Earth 33–4; eclipsed 150–1; 215 eclipsing the Sun 230–1; Galileo Newgrange passage tomb 2–4 114; Hooke 133–4; Ibn al-Shatir Newton, Hubert A.: orbits of 61–2; Islamic 52; meteors 243–4 Laplace 155–6; longitude Newton, Sir Issac: Cartesian methods 150–1; prehistoric leanings 123, 135–6; comets astronomy 6–7; Ptolemy 44, 45, 147; Earth flattened at Poles 46, 47, 87; space probes 318–19; 147; fixed stars 173, 189–94; tables 151–3; tides affected 142; gravitation 136–7, 137–40, time-telling 151–3; travel (John 141–4, 145–6; and Halley 135, Wilkins) 132; Tycho Brahe 138–40, 144; and Hooke 144; 102–3, 141, 142; variations in light 220, 224–5; Moon’s speed 141–2 motion 141–2; Principia moons: of Jupiter 113, 116, 140, mathematica 139, 180, 190, 150–1, 318–19; of Mars 244; of 191–3; Providence 157, 191; Neptune 244; of Saturn 140; of Sirius’s distance 180; stellar Uranus 244 brightness and distance 191–2; Morgan, William W.: spectral The System of the World 180, classification of stars 262–3; 184; superseded 300–1; spiral structure of the Galaxy telescope 126–8 313 Newtonianism 145–6, 154, 164, Mouchez, Admiral E. B.: Carte du 165 Ciel 222–3 Next Generation Telescopes Moulton, F. R.: planetesimal 310–11 hypothesis 250–1 NGC (New General Catalogue) Mount Wilson Observatory 262, 215 277–8; 60-inch reflector 238, NGTs (Next Generation 278; 100-inch reflector 238, Telescopes) 310–11 290, 296, 307; Hubble–Van nocturnals (determination of Maanen controversy 289; 294–6 latitude) 80–1 Müller, Johannes – see novae 269–70; 1572 (Tycho’s) Regiomontanus 95–7, 101; 1604 (Kepler’s) Munich Observatory 229, 276 169–70; Chinese astronomy 49; Mursi (Ethiopian) calendar 15 in spiral nebulae 287, 289, 246; music, celestial 109–10 and supernovae 270 muwaqqit 54 number: Babylonian 19–20; Egyptian 22; Mayan 13–14; Nature 232 Pythagorean 26 Nautical Almanac 153, 220 Nuremberg navigation 80–1; latitude 78–9, (Christianized cosmos) 77 80–1; longitude 150–4; Pole nutation of the Earth’s axis 174, Star 80 178, 184 Nazca pampa lines 11–12 nebulae: Crab 59; dark 282–3; Oberon discovered 244 distances 300; extragalactic obscuration of stellar light 277, 303; gaseous 282; Halley 203; 282, 282–4, 288, 312 Herschel (John) 212–13, 215; Olbers, H. W. M.: asteroids

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Index 357

discovered 162; comets 239; photosensitive charge-coupled Pallas asteroid discovery 161–2; devices (CCDs) 309 starlight 195 photosphere of the Sun 232 Olbers’s Paradox 194 Piazzi, Giuseppe: Bode Oldenberg, Henry (Secretary of correspondence 161; Ceres the Royal Society) 220 asteroid discovery 161–2; 61 Olmsted, Denison: paths of Cygni’s magnitude 186 meteors 243 Picard, Jean: longitude of the Omega Centauri 278; Hven observatories 151; Paris Halley’s observation 214 Academy of Sciences 146–7; Oort, Jan: orbital patterns in wire micrometer 129 Galaxy 282; spiral structure of Pickering, E. C. 260; stellar the Galaxy 312–13 spectroscopy 260 Oppenheimer, J. Robert: Pigott, Edward: variable stars gravitational collapse 320 171–3 Oresme, Nicole: impetus 83 Planck, Max: quantum theory Oriani, Barnaba: Piazzi 263 correspondence 161 planetary nebulae 255–6 Orion Nebula 205–6, 211, 217, planetary probes 309, 318–19 233 planets: astrophysical studies Osiander, Andreas, and 252; Chinese astronomy 48; Copernicus’s De revolutionibus Copernicus 88–93; distances 89–90 33, 45–6, 92, 105–6; dynamics 97, 135–6; Galileo 112–13; Palermo circle 160 Islamic astronomy 55, 59–60; Pallas asteroid discovered 161–2 Kepler 106, 107–9, 131; Palomar Mountain: 200-inch ‘missing’ 157, 228; orbits 42, reflector 299, 307 91, 94–5, 101–2, 139, 155; pampa lines 11–12 retrogression 30–1, 36–7; parallax, annual 101, 112, 177–9, satellites of the Sun 102; Tycho 184–5; spectroscopic 263–4, Brahe 102, 103; ‘wandering’ 276 stars 29–30 Paris Academy of Sciences 146–7, X 249 149, 151, 153, 163, 223 Plaskett, J. S.: structure of the Paris Observatory 146, 151, 154, Galaxy 284–5 163, 221–2 Plato: and Copernicus 87, 92, 93; Parkes radio telescope and Macrobius 70; observatory 320 mathematical certainty 27; Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia 264; problem of planets 29; Timaeus hydrogen in stars 264 in Middle Ages 69; translated Pease, F. G.: rotation velocities in by Boethius 68 nebula 296 Pleiades nebulosity 282 Penzias, Arno: background Pliny’s paths for Mercury and radiation 316 Venus 69 period–luminosity relationship Plough constellation 96; see also 278–9 Great Bear periodic variations in planetary Plücker, Julius: spectrum of gases orbits 154–5 227 Perseid meteor showers 244 Pluto discovered 249 perturbations in planetary orbits Pogson, Norman: magnitude 108, 130, 144, 154–5, 167 defined 258 Petit, Pierre: wire micrometer Poincaré, Henri: indeterminacy of 129 celestial mechanics 166–7 Peurbach, Georg: Mercury model Pole Star: latitude determined 46; planetary motions 85–6, 80–1 88–9 Pope, Alexander: lines on Philolaus on the motion of the Newton 145, 165 Earth 34 Potsdam Astrophysical Philosophical Transactions 220 Observatory 254, 300 Phobos discovered 244 precession of the equinoxes 4, photography 222–3, 233, 236–7, 142; and trepidation 78 248, 252–3, 258, 309 prehistoric astronomy 1–17

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358 Index

Prime Mover 77, 78 Rashid, Caliph al- 51 printing and medieval astronomy Ranger 7 mission 319 84–6 Reber, Grote: early radio Proctor, Richard: Milky Way astronomy 312 model 274; nebulae avoiding red giants 267, 271 plane of the Galaxy 287; red spectral type 254–5 nebulae and star clusters 283 red stars 297 Profatius the Jew (Jacob ben redshift 314, 317; in nebulae Mahir): new quadrant 78 spectra 301–2; quasars 321–2 projectiles and immobility of the Redshifts, Law of 302–3, 304 Earth: 82–3, 101 reflection nebulae 282 proper motions 173, 175, 276–7, refraction: atmospheric 174, 178; 282 chromatic aberration 128 protoelements 271 Regiomontanus (Johannes Providence in Newtonian system Müller); early clockwork 142–3, 191 recorded 81; publishing 85–6 Proxima Centauri 189 Reinhold, Erasmus and Prutenic Tables 95, 110 Copernicus’s De revolutionibus Ptolemy 39; Almagest 36–7, 40, 90; Prutenic Tables 90 43, 44–5, 50, 55, 59, 74, 75, 85, Relativity 165–6, 265, 301, 320 86, 87; astrological writing 74; Repsold & Sons: 30-inch refractor and Copernicus 87, 88; equant 237; measurement of point 40, 41–3; Handy Tables photographic plates 253 40, 57; and medieval astronomy Rheticus, Georg Joachim and 74, 82, 86; Planetary Copernicus 80; equant point Hypotheses 40, 59, 87; planets critic 87 44, 45; and Sufi 58–9; system Richer, Jean: shape of the Earth 44–7, 117; Tetrabiblos 39 146–7 Pulkovo Observatory 236, 237; Riemann, G. F. B.: curved space- 30-inch refractor 237 times 300 pulsars 269, 278, 320–2 129 Pythagoras 26; harmony 109 Ritchey, G. W.: nova 289 Pythagoreans 26–7; and Roberts, Isaac: Andromeda Macrobius 70 Nebula photograph 286; rotations of nebulae 286 qibla (orientation to Mecca) 55 Rohault, Jacques: Treatise of quadrants: azimuthal (Hevelius) Physics 145 129; double-reflection 153; Römer, Ole: Hven observatories mural 98–9; new 78; old 78; 151; speed of light 183; transit Uraniborg 98 instruments 129 quadrivium curriculum of Rosenberg, H. O.: H–R diagram medieval universities 69, 74, 75 262 quasars 321, 322 Rosse, William Parsons, Lord: M Quetelet, Adolphe: meteor 51 216; M 99 274; telescopes showers 243 215–16, 216–17 quintessence 28, 78 Royal Astronomical Society: Memoirs 221; Monthly Notices radial velocities 282; spiral 221 nebulae (galaxies) 288–90, 302, Royal Society 131–2, 133, 127–8, 303; stars 256–7 129, 146, 220, 221 radio astronomy 311–22; and RR Lyrae variables 298, 299 cosmological controversy rubidium identified 225 315–17; and spiral structure of Rudolf II, Emperor: Kepler’s patron the Galaxy 312–13 110; Tycho Brahe’s patron 103 radio stars 314 Russell, Henry Norris 261, 277; radio telescopes 311–12, 315–16, evolution of stars 271–3; H–R 320–1 diagram 261; hydrogen in stars Ramadan 52 264 Ramsay, William: helium isolated Rutherford, Ernest: model of the 232–3 atom 263 Ramsden, Jesse 160; Palermo Ryle, Sir Martin: radio stars 312, circle 160 314

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Index 359

Ryle radio telescope 315 Siding Spring Mountain Observatory 308 S Andromedae 287, 288 silver-on-glass reflectors 236 Sabine, Sir Edward: magnetism sine in Islamic trigonometry 54 and sunspots 228–9 Sirian spectral type 254 Sacramento Peak Observatory Sirius: colour 254; distance 308 179–80; double star 268; Sacrobosco (John of Holywood): Egyptian calendrics 22–3 Sphere 76, 78 Slee, O. B.: Crab Nebula radio Saha, Meghnad: stellar source 314 spectroscopy 264 Slipher, V. M. 289–90, 301; radial St Ephrem: Edessa school 50 velocities of nebulae 288–9; St Petersburg Academy of reflection nebulae 282 Sciences 153 Small Astronomical Satellite Samarkand Observatory 57–8 (SAS) series 318 Sandage, Allan: Hubble’s constant Smith, Graham: Cygnus A radio 305 source 314; radio stars 314 SAS (Small Astronomical Smith, Robert: Opticks 201, 203 Satellite) series 318 Snyder, Hartland: gravitational Saturn: ammonia 252; apparent collapse 320 deceleration 154, 155–6; Socrates 27 conjunction with Jupiter 95, sodium (D line) 225–6 169–70; Galileo 114; Huygens solar apex 175–6 114; Mars–Jupiter gap 157–8; solar prominences 231–2 methane 252; orbital solar spectral type 254 perturbations 143; Ptolemy 44, solar spectrum 226; flash 45, 47; rings 114, 249 spectrum 233; Fraunhofer Savary, Felix: orbits of binary 225–6; Melvill 225; Newton stars 186 224–5; Wollaston 224 Schiaparelli, G. V. 244; Martian solar system 156, 159, 167; canali 245–6; orbits of meteors Cartesian 136–7; Newtonian 244 139, 154; origins (Laplace) Schmidt, Bernhard: Schmidt 155–6; space exploration telescopes 291 318–19 Schmidt, Julius: observations of : Ballochroy standing Jupiter 247 stones 9–10; Chinese Schmidt, Maarten: quasar astronomy 48; determined by spectrum 320 topographical backsights 8; Schröter, J. H.: ‘celestial police’ Hopi horizon calendar 17; 160 prehistoric calendars 2; Schumacher, Heinrich Christian: Stonehenge 5–7 Astronomische Nachrichten South, James: and John Herschel 221 212 Schwabe, Heinrich: sunspot cycle Southern Cross: calendrics 15; 228 heliacal setting in Mursi Secchi, Angelo: solar (Ethiopian); prehistoric prominences 231, 232; stellar observation 5 spectral types 253–5 southern-hemisphere secular variations (planetary observations 176–7, 213, 214, orbits) 154 215, 256 Seeliger, Hugo von: Galaxy’s space exploration 318–19 structure 276 spectral types 254–5, 259–60, 260, selective absorption 284 267 Seleucus of Seleucia: motion of spectroscopic binaries 257–8, 265 the Earth 34 spectroscopic parallaxes 264, 276 Shapley, Harlow 277; Cepheids spectroscopy; of elements 225–6, and distance measurements 263–5; of nebulae 288–9, 301–2; 269, 277–81; Great Debate 290; of planets 252; of stars 252–64; island universes 289–90, 294; of Sun 220–1, 224–7 stellar systems 297–8 speculum-metal mirrors 235, 237 shooting stars: Aristotle 97; see speed of light 183–4 also meteors spherical aberration 125, 126

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360 Index

spherical trigonometry: by 142; Tycho Brahe 102–3; orientation to Mecca 54, 55; ultraviolet observations 318 time-telling from Sun’s altitude sunspots: Chinese astronomy 49; 54 cyclical 227–8; Galileo 114; sputnik 318 magnetic effects 228–9, 263; Stanley, G. J.: Crab Nebula radio photographed 233 source 314 supernovae 170, 273, 323; stars 168–218; artificial 258; Andromeda 287, 289; Chinese binary 204, 257–8, 265; astronomy 49; Islamic brightnesses – see magnitude: astronomy 59 chemical composition 226–7, Sylvester II, Pope – see Gerbert of 263–5; 322–3; clustered 207–10, Aurillac 213, 215, 216–17, 278–80, 294, 296–7, 298–9; colours 254–5, tangent function in Islamic 259–60, 265, 284; distance 34, geometry 54 101–2, 178–89, 258, 261–2; Taqi al-Din, and Istanbul dwarf 261, 267, 320; energy of Observatory 56 265–6; evolution 210, 255, taula sanctuaries on Menorca 4–5 270–2, 322–3; fixed 28, 29, 173, Taylor, Joseph H.: binary pulsar 190–5; Galileo 112; giant 261, discovery 322 267, 271; gravitation 208, 210, telescopes 235, 307–8; aberration 322; light of 191–5; masses of in 125; aerial 125–6; 265–6; proper motions of 173; Cassegrain’s 127; Crossley 36- Ptolemy 45; pulsating 268–9; inch reflector 238, 285; size 102; spectroscopy 253–65, Galileo’s 112, 113, 114, 125; 176, 213–15; radial velocities of Gregory’s reflecting 127; 256–7; radio 314; 267, Herschel’s 159, 202, 204–6, 271; temperatures 254–5, 259, 211–12, 213–15; Hevelius’s 126; 260; variable 168–72, 266–70, Hubble 311; Huygens’s 126; 277–8; ‘wandering’ 29–30; Keck 310; Kepler’s 128; Lick white dwarf 267, 320 Observatory 238, 285; Mauna Steady State cosmology 315–17 Kea observatories 308, 310; Steinheil, K. A.: silver-on-glass Melbourne Observatory 236; reflector 237 Mount Wilson Observatory Stephen, Alexander M.: Hopi 238, 278, 290, 295, 296, 307; horizon calendar 17 Newton’s 126–7; Next Stjerneborg observatory 100 Generation 310; Palomar Stonehenge 5–7 Mountain 294, 307; Pulkovo Strasborg cathedral clock 123 Observatory 236–7; radio Struve, Otto: nebulae 217 311–12, 314–15, 321; reflecting Struve, Wilhelm 186; double stars 126–7, 235, 309; refracting 186; identification of nearest 125–6, 126, 235, Rosse’s stars 186; Milky Way a central 215–16; Royal Society 127, 255; galactic plane 274; on the Ryle 315; Zelenchukskaya Herschels 215; true nebulosity 6-metre 310; zenith 181–3 217–8; Vega’s annual parallax telescopic sights 129; controversy 188 129 Stukeley, William: model of the Tempel, Wilhelm: reflection Galaxy 193–4 nebulae 282 Sufi’s star catalogue 58–9 temperatures of stars 254, 255, Sun: absolute magnitude 266; 265 Babylonian astronomy 21–2; Thabit ibn Qurra: Ptolemy and comets 138; Copernicus doubted 59 88–92; Descartes 122; distance Thales’s cosmology 25 33–4; eclipsed 14, 230–3, 301; Theory of the Planets Galileo 114, 116; Hipparchus (anonymous) 78 38; Hooke 133–4; Ibn al-Shatir Thom, Alexander: megalithic 62; Kepler 105–7, 131; latitude monuments 7, 8–10 method 80–1; location in Thomson, William – see Kelvin, Galaxy 277, 216, 282; Lord prehistoric astronomy 2–14; tides: effect on Earth’s rotation Ptolemy 45, 47; tides affected 156, 166; Newton 142

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Index 361

timeballs 154 Vega in early photography 252 time-telling: altitude of the Sun velocity–distance relation 304 53, 54; astrolabe 66; atomic Venera 7 mission 319 clock 166; clocks 81, 152; Venus: Galileo 115–16; Mayan Islamic astronomy 53; 149, 152; astronomy 12, 16; Ptolemy 44, marine chronometers 45, 47, 115; space probes (Harrison) 153–4; mean solar 318–19; Sun’s satellite 69 166; moons of Jupiter 150; Vesta asteroid discovered 162 at night 23, 71, 80; Tycho Brahe ‘violent universe’ 322–3 98–9 Virgo galaxy cluster 311 Titan discovered 140 Vogel, H. C.: evolution of stars Titania discovered 244 271; stellar spectroscopy 254 Toledan Tables 58, 74, 78 vortices, Cartesian 122, 131 Tombaugh, Clyde William: Pluto Voyager space probes 249, 319 discovery 249 Vulcan predicted 164–5 transit instruments 129 translation: Arabic to Latin 72–4, Wallingford, Richard of: early 76; Greek to Latin 68–9, 72–4, clockmaker 81 76 Weizsäcker, C. F. von: nuclear trepidation 78 energy in stars 266 trivium curriculum of medieval Wellesley College Observatory universities 74 290 Trouvelot, Etienne: Saturn’s rings Whale constellation 170 248; solar prominences 232 Whirlpool Nebula 286 Trumpler, Robert J.: distances Whiston, William: and Samuel between star clusters 283–4; Clarke 145; comets 202; obscuration 295; red stars 297; longitude 152; selective absorption 284 white dwarfs 268, 273, 320 Tusi, Nasir al-Din al- 57; Wilhelm IV, landgrave of Hesse epicycles 60 and Tycho Brahe 98 Tychonic system 103, 113, 117; Wilkins, John: Discovery of a rejected by Galileo 114–16 World in the Moone 132 Type I stars 298, 299 Wilson, Robert: background Type II stars 298, 299 radiation 316 Wirtz, Carl: K term 302 ultraviolet above-atmosphere Wisdom, House of (Baghdad) 53 observations 318 Wolf, Max: asteroids 162 Ulugh Beg: Islamic astronomer Wolff, Christian: Bode’s ‘law’ 57–8 158–9 Umbriel discovered 244 Wollaston, William Hyde: solar Universe: age 300, 305; expansion spectrum 224 300–4 Wren, Christopher 135; and Uraniborg observatory 98–100, Hooke 133; micrometers 128 98–9, 103 Wright, Thomas 196; cosmology Uranus: discovered 159–60; 196–200; Mars–Jupiter gap 157–8 moons 244; orbit perturbed 162, 163, 164; recorded 1690, X-ray sources (above-atmosphere 1756 163; space probes 318–19 observation) 318 Ursa Major in finding latitude 80 US Academy of Sciences 223 Yerkes, C. T.: philanthropist 238 Uxmal (Mayan Governor’s Yerkes Observatory 236, 313; Palace) 14 spectral classification of stars 262–3 V-2 rockets in above-atmosphere Young, C. A.: Galaxy’s structure research 318 276; reversing layer 231 Van de Hulst, Hendrik: spiral structure of the Galaxy 312 Zach, Baron Franz Xaver von: Van Maanen, Adriaan: rotation of Ceres asteroid discovery 161; spiral nebulae 289, 294–5 Mars–Jupiter gap 160; variable stars 168–73, 266–9, Monatliche Correspondenz 220 277–8; Cepheid 292–4, 292, Zeeman, Pieter: atomic spectra 296 263

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362 Index

Zelenchukskaya 6-metre Zöllner, Friedrich: evolution of telescope 310 stars 255, 270 zenith passage of the Sun: Zwicky, Fritz: novae 269–70; Mesoamerican observation 11 pulsars 269 zenith telescopes 181–3 zij (Islamic astronomical table) 57, 58

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