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High-Frequency Circuits for Environments

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High-Frequency Circuits for Environments High-Frequency Circuits for Environments Affected by Radiation A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Science and Engineering, formerly known as that of Engineering and Physical Sciences MMXIX James E Hibbert School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering This is not a blank page 2 Contents 1 Introduction 11 1.1 Motivation and Aims . 11 1.2 Conventions Used in this Document . 13 2 Overview of the Effect of Radiation on Semiconductors 15 2.1 Radiation Effects . 15 2.1.1 Search Strategy . 15 2.1.2 Single Event Effects . 16 2.1.3 Total Ionising Dose . 16 2.1.4 Displacement Damage . 17 2.2 Susceptibility . 17 2.2.1 Silicon . 18 2.2.2 III-V Compound Semiconductors . 19 2.3 Testing Methods . 20 3 VNA Error Correction 23 3.1 Formulation of the Calibration Problem . 23 3.2 SOLT and SOLR . 26 3.3 LRM and LRRM . 27 3.4 TRL . 28 3.5 Multiport Methods . 29 3.6 General Methods . 30 3 3.7 Differential Measurements . 30 3.8 Differential Calibration . 32 3.9 Uncertainty . 33 4 Radiation Tolerant Optical Modulator Drivers 37 4.1 Electromagnetic Simulation . 38 4.2 Differential Input Stage . 42 4.3 Output Amplifier . 44 4.3.1 Transistor Model Adjustments . 45 4.3.2 Transistor Selection . 50 4.3.3 Gate and Drain Line Design . 51 4.3.4 Termination and Bias Supplies . 54 4.4 Results and Discussion . 55 4.4.1 Calibration and Uncertainties . 55 4.4.2 Results for Differential Stage . 59 4.4.3 Results for TWA . 63 4.5 Conclusions . 68 5 Measurements on Irradiated GaAs and Silicon Devices 69 5.1 Tests on GaAs HEMTs . 69 5.1.1 Experimental Procedure . 69 5.1.2 Principle Components of Uncertainty . 71 5.1.3 Results and Discussion . 73 5.2 Test Results for Rotary Encoders . 76 5.2.1 Experimental Procedure . 76 5.2.2 Principle Components of Uncertainty . 78 5.2.3 Results and Discussion . 78 5.3 Conclusions . 80 4 6 Lossy Transmission Line Stubs 81 6.1 Background . 82 6.1.1 Transmission Line Parameter Calculation for Stub . 83 6.2 Implementation and EM Simulated Results . 85 6.2.1 Simulation and Evaluation of Match Standard . 86 6.2.2 Stub Parameter Calculation and Design . 88 6.3 Conclusions . 93 7 Conclusion and Further Work 97 7.1 Further Work . 98 Word Count: 30 000 ± 6000 5 Abstract The reluctance of previous governments to make adequate provision for the long-term storage and disposal of nuclear waste has resulted in an imminent and significant decommissioning burden, as existing “temporary” solutions are well beyond the end of their useful lives. It is preferable to use remote handling solutions for decommissioning, in order to ensure worker safety; however the susceptibility of electronic devices to radiation damage is often unclear. This document discusses factors affecting the survivability of electronics in radio-active environ- ments, and the design of GaAs circuits suitable for high-speed communications applications in such an environment. Techniques for performing accurate RF measurements and electromagnetic simulations are also discussed. Measurements of the designed devices are presented. Results of irradiation testing of a silicon rotary encoder and GaAs pHEMT transistors, on a related process to that used for the aforementioned circuits, are also presented, demonstrating Mrad hardness for the GaAs devices and krad hardness for the silicon; although the silicon and GaAs results are not directly comparable they are nevertheless of interest to illustrate the difference in radiation hardness between the two technologies, and the GaAs results suggest that the communications circuits designed on the process are likely to be highly radiation-tolerant. Neither the hardness of the encoders tested nor the GaAs process considered are believed to have been measured before. Analysis of a novel technique for improving the performance of certain common RF circuit elements at high frequencies, using stubs of an unusual form of lossy transmission line, is also described; an improvement in the matching of a load standard over frequency is demonstrated in simulation. 6 Declaration That no portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or other institute of learning. 7 Copyright Statement The following four notes on copyright and the ownership of intellectual property rights must be included as written below: i. The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this thesis) owns certain copyright or related rights in it (the “Copyright”) and he has given the University of Manchester certain rights to use such Copyright, including for administrative purposes. ii. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts and whether in hard or electronic copy, may be made only in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (as amended) and regulations issued under it or, where appropriate, in accordance with licensing agreements which the University has from time to time. This page must form part of any such copies made. iii. The ownership of certain Copyright, patents, designs, trademarks and other intellectual property (the “Intellectual Property”) and any reproductions of copyright works in the thesis, for example graphs and tables (“Reproductions”), which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property and Reproductions cannot and must not be made available for use without the prior written permission of the owner(s) of the relevant Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions. iv. Further information on the conditions under which disclosure, publication and commercial- isation of this thesis, the Copyright and any Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions described in it may take place is available in the University IP Policy (see http://documents. manchester.ac.uk/DocuInfo.aspx?DocID=24420), in any relevant Thesis restriction dec- larations deposited in the John Rylands University Library, the John Rylands University Library’s regulations (see http://www.library.manchester.ac.uk/about/regulations) and in The University’s policy on Presentation of Theses Here endeth. 8 Acknowledgements Considerable gratitude is due to Robin Sloan and Barry Lennox for their supervision and encouragement during this PhD. Thanks are also extended to the company and staff at Semtech Inc. for their generosity in the provision of wafer space, without which the circuits described in this thesis would never have been realised, and also for the use of their equipment to perform measurements. Assistance from Ruth Edge at DCF in the operation of the 60Co irradiator, and the performance of dosimetry, is also gratefully acknowledged. The contribution of discussions with others, notably Philippa Stokoe and Charles Veys, is also much appreciated. This project was supported financially by the EPSRC, Sellafield Ltd and the National Nuclear Laboratory (NNL). 9 Boughs, once green and toss’d by wind Lugged to distant shores; their fibres leached Arranged, reshaped, like tendrils of the mind Now coloured; with distant Cornish bleached Kaolin. The result? Paper, o’er which the scholars pore Assess the motion of the spheres, pens in hand clamp’d Grope for solutions; to them but a chore Enlightened but by dim electric lamp 10 Chapter 1 Introduction The promises of the atomic age, of world peace and electricity “too cheap to meter” [1] are, thanks to generations of governmental ineptitude, lack of enthusiasm for policies extending beyond a Parliamental term [2], and Cold War politics, and paranoia discouraging reprocessing [3], yet to materialise. However the enthusiasm of the atomic pioneers has left the current generation with a burgeoning problem: the solutions developed to temporarily contain radiological waste have become, de facto, permanent and are now well beyond their design lifetime [4]. There is thus an urgent imperative to process and safely contain this material. Such efforts are, however, complicated by a variety of factors; the decaying nature of the facilities, and the intrinsically hazardous nature of manual inspection of radioactive material, as exemplified in the overexposures of divers reported in [5, 6], presents a strong motivation to employ automated inspection techniques where possible, and for reasons of cost control it is preferable to use commercial devices than dedicated radiation-hardened designs. However the survivability of such commercial devices is, by definition, often unclear; techniques to understand the factors affecting their survivability are therefore of interest to the industry. One class of devices believed to be generally highly tolerant to radiation are those fabricated using III-V compound semiconductors; these have often been used, due to their high carrier mobility, in high frequency devices, which are in themselves an area of active research. The premise of this PhD, therefore, was to understand the factors affecting the susceptibility of semiconductor devices to radiation, especially those related to the increased hardness of III-V devices, and if possible design circuits of use for applications in an active environment, such as in nuclear decommissioning or space. 1.1 Motivation and Aims Some proposed strategies for investigation of the hazardous facilities in Sellafield and Fukushima rely on small, expendable robots to perform characterisation of the environment. As the irra- diated robots are themselves hazardous, requiring appropriate treatment and disposal, there is a clear motivation to increase the lifespan of the electronics employed in order to reduce the decommissioning burden, although issues such as battery life will also tend to place an upper bound on their lifetime. In addition, the thick walls and shielding present in nuclear facilities tend to render the use 11 of wireless communications to transmit data to the operators challenging.
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