1918. As a consequence, Feng lost the election and died of Chinese interests in the Paris Peace Conference after in 1919. the First World War in 1919. The conflicts of interests between the and cliques also aggravated the situation to such a degree that, in July 1920, the Anhui- Zhili Civil War broke out. Figure 7 shows the territorial distribution of the warlord cliques in China just before the Anhui-Zhili Civil War, as depicted by Fairbank and Twitchett. As a consequence of the swift defeat of the troops of the by the joint forces of the Zhili and Fengtien cliques, the power in the swiftly fell to the hands of the Zhili and Fengtien cliques.

MONGOLIA

Figure 6: Xu Shi-chang/Hsu Shih-chang.

Xu Shi-chang (2nd President: October 10, 1918-June 2, 1922)

SZECHWAN Xu Shi-chang/Hsu Shih-chang (1855-1939) (Figure 6), who was one of the high ranking cabinet officials in the Manchu Court at the outbreak of the Revolution in 1911, had been a close friend of Yuan Shi-kai since the 1880s. Xu was the Secretary of State during Yuan’s presidency and one of the most enthusiastic supporters of Yuan’s monarchial movement. After Yuan’s death in 1916, due to his seniority and experience in the political arena, Xu always assumed the role of negotiator in conflicts, such as those between Li Yuan-hong and Duan Ji-rui, and later between Feng Guo- and Duan Ji-rni. Therefore, in the election for the 2nd President in 1918, Xu was supported by both the Anhui and Zhili cliques. Figure 7: Distribution of warlord territories on the eve of the Anhui-Zhili Civil War, 1920. On October 10, 1918, Xu was inaugurated as the 2rid President in . Because he did not have a military In April 1922 power struggles between the Zhili and background, Xu proclaimed himself the first civilian Fengtien cliques brought about the 1st Zhili-Fengtien President of the Republic of China. He advocated the Civil War. in April 1922. Figure 8 shows the power peaceful resolution of the issue of the unification of China distribution situation of the warlord cliques on the eve through negotiation. However, his efforts were of the 1st Zhili-Fengtien Civil War. As a result of this jeopardized by the Anhui clique and Xu’s competency war, the Fengtien clique was defeated and it retreated and authority were further undermined by his ignorance back to Manchuria. Beijing was completely under the

Vol. 55, No. 1 5 domination of the under the command of Kun. Because of his pro-Fengtien stand, Xu was forced to resign. He died in retirement in 1939.

U

M 0 NGOL~A

JAPAN SZ£CHWAN

Figure 9: /Tsao Kun.

Cao Kun (President: October 10, 1923-November 2, 1924)

Figure 8: Distribution of warlord territories on the eve Cao Kun/Tsao Kun (1862-1938) (Figure 9) joined the of the 1st Zhili-Fengtien Civil War, 1922. Imperial Army in 1882. In 1895 he became a trusted subordinate of Yuan Shi-kai. With Yuan’s rise to power Li Yuan-hong (President: after Li Hong-zhang’s death in 1901, Cao was rapidly June 11, 1922-June 13, 1923) promoted in the Imperial Army. At the outbreak of the Revolution in 1911, Cao was the commander of the Third Li Yuan-hong was the first person to become the Division of the Beijing Army Group and remained as a President of the Republic of China twice. After his key supporter of Yuan between 1912 and 1916. resignation in 1917, Li lived in retirement until Cao Kun invited him back to replace Xu Shi-chang as president After Yuan’s death in 1916, Cao at first supported Duan in June 1922. With the complete domination by the Zhili Ji-rui. In 1917, under the command of Duan, Cao clique in Beijing after the 1st Zhili-Fengtien Civil War, defeated Zhang Xun and crushed Zhang’s monarchy Li was no more than a puppet in the government. In June restoration attempt. As a result, Cao became the Military 1923, Cao who wanted to be the President himself forced Governor of Zhili Province. In the power struggle Li to resign. Li once again went back into retirement between Feng Guo-zhang and Duan Ji-rui, Cao took a and died in 1928. neutral role, seeking accomodations from both sides. During the war in the southern provinces against the

6 JOMSA warlords and revolutionaries for the unification of China Cao also forced Li to resign. In October 1923, Cao bribed in 1918, Cao’s troops were deployed at the frontlines in the members of the National Assembly and, in return, Province and fought a number of tough battles. was elected as the President. However, the benefits of victory and the newly- conquered land did not go to Cao but to the trusted On October 10, 1923, Cao was inaugurated as the supporters of Duan. Duan even attempted to force Cao President. Nevertheless, the rise of Cao as the President to resign as the Military Governor of Zhili Province, but also marked the decline of strength of the Zhili clique in vain. This pushed Cao to join the side of Feng and due to the intensified power straggles among the warlords also marked the intensification of the conflicts of interests within the Zhili clique and the joining together of the between the Zhili and Anhui cliques. Anhui and Fengtien cliques against the Zhili clique.

\

Figure 10: Zhang Zuo-lin/Chang Tso-lin.

After the death of Feng in 1919, Cao became the leader of the Zhili clique. Due to their common interests against Duan, Cao allied with Zhang Zuo-lin / Chang Tso-lin (1875-1928) (Figure 10). As the power base of Zhang was in Manchuria / Fengtien, the warlords under the command of Zhang were also called the Fengtien clique. In July 1920, the Zhili-Anhui Civil War broke out. With Figure 11: Distribution of warlord territories on the eve the help of Zhang, Cao defeated Duan. Then followed a of the 2nd Zhili-Fengtien Civil War, 1924. power struggle in the Beiyang Government between Cao and Zhang that led to the outbreak of the 1st Zhili- In September 1924, civil war broke out between the Zhili Fengtien Civil War in 1922. With the victory of the Zhili and Anhui cliques for the control of Shanghai. When the clique, power fell into the hands of Cao. Using the excuse troops of the Zhili clique were deployed to the south to of restoring the National Assembly that had been fight the Anhui clique, the Fengtien clique invaded from dissolved with the resignation of Li Yuan-hong in 1917, Manchuria and started the 2nd Zhili-Fengtien Civil War. Cao forced Xu to resign from the presidency and invited Figure 11 shows the power distribution situation of the Li back as President in June, 1922. Then in June, 1923, warlord cliques on the eve of the 2nd Zhili-Fengtien Civil

Vol. 55, No. 1 7