WEST BANK AND GAZA STRIP

PARTICIPATORY NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME APPRAISAL REPORT

WORKING PAPER 2 AND REHABILITATION

West Bank and Gaza Strip: Participatory Natural Resource Management Programme - Appraisal Report Working Paper 2: Land Reclamation and Rehabilitation

WEST BANK AND GAZA STRIP

PARTICIPATORY NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME APPRAISAL REPORT

WORKING PAPER 2 LAND RECLAMATION AND REHABILITATION

Table of Contents

Page

I. INTRODUCTION 1 A. Aims and Objectives 1 B. Summary of Tasks in Land Reclamation and Rehabilitation 1 C. Constraints 2 II. PRESENT AND WATER CONSERVATION PROGRAMMES 3 A. Introduction 3 B. UNDP in Hebron Area 3 C. International NGOs 4 D. Work by Local NGOs’ in Conservation of Natural Resources 4 E. Other Organisations 5 F. Lessons Learned from Adjacent Territories 5 G. Future Projects and Coordination with PNRMP 6 III. SELECTION OF VILLAGES AND INITIATION OF PROGRAMME MONITORING 6 A. Initial Selection of Villages 6 B. Preparation of Village Site Plans 7 C. Contributions to Monitoring Programme from Verifiable Indicators 8 IV. REHABILITATION OF EXISTING TERRACING 12 A. Background 12 B. Origins of the Terracing 12 C. Present Status of Terraces 12 D. Rehabilitation Versus Reclamation of Ancient Terraces 12 E. Identification of Terraces in the Rehabilitation Programme 13 F. Materials 14 G. Methods 14 H. Cost Estimate 14 I. Verifiable Indicators 15 V. REHABILITATION OF OLD 16 A. Introduction 16 B. Origins and Uses of the Cisterns 16 C. Present Status of Cisterns 16 D. Repairs to Old Cisterns 16 E. Cost Estimates For Rehabilitation 18 F. Verifiable Indicators 18

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Table of Contents (Cont’d)

Page

VI. CONSTRUCTION OF NEW CISTERNS 18 A. Introduction 18 B. Guidelines for Constructing Traditional Cisterns 18 C. Guidelines for Constructing Household Cisterns 19 D. Household Cistern Specifications 20 E. Cost Estimate 20 F. Verifiable Indicators 20 VII. LAND RECLAMATION ON ROCKY FOR WALLS AND TERRACES 21 A. Background to Reclamation on Rocky Unproductive Lands 21 B. Land Reclamation Methods on Rocky Lands 21 C. Cost Estimate for Land Reclamation 22 D. Comparative Costs for Land Reclamation 22 E. Costs for Building New Terraces 23 F. Fences 24 G. Planting of Seedlings 25 H. Verifiable Indicators for Land Reclamation 26 VIII. CONSTRUCTION OF ACCESS 26 A. Building Requirements 26 B. Methods of Construction 27 C. Condition of Existing Agricultural Roads 28 D. Estimation of Construction Costs for Agricultural Roads 28 E. Verifiable Indicators For Roads 29 IX. REHABILITATION OF SPRINGS, HOUSEHOLD AND 29 A. Proposed Work Programme 29 B. Cost Estimate 30 C. Comparative Costs 31 D. Water Users Associations 31 E. Verifiable Indicators 31 X. SUPPORT TO OTHER PROGRAMMES IN THE PROJECT 31 A. Improvements to the Analytical Laboratory at Beita 31 B. Strengthening of Land Resources and Soil and Water Conservation 32 C. Improving Techniques for Soil and Water Conservation & Rainwater Harvesting 33 XI. RELATED ACTIVITIES 37 A. Introduction 37 B. Improving Indigenous Fertilisers 37 C. Disposal of Wastes 38 D. Proposed Range Management Demonstration Plots 38

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List of Tables

Table 1: Preparation of Village Site Plans 7 Table 2: Verifiable Indicators for Physical Monitoring of PNRMP 9 Table 3: Cost Estimate for Repairs to Existing Terracing 15 Table 4: Summary Costs For Rehabilitating Cisterns 18 Table 5: Summary Of Costs For Constructing New Cisterns 20 Table 6: Comparative Costs in Districts for Land Reclamation 22 Table 7: PARC Costs for Land Reclamation 22 Table 8: IFAD Estimate of Building new Terraces 23 Table 9: PARC Costs for New Terracing 24 Table 10: High Cost Fencing Estimate 24 Table 11: Low Cost Estimate for Fencing 25 Table 12: Visit Notes for Selecting Roads 28 Table 13: Cost Estimate For Spring Rehabilitation 30 Table 14: Land Characteristics 33

Appendixes

1: Terms of Reference 2: Detailed Tables

Page iii West Bank and Gaza Strip: Participatory Natural Resource Management Programme - Appraisal Report Working Paper 2: Land Reclamation and Rehabilitation

WEST BANK AND GAZA STRIP

PARTICIPATORY NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME APPRAISAL REPORT

WORKING PAPER 2 LAND RECLAMATION AND REHABILITATION

I. INTRODUCTION

A. Aims and Objectives

1. The Participatory Natural Resource Management Programme (PNRMP) being planned for the West Bank will be a five-year rolling programme designed to arrest degradation, bring unproductive lands into use and conserve the principal natural resources of the West Bank, the soil and water. The objectives of the PNRMP as given in the IFAD Formulation Report (FAI, August 1997) are to increase the incomes and living standards of small where there are dew income generating possibilities by developing and managing the land and water resources to conserve and enhance their productivity.

2. Over the whole area of the West Bank there are large areas of existing where rehabilitation and reclamation could be carried out. The upland rainfed areas in Nablus and Ramallah districts alone cover some 400 000 dunums (ARIJ, 1996 a, b). The PNRMP by a selection process designed to choose villages that are relatively poor and in need of assistance, will provide funding for reclamation and rehabilitation over some 28 000 dunums.

3. Through interventions to be made in some 120 villages, the programme will strive to display achievements in improved agricultural production, rehabilitation and reclamation of unproductive lands, improvements to agricultural access roads, development and rehabilitation of springs, improvements to production and processing, and provision of extension, training and technical support in soil and water management. Project monitoring and evaluation will be a central part of the programme.

B. Summary of Tasks in Land Reclamation and Rehabilitation

4. The rehabilitation component of PNRMP will be extensive with an envisaged programme providing funding for repairs to existing terraces, cisterns and springs. Despite their state of neglect over a long period the indigenous terracing is still remarkably intact, and existing terraces are in a moderate state of repair generally with around 25% of the terracing requiring repair works. In some areas up to 50% or more of the terraces may be damaged, elsewhere they have been completely destroyed.

5. Many cisterns on farmlands have been in operation for centuries, and most continue to be used. The programme will organise a rehabilitation programme for many cisterns throughout the area. The rehabilitation of existing springs will be initiated at those localities where groundwater aquifers emerge.

6. The PNRMP will also expand upon a programme that has been initiated throughout the West Bank during the past decades whereby the lands are scraped and bulldozed to clear away rocks and shape the terrain into fields on flatter rocky terrain. On more sloping ground the reclamation work will establish benched terraces with heavy machinery, and build drystone wall terraces generally

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along the contour. Where the old terracing is completely degraded it may be suitable to reform the land, but in general if rehabilitation is possible then it should be attempted rather than the more expensive and potentially land-surface damaging reclamation works. During the reclamation and rehabilitation works, the PNRMP will seek to minimise further degradation of the soil and water from resulting from actions of heavy machinery on unstable slopes.

7. Coupled with the reclamation and rehabilitation of rainfed lands will be a large programme of planting perennial crop seedlings, mainly but also including a range of climatically adapted fruit trees with good market prospects. Provision will be made to erect fencing around the reclaimed lands to protect seedlings from animals.

8. New cisterns will be built on the hilly margins of the land and also in villages to intercept rainfall. In the fields, water stored in the cisterns is used for limited supplementary in summer (mainly for immature tree crops) and for animal watering.

9. The programme will also fund the construction of new field access in the selected villages. The aim of this programme is to provide all-weather access routes to fields. At present, where tracks cross the heavier there are serious access problems during the rainy season. It is essential though that these access roads for agriculture are built to a minimum set of standards to avoid deterioration and erosion. At a minimum, these tracks would enable unrestricted access for farm tractors.

10. The PNRMP will provide for a substantial package to upgrade the capabilities of the Soil and Water General Directorate of the MOA. This will include the upgrading of the Soil and Water Laboratory at Beita with the aim of achieving FAPAS accreditation, and to provide training to technical staff in soil and water conservation and management through a lectures and a series of tours in the Eastern Mediterranean area.

11. The programme will be coordinated by a Programme Management Unit to be established in the MOA. The PMU will oversee the programme both technically and administratively. In terms of the land reclamation and rehabilitation components a Senior Rural Engineer (SRE) will be appointed and work closely with the Soil and Water General Directorate staff to ensure that standards of work are maintained and that all parties are informed of progress. He or she will also liaise with other programmes in the West Bank and Eastern Mediterranean area.

12. The supervisory and monitoring work being carried in the villages will be carried out by teams of Participatory Planning Specialists (PPS) who will have a socio-economic leaning, and Technical Site Supervisors (TSS) who will manage the reclamation and rehabilitation programmes being undertaken by the contractors. The TSS and PPS may be provided by participating (contracted) NGO(s) experienced in land reclamation and rehabilitation programmes. All staff will be gender aware, trained in participatory methods and suitably qualified for the task.

C. Constraints

13. Constraints that may affect the natural resource management aspects of the programme are likely to fall into a number of categories including:

(a) Political issues (PA and Israel) relating to land and water rights; how these will be resolved and how the resources are going to be managed in the future. (b) The lack of sufficient numbers of trained staff within the MOA to approve and oversee programmes within the PNRMP. Although the extension service staff in general has impressive technical qualifications, their numbers are limited and the

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average age is high (due to limited intake of new staff over the past 30 years). Moreover, few have received training in, or exposure to, techniques of community involvement and participation. (c) Coordination of the work with various NGOs and Government in many villages. The feedback from village programmes of successful innovations and interventions, and their incorporation into a revised programme will require a continuous effort from the PMU. There must also be flexibility to adjust the programme when necessary. (d) The will of the local people to undertake the land reclamation and land rehabilitation works, and also to accept various levels of change, essential for example in adopting conservation farming techniques and response farming to unclear rainfall events. (e) The neglected issue of the rangelands and traditional styles for large herds of and goats in the rainfed uplands and marginal lands on the eastern and western slopes, where cooperation for example between on reclaimed lands and herder having to find grazing elsewhere will be essential. The management of and range are not included in the PNRMP but technical staff will be briefed on relevant issues.

II. PRESENT SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION PROGRAMMES

A. Introduction

14. At present there are a number of soil and water conservation programmes being undertaken in the West Bank. The present group of programmes are being undertaken on the steeper lands of the uplands where there is old terracing and cisterns, and high demands for reclaiming rocky terrain into farmlands. The IFAD Appraisal Team was able to visit ten sites where various types of construction were in operation.

B. UNDP in Hebron Area

15. The basic design calls for village sites of 200 du, but in practice this has varied from 150-250 according to the amount of land available in any location and the number of qualified households. The 200 du may also be in several locations within the village confines. Site selection is made according to selection criteria, including interest of the groups, individual ownership, suitability of the land, rock formations, etc. The works are designed to be labour intensive, but with alternative methods using machinery if site conditions determine otherwise. Work at a site is initiated by bulldozers or untracked Shovel-Loaders to break up large rock, followed by hammer/excavators which break up the rocks to manageable fragments ready for the terrace builders. Terrace building is carried out by an experienced worker, likely to have a family tradition of drystone terracing craftsmanship. Labourers fill in the dressed surfaces of the walls. An NGO technician supervises the work and its quality. In turn UNDP has a programme manager who looks after all the sites (six at present). The standard of work being carried out is high, and poor quality construction is rejected and work repeated. The Soil and Water Directorate of the MOA is also involved with site supervision. The work is being carried out by three NGOs: PARC, TCAS and the UAWC. Procurement of supplies, organisation of site planning and accounting are carried out by UNDP.

16. Women beneficiaries play no role in any part of the UNDP programme at present: it was said none of the beneficiaries are heads of households. Elsewhere, the IFAD appraisal team saw that women, who in many rural areas play prominent roles during parts of the agricultural cycle, are heads of household and more active in the land reclamation works: PNRMP will strongly support such communities.

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C. International NGOs

17. Of the International NGOs based in the West Bank, Save The Children Federation (SCF) and the American Near East Refugee Aid (ANERA) have been active in soil and water conservation issues. SCF have had an active programme of land reclamation in the West Bank for many years. They have developed a high standard of work in their operations and have recently produced with PARC a detailed Operational Manual for the Execution of High Lands Reclamation Programme (PARC, 1997).

18. This Manual provides the details of the reclamation work, the responsibilities of PARC and the contractor undertaking the reclamation works, application forms from beneficiaries, draft contracts with beneficiaries, lists of materials, records of work done by machinery, sample receipt forms, approval of work done as assessed by the site supervisor etc. Manuals of operation produced by SCF and UNDP will be used by the PMU to prepare similar forms as a Project operational manual, covering all aspects of the PNRMP during the inception phase. The complete list of forms used by PARC/SCF is given in the Appendix 2 (Table 1).

D. Work by Local NGOs’ in Conservation of Natural Resources

19. A number of the NGOs working in the West Bank have undertaken land reclamation and work. The IFAD Appraisal Team visited work being undertaken by the Palestinian Agricultural Relief Committees (PARC), the Union of Agricultural Workers Committee (UAWC), and The Centre for Agricultural Services (TCAS). All are involved in land reclamation work and are carrying out tasks to reasonable standards. The UAWC and PARC are the most experienced of local NGOs carrying land reclamation, with work being carried out all over the highland areas of the West Bank for a wide range of donors.

20. The Appraisal Team considers however that there is much scope for improving the quality of the work in terms of disruption to the lands during land reclamation and in road construction. The following comments are given to provide a broad assessment of work.

21. Work was examined in the villages of Qabalan and Qusra, where large scale land reclamation work was transforming rocky land into fields. The methods shown at these sites consisted mainly of removing large limestone boulders, exposing terra rossa soils in the process, and then forming rocks into walls as field boundaries. Much of this work is done by machinery. Conservation work within fields, such as contour bunds and banks to reduce runoff were absent, and this was leading to some sheet erosion and incipient rilling within the fields. Conservation planning in field systems needs to be improved to provide aftercare once the heavy reclamation work is finished. Elsewhere however, on steeper slopes, drystone terracing was being carried out to a high degree of workmanship such as at Beit Kahel and Al-Koum by the UAWC.

22. It has been noted elsewhere that some of the agricultural access roads being constructed have not been to a suitable standard, to the extent that they are eroding quite severely in places, and as a result an unanticipated programme of rehabilitation is about to start. It is admitted that technical standards have not been followed. In some localities, the reclamation work has not been completed (e.g., on the Eastern Slopes escarpment near Mughaiyir) and the soil is now eroding due to a complete lack of conservation measures. Under PNRMP it is intended to avoid these types of mistakes or limitations by obtaining a detailed participatory agreement with the beneficiaries before work starts; by defining specifications and standards of contractual work in tender documents, and by continuous monitoring of the works by the beneficiaries, MOA and the participating NGO(s).

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23. Ma’an is another NGO involved in many related rural development programmes, including for example participatory methods, the integration of livestock and olive tree farming systems, and research into compost based fertilisers. Ma’an has also developed a number of training modules and single-subject courses.

E. Other Organisations

24. A significant number of organisations in the West Bank claim to have experience of land reclamation work and apply to be selected in the tendering process of programmes. It is clear however that only a few have the depth of experience in land reclamation and conservation work that will qualify them for short-listing on future programmes, including PNRMP.

F. Lessons Learned from Adjacent Territories Jordan

25. Recent work on rainwater harvesting has been concentrated in the lower rainfall areas of <300 mm where there are large areas of soil but variable rainfall. A number of programmes have been reported in detail in by Shatanawi (1994) and Al-Labadi (1994), where different water harvesting techniques have been practised. The results of these studies and trials, by the Ministry of Agriculture’s High Project, and the University of Jordan’s Water & Environment Research Centre, have demonstrated that significant increases in crop and vegetation production can be accomplished with simple schemes, including contour cultivation, ripping of soils, earth-bank terraces, Gradoni terraces (excavated ditches along contour), drystone bench terraces, and contour stone terraces. The significant research carried out on the Jordan Highland Development Project, Zarqa River Basin Project, Balama Project, Muwaqqar Project, and the “Badia” Project in the 100-200 mm zone, have generated considerable local expertise and experience in water harvesting and soil conservation, which the PNRMP can benefit from by undertaking exchange visits and seminars.

26. In the higher rainfall areas of the limestone plateau and along the west-facing escarpment of the Jordan Valley, rehabilitation of old agricultural terracing and land reclamation for the production of new lands has been undertaken for some years as pressure for rainfed agricultural land increases. The methods of reclamation are similar to those being employed in the West Bank.

27. A noticeable hazard on the valleys leading down to the Jordan Valley are landslips following road construction. These appear to occur more generally on the moister north-facing slopes where there are road cuttings in thick bedded marls and limestone, and the presence of spring lines. Roads have had to be reconstructed where slippages have occurred. In the West Bank the lesson is that care must be taken to align any agricultural access roads on stable formations.

Israel

28. In the upland areas of Israel, on the slopes facing the Mediterranean, soil and water conservation work has reclaimed degraded hill slopes by prohibiting grazing on the lands for almost 50 years. This resting of the land has over several decades led to a complete regeneration of woodland. In the West Bank it is unlikely that large areas could be rested in this way, given the population pressure, but pilot areas will be useful to demonstrate the potential for enhanced biomass production if an area is rested.

29. Water harvesting in the arid areas of the Negev desert has been accomplished successfully at Avdat over many years, where the ratio of catchment to cultivated area is 20:1 (NAS, 1974). Fields receive 300-500 mm of water in an area with only 100 mm rainfall. In relating this to the PNRMP, in

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upland areas of the West Bank the ratio of catchment to cultivated area / cistern can be much less because of the higher rainfall.

Syria

30. ICARDA has a central role in the management of dryland areas throughout the Near Eastern region, and has been involved in rainwater harvesting and soil conservation projects since its formation. The PNRMP, through the MOA, will liaise with ICARDA on strategies for dryland management. It is expected that this will include periodic visits by ICARDA staff to selected programme sites, and exchange visits to ICARDA to attend workshops. The MOA and ICARDA are currently formulating a Rangeland Management Programme for the West Bank.

G. Future Projects and Coordination with PNRMP

31. It is expected that a number of projects with conservation components will be initiated within the next two years. In particular the World Bank is formulating a large agricultural sector rehabilitation project. The Natural Resource Management and Rural Access Roads component will include improvement of irrigation schemes, re-use of treated wastewater, and rural access roads. It is not yet clear when this programme will start (not likely before 1999), but it is expected that work will be coordinated so as not to duplicate work in PNRMP villages.

32. Under the PNRMP, in placing tenders for land reclamation and land rehabilitation, NGOs and contractors will first have to demonstrate that they have a good track record in this area of work, and that they can provide a service that minimises the disruption to the landscape, and treats rehabilitation as the priority to be followed by reclamation. They will also need to demonstrate that they can conduct civil works to be carried out according to the PNRMP specifications and standards, have a strong commitment in the post-reclamation phase for aftercare in soil and water conservation, and utilise local men and women in the workforce.

33. In the next few years a wide range of projects in agriculture and environment will be initiated in the West Bank. It is important that close coordination is established between projects and with the executing agencies in the West Bank, with sharing of information and innovations.

III. SELECTION OF VILLAGES AND INITIATION OF PROGRAMME MONITORING

A. Initial Selection of Villages

34. The proposed system for selection of villages is dealt with in Working Paper 4 and is summarised in Annex 6 of the Main Report. From rapid rural assessments carried out in ten randomly selected villages by the Appraisal Team, it became clear that a range of factors would be suitable for evaluating the suitability of a village for selection. A whole range of factors were investigated including many physical and socio-economic parameters. A rapid assessment of the status of erosion was also carried out at each village. In terms of the final selection of villages, some key technical considerations are:

(a) the agro-ecological setting of the village as to whether it lies within the desired rainfall belts; (b) the likely return on reclamation works that might be attempted; (c) the likely unit reclamation cost (per dunum and per household), whether high, medium or low;

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(d) the availability of land for reclamation and forming into new terraces and new cisterns; and (e) the potential for rehabilitation of terraces, springs and cisterns.

35. Once the PNRMP is underway this selection of villages and the work to be done in each of them will be handled by a participatory rapid assessment team comprising people from the MOA, designated NGO in the area and the PMU. This will involve a scoring system to remove bias and provide a chance for most villages to participate.

B. Preparation of Village Site Plans

36. At the commencement of the PNRMP and once villages have been selected for the initial surveys it is essential that a detailed site plan is prepared of the village area by PNRMP team. Assistance will be sought from the Palestinian Geographic Information Centre (PALGRIC) or the Applied Research Institute of Jerusalem (ARIJ) to gain access existing databases, as may be relevant. The plans will show the physical layout of the village, its agricultural lands, contours, drainage lines, springs and other features that are available from existing sources at PALGRIC and ARIJ, such as the 1:50 000 scale Survey of Israel topographic series. PALGRIC may also have more detailed image maps prepared for the West Bank. The present published image map series at 1:50 000 is based on combined SPOT/LANDSAT with a topographic overlay.

37. Essentially enlarged from the digitised topographic database the PNRMP maps will be engineering site plans produced at a scale sufficiently large to enable houses and fields to be plotted on. Once the detailed plans for land reclamation have been drawn on they will form an important element in the monitoring of physical change in the village during implementation and after.

38. The PNRMP would tender for contracting the services of a local Land/Cadastral Surveyor, for example from PALGRIC, ARIJ, or a consultancy company, to carry out the required surveys in the field and preparation of maps. This would be a part-time activity spread over the life of the PNRMP with the brief to prepare the site plans as and when required by the PMU. Villages would be surveyed in batches of 10 to 15 at a time. The surveyor would work with the selection team and determine the best layout, for example, of a terracing development by relating slope angle and length to the agreed spacing of the terraces. This would be an initial estimate for the site. When the site is let to tender the contractor/NGO will carry out his own detailed survey for the layout. At a 200 dunum site like Beit Kahel survey work took some 15 days. It must be emphasised that the surveys and mapping are working to improve the efficiency of implementation and not ends in themselves.

Table 1: Preparation of Village Site Plans Number of villages Up to 120 over 5 years Enlargement from existing maps at PALGRIC and/or ARIJ Qty.: 120 @ USD 30 = USD 3 600 Land/Cadastral Surveyor to draft data at 120 villages; one day each village/office @ USD 75/day = USD 9 000 Work comprises: Drawing in fields, houses and land tenure, slope measurements of all land types, layout plans for land reclamation, roads, rehabilitation, cisterns etc. Total: USD 12 600

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C. Contributions to Monitoring Programme from Verifiable Indicators

39. Baseline Surveys (BS) will be carried out at the start of the PNRMP at each village, primarily for the purpose of programme monitoring and later evaluation of the PNRMP. The BS would be linked to programme objectives, anticipated inputs and expected outputs. The temptation to include a wide range of irrelevant (although perhaps interesting) variables must be resisted. These data sets will provide much more detailed information on the village than was collected for example, during the Appraisal mission. Physical data collected will be related to monitoring requirements and used as verifiable indicators. The responsibility for data collection and monitoring will vary. The TSS and PPS staff of the PNRMP will gather a wide range of data on a daily basis. Other Government and NGO organisations will be requested to supply data from their own monitoring programmes.

40. The main questions to be asked in the physical monitoring of a soil and water conservation type programme, such as the PNRMP, have been given by Hudson (1991) as:

 is progress satisfactory?  if not what are the difficulties to be addressed ?  what new ideas are emerging?  which ideas suggest changes to the programme?

41. Too many conservation projects fail to collect data even at the simplest level, with information lacking on crop yields, tree heights and the frequency and depth of water harvested according to an FAO Expert Consultation on water harvesting (FAO, 1994).

42. In a review of the reasons for success or failure of soil conservation projects Hudson (1991) concluded that “there is a clear consensus that good monitoring throughout the project is essential, and also that it is frequently inadequate. Blueprint projects which are finalised at preparation are much less likely to be successful than flexible projects which can adjust to experience gained as the project develops. This implies that there must be a regular and reliable programme of measuring, recording and reporting. This in turn means that there must be close contact with the beneficiaries, and also defined indicators of performance”.

43. These sentiments are also those that will be followed by the PNRMP in the West Bank. Ongoing land reclamation projects elsewhere in the West Bank are finding that flexibility during implementation is important, allowing managers to adjust schedules, design and estimates as they proceed.

44. The PMU will monitor the progress of the programme by a series of verifiable indicators covering both the physical and socio-economic conditions in the selected villages. For physical data collection and monitoring the initial site survey of the selected villages will establish the range of indicators that can be routinely measured and reported. This monitoring will be carried out initially by the TSS under supervision of the SRE and MOA advisors.

45. In the villages where PNRMP activities will be undertaken the beneficiaries will from the onset be involved in deciding on the list of indicators that will be monitored at that particular village. The technical staff of the PNRMP will generate a discussion forum to explain the merit of any particular indicator and its value to the beneficiaries themselves and also to programme M&E.

46. All beneficiaries will be expected to participate in the monitoring process by accompanying the TSS and PPS staff into the field and discussing the methods and findings. Later, competent people in the village are likely to be become more intimately involved in the monitoring, and perhaps taking over a number of the monitoring duties from the PNRMP staff. It should be stressed however

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that this would have to be a voluntary effort by the beneficiaries. The mission team saw this type of monitoring in action on the UNDP-assisted project in Hebron, where a beneficiary was keeping a close watch on the rate of progress and quality of terrace building. His unpaid work was appreciated by the NGO and not regarded as interference. Elsewhere the mission team was informed that beneficiaries will often monitor the work of the land reclamation work to ensure that contractual estimates and standards for work are not slipping. It is in their interest to do this as they are paying for part of the services.

47. The list of physical indicators is given in the following Table 2, which is modified from the Project Formulation Report (FAI, 1997).

Table 2: Verifiable Indicators for Physical Monitoring of PNRMP

PNRMP Objectively Means of Verification Responsibility For Risks and Assumptions Activity Verifiable Data Indicators Collection Prepare site map/plan (a) Updates on crops, land (a) TSS and PPS in (a) Organisations (ARIJ, Village selection from topo. databases & use, land tenure, villages. PALGRIC) have ability site plan. field survey. cisterns, roads to be Contributions to produce desired shown on site plan. from MOA, et al. maps. (a) Monitoring rainfall (a)(b) National (a) Procure rain gauges, Obtain baseline Hydrological data data. authority; also security, participation of hydrological data. (b) Runoff data (at least encourage beneficiaries. visual records). village (b) availability of staff in participation PWA.

(a) Field surveys twice (a) PNRMP field (a) Sufficient land areas are Land reclamation Increased intensity of yearly at pre- and post- teams and the available. & rehabilitation land use & land use harvest period. beneficiaries. change in village areas (b) Land use statistics. (b) MOA, (b)(c)Data sources are to establish status of (c) Use recent maps, Government available either free or land use targets for aerial photography & Departments of at low cost. programme. /or satellite imagery. PA. (c) ARIJ, PALGRIC, other projects in West Bank. (a) Land use surveys, as (a) PNRMP field (a) No political obstacles to Land reclamation Increased production of above; + outputs in team surveys & carrying out work. & rehabilitation rainfed crops from new yields, tree growth beneficiaries lands. rates, fodder produced. (a) Land use surveys & (a) PNRMP field (a) No political obstacles to Land reclamation Increased production of outputs, as above. team surveys & carrying out work. & rehabilitation irrigated crops. beneficiaries (a) Measure extent and (a) PNRMP field (a) Easy transport of stone Land rehabilitation Old terracing quality of terracing. team surveys & into terraced land rehabilitated. (b) Full record of costs beneficiaries (b) Record/M&E system and inputs for labour, (b) TSS. established. machinery & materials. Land reclamation (a) Record quality and (a) TSS & SRE (a) No political obstacles to New terraces lengths of terracing. inspects new carrying out work. constructed (b) Full record of costs terrace work. (b) Record /M&E system and inputs for labour (b) TSS. established. machinery & materials. (a) Fencing of suitable (a) TSS inspects (a) No political obstacles to Land reclamation Fences around fields quality erected. fences during carrying out work. (b) Full record of costs construction. (b) Record M&E system and inputs for labour (b) TSS. established. machinery & materials. (a) Monitor construction (a) TSS and SRE (a) No political obstacles to Field access road Field access roads according to design. carry out routine carrying out work. construction. constructed. (b) Full record of costs inspections (b) Record M&E system and inputs for labour (b) TSS. established. machinery &

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materials.

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PNRMP Objectively Means of Responsibility For Risks and Assumptions Activity Verifiable Verification Data Indicators Collection (a) Monitor rehabilitation (a) TSS and PWA to (a) No political obstacles to Water supply Existing springs, and work. carry out routine carrying out work. development water supply wells in (b) Spring discharge inspections. (b) Sites continue to be and/or houses, to be monitored monthly. (b) Request PWA to monitored. rehabilitation for rehabilitated. (c) Water analysis at six include on list of (c) Laboratory is upgraded domestic and month intervals. recording sites. by PNRMP. agricultural use. (c) Beita Laboratory to undertake analysis. (a) Clean old cistern; (a) TSS of PNRMP (a) No political obstacles to Water supply Old cisterns improve water harvest checks contractor carrying out work. development rehabilitated catchment slope. has cleared old and/or (b) Amount water stored cistern. (b) Provision of suitable rehabilitation for increases. (b) Recording weekly measuring device. domestic and (c) Amount of water used by beneficiary. (c) Willingness of the agricultural use. for crop and animal (c) Beneficiary to beneficiary to use monitored. record offtake. undertake task. (a) Construct new cistern (a) TSS to monitor (a) No political obstacles to Water supply New cisterns in villages or in the work of carrying out work. Development &/or constructed. agricultural areas. contractor. rehabilitation for (b) Full record of costs (b) Record M&E system domestic and and inputs for labour, (b) TSS. established. agricultural use. machinery & materials. (a) Record range of (a) TSS and (a) Ability of MOA DG Technical support Reduction of erosion on erosion processes in beneficiary to Soil & Water. to carry services in soil and slopes and fields. sample fields & slopes. monitor condition out task. water in sample fields. management . (a) Measure soil water (a) MOA Beita lab to (a)(b)MOA lab. & field staff Technical support Increased land quality, holding capacity & carry out analyses has capability to do services in soil and soil fertility & water analysis at four sites. of sample sites. work. water holding capacity in (b) Carry out baseline soil (b) MOA Soil & management . soils. analysis at up to 25 Water DG staff. sites, at 24 month intervals. (c) MOA, NGOs, TSS (c) Introduce composted in field. (c) MOA promotes applied manure soil . conditioner Periodic training (a) Number of training (a) TSS and MOA (a) Training programme Technical support updates provided for sessions, & attendance advisors. organised. services in soil and PNRMP technical staff of staff/beneficiaries. water & key farmers. management . (a) Number of farmers (a) TSS and PPS with (a)(b) Implementation of Extension Extension services visited; number of MOA staff. extension network. network. provided to villages and field days & beneficiaries. attendance. (b) TSS. (b) Adopt improved techniques in soil and water conservation / agriculture. (a) Review costs, inputs (a) PMU to (a) Liaison between all Technical Flexible updating of the and interventions with coordinate results groups established. progress. operational plan. flexibility to permit into annual review change in operational of progress and plan. implement changes to operational plan.

Sources of Information used to compile table: FAI, 1997; UNCSD, 1996; FAO, 1992, 1995, 1996, 1997; FAO Invest Centre 1995; Hudson 1991.

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IV. REHABILITATION OF EXISTING TERRACING

A. Background

48. The hill lands of the West Bank contain tens of thousands of dunums of agricultural terracing that have been cultivated for many centuries for cereals, olives and fruit trees. They are an integral part of the agrarian landscape and cultural heritage of the West Bank. The soils on them will often have an inherent higher suitability value than those soils formed during land reclamation for new lands. It is very important thus that steps are taken to ensure that the terraces are preserved and rehabilitated, rather than destroyed and rebuilt as new lands according to the specifications being proposed for other rocky lands in this programme. It is proposed that these rehabilitation activities should be the first to be initiated in the programme, since they will involve communities in working together to repair the existing farmlands and can be initiated during the early part of the programme. Moreover, the unit costs will be lower and the financial and economic rates of return are likely to be higher.

B. Origins of the Terracing

49. Agricultural terracing in the highland areas of the West Bank area is known to have been ongoing during the Roman period over 2000 years ago. Generally they were built on lands closer to ancient and Arab villages where agriculture was practised (Ron, 1966). The terracing is believed to have been undertaken as a response to the catastrophic that had started considerably earlier as indigenous forests, growing on the deep terra rossa soils of the karst limestone uplands, were cleared for rainfed agriculture (Naveh and Dan, 1972). The terraces, constructed as drystone walls built up on the smooth, irregular or naturally benched slopes on limestone and limestone/marl rocks, checked the downslope flow of eroded soil from the uplands, and built up fields. At the same time cisterns were developed to use runoff from the eroded slopes.

50. In subsequent centuries the terracing was allowed to degenerate during periods of unrest, but rebuilding phases were undertaken at intervals. In the present century and until recently there has been little reconstruction and repairs made to ancient terracing over most of the West Bank. In a few areas there has been significant repair works, with a high quality of workmanship and this is strongly welcomed. Over the past 30 years, political uncertainties and the risk of land confiscation have greatly inhibited the rehabilitation and improvement of the terraces. Overall though this has been rather small scale and rarely part of an integrated rehabilitation of a larger unit of land around a village.

C. Present Status of Terraces

51. At the present time it is clear, that another phase of terrace rehabilitation is urgently required. Over much of the village lands that are presently farmed however, it can be seen that terrace sections of variable length have fallen down, due to erosion at the base of the walls, tree roots breaking down walls, or breaks initiated by livestock and farmers along tracks and during grazing activities. Where the terrace has been degraded for a long period only a line of stones indicates the line of the former drystone wall. Once a part of the terrace wall is damaged or destroyed in such a way then the slope profile on the terrace itself is subject to modification. This includes loss of soil from the surface as sheet, rill and ultimately gully erosion is increased, and more rapid loss of soil water within the soil profile as it drains progressively downslope without being retained in the soil.

D. Rehabilitation Versus Reclamation of Ancient Terraces

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52. The justification for rehabilitating the soils on the old terrace networks, rather than forming new terraces, includes: (a) the soils on the old terraces are often deep, free draining with an established soil structure of adequate quality, allowing good root penetration and access to soil moisture throughout the area of the terrace; (b) they have moderate levels of natural fertility maintained by annual additions of manure mixed into the soils by animal traction tillage methods; (c) the risk from erosion on the terraces is fairly low because of the moderate structural stability of the soils; (d) based on a rapid survey of the terracing systems in villages visited the mission estimated that about 25% of terracing is damaged or broken at any one point. The remaining parts of the terrace are usually stable and do need attention. (e) If these moderately deep soils are allowed to be bulldozed and formed into new terraces with retaining walls, as was noted at Deir Ammar village for example, then the following conditions are likely to apply: (f) new soils, formed from the bulldozed slopes and former terraces will be a heterogeneous and ill sorted mixture of former and ; (g) where terrace formation leads to the presence of more stony on clayey soils there is a slight risk of localised waterlogging in the new soil profile; (h) the soils will lack structural stability for a considerable time because of the pulverising effect of bulldozing, and until organic matter levels are raised and soil structure can reform; (i) due to poor aggregate stability the new soils will be liable to erosion, including sheetwash, rilling and gullying, unless suitable protection is given to the soil surface following reclamation; and (j) surface sealing may occur on the more silty soils with accompanying high surface run-off during rain events, and again protection of the soil surface is need following reclamation.

53. There are limited beneficial aspects to be considered when reforming soils in reclaimed lands, chiefly that of returning to the soil surface soil nutrients that have been leached to the base of the soil profile, according to the MOA’s Soil and Water General Directorate. This may take place in some soils, such as the terra rossa where is normal. In practice it is very difficult to ensure that such an idealised complete mechanical turning-over of the soil during reclamation will be carried out in this manner. Rather it is likely that incomplete mixing will occur.

E. Identification of Terraces in the Rehabilitation Programme

54. In villages that have been selected for inclusion into the IFAD-funded programme the initial survey will identify the status of degradation in the existing terracing. The total length and areas of terracing will be measured and the breaks recorded in terms of individual lengths and volumes, and as a percentage of whole network. From these data the volume of stone required to rebuild the broken sections can be estimated.

55. It will be necessary to relate the extent of the proposed repairs to the land holdings of village beneficiaries. A picture of land tenure on the village terraces will need to be outlined in a map of the village area. In the absence of any detailed cadastral plans at the present time then a sketch map will be sufficient. Care should be taken in the preparation of these maps to adopt a sensible scale and to

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avoid exaggeration of detail as they will also be used in the programme monitoring activities, for example to monitor changes in land use, ownership boundary changes, the spread of adoption of conservation techniques and construction of rural roads.

F. Materials

56. The supply of stone material for terrace repair will in many cases be located close to the broken wall. In some cases rehabilitation of walls will require bringing stones to the sites from some distance. It was noticed that stone material is often absent at breakage sites as they have been removed from fields or broken down. Stone waste from reclamation of new lands in the village is likely to provide a suitable source, but in some areas it may be necessary to bring in materials from some distance. Stone may be available in villages from building waste and could be transported to the repair sites. The loss of agricultural land and ancient terracing for building construction in towns, e.g. as in Ramallah, could be offset by using the stone materials of the terraces elsewhere, but this would be very expensive unless there was some transportation of produce in the opposite direction to justify the cost.

G. Methods

57. Drystone terrace building is a skilled profession which is often handed down through families, and in the West Bank experienced stone workers are found in most villages (given that traditionally all houses were built of stone). The terrace has to be rebuilt with suitable stone, anchored firmly on rock or a stable surface, ideally routed along the contour, and not be impermeable to infiltrating water upslope. The first step is to re- and shape the terrace bank. The basal stones are placed so that their greatest length is in the thickness of the facing, with larger header stones anchored into the bank for some 20 cm and at intervals of one every m². Stones are fitted together with the minimum of voids, with void areas being filled by smaller stones.

58. Stone walls have a flexible nature which, if constructed properly, will allow for relative movements along the length of the wall, due to soil settlement behind it. The of the wall is further enhanced by using large stones for construction which allow for the passage of water through them and the spreading of it over lower fields, thus increasing the water available for crops.

59. The finished terrace section will thus slope back slightly into the terrace bank. The original gradient of the field, or slight slope, made when terracing was initiated will have been much modified, with hollows in eroded areas, and elevated parts where soil has washed down from a higher terrace. If possible the restoration work should carry out some levelling of the field and make it level. This may be difficult if the land is already tree planted and machinery access is denied.

60. Whilst a certain amount of the terraced land in the West Bank is formed on horizontally bedded limestone-marl formations, the very nature of the ensures that there are also large areas of naturally benched terrain that have slight to moderate inclinations. In these areas the terrace wall should be repaired as elsewhere, but on the sloping field it is suggested that stone breaks are placed on the soil at intervals of 20 to 30 cm to reduce runoff down these slopes. This will interfere with ploughing but help to sustain the land longer.

H. Cost Estimate

61. The cost estimate for rehabilitation of terraces is based on certain assumptions: The walls will have a thickness of at least 50 to 70 cm, be up to 1.5 m high, and repairs will be carried out over part of the whole terrace. The following estimates provide the low and high ranges of repair work.

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The cost has been worked out according to the costs of labour and transportation of stones, given that materials may have to be brought some distance by donkey or possibly tractor. 62. On moderate slopes where the terracing occurs at a density of 50m²/du and up to 25% of the slope needs repairing the cost will be USD 44 per dunum, at 50% terracing density it will be USD 88 per dunum. On steeper lands, with 80 m²/dunum of terracing at 25% density the cost will be USD 60. If there is 50% of repairs required the cost will be some USD 140 per dunum. Table 3 provides for a range of repair tasks, different slopes and different repair densities, for villages.

63. It is assumed that much of the repairs will be on the moderate slopes. In any one village there may be different requirements for terracing but the suggested maximum for repairing terraces in each village will not exceed 200 dunums. Thus for example, a village may be allocated 75 dunums of Class 1 repairs, 10 of Class 3, and 115 dunums of Class 4. A village with 200 dunums of Class 1 lands would require funds of USD 44 times 200 du = USD 8 800, whilst a village with a requirement of 200 dunums of Class 4 lands would need USD 28 000 of funds. These indicate the low and high estimated costs of repairs. At this stage it is not possible to determine the amount of lands and proportion in each class which will have terrace rehabilitation, as the selected villages have not been chosen. I. Verifiable Indicators

64. The verifiable indicators for terracing on the PNRMP will include the recording of lengths, width and heights of terracing at each stage by the TSS responsible for a village. These quantitative records will be supplemented by qualitative data relating to the apparent strength of the competed section, monitoring and explanation for any breakage or collapsing, and an assessment of runoff on the terrace after its competition.

Table 3: Cost Estimate for Repairs to Existing Terracing

Slope and Terrace Cost No. of Maximum Max. Total Cost per Type Density Classes per villages Dunum per Dunums for of Dunum selected in Repair Class per Rehabilitation Terracing repair class Village¹ in Class Class 1. Slight to moderate slopes (<20%) with density 44 56 200 11 200 492 800 50m²/du and 25% of terrace requiring repairs. Class 2. Slight to moderate slopes (<20%) with density 88 12 100 1 200 105 600 50m²/du and 50% of terrace requiring repairs. Class 3. Steeper slopes (>20%) with density 80m²/du 60 60 150 9 000 540 000 and 25% of terrace requiring repairs. Class 4. Steeper slopes (>20%) with density 80m²/du 140 24 100 2 400 336 000 and 50% of terrace requiring repairs. TOTAL 23 800 1 474 400

Note¹: Total allocation per village is set at 200 dunums.

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V. REHABILITATION OF OLD CISTERNS

A. Introduction

65. The rehabilitation of cisterns would be the most important programme initiative dealing with water resources, for several reasons:

(a) every village has cisterns, and their use as water sources is very important; (b) the rehabilitation of cisterns is likely to prove to be highly cost-effective; (c) the rehabilitation of cisterns is not subject to the stringently monitored limitations on the development of water resources; and (d) no serious technical problems are known to exist.

B. Origins and Uses of the Cisterns

66. Cisterns are widely used in Palestinian villages to supplement water supply. If the water is intended for drinking purposes, then in almost all cases, rainwater is harvested from rooftops that act as catchment areas. It is then directed through pipes to a water cistern constructed either under or adjacent to the house. If the water is intended for livestock drinking or for irrigation purposes, it is then harvested from the runoff on open sloping lands and directed to an underground cistern. The cistern is constructed either by into solid rock (as in the Roman type cistern which is usually bottle or pear-shaped). Minor diversion works, such as low walls or crude piles of stone are used to direct water to a side opening near the top of the cistern.

C. Present Status of Cisterns

67. Many of the old cisterns are in use, and are used for supplementary irrigation of olive and fruit trees and also watering of livestock during the summer drought period. The water is also occasionally used for drinking by agricultural workers. According to information received by the Appraisal Team in an average village there may be between 40 and 60 cisterns. It is said that they are periodically cleaned out of accumulated soil and dirt, but it is hard to see how this can be a complete cleaning. The cover to these cisterns is usually a sliding steel plate, cemented onto a rock plinth. The cistern inlet lies below the plinth via a small hole. The cover may be absent and then any type of covering is used, in one case an old steel chair. The water harvesting slope is generally on Nari crust covered limestone with pockets of soil. Livestock have access to this slope and there is much fecal material.

D. Repairs to Old Cisterns

68. The PNRMP will provide for cleaning and rehabilitating of old cisterns. The major tasks will be to clean out the cisterns, carry out any rendering and plastering work on the inside, improve the inlet system to the cistern, repair or replace the steel cover, and finally redefine and clean up the catchment area.

69. The traditional cisterns are sometimes completely built in rock. If these are in reasonable condition, and free of cracks, then simple repairs may be sufficient, with perhaps only one layer of plastering. If it is more badly damaged with in cracked rock and the original plastering highly degraded then cement rendering and layers of plaster may be required.

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70. The PNRMP will broadly follow the guidelines being adopted by the UNDP project in Hebron district. The completion of the UNDP-type 100 m³ cistern chamber is followed by plastering of the walls as follows:

(a) moistening the rock to remove dust and prepare surface; (b) filling cracks with stones and cement; (c) layer 1, comprising: 40 litres volume , with 1x 50 kg bag cement + water; (d) layer 2, comprising: 120 litres volume with 1 x 50 kg cement + water; (e) layer 3, comprising: 10 litre volume with 1 x 50 kg cement + water; and (f) layer 4, comprising: cement/ water mixture painted on top.

71. This type of painting and plastering takes five men each five workdays and the contractor will guarantee the cistern for 25 years. On PNRMP the exact schedule for plastering will be defined during implementation and the contractors tendering process.

72. On the water harvesting slope, clearing of the soil and stones over the catchment area (approx. 30 x 30 m apron) is carried out. Often removal of the remaining soil exposes the thin (<3 cm) impermeable travertine laminar crust, at the top of the Nari weathering layer. This marks the boundary between the soil and rock interface. If this is absent, say due to earlier erosion, then the contractor will utilise this hard crust for runoff harvesting. Where it is absent the water harvesting apron will have to be prepared in concrete or cement. The slope should be protected from livestock to ensure minimal fecal material entering the cistern.

73. The latter could be cleared of stones and organic materials, and the feasibility of covering part or the entire catchment area with cement should be investigated. Cleaning can be accomplished at the end of the dry season when the accumulated organic matter is easily swept away. The aim is to maximise the runoff in the catchment into the cistern, and as such these small areas are more valuable if they are entirely devoted to this purpose.

74. The traditional cisterns are either completely built in rock (if it is crack-free) in which case it will require only one layer of plastering. If it is built in cracked rock, soft chalk / marl, or soil then two more typical cases, more than one layer of plastering is needed.

75. The completion of the UNDP-type cistern chamber is followed by plastering with four layers of cement and sand mixture. This type of painting and plastering takes five men five workdays and the contractor will guarantee the cistern for 25 years. On PNRMP the rehabilitation will not necessarily be undertaken to such exhaustive ends, but the repairs will be designed to sustain the use of the cistern for many years.

76. On the water harvesting slope, clearing of the soil and stones over the catchment area (approx. 30 x 30 m apron) is carried out. Often removal of the remaining soil exposes the thin (<3 cm) impermeable travertine laminar crust, at the top of the Nari crust weathering layer. This marks the boundary between the soil and rock interface. If this is absent, say due to earlier erosion, then the contractor will utilise this hard crust for runoff harvesting. Where it is absent the water harvesting apron will have to be prepared in concrete or cement. The slope should be protected from livestock to ensure minimal fecal material entering the cistern.

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E. Cost Estimates For Cistern Rehabilitation

77. The summary cost estimate for rehabilitating cisterns has been examined with a range of cistern types and repairs necessary in mind. The average area that a cistern can provide supplementary irrigation for is estimated at 25 dunums. The costs per dunum and the full costs are shown in Table 4 (full details are given in Tables 2 et seq. in the Appendix 2 of this Working Paper).

Table 4: Summary Costs For Rehabilitating Cisterns Type of Cistern Quantity Unit Cost Cost/du Total Cost Bottle shaped cistern. 50-60m³, 500 430 17.2 215 000 without pump in farmlands. Bottle shaped cistern. 100m³, 500 650 26 325 000 without pump in farmlands. Rectangular cistern. 50m³, 50 590 23.6 29 500 without pump in farmlands. Rectangular cistern. 50m³, with 10 710 28.4 7 100 pump in villages. Rectangular cistern. 100m³, 15 880 35.2 13 200 without pump in villages. Rectangular cistern. 100m³, with 10 1000 40 10 000 pump in villages Total Rehabilitation Costs: 1 085 599 800

F. Verifiable Indicators

78. Verifiable Indicators for monitoring and evaluation of construction of new cisterns will include keeping a full record of the costs, including labour and machinery inputs, and materials. The quality of the work will be recorded also. These tasks will be the responsibility of the TSS in each selected village. The TSS will also monitor the work of the contractor and any subcontractor at all stages.

VI. CONSTRUCTION OF NEW CISTERNS

A. Introduction

79. The PNRMP will provide funds for the construction of some 730 new cisterns in villages and in the countryside. Around the houses the purpose of these is to provide water for household use, domestic stock held in barns, and also supplementary irrigation in the beneficiaries fields in the village, mainly small vegetable gardens and fruit trees. In the more rural areas, the cisterns will be built either as the traditional bottle shaped design or as concrete lined excavations in the , with adjacent slopes covering up to two dunums being used for the water harvesting gathering slope. The number of new cisterns required will be reviewed on a village-by-village and year-by year basis.

B. Guidelines for Constructing Traditional Cisterns

80. The cisterns are designed to channel rain run-off over a limited catchment area into a subterranean, bottle shaped or rectangular chamber cut into bedrock. The work being carried out by UNDP in the Hebron area is undertaken by a subcontractor. Compressor-driven hammer drills excavate the 100m³ chamber. The whole cistern takes some 15 days depending on the nature of the rock. At sites, designed to be traditional type, the bedrock has proved to be a very hard recrystallized limestone which broke the hand drills. These sites had to be changed to larger rectangular cistern

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using the larger hammer drilling machines. Conversely hard rock cisterns proved to be mostly in soft chalk and marls. In such circumstances a flexible approach to the final cistern design is essential. In PNRMP the village survey will determine in detail the location of the sites and submit an estimate based on an examination of the geological layers.

81. The traditional cisterns are either completely built in rock (if it is crack-free) in which case it will require only one layer of plastering. If it is built in cracked rock, soft chalk / marl, or soil then two more typical cases, more than one layer of plastering is needed.

82. The completion of the UNDP type cistern chamber is followed by plastering of the walls as follows:

(a) moistening the rock to remove dust and prepare surface; (b) filling cracks with stones and cement; (c) layer 1, comprising: 40 litres volume sand, with 1x 50 kg bag cement + water (d) layer 2, comprising: 120 litres volume with 1 x 50 kg cement + water; (e) layer 3, comprising: 10 litre volume with 1 x 50 kg cement + water; and (f) layer 4, comprising: cement/ water mixture painted on top.

83. This type of plastering takes five men five workdays and the contractor will guarantee the cistern for 25 years. On PNRMP the rehabilitation will not necessarily be undertaken to such exhaustive ends, but the repairs will be designed to sustain the use of the cistern for many years.

84. On the water harvesting slope, clearing of the soil and stones over the catchment area (approx. 30 x 30 m apron) is carried out. Often removal of the remaining soil, by erosion or by design, has exposed the thin (<3 cm) impermeable travertine laminar crust, at the top of the Nari crust weathering layer. This marks the boundary between the soil and rock interface. If this crust is present, then the contractor should utilise the hard crust for runoff harvesting. Where the crust is absent the water harvesting apron will have to be prepared in concrete or cement. The slope should be protected, with walls, from livestock to ensure minimal fecal material entering the cistern. Fences would be an extra cost.

85. There is also a possibility of directing water from roads when locating cisterns intended for agricultural use. This practice is used at some localities in the West Bank. The disadvantage of this type is that the cistern will become contaminated with dust, manure and automobile residues on the road: as such it is not recommended.

C. Guidelines for Constructing Household Cisterns

86. Specifications for cisterns have also been adopted which will use the rooftop as the catchment area in water harvesting. The minimum slope of the rooftop is 1%, and the rooftop should be smooth, with no low points where water can pond. The parapet will have a height of 25-60 cm to be built around the roof to reduce water loss through splashing. The roof will be located away from sources of pollution. For example, it should not be used as a children’s playground, animals should not have an access to it and no overhanging trees over it that may shed their leaves on it or allow bird droppings on it.

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D. Household Cistern Specifications

87. Cisterns constructed from concrete should be reinforced with steel reinforcing bars. Concrete cisterns constructed above ground should be provided with a bottom opening for discharging unwanted water and a side opening at a distance of not less than 20 cm from top for discharging overflow. Cisterns should be located far from cesspits and sewage pipes. In the case where this cannot be achieved, then the cistern should be at a higher level than the sewage pipe/cesspit.

88. The capacity of the cistern should be based on the average rainfall and on the estimated required quantity of water used annually by the family. The capacity (in m3) is calculated at around 80% of the product of the roof area (m2) and the average annual rainfall (mm/yr) divided by a thousand (to convert from litres to cubic meters). It is assumed that only about 80% of the water is effectively used, the remainder being lost through evaporation and other losses.

89. The tank should be impermeable, with a minimum top opening of 50 x 50 cm dimension for cleaning and maintenance purposes. The cover door of tank should be free of rust and should always be kept firmly closed, except when in use. Where affordable, or where an electrical source is available it is recommended that electrical pumps be placed inside the cisterns to minimise water exposure to pollution. If water is to be lifted manually however, then the bucket must always be kept clean.

E. Cost Estimate

90. The cost estimate for new cisterns has been established for a range of conditions. It is assumed that each cistern can be used to provide supplementary irrigation for trees over 25 dunums. Comparative costs from the Palestinian Group (PHG) gave a cost estimate of USD 1 380 to USD 1 480 for a cistern of 60 - 70 m³ capacity

91. A selection of different types of construction have been given. The total number of cisterns to be built has been estimated at 730. Of these, most would be in rural areas to provide supplementary irrigation for fruit trees during the drought periods. This estimate could be revised as the PNRMP progresses and needs for individual villages are more refined. A summary of the costs is given below in Table 5. Full details of the cost breakdowns are given in Table 2 in the Appendix 2 of this Working Paper. Table 5: Summary Of Costs For Constructing New Cisterns Type of Cistern Quantity Unit Cost Cost/du Total Cost Bottle shaped cistern. 50-60m³, no pump, in 200 1 930 77 386 000 farmlands. Bottle shaped cistern 100m³, no pump, in farmlands. 200 3 350 134 670 000 Rectangular cistern. 50m³, no pump, in farmlands. 100 3 980 159 398 000 Rectangular cistern. 50m³, with pump in villages. 55 4 100 164 225 500 Rectangular cistern. 100m³, no pump, in farmlands. 100 5 700 228 570 000 Rectangular cistern. 100m³, with pump, in villages. 75 5 820 233 436 500 Total Cistern Construction Costs: 730 - - 2 686 000

F. Verifiable Indicators

92. Verifiable Indicators for monitoring and evaluation of construction of new cisterns will include keeping a full record of the costs, including labour and machinery inputs, and materials. The quality of the work will be recorded also. These tasks will be the responsibility of the TSS in each selected village. The TSS will also monitor the work of the contractor and any subcontractor at all stages.

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VII. LAND RECLAMATION ON ROCKY TERRAIN FOR WALLS AND TERRACES

A. Background to Reclamation on Rocky Unproductive Lands

93. The land reclamation effort to be carried out by the PNRMP will cover substantial areas of uplands in the West Bank, lands that at present are too rocky or degraded to be worth developing for agriculture other than livestock grazing.

94. In some regions, usually those that are somewhat distant from villages, there may have been terraced agriculture in the past, but they may have disappeared almost entirely due to centuries of neglect and/or misuse: in such areas new terraces may be formed in a land reclamation programme. Such a programme is now being undertaken in the West Bank, for example, by UNDP at Beit Kahel near Hebron. In certain villages that the Appraisal Mission visited, reclamation work begun on rocky terrain has been extended into the existing terraced land and the latter has been reformed.

B. Land Reclamation Methods on Rocky Lands

95. The methods of land reclamation as developed in the West Bank involve the use of heavy machinery to remould the landscape. The selection of rocky lands for this work is carried out where slopes are less than 30% and rock covers less than 40% of the total area. Where the percentage of rock is smaller then reclamation is not attempted, and the next phase of terracing may be the principal activity, or just simple retaining walls around new fields. During site selection the hardness of the limestone or Nari crust of the chalks is assessed to evaluate what type of machinery will be used on different components of the slope.

96. The site survey will guide the costs of the reclamation works. Observations by the Appraisal Team at a TCAS site in Hebron area suggested that the hardness of the rocks had not been clearly defined for cistern digging: hard rock had been found where soft was expected and vice versa. This led to variations in final costs for excavation. However, given the often variable nature of the limestone/marl/chalk layering it may be difficult to acquire a complete picture of the geology before reclamation starts.

97. During reclamation of the subsoil rocks are built up in walls perpendicular to the slope. The height of boulders may be over two meters (e.g., at Qabalan) and as such are unsightly on the landscape. Their stability is also in question. In such cases it will be very difficult to erect fencing along such a wall, and on PNRMP this type of walling or barrier will be reduced in height and made more stable by breaking up blocks. These boulders are usually not broken up and contain much soil material in cavities in the limestone. Observations made during the mission show that little thought is being given to using these walls further. With the large amount of soil material present they could be used to plant a and protective shrubs such as Prickly Pear and Sarcopoterium spinosum (Arabic: Natish). In some areas this technique is being undertaken, and the mission saw Prickly Pear at Deir Ammar and Natish at PARC sites at Qabalan. Other indigenous plants should be re- introduced.

98. The PARC/SCF manual (PARC-1997) stresses importance on taking great care to preserve the surface soil which is rich in organic matter. The nature of the reclamation however is such that very great disturbance usually takes place with irregular mixing of the topsoil and subsoil. Post treatment off the soil to improve its condition and fertility is one solution, discussed earlier in this Working Paper.

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C. Cost Estimate for Land Reclamation

99. The average machinery time for new land reclamation varies between 5 to 15 hours per dunum depending on local site conditions and consequently on the machinery used (e.g., large hammer excavator, bulldozer/shovel loader, JCB, tractor for ploughing). The average cost of the equipment is NIS 100/hour (USD 28). Therefore, land reclamation cost is NIS 500 to 1 500/dunum (USD 143 to USD 430). This is based on the assumption that no soil is imported for the reclamation work.

100. For the rehabilitation of land, it is assumed that on average, one dunum of land will require two to four hours of machinery time. Therefore, the cost of rehabilitation ranges between USD 56 to USD 113/dunum.

101. For the targeted programme area it is envisaged that around 18 000 dunums will require new land reclamation work and 20 000 dunums will require rehabilitation. Therefore, for cost estimation purposes 45% of each dunum will require new land reclamation work, at a cost of USD 63 to USD 190/dunum, and 55% will require rehabilitation work, at a cost of USD 31 to USD 62/dunum. Therefore, the total cost of land reclamation per unit area is USD 94 to USD 252/dunum.

D. Comparative Costs for Land Reclamation

102. The costs of other land reclamation contractors in the region have been provided and are given below for comparison. Table 6: Comparative Costs in Districts for Land Reclamation

District Average Cost (Nis/Du) Tulkarm 200.3 Qalqilya 325.3 Jenin 380.7 Nablus 285.1 Ramallah 564.2 (1) Average (2) 351.1

103. Hence, PARC’s average land reclamation cost is NIS 351.1/dunum (USD 100). Another example is the UNDP’s Al-Koum Project, where the costs for the reclamation of 151 dunums were as follow:

Table 7: PARC Costs for Land Reclamation Item Cost (Nis/Du) Bulldozer, shovel loader 40 Large hammer excavator 400 Small hammer excavator 240 Tractor for ploughing 120 (3) Total (4) 1 160

104. The total cost is therefore NIS 1 160/dunum (USD 331). Hence, land reclamation work cost ranges between USD 94.4-USD 422.5/dunum.

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E. Costs for Building New Terraces

105. The methods for building terraces have been provided in Chapter IV dealing with rehabilitation of old terraces. On lands that have been reclaimed from rock, or the old terraces are in such a degraded state, then new terracing will be undertaken. The IFAD team investigated this type of activity at UNDP sites in Hebron (TCAS and UAWC) and at Qabalan with PARC. The quality of workmanship being undertaken by contractors is generally good. On private lands throughout the West Bank there are examples of recent drystone terracing that have been constructed at variable cost. These include for example:

(b) Remote areas where landowners have built high quality walls with dressed surfaces. These types of terrace are costly and not recommended for the PNRMP:

 In Hebron area an example of a rich landowner who used quarry blocks of about 2m² to build terrace walls some five metres high. This is also not recommended as a standard PNRMP practice.

 In Deir Ammar area, a skilled farmer has built at own cost and over a one year period with his wife a very constructed drystone wall at least 200m in length.

106. These will be expensive to build also, but the skills of the builder should be used to advantage in the PNRMP, where they can serve as trainers for wall building, and the walls as field examples for extension visits.

(b) In rural areas where farmers have rebuilt walls at own cost, or with loans, along the old alignments. Stones are shaped and taken from larger boulders if these can be broken down. These will be of moderate cost and more closely resemble the traditional type of terrace. This is the principal type that the PNRMP will be concerned with. It is the model which UNDP, PARC, SCF are using. The costs of building new stone walls is made up as follows:

 Walls are either constructed on bedrock or a (20-25 cm depth) is excavated; wall dimensions include thickness of 50 to 70 cm minimum, height of 1.0 to 1.5 m, and height of wall above soil 30 to 50 cm; the should be constructed sloped backward to enhance its stability; stones used for construction are to be graded, with larger stones at the bottom; the upper 40-50 cm of wall to be constructed in two rows with a total width of around 70-100 cm.

 The cost of a 0.7 m wide wall, excluding the contractor’s profit, is shown in Table 8. Table 8: IFAD Estimate of Building new Terraces

Item Cost (Nis/M2) Labour 9 Stones (including transportation) 7 Total 16

107. The average area of terracing walls per dunum is 50-80 m2 (UNDP at Hebron bases calculations on average 75-80 m2 of terracing walls per dunum) depending on the height of wall and on the slope of the reclaimed land between successive walls. Therefore, the average terracing cost is NIS 800 to 1 280/dunum (USD 229-366).

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108. Comparative costs of terraces built by PARC, with an average construction cost of 1 m length of a stone retaining wall (width = 0.5 m) and in most cases stones being available at the site and not imported is as follows: Table 9: PARC Costs for New Terracing District Average Cost (Nis/M2) Salfit 9 Qalqilya 10.1 Jenin 9.5 Nablus 9 Ramallah 9 Average 9.3

109. In the case where stones are to be imported to the site, then the average cost of the wall may rise to NIS 20 /m2. Therefore, PARC costs range between NIS 9.3-20/m2 (USD 2.6-5.7).

110. Using the same percentages of the total area for the required new construction (45%) and repair work (55%) for stone walls as for land reclamation, then for cost estimation purposes the area of land that is likely to be reclaimed in a village can be:

(a) 45% of each dunum will require new terracing, at USD 101.4 to 162.2/dunum; (b) 55% will require rehabilitation work, at USD 24.2 to USD 77.4/dunum; and (c) therefore, the total cost of terracing per unit area is USD 125.6 to USD 239.6/dunum.

F. Fences

111. Fencing is used in the land reclamation programmes to protect young olive or fruit trees from grazing livestock and wild animals (deer), mainly the latter in many locations. Fences would be erected in areas where there are no walls of rock placed around the margins of fields. The PNRMP will supervise the construction of the metal fences. In areas where it is not possible to erect fences then alternative techniques will be promoted by the PNRMP. These will include planting of Prickly Pear and the indigenous Sarcopoterium spinosum (Arabic: Natish) as live fences allowed to colonise the tops of the walls. A cost estimate will be given in the detailed costs for these plants.

112. In detailing the specification guidelines for fencing, the following type of relatively high quality fence is considered. The fence is made of chicken wire (5 x 5 cm opening size), 1.5 m high, with 50 mm pipes set at 3.0 m offsets centre-to-centre and fixed in concrete blocks (0.5 x 0.5 x 0.5 cm size). Four horizontal tie wires (4 mm thick) are added at 0.5 m offsets. The time taken to prepare a 3 meter length of fence, and assuming that a JCB type machine will excavate 100 holes per 8 hours, then the procurement and installation costs are as follows: Table 10: High Cost Fencing Estimate Item Cost (Nis) Excavation (0.5 x 0.5 x 0.5) 6 Concrete and stones 12.5 Fence 36 Labour 10 Pipes 22 Tie wires 2.4 Total 88.9 (per 3m)

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113. Therefore, the cost is NIS 30/meter run of fence (USD 8.6), excluding the contractor’s profit. In terms of the cost estimate per unit area it is assumed that the average area of land to be fenced is 30 dunums.

114. For the estimation of the length of fencing required, two shapes of the plot of land are considered: a square area (with sides of 173x173 m and a perimeter of 692 m) and a rectangular area (with sides of 122x244 m and perimeter of 732 m). Therefore, a 30 dunum area will on average require (692+732)/2 = 712 m fencing. Hence, a one dunum area will on average require 23.7 m fencing, at a cost of USD 204/dunum. This can be considered as an upper estimate for fencing, and is a rather costly option.

115. A lower estimate would be using fencing similar to that used by PARC. This consists of a fence 1.5 m high, composed of seven barbed wire strands of 2.5 mm thickness, with posts dug in the soil every 5 m distance, and with major posts fixed in concrete blocks (0.6x0.8x0.8). For a 50 meters length of fence, and assuming that a JCB will excavate 100 holes per 8 hours, then the cost of fencing is as follows: Table 11: Low Cost Estimate for Fencing Item Cost (Nis) Excavation (0.6x 0.8 x 0.8) 7.5 Concrete and stones 38.4 Fence 146 Labour 100 Pipes 112 Total 404

116. Therefore, the cost is NIS 8/MR (USD 2.30). This is, on average, equivalent to USD 54.6/dunum. Therefore, the cost of fencing ranges between USD 54.6 to USD 201.7/dunum, depending on the type of fence used.

117. Another lower-cost option involves the anchoring of coiled barbed wire on top of low terraces. The coiled wire would be firmly anchored by stones, and no posts would be required. The cost of this type of fencing has not been calculated precisely, but is likely to be around USD 25/dunum or less.

G. Planting of Seedlings

118. The PNRMP will assist the farmers in the planting of seedlings for fruit trees, including olives, apricots, apples, pears, almonds, peaches, and figs. These will be planted on the newly reclaimed lands, on previously fallow lands and also on those lands where terrace rehabilitation has been undertaken. The assistance would consist of:

(a) technical advice and recommendation concerning the selection of the perennials most suitable for the area; (b) technical advice and guidance regarding plant establishment and maintenance; (c) the provision of inspection/certification services regarding the quality of materials to be provided by nurseries (usually private); and (d) provision of credit through a commercial bank to finance plant establishment.

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119. The PNRMP will follow the guidelines laid down by UNDP, and PARC/SCF in their Manuals, adapted as necessary to meet local conditions.

120. These specifications, inter alia, lay down that seedlings will be disease free; stem heights not less than 70 cm and thickness not less than 1.5 cm; the stem should be ramose; root system should be healthy; the stem should be upright and not bent; stem height and thickness should conform to the root system; sympysis at the grafting point should be standard; seedlings should be placed in a plastic bag with wet wood fibre.

H. Verifiable Indicators for Land Reclamation

121. The verifiable indicators for all aspects of land reclamation will relate to the quality and quantities of the work and materials, and the satisfactory completion of the various tasks and works according to the contracts, as performed by the contractors with involvement of beneficiaries, and as monitored by the TSS at each site. The monitoring forms as used by PARC/SCF will be modified for PNRMP use. The verification will also assess the aftercare at the sites to ensure that conservation matters are given a high priority, resulting in as low an erosion risk and minimal damage to soils as is possible with this type of reclamation. The seedlings will come from nurseries that will be inspected by the extension officers of the MOA. The acquisition of seedlings would be the responsibility of the beneficiaries, who would pay for them with loan from the participating commercial bank. However, group purchases by beneficiaries would be encouraged so as to obtain volume discounts and to lower transport costs. Depending on the interest of the beneficiary groups, by the programme could initiate a tendering process, organised by a committee comprising selected beneficiary group members, extension officers, administrators and the commercial bank.

VIII. CONSTRUCTION OF FARM ACCESS ROADS

A. Road Building Requirements

122. Requirements for the construction of agricultural access roads into fields should not be too exacting in order to ensure an economically and technically feasible work programme. At the same time, a sustainable road that will be able to serve for a number of years without the need for major rehabilitation work is sought. Consequently, the construction costs being considered are in relation to the expected future expenditure on maintenance works, and on the need for keeping the road open to traffic. The main functions of the roads are:

(a) to provide access to the more distant sites for the delivery of construction materials, e.g., cement for cistern construction/rehabilitation; (b) to provide access for the delivery of planting materials and associated inputs, e.g., seedlings, fertilisers, steel drums; (c) to provide access for tractors (land cultivation) and mobile threshers; and (d) to enable the timely evacuation of fruit and olives at harvest time.

123. The roads need not be constructed to standards required for travel by automobile. The standards would permit all-weather access by farm tractors with trailer, including small tractors (e.g., 45 HP). As noted above, the construction standards should be sufficiently high to permit the benefiting farmers to undertake annual maintenance without resort to specialised mechanical equipment (other than farm tractors). Proper maintenance will be important, as an important function of the roads would be the transport of agricultural production from the fields long after the programme would be over.

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B. Methods of Construction

124. In general, road construction often results in harmful environmental impacts, such as soil erosion, dust, and if the road is not planned well, also changes in the natural water runoff patterns. During construction the area of road disturbance should be minimised by following (where possible and feasible) natural terrain for road alignment. There should not be any barriers to natural water flow, and allowance should be made for the preservation of natural flows, through the construction of culverts at wadi crossing points. The cross-slope of the finished road surface will be such as to avoid water ponding. Construction will be carried out in dry weather, generally April through October. The overall road construction process may be summarised as follows:

(a) Clearing the site by removing all vegetative matter from the original ground and from fill material, to avoid its decay and consequent settlement of the road; (b) Excavation and topping: removing earth/rock from its original position to the desired level and transporting it to a fill or to a waste disposal. Topping (sub-base) is added where the natural soil is weak, e.g., clay; (c) Installation of culverts; (d) : hauling, spreading and compacting activities in the case where a base course is used; (e) The distribution of stones is to be carried out from moving dump trucks. The surface is then rolled with watering until the rolled course is thoroughly consolidated to achieve the required specifications; and (f) Two types of agricultural roads are considered; those serving agricultural machinery only and those serving low volumes of small vehicles in addition to agricultural machinery. The first type is at locations where the terrain is very difficult; hence the cost of grading the road is too high to be justified by the traffic volume of small vehicles using it. In this case, the native soil is shaped as nearly as possible to the cross-section of the finished road. For the case where the road is intended to be all- weather and to serve low to medium volumes of small vehicles, a higher type of pavement, surfaced with a base course or even base and sub-base courses of selected material applied over the whole width of the road is adopted. Where possible, local material is to be used, to avoid transportation costs. In some cases, where the road is planned to be upgraded in the future, then by ensuring that the specifications of the sub-base and base courses are satisfied, then the agricultural road may be considered as a stage-construction for future improvement.

125. Road maintenance is necessary to ensure a sustainable agricultural road network to provide an all-weather access to cultivated land. It also protects the adjacent resources and maintains a smooth running surface and cross-slope, and hence avoids the increase in vehicle operating costs. For roads, blading and maintenance of cross slope, as well as the occasional reshaping/material replenishment are necessary. All-weather roads require continuous monitoring for surface and wear or deterioration. Drainage maintenance involves keeping ditches and culverts clean from debris and grass.

126. The roads being considered for the PNRMP will generally directly serve an area to a depth of up to 200-250 m along each side of it, i.e., 1 km of road will serve an area of 400-500 dunums, or 1 dunum will have a density of 0.0025-0.002 km or 2.5-2.0 m of road. Full specifications for the design are given in Tables 15 and 16 in the Appendix 2.

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127. It will be the responsibility of the contractor to ensure that the finished road conforms to the above specifications. The cost of all the necessary tests is to be borne by the contractor.

C. Condition of Existing Agricultural Roads

128. The visit of the IFAD Appraisal Team, and their experience shows that most of the existing agricultural roads have, for economical reasons, been opened with very little consideration for engineering specifications.

129. On rural roads now being constructed by NGOs in the West Bank, minimum grades, cross slopes, size and slope of ditch, type and quality of base course material (if any), provision of culverts, etc., are not included in specifications. As a result there is often cracking, either in the road surface, or in the ditch. Sometimes the base material may be washed away.

130. These problems are a direct result of the improper, or even the absence of surface and cross drainage of the road. Thus very often the relatively cheap cost of construction of such roads is offset by the high rehabilitation cost after each rainy season. In PNRMP a more detailed investigation will be made of the road requirements. This will include a site visit to determine the principal features of the proposed alignment. Table 12: Visit Notes for Selecting Roads Agricultural road outside planned area of village Number of villagers served Topography: Access to agricultural land Type of cultivated area served by proposed road Road creates a shortcut between adjacent villages Length of road Proximity to water sources

D. Estimation of Construction Costs for Agricultural Roads

131. All calculations are based on a 4 m road width. For topping assume that the material is surplus from the excavation, or is available from nearby land (i.e., not purchased). The breakdown of costs are given in Table 17 (Appendix 2). The total costs for 1 km of 4 m wide road, assuming one culvert per km, are estimated at USD 13 550 to USD 30 450.

132. Based on a road density of 0.002-0.0025 km/dunum, then the construction cost per unit area ranges between (0.002 x 13 550 – 0.0025 x 30 450) USD 27.1-76.1/dunum; the upper estimate applies to a high-quality road on extremely difficult terrain, which is estimated to represent only around 10-15% of the programme site.

133. By way of comparison, PARC uses a 4 m wide road, with turnarounds every 250 m and with no culverts (the cost of culverts is borne by the farmers). The selection of road type is based on the site characteristics and on the availability of material. PARC classifies roads under three categories:

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(a) Class A can be used by all vehicle types; (b) Class B can be used by vehicles other than agricultural machinery with difficulty; and (c) Class C can only be used by agricultural machinery.

134. The average cost of roads constructed by PARC is shown in Table 18 (Appendix 2) for several districts with costs ranging from USD 1 534/km for Class A and B roads, and USD 1 177 for a Class C road.

135. Clearly, there is a wide variation in road construction costs obtained by the mission. The programme would opt for the road designs "B" and "C", but with design considerations and structures (mainly for drainage) to ensure durability. For cost estimation, a unit cost of USD 5 000/km is used. A village requesting a higher standard of road to permit access by all types of vehicles would be permitted to have such a road only if the village is prepared to meet all incremental costs for the higher standard road.

E. Verifiable Indicators For Roads

136. The verifiable indicators for monitoring the roads will look closely at the quality of the work being undertaken by the contractors. The specifications for the PNRMP roads are designed to ensure that rural access roads will not quickly start to erode after a few years. The SRE and TSS in particular will ensure that the alignment of roads does not lead to erosion on adjacent slopes, and cause landslips. They will therefore provide a continuous monitoring of the quality of the road construction and adherence to the PNRMP standards and tender specifications. They will report on any problems encountered with construction and if necessary allow design changes into contracts.

IX. REHABILITATION OF SPRINGS, HOUSEHOLD WELLS AND IMPROVEMENTS TO SMALL SCALE IRRIGATION

A. Proposed Work Programme

137. The PNRMP plans to carry out rehabilitation of a number of existing household wells within villages and springs within the boundaries of village lands. However, the rehabilitation of springs used for domestic water supplies would be limited and extended only to villages not to be covered under the PA/IBRD Community Development Project (CDP) which specifically concentrates on the upgrading and improvement of village physical infrastructure. PNRMP villages with domestic water supply problems would be encouraged to seek assistance from the CDP, and only in cases where there is urgent need for assistance from PNRMP villages not covered under CDP would project assistance be provided. The focus of PNRMP activities, as concerns springs, would therefore be the improvement of efficiency of water delivery from springs for irrigation.

138. Villages not connected to municipal water supplies rely to a great extent on springs for domestic water needs and in some cases for low-scale irrigation of their crops. For the latter purpose, water is discharged in most cases into open channels and consequently a large amount is lost through evaporation and percolation into the ground. There is a need to rehabilitate springs to increase the flow of water for irrigation. Where the springs are used for domestic supply the PNRMP will improve the sanitary conditions of the domestic water supply. Overall the programme will provide a sustainable arrangement for operation and maintenance of the springs.

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139. The work to be undertaken at spring sites will include the rehabilitation of small irrigation projects where perennial water supplies are used from the springs. Calculations have been based on examination of the gardens at Deir Ammar, where some 20 dunums of land is irrigated for a wide range of vegetables and fruit trees.

140. Household wells (tubewells) were reported in several of the villages visited by the IFAD Appraisal Team. These are old wells, built before 1967, and often in disrepair. The PNRMP will share its information with the CDP and encourage it to undertake well rehabilitation in such locations.

141. For the rehabilitation and development of springs under the programme, a set of specification guidelines have been prepared. At each spring rehabilitation site, the potential for rehabilitation and range of tasks to be undertaken, will be studied and evaluated on a case-by-case basis, taking into consideration the water quality, seasonal variation of flow, the benefits and the costs and any legal restrictions on the use and diversion of the water. The work may include walls and fencing, building of an irrigation conveyance system, constructing a balancing with pumps, taking into account any local effects from sewage outlets, and the establishment of a water users association.

B. Cost Estimate

142. For cost estimation purposes, the following case, based on a survey at Deir Ammar, has been considered:

(a) spring with a flow rate of 20 l/s (72 m3/h); (b) pumping station giving a head of 50 m to supply elevated land, where needed with a pressure at the outlet equivalent to 2.5 bars; (c) a reservoir of a capacity of 50 m3; and (d) conveyance system is three km long consisting of either open concrete channel (10 cm thick; 40 cm wide and 30 cm deep), or above ground pipes ( 100 or  150 mm). At Deir Ammar, where there is existing field and benched terrain on thick bedded limestone, a network of pipes on the surface is recommended as it would be difficult to cut for a buried system. The cost includes the pipes, fittings, manholes and the necessary connections as shown in Table 13.

Table 13: Cost Estimate For Spring Rehabilitation Item Cost (USD) Pump (20 HP) 3 000 - 4 000 Generator (25 kVA) 8 000 Civil works (room and fencing) 2 000 Pipes, fittings and accessories 1 000 Total for pumping station 14 000 - 15 000 Reservoir (50 m3 capacity) 3 970 Conveyance system: either : open channel 105 000 or: pipes,  100 mm 60 000 pipes,  150 mm 90 000

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C. Comparative Costs

143. An example of spring rehabilitation is the project being carried out by the Palestinian Hydrology Group (PHG) at Far’a springs between Nablus and Tubas. This is a two-year project costing USD 500 000. The spring is publicly owned, and serves a group of 500 farmers through the provision of water for irrigation over 700 dunums. The project includes the rehabilitation of old channels and the construction of new irrigation channels, with a total length of about 12 km.

D. Water Users Associations

144. The formation of a formal Water Users Association for existing and future spring developments may be necessary where there is likely to be large flows and many water users. IFAD has recently (1997) completed a study for establishing a Water Users Association at the large springs of Ein Sultan in Jericho. The PNRMP will refer to this manual for guidance in establishing any similar WUA in the PNRMP areas.

E. Verifiable Indicators

145. The verifiable indicators for spring development will include monitoring the work completed as given in the tenders. The Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) will also carry out periodic testing of the water quality and discharge as part of their ongoing monitoring programmes. PNRMP will liaise with the PWA to ensure that programme springs are included.

X. SUPPORT TO OTHER SUB-PROGRAMMES IN THE PROGRAMME

A. Improvements to the Analytical Laboratory at Beita

Introduction

146. The Programme will support the upgrading to the MOA’s Soil and Water General Directorate, and also the Central Soil and Water Laboratory at Beita, located some 10 km south east of Nablus.

Beita Laboratory

147. The Beita laboratory is conveniently located in the centre of the West Bank. It is situated in a rented building with some 200 m² of floor space on the first floor and an 80 m² store on the ground floor. At present there is only one analyst, who is responsible for carrying out a steady flow of soil and water analysis and also testing for olive oil quality and the issuing of accreditation certificates for export of olive oil. The laboratory is kept clean and functional. A major problem is that several important items of equipment, donated by UNDP ten years ago, have never worked due to the lack of manuals. These include a UV Spectrophotometer of US origin (USD 9 071 new), an Italian made Gas Liquid Chromatographic unit (USD 10 186 new), and a USA made Thin-Layer Chromatographic system (USD 26 020 when new). Various attempts have been made to use these in the past without success.

Other equipment is functioning mainly due to the skill and interest of the operator

148. The laboratory can undertake routine soil and water analysis but is unable to carry out special analysis for trace elements and various soil nutrients. In addition it does not have any capability to analyse for residues in foods to permit accreditation with the Food Analysis Performance Assistance

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Scheme (FAPAS), an increasingly essential requirement for exporting foods to Europe and North America.

149. The reorganisation of the laboratory will be carried out by the Analytical Laboratory Specialist to be provided by the PNRMP. This specialist will assess the condition and operational status of the equipment in the laboratory at present, and decide which items of equipment are obsolete. In consultation with the Soil and Water Directorate, and other Departments in the MOA and with visits to other laboratories in the West Bank, Israel and possibly Jordan, the specialist will plan the procurement of equipment for the laboratory. The laboratory will be fully equipped for soil and water analysis, olive oil processing, and hopefully accredited for residue analysis in foods. International standards will be followed for accreditation of olive oil processing and residue analysis. This equipment will then be ordered by the procurement section of the programme. The specialist will return to establish the new equipment and set up training programmes for staff.

150. In the Eastern Mediterranean region FAPAS accredited laboratories are present for example in Israel and in Cairo, Egypt (see Doghiem, 1996). As part of the upgrading of the laboratory the PNRMP will include a study tour of these accreditation laboratories.

B. Strengthening of Land Resources and Soil and Water Conservation

151. The strengthening of the Soil and Water General Directorate will include the establishment of a land evaluation information centre in the MOA. The GD, which at present has a small number of experienced core staff, will gather together land resources and land use information on the Palestinian Territories. At present there is considerable information available in the information centres of ARIJ and PALGRIC, and elsewhere in the Universities and other NGOs.

152. A study tour will provide the key Programme and MOA staff with an advanced training in soil and water conservation activities being conducted in adjacent countries. These will probably include liaison visits to Jordan, Israel, Egypt and the International Centre for Agriculture and Research in D Areas (ICARDA) in Syria. The MOA is currently establishing a strong linkage with ICARDA and the PNRMP will draw on this liaison.

153. There is also a great deal of unpublished soil data held by the Soil Survey of Israel, in terms of maps and analytical data. Most of this latter archival information is unpublished but available, for example hand-coloured 1:50 000 soil maps of large parts of the West Bank. As part of the strengthening exercise, MOA is urged establish a cooperative link to have duplicates made of data, and arrange discussions with key scientists.

154. Depending on the regional extent of the existing Israeli data, the PNRMP will recommend targets for land resource investigations in the West Bank. The first step in this direction will be to establish the suitability of the data to provide land suitability evaluation maps for the various farming system and land use types in the West Bank. As part of the strengthening the PNRMP will provide technical assistance funding for a short term input for Land Resources Specialist to appraise and organise these data sources for programme use. The Specialist will also establish where there are information gaps in land resources planning data and prepare an action plan that could be suitable for donor funding. A total of two staff months is estimated for this input.

155. With the existing data it may be possible to assess land suitability for different crops and farming systems using methods and output similar to that achieved on the recently completed National Soil Map and Land Use Project (NSMLUP) in Jordan (Hunting Technical Services, 1994). For land suitability evaluation the NSMLUP considered five main land use types in the upland areas of Jordan:

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(a) rainfed annual arable cropping for , and field crops; (b) rainfed perennial cropping for olives and associated fruit trees; (c) drip irrigated vegetables; (d) rangeland grazing; and (e) forestry and reforestation.

156. These land use types were related to the soil conditions and evaluated according to the FAO system of land evaluation:

(a) S1 highly suitable for the intended use; (b) S2 moderately suitable for the intended use; (c) S3 marginally suitable for the intended use; and (d) N not suitable for the intended use.

157. Required Land Qualities and their associated Land Characteristics can be placed in five groups as shown in Table 14. From data acquired at each observation point, and applying these to class limits for each land characteristic the final land suitability class can be determined for soils within each Land Use Type.

Table 14: Land Characteristics Grouping Land Characteristics Land Qualities Climate Precipitation Moisture availability Temperature (winter growth potential) Temperature regime Windrun (km/day) Wind hazard Soil Total available water holding capacity within Moisture availability 0-120 mm depth (mm water) (m/day) Oxygen availability in root zone. Soil salinity (mS/cm) Effects of soil salinity Soil sodicity (ESP) Effects of sodicity Vertisolic root shearing Rooting conditions Secondary carbonate concentration Nutrient availability; soil toxicity Nutrient availability Nutrient availability Erosion Erosion type, and severity of erosion Trafficability/micro terrain/loss of fertility/ Topography Percent slope Terrain factors. Rockiness Rock outcrop; surface boulders and stones %; Rooting conditions/moisture subsurface stone % availability.

Sources: National Soil Map and Land Use Project, Jordan (Hunting, 1994); FAO, 1997.

158. It is considered that a similar exercise if carried out in the West Bank would provide a solid basis for sustainable land-use planning and management of the natural resources.

C. Improving Techniques for Soil and Water Conservation & Rainwater Harvesting

Present Situation

159. Despite a long tradition in water harvesting and terraced agriculture on the hills and villages of the West Bank there is very considerable scope for improving these techniques so as to reduce erosion and increase water in farmlands and on the range. 160. The rapid survey conducted by the IFAD Appraisal Team in eight villages has shown that the existing conservation structures, such as cisterns and drystone bench terracing, are everywhere in

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need of rehabilitation. The old terracing is frequently broken down for 25% of their lengths, and cisterns on the hillsides could receive more runoff if catchment areas were improved.

161. On lands that have been reclaimed by various NGOs working in the West Bank it is clear, from the IFAD Appraisal Team rapid village assessment, that considerable erosion of soil is now taking place. In some places this is clearly very substantially higher than before reclamation, due to a lack of in-field conservation measures once major has been completed. Such trends cannot be allowed to continue, and a far better system of aftercare is required. On the PNRMP this follow up work, with advice on conservation, tillage methods, suitable species for conservation planting etc., will be undertaken by the support teams, the TSS and to a lesser degree the PPS. They will receive assistance from the Extension Service Department of the MOA.

162. Similarly, inferior construction of agricultural roads is resulting in rilling, gullying and loss of top cover, and a widespread programme of rehabilitation on roads only a year old has started. The IFAD programme will learn from these mistakes. Conservation works will be built to a high degree of quality and will ensure their sustainable use for many years. Such works will be costly but give the promise of higher returns in the long term.

PNRMP Commitments

163. The PNRMP will put soil conservation high on the agenda by firstly initiating the rehabilitation of old structures including terraces and cistern. The programme will then move on to land reclamation in new areas, with land scraping, terracing, new cisterns, access road for fields and water developments.

164. The PNRMP will also provide for the funding of a Water Harvesting Specialist to assess existing technologies and promote the adoption of suitable interventions in the West Bank. This specialist will initially work with the farming communities, to monitor their traditional methods during the rainy season. It is hoped that field demonstrations, made with MOA extension staff and TSS from the PNRMP, of existing and new techniques can be established at key villages in the programme area to provide a forum for discussion and awareness amongst the beneficiaries.

Investigations of Conservation Techniques

165. In promoting indigenous practices derived from outside the area care must be taken to ensure that techniques used elsewhere are applicable to this region. The water harvesting specialist who will be appointed to the PNRMP will examine all possibilities for improving conditions. Some examples of techniques which have or may have potential in the West Bank include the following:

(a) Testing for establishing ploughing along contours to reduce runoff and erosion in fields. Due to the narrow and linear arrangement of many field holdings ploughing is usually carried out down the slope. Contour aligned fields are, at present, relatively uncommon. Adoption would either involve re-arranging of field shapes (thought unlikely to be acceptable) or contour ploughing within existing field shape. Latter would be require careful use of ploughing machinery, but would reduce tendency for rilling and gullying. In addition, where linear fields often have concave profiles in both longitudinal and horizontal contour ploughing would in time reduce this .

(b) Testing for establishment of contour walls or grassed banks along the contours - low walls and grassed banks along contours to reduce run off and rilling along the long slopes in the clayey vertisol plains of farmlands.

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(c) Testing for adoption of small scale water harvesting techniques for cisterns/in fields and in fields such as pits around and diamond shaped Negarim micro-catchments around trees.

(d) Testing for the adoption of teras or earthen bunds placed along lower slopes of tree crop plots to trap rainwater on the slope. (e) Testing for adoption of stone lines across fields to slow down rainwater run off. Lack of stones in the broad clay valleys.

(f) Reducing erosion in drainage lines with gully plugs of stone/acceptable waste. Gullying is present in some localities. Elsewhere preventive measures could ensure protection of slope before rilling and gullying is initiated.

(g) Adoption of fallow systems to reduce erosion risk and conserve soil moisture. These include stubble free fallows requiring a high degree of soil cloddiness to control wind and water erosion and stubble mulch fallows. Latter may increase risk of disease carry over but reduce machinery costs and erosion susceptibility. Land is now often fallowed to conserve moisture but in unploughed state.

(h) Use of conservation tillage. Minimised tillage operations with maximum use of residue cover for protecting soil against erosion, increasing water infiltration into the soil, thereby increasing dryland crop production.

(i) Use of low tillage agriculture on the clay vertisols, which occur on the lower slopes and valley floors in many parts of the Programme area. Technique normally results in higher soil moisture loss as soils crack in the summer. However, this effect is reduced in the West Bank since the soils have a certain degree of self-mulching on the surface, and this process needs to be maximised to retain soil water during the hot summer.

166. Useful summaries of methods for harvesting rainfall in the drier regions of Mediterranean and more semi-arid agro-ecological regions are given in Critchley and Siegert (1991), CDCS (1992), Hudson (1987), FAO (1994), FAO-Investment Centre (1995), Leblond and Guerin (1983), Lee and Visscher (1992) and Roose (1996).

Motivating the Labour Force

167. Labour requirements for conservation construction are high. An IFAD-funded study (CDCS, 1992) estimated that contour terraces took 10 to 30 person days per dunum depending on slope, and simple contour stone bunds in fields took 5 to 15 person days per dunum (data from Africa, converted from days/ha). The challenge of the PNRMP is to encourage a growing number of beneficiaries to become motivated to apply conservation measures in their fields. IFAD programmes in have facilitated such a trend by readily supplying credit for suitable tools, wheelbarrows, and donkey carts, but it was concluded that delays in procurement and supply of implements or their poor quality seriously affected the ability of the farmers to undertake conservation measures (CDCS, 1992).

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Training in Soil and Water Conservation

168. The PNRMP will provide funding for Senior Rural Engineers (SRE) and Technical Site Supervisors (TSS) to be part of the support team in each NGO. They will be overall supervised and directed by the PMU established within the MOA. The terms of reference drafted for these staff (Annex 8 of the Main Report) require a number of years of practical training in soil and water conservation and land reclamation work.

169. At the start of the PNRMP however these staff will be provided with a series of training classes to ensure that a uniform style of conservation and reclamation work will be executed. Periodically, during the life of the PNRMP the field staff will be given in-service training to keep them abreast of developments. This training will be organised by the PMU and given by MOA Extension Department staff and consultants. As part of the upgrading of the Soil and Water Directorate of the MOA an international study tour will be made in the Eastern Mediterranean area to review soil and water management techniques. This will utilise the international research centre network (especially ICARDA in Syria), and also the country offices of FAO through their regional office for the Near East (RNE) based in Cairo.

170. At the farmer level the PNRMP will also provide training to the land users in the selected villages. Initially the entire village community will be invited to attend detailed briefings on the programme and become involved in the participatory process. The land users of the West Bank have very considerable knowledge of their farming environments accumulated over many generations and the PNRMP staff will utilise this experience whenever possible. The indigenous knowledge needs to be assessed however in terms of its contribution for soil and water conservation techniques, and farmers advised of the best methods available that will enhance crop production. The time available for land users to adapt to new practices is shorter now than in the past, and the “injection of new knowledge and skills is necessary for survival” (CDCS, 1992). The training of the land users will be a precondition for sustained efforts in rainfed agriculture in the PNRMP, and this is likely to be best achieved by direct exchange of on-farm experience between land users, rather than formal presentations by specialist outsiders (CDCS, 1992).

171. On the PNRMP this exchange will be facilitated by the SRE, and the TSS who will be resident in the area and probably farmers in their own right. The PPS teams in villages will also be a part of this training process as they will have close contact with farming families and farming women. Through the participatory process both the PPS and TSS staff will strive hard to pass on new skills and techniques to farmers.

172. These people will be complementary to the Agriculture Extension Department of the MOA. Later, they will probably become integrated with the MOA: since improvements to an existing system are preferable than establishing a new cadre (CDCS, 1992). On the PNRMP, for the time being, those staff responsible for managing the rehabilitation and reclamation works will be contracted by the NGOs carrying out work in each village, but will be under the technical control of the PMU.

173. Overall, there will be a considerable gain to farmers from these interventions and it is likely that they will have an stimulating effect on land users as they become more independent of external support.

174. Training will also be extended to the schools in the area. The PNRMP staff will provide introductory lectures and promote discussions in the villages where the programme is carrying out work. These will be to boys and girls and the lectures will comprise explanations of the programme, the benefits to be gained from conservation of natural resources as opposed to the effects from poor waste disposal, and how the schoolchildren can participate and make contributions in the programme.

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XI. RELATED ACTIVITIES

A. Introduction

175. A number of issues are relevant to the activities of the PNRMP though not a central part of the funding programme. They include initiatives within the MOA and other Government organisations which will demonstrate results applicable to land use planning on all the lands of the West Bank. The technical support being provided by the PNRMP will liaise closely with these studies and incorporate findings and advice into its extension messages.

B. Improving Indigenous Fertilisers

176. There is very considerable scope for improving the production and application of local manure into more appropriate composted based agricultural fertilisers, and also the application of other waste materials. On degraded and newly reclaimed lands where soils have been disrupted such soil conditioners are likely to provide high significant benefits to the land. It is vital that most of the soils of the West Bank are given the opportunity to recover if is to be maintained.

177. The PNRMP, through its direct connections with the MOA, will stay abreast of developments in this field and participate with interested beneficiaries in any development of field trials and demonstrations of interventions which are deemed appropriate for the programme. Such work would involve the TSS teams working with NGOs under the supervision of the MOA.

178. At present manure from sheep, goats, , donkeys and horses kept in household barns and chicken , is used on fields in all types of agriculture. Manure is collected by women in the village from animal enclosures, usually under the house, and then air dried. Part is used for fuel to make bread in the household oven, and part bagged up and spread on the arable plots or around tree crops. Farmers also buy in bulk with tractor loads of chicken manure from nearby farms, and this is dumped beside fields ready for spreading.

179. Much of what is spread on the ground at present is only dried manure and there has been almost no composting taking place. During winter when the manure remains in the animal shed there is a degree of fermentation and destruction of pathogens and seeds but this is not a full composting process and an indigenous tradition of this is absent in the region.

180. There are now some initiatives taking place within the MOA to investigate the role of composts in agriculture in the West Bank soils. The study recently completed on the possibilities of integrating sheep and goats with olive cropping systems (Ma’an, 1997) has included a discussion on composting. In addition Ma’an has published two manuals on composting (Ma’an, 1991, 1996).

181. These research activities are timely as it is considered there is an extensive potential for animal wastes and green wastes. For example, the annual pruning from olive trees would provide a very large volume of green material, which when prepared by shredding of the woody and non woody components, and mixed with manure, could make a very suitable composting, provided the optimum C:N ratio is achieved. Elsewhere green materials are available in bulk from bananas and vegetables (Jordan Valley). A combination of these materials could form the core of home based or central village composting units.

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181. In the future the rational and controlled use of organic manure and green waste products could be of immense benefit to raising fertility in soils of the West Bank. The soil conditioning effect of compost, whereby the humic substances in the compost combine with clay minerals in the soil and added nutrients from chemical fertilisers, will without doubt benefit especially those soils which have been reformed or turned over during the land reclamation process.

182. On existing farmlands too, the addition of composts mixed with an appropriate nutrient package (i.e. trace elements and essential nutrients P and K with a formula suitable for the area), would be expected to yield benefits, not just in increased productivity but in increasing stable aggregates in the topsoil and thus reducing vulnerability to erosion.

C. Disposal of Wastes

183. The disposal of waste products from villages and urban areas is a major problem in the West Bank and the Appraisal Team saw numerous examples of pollution were soil and waters are being contaminated by garbage and sewage. The common practice of dumping village garbage and other wastes into valley floors is leading to aquifer pollution and soil contamination on a large scale. In the long term, unless dumping is localised at special sites, there is the risk that many dunums of land could become unsuitable for producing high value export crops.

184. The Appraisal Team saw pollution from village wastes at Sarra, Deir Ammar and Tammun. The practice of dumping high BOD/high COD wastes from hot water olive oil processing onto arable/olive field at Deir Ammar is causing serious soil contamination that can probably only be remedied by very expensive treatment or removal of the soil. The practice of placing mixed house wastes on arable fields, seen for example near Mughaiyir, will introduce into the soil more toxic residues from decomposition of wastes than provide nutritional benefit for crops.

185. The use of other organic materials, for example from food processing and garbage wastes, should be investigated with extreme care and specialist advice due to the difficulty of composting some of the materials, and the likelihood that contamination with heavy metals and other toxic substances will be present. Such materials should not be considered for agricultural use in general, and especially where accreditation of food products destined for European or other markets will require testing for toxic residues in soil and plants.

186. A recent study on the Conceptual Master Plan for Sewerage Management of Ramallah District (CEP, for UNDP, 1997) investigated the use of sewage sludge on agricultural land in the West Bank, and concluded that such materials must first be well composted in order to achieve complete destruction of harmful pathogens.

187. Increasingly, waste products will become available for agricultural use in large quantities. The quality of some of these products may be dubious for the reasons given above, and their use on PNRMP land reclamation programmes in villages should always be cleared first with the MOA to ensure that they are recommended products.

D. Proposed Range Management Demonstration Plots

188. The General Directorate for Forestry, Rangeland, Wildlife and Environmental Protection (FRWREP) of the MOA is shortly intending to establish a series of 500 dunum sized closed areas, where natural regeneration of vegetation will be monitored. The first site will be in the Hebron area. These sites will measure the annual changes in biomass and relate this to site factors, including aspect, climate, soils and hydrology. The outcome will be a practical demonstration of the recovery of rangelands under strict management conditions.

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189. In a remarkable experiment, on the hilly western slopes within Hebron and to the west of Hebron, it has been shown that if highly degraded hill lands are completely left alone for several decades, that is without any grazing, then the original climax woodland and bushland will re-establish itself. Although these lands are now reserved for recreational purposes selected grazing could be possible; on these lands also there will be very considerable recharge of water into soils and aquifers.

190. In the West Bank it is difficult to envisage a similar recovery of rangeland. There is very heavy pressure on grazing lands resulting from large flocks and certain areas are closed. There is likely to be further pressure as marginal land is reclaimed. The demonstration plots however will hopefully provide a clear message to the rangeland users that biomass production can be increased if areas are rested.

191. Despite the degradation of the range there is still a very high level of plant bio-diversity in the West Bank: some 500 plant species are present on the Eastern Slopes alone (Communication from Adel Briegheeth, DG FRWEP, MOA).

192. The MOA is also in the early stages of establishing closer links with ICARDA, Syria, of which the outcome will be a Range Management Programme. Other programmes under discussion with the EU include a joint project with Israel on exchange of information, and the establishment of high yielding fodder producing rangeland. The PNRMP should keep in close touch with all such developments within the MOA with the aim that new interventions can be passed on to programme beneficiaries.

Monitoring and Responding to Climate Variability and Change

193. The climate of the highland areas of the West Bank is a sub-humid Mediterranean Type, being seasonally semi-arid with high temperatures in summer and mild winters. In summer, the area lies well beyond the limits of moisture penetration of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ICTZ), and though rare moist tropical monsoon air masses may enter the region (Jeftic et al 1992) the region experiences stable conditions with dry northerly and north-westerly winds. During winter and spring cyclonic depressions originate in the eastern Mediterranean and tracking eastwards bring rainfall and snow to the region (Ramallah has an average of 663 mm, and Nablus 394 mm).

194. Rainfall distribution is highly influenced by local orographic effects, with localised higher precipitation on north and west facing slopes. This results in highly variable spatial variability of rainfall but temporal variability is also common, and delays in crop establishment due to the uncertainty of the first rains, leads to a reduction the yield potential (Harris et al, 1991), while the first rains of the season can often be heavy thunderstorms which cause considerable erosion. In the West Bank rainfall intensity data is urgently needed to characterise the status of this problem, as unprotected land reclamation works will be at their most risk at the end of the dry season. A large part of the October 1997 rain storms appears to have runoff into drainage ways or recharged aquifers, and farmers largely failed to respond to the event. Locally, on certain exposed slopes, it was observed that the early rains brought considerable benefit to lands, and in some areas cereals were planted.

195. Whilst spatial and temporal variability is common in the region the additional impacts resulting from climate change are also relevant to agriculture and environmental conservation (Parry, 1990; Parry et al 1988; Scharpensel & Ayoub, 1990). A recent study (Jiftlic et al 1992) has suggested that, with a three degree C rise in temperature and assumed increased Potential Evapotranspiration (PET), the West Bank hill lands would still remain in the Mediterranean sub-humid zone with little effect on rainfed agriculture. Improved agricultural and watershed management techniques however would be essential to cope with increased PET.

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196. Changes in rainfall intensity could be an important factor, and if winter depressions become more powerful and occur earlier in the season (as in 1997) then this would have implications for land preparation, planting dates for rainfed agriculture and water harvesting techniques.

197. It is considered that improved water harvesting capabilities on the rocky and hilly terrain (MOA, Production Suitability Class 3) will enhance production on so that all rain events can be used. If water retaining measures were also to be adopted on the terraced and agricultural plains (MOA, Production Suitability Classes 1 and 2) then farmers would be able to make prompt responses to rainfall events.

198. Discussion and understanding on these matters is important, and climatic monitoring and evaluation in the West Bank and adjacent regions will aid in the identification of any climatic trends and their implications for sustaining agriculture in the region. The responsibility for gathering climatic data in the PNRMP area is the West Bank Water Department. The MOA and the PNRMP should keep itself informed of developments and in turn beneficiaries will be kept informed and advised through the extension services of suitable adaptive interventions and timely responses.

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APPENDIX 1

TERMS OF REFERENCE

West Bank and Gaza Strip: Participatory Natural Resource Management Programme - Appraisal Report Working Paper 2: Land Reclamation and Rehabilitation Appendix 1: Terms of Reference

APPENDIX 1 TERMS OF REFERENCE

Local Specialists

SENIOR RURAL ENGINEERS

Description of Responsibilities

1. A Senior Rural Engineer (SRE) will be appointed to work for each NGO, who will have the responsibility of directing and supervision of the NGO’s and contractor’s implementation work for land reclamation on the Programme. Through the Technical Site Supervisors (TSS) working at the field sites, the SRE will monitor and approve the work of the contractor carrying out land reclamation and land rehabilitation. The SRE will be responsible for approving payment of work being carried out by the Contractor. They will also monitor that the contractor is adhering to the estimated quantities set out for each component of the reclamation and rehabilitation, and approve the record of all aspects of the progress of the works kept by each TSS. Where any change in the quality or standard of the work or bill of quantities involved is noted, or changes thought necessary by the Contractor or the beneficiaries, then the SRE will arrange for technical meetings to be held to discuss the issue at hand.

2. The SRE will also ensure that the beneficiaries and PPS team are being kept informed of progress and participating in the work. He or she will advise the PMU of the requirement for the type of training courses in each area for villagers and farmers.

3. The SRE for each NGO will maintain strong links between the NGO, the PMU, the various General Directorate in the MOA and other Government Departments, as well as other organisations carrying out reclamation and agricultural development work in the West Bank. The aim is to ensure that work is kept to a similar standard and quality, that suggested improvements to practices can be discussed for their possible inclusion in the programme, that work is not repeated through ignorance of earlier interventions, and that the results of basic adaptive research can be promptly made known to all parties. All contacts and meetings held will be minuted and reported to the PMU at monthly reporting intervals. All SREs’ working on this programme will have monthly meetings at the PMU to discuss progress, possible innovations and the result of interventions.

Qualifications and Experience

4. The Senior Rural Engineers will have a University Degree in Agriculture/Agricultural (Rural) Engineering and have at least ten years of practical experience in the field of land reclamation and soil and water conservation, irrigated and rainfed agriculture and extension. They will have gained good experience in programme management, contract negotiation and management and will have a good knowledge of computerised accounting procedures. They will be gender aware and have experience of participatory work in natural resource management. Ideally they will come from the region and have a strong background in agricultural land use in the West Bank. Their approach to achieving the goals of the work programme should be governed by an ability to adopt flexibility where Programme experience requires, for example, revision of contracts, quantities and standards of work.

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TECHNICAL SITE SUPERVISORS

Description of Responsibilities

1. The Technical Site Supervisors (TSS) for land reclamation and land rehabilitation will be employed by the NGO working at each of the selected villages. He or she will monitor and approve the work of the contractor carrying out land reclamation and at all times ensure that the beneficiaries are both kept informed and feel able to comment and participate in the work. The TSS will report directly to the NGO’s supervising Senior Rural Engineer (SRE) but also liaise on an informal but close basis with the PPS team, the selected beneficiaries, the village council, and local representatives of the MOA and other Government Departments. At all times any contacts should be minuted and reported back to the SRE, with copies also sent to the PMU. Such reports will be daily or weekly, at intervals to be agreed by all parties.

2. The TSS will supervise the daily management of the land reclamation and rehabilitation activities at one or more sites. They will be responsible for assessing that the quality of the work being carried out is up to standard as laid out in the contract between NGO and Contractor. They will also monitor that the contractor is adhering to the estimated quantities set out for each component of the reclamation, and maintain a continuous record of all aspects of the progress of the works. Where any change in the quality or standard of the work or bill of quantities involved is noted, or changes thought necessary by the Contractor or the beneficiaries, then the TSS would immediately advise the SRE and arrange for technical meetings to be held to discuss the issue at hand.

Qualifications and Experience

3. The Technical Site Supervisors will have a University Degree in Agriculture, Agricultural (Rural) Engineering and will have at least five years of practical experience in the field of land reclamation and soil and water conservation, irrigated and rainfed agriculture and extension. Ideally they will come from the region and have a strong background of agricultural land use in Palestine. They will have a good knowledge of computerised accounting procedures and be familiar with the management of contracts. They should be gender aware and ideally have experience of participatory work. Above all, the Technical Site Supervisors monitoring these reclamation and conservation programmes, need to have a strong capacity to adopt, when it is required, a flexible approach to the work. This may involve adapting to change where it is required or deemed necessary, revising contracts, or revising quantities or standards of work.

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LAND/CADASTRAL SURVEYOR

Description of Responsibilities

1. The land and cadastral surveyor will have the responsibility to prepare the site plans for the selected villages. The task will involve the preparation of plans at a suitable scale existing topographical databases. The location of houses, field boundaries with the extent of land holdings, and slope classes in the fields and rocky terrain will be carried out in the field with the village selection team. Later the location of the proposed land reclamation and rehabilitation works will be drawn up onto the maps and used for making estimates of the work. The specialist will also advise the PNRMP staff, the TSS in particular but also beneficiaries who show an aptitude to learn, on simple surveying techniques for laying out works in the field.

Qualifications and Experience

2. He or she will be a qualified land surveyor with cadastral experience, and up to date knowledge of modern surveying and geopostioning methods. The surveyor will have access to equipment from his affiliated company or organisation. He or she will be Arabic speaking, and have a sound knowledge of local land tenure issues.

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International TA

WATER HARVESTING SPECIALIST

Description of Responsibilities

1. The Water Harvesting Specialist will advise the PNRMP and the MOA on appropriate techniques for soil and water conservation in the West Bank with particular emphasis on water harvesting from rainfall runoff in micro-catchments. The work will review the existing measures in the West Bank, and carry out exchange of ideas through liaison with practitioners in Jordan, Syria and Israel (for example). The specialist will assess the degree of success from programmes in the West Bank in raising crop productivity from increased water storage. From these studies he will recommend the systems most appropriate for the West Bank agro-ecological zones. He will carry out a limited series of trials to assess and demonstrate soil moisture change in the soil profile both during the year and as rehabilitated land is improved from water harvesting techniques.

Qualifications and Experience

2. The Water Harvesting specialist will have some twenty years in soil and water conservation with specialisation in water harvesting for agricultural development. He or she will have extensive local experience in the Near Eastern region for establishing water harvesting techniques on both the research and practical basis. The specialist will have a degree in or a closely related subject and a postgraduate qualification, or equivalent experience, in dryland agriculture and soil and water conservation. The general experience will include construction of conservation measures, planting of appropriate plants, qualitative and quantitative assessment of erosion and building of cisterns for storing water.

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ANALYTICAL LABORATORY SPECIALIST

Description of Responsibilities

1. The Analytical Laboratory Specialist will assist in the upgrading of the MOA’s Soil and Water Laboratory at Beita near Nablus. The specialist will initially carry out a full assessment of the operational status of the equipment in the laboratory at present, and decide which items of equipment are obsolete. In consultation with the Soil and Water Directorate, and other Departments in the MOA and with visits to other laboratories in the West Bank, Israel and possibly Jordan, the specialist will plan the procurement of equipment for the laboratory. The laboratory will be fully equipped for soil and water analysis, olive oil processing, and residue analysis. International standards will be followed for accreditation of olive oil processing and residue analysis. This equipment will then be ordered by the procurement section of the programme.

2. Once the equipment arrives at Beita the specialist will return to the West Bank and establish the laboratory, ensuring that all equipment is functioning, supplied with operational manuals (in English and Arabic), and provide training to existing and new staff who will operate the equipment.

Qualifications and Experience

3. The Specialist will have a strong analytical chemistry background and at least ten years in establishing analytical laboratories. He or she will also have up to date expertise and experience in the analysis of soils and waters for agricultural uses, the analytical techniques for testing of olive oils for quality control and export accreditation. The specialist will have experience in establishing a laboratory for carrying out residue analysis in soils, waters and plant materials for FAPAS accreditation.

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LAND RESOURCES SPECIALIST

Description of responsibilities

1. The Land Resources Specialist will provide a short term input to the PNRMP in order to assess the existing land resource data from all sources. He or she will advise on land suitability evaluation with regard to site selection at villages, including the suitability of the lands for any given land use type. The susceptibility of different soils and slopes to erosion and mass movement will be assessed in the West Bank in relation to work carried out elsewhere in the region. Using existing imagery and maps, from PALGRIC and/or ARIJ, as base material the specialist will prepare a suitably scaled resource map providing the distribution of soils, their suitability for the farm models and other land use types (LUTs) under consideration, the known degree of fertility or degradation. With the Water Harvesting Specialist an assessment will be made of the suitability of different soil and water conservation techniques on landforms and soils.

Qualifications and Experience

2. The Specialist will have at least fifteen years of the assessment of soils and land resources for natural resources management, and will have particular knowledge of the agro-climatology of the Near Eastern region. The specialist will be familiar with compiling and natural resource information in databases, including using GIS and remote sensing techniques for data interpretation and presentation.

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