Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry response. AlthoughRachelCarson’sbook, and inpartsofwhatisnowMalaysia.Alsodiscussedthegovernment’s some ecologicalproblemsexperiencedduringthepost-warperiodinUK, and ecologicaldamagewasnoticeablebythelate1940s.Thispaperoutlines The useofchemicalpesticidesincreasedconsiderablyafterWorldWarII, London Centre fortheHistoryofScience,TechnologyandMedicine,ImperialCollege Hannah Gay Before andAfter ambix, © SocietyfortheHistory ofAlchemyandChemistry2012 of highlycherished ecologicalsystemsand helpedtoraisepublicawareness ofthe Rachel Carson’sbrilliant1962 polemic, Introduction on thebiologicalcontrolofinsectpests. climate, andbytheevidenceofecologicaldamage,they carriedoutresearch were ecologistsworkingatImperialCollegeLondon. Movedbythepolitical forthcoming evenduringtheeconomicrecession.Some oftherecipients movement, andfundingforecologicalenvironmental researchwas Council in1965.Bythe1970s,environmentalismwasanimportant among otherthings,tothefoundingofNaturalEnvironmentResearch ing thealarm.PressurefrompublicandBritishscientistsled, tant inbringingtheproblemstoawiderpublic,shewasnotalonesound- 1945–1980 Pest Management—Britain, Biological ControlandIntegrated From ChemicalPesticidesto Pest controlisofcoursenecessaryanddesirable,butitanecological matter,and Vol. 59No.2,July, Julian Huxley,prefacetotheUKeditionof

2012, 88–108 Silent Spring cannot beentirelyhandedovertothechemist. Silent Spring

Silent Spring , gaveclearwarningofthe loss DOI 10.1179/174582312X13345259995930 (1962),wasimpor- : Silent Spring (1963) 1 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry 5 4 3 2 1 Imperial College,continuedthislineofwork. consequences ofpesticideuse. tobacco, andrubber. especially thoseofmajoreconomiccrops,suchascotton,tea,sugar,cocoa,coffee, insect pestsinstoredfoods,therewasmuchemphasisontropicalagriculturalpests, applied areas,butalsoininsectsystematics,physiology,andecology.Inadditionto of WorldWarII,ImperialCollegewasaleadingcentreinentomology—notonly the college,especiallyinrelationtopestcontrol,expandedconsiderably.Byeve stored grains. appointed in1912,soughtchemicalcontrolsfororchardpestsand twentieth century.Theprofessorofappliedentomology,HaroldMaxwellLefroy, biodiversity. control, promotedsustainableagriculturalpractice,andstressedtheimportanceof are neededinmodernagriculture,theydevelopedmethodsofbiologicalpest leaders intheirrespectivefields.Whileacknowledging,asdidCarson,thatchemicals campus ofImperialCollegeLondonduringthe1970s,andwerelaterrecognisedas and environmentalscience.ThosetobediscussedworkedattheSilwoodPark cal control”focusesonafewsuchscientists,recipientsofnewfundingforecological motivated toseekalternativeschemicalpesticides.Thesection“Towardsbiologi- those affectedbythenewoutlookweremanyyoungscientists,someofwhom ronmental movement,andhelpedtochangethesocialpoliticalclimate.Among 1962–1972,” agrowingunderstandingofecologicaldamagefedintoenvi- to respond.However,asisbrieflydiscussedinthesection“Environmentalpolitics, the late1940sto1970s.Becauseofbenefits,Britishgovernmentwasslow problems” givesabriefsynopsisofsometheproblems,andconcernsraisedfrom were problems.Thesection“Before common, andtheirusewasleadingtoincreasedagriculturalyieldsworldwide,there lives inareasoftheworldwheremalariaandotherinsect-bornediseaseswere and ofthecuckoothatfedonitscaterpillars.Althoughnewpesticidesweresaving some localexamplesofecologicaldamage,suchasthedeclineaBritishbutterfly, Education andResearchinScience,TechnologyMedicine was onhumandiseaseagentsandvectors. mainly ondomesticagriculturalpests, andattheLondonSchoolofHygieneTropicalMedicinefocus only twoothermajorBritishuniversity centresinappliedentomology.AtCambridgeUniversity,thefocuswas Many ofLefroy’sandMunro’sstudents foundworkintheBritishEmpire.BeforeWorldWarII,therewere James WatsonMunro(1888–1968)worked inforestentomologybeforejoiningthestaffatImperialCollege. one ofhisownchemicals. Lefroy wasseekinglesstoxicfumigants thanthearsenicalsthenstillwidelyused,hewasfatallypoisonedby for theproductionof“woodwormfluid.”Itwasstartpestcontrol companyRentokil.Although watch beetlefromthetimbersofWestminsterHallledtohisopeningasmall chemicalplantinHattonGarden West Indies.In1901,hewasappointedImperialEntomologistinIndia.Lefroy’s successineradicatingthedeath Harold MaxwellLefroy(1877–1925)workedearlierasanentomologistinthe DepartmentofAgricultureinthe discussed inthispaper,seeHannahGay, For thezoologyandappliedentomologydepartmentatImperialCollege formoreonsomeofthescientists agriculture, fisheriesandfood(1960–1964). notice, distributedseveraladvancecopiesofCarson’sbook,includingone toChristopherSoames,ministerof herbicides, insecticides,andfungicides(allolderterms).TheDukeofEdinburgh, whowantedpeopletotake Pesticide wasanewword,coinedafterWorldWarII.Itreferstowide rangeofchemicals,including Rachel Carson, Pest controlwasalreadyanactiveresearchareaatImperialCollegeintheearly 2 3 Oneofhisresearchstudents,JamesMunro,lateralsoaprofessorat Silent Spring 5 (Boston,Mass.:HoughtonMifflin,1962;London:HamishHamilton, 1963). 1 InhisprefacetotheUKedition,JulianHuxleygave The HistoryofImperialCollegeLondon,1907 Silent Spring 4 UnderMunro,appliedentomologyat BEFORE ANDAFTER (London:ImperialCollegePress,2007). : Thenewinsecticidesandtheir SILENT SPRING – 2007: Higher 89 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry another ImperialCollegeprofessor,thechemicalengineerAlfredEgerton. in areaswheremalariawasaseriousproblem.Inthis,theyhadthesupportof gave HeilbronandMunrotheconfidencetoaskforitbetestedasaninsecticide 8 7 6 was the DDT isomersbydistillationandfractionation,foundthattheactiveingredient dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT).Heilbronandhisstudentsseparatedthe asked Heilbronwhetherhewouldbepreparedtostudyitfurther.Gesarolcontained named GesarolbeingtestedattheRothamstedExperimentalResearchStation, wanted tofindanalternativepyrethrum,and,havingheardofaGeigyproduct cut off,andthosestillarrivingfromKenyawereseenasinsufficient.Munro,too, in storedfoods,butthewarmeantthatsuppliesfromJapanandMacedoniawere earlier developedasprayformofpyrethrumthatwaswidelyusedagainstinsectpests for thenaturalproductinsecticidepyrethrum. the professoroforganicchemistry,IanHeilbron,beganresearchintoasubstitute 9 The testscarriedoutindicatedthatthetoxicityofDDTinmammalswaslow. an arrangementwithGeigyforDDTtobemanufacturedinBritainunderlicence. 90 Combating TropicalDiseases,” cidal properties. Mellanby, lice butalsokeptthevolunteersfreeofforseveralweeks,despiteattempts toreinfectthem.SeeKenneth pants thathadbeensoakedinverydilutesolutionsofDDT,andhowthisnot onlyimmediatelykilledoffbody DDT wasseenasanewwonderchemical.KennethMellanbyrecountshowhumantestsubjectsworeunder- Memoirs ofFellowstheRoyalSociety Society inrecognitionofhisDDTandotherwork.SeeA.H.Cook,“IanMorrisHeilbron,” were discoveredbyMüller.)In1945,HeilbronwasawardedthePriestleyMedalofAmericanChemical made in1874bytheAustrianchemistOthmarZeidler,buthewasunawareofitsinsecticidalproperties,which prisoner-of-war camps.Müllerwasawardedthe1948NobelPrizeforMedicine/Physiology.(DDThadbeen safe chemicalcontrolfortheliceknowntobevectorsoftyphusorganism,aseriousscourgeinarmyand P. H.Müller(1889–1965),in1939.Itwastheculminationofhiswork,begunduringWorldWarI,tofinda although thatnameisalsoasimplificationandnotstrictlycorrect.GesarolwaspatentedbytheSwisschemist, manufactured byHofmannLaRochefrom1946.DDTistheacronymfordichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, Sir Isidor(Ian)M.HeilbronFRS(1886–1959)isbestknownforhiscontributiontothesynthesisofvitaminA, Pyrethrum isextractedfromsomespeciesofthegenus carried outatthePortonDowngovernment establishmentnearSalisbury. laboratories, apartfromhisownatImperial College,wereinvolved.Sometestingofsprayingequipmentwas the war,andchairedaninterdepartmental committeeoninsecticidesandinsecticidedevelopment.Several Sir AlfredCharlesGlynEgertonFRS (1886–1959). HeilbronwassecondedtotheMinistryofProductionduring (Oxford: OxfordUniversityPress,2004). ously largelyeradicated.SeePaulWeindling, “KennethMellanby,” has beenhighlycontroversial.Somewish toseeitbroughtbackforthecontrolofbedbugs,whichwereprevi- when itreversedanearlierdecision.ThetotalbanonDDTintheUSAfrom 1972andintheUKfrom1984 argued thatDDTshouldstillbeusedasanindoorsprayformalariacontrol, advicegivenbytheWHOin2006, Carson. Later,hewrote versialism costhimtheusualscientificawards.His1965book, war. TheseincludedMellanby’sownsuccessfulexperimentsoncontrolof the scabiesmite.Mellanby’scontro- a groupofaboutfortyconscientiousobjectorswhosubmittedthemselves tovariousexperimentsduringthe the moreegregiouscases,butafterwarpublicwasinnomoodforfine distinctions.Mellanbyorganised sympathy forsomeNazidoctorswhoengagedinexperimentswithhuman subjects.Hehadnosympathyfor siasm formedicalresearchwithhumantestsubjects.HewitnessedtheNuremberg trials,andhadamisplaced excellent scientistbutalsoacontroversialist,beingoutspokenbothonenvironmental mattersandinhisenthu- There wasalsoactivityrelatedtopestcontrolinthechemistrydepartment.In1940, HANNAH GAY p , Pesticides andPollution p ′ isomer. 7 The DDTStory HeilbronandMunrothenpersuadedthegovernmenttomake Nature (London:Collins,1965),120–22.KennethMellanby(1908–1993)wasan 161(1948):956–60. 6(1960):65–85.SeealsoI.M.Heilbron,“TheRoleofChemistryin (Farnham:TheBritishCropProtectionCouncil,1992),inwhichhe Chrysanthemum 6 SomeImperialCollegechemistshad Pesticides andPollution Oxford DictionaryofNationalBiography , plantslongknowntohaveinsecti- , wasaresponseto Biographical 9 8 Like This

Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry 14 13 12 11 10 facture ofDDT. Successful trialsinBritishGuianaandelsewhereledtoahugeincreasethemanu- ately noticeablenegativeeffects—althoughtherewassomeconcernoverfishkills. of boththesediseasestoadegreeneverbeforewitnessed,andwithoutanyimmedi- ably. seeking ofnewinsectpathogens.Shementionedbiologicalcontrol,butlessfavour- sterilisation ofinsectsbyradiation,insecttrappingtheusepheromones,and roads diverge,”shewrote.Theroadthatwantedpeopletotravelledtowardsthe could bereducedandperhapseventuallyphasedout.“Wenowstandwheretwo book, entitled“TheOtherRoad,”hadsomesuggestionsastohowchemicalusage cultural changeamongfarmersandhorticulturalists. targeted approachtotheirapplication,biologicalcontrol,andencouragementfor approach topestcontrol.Itentailedamajorreductionintheuseofchemicals,more grew forwhatwastermedintegratedpestmanagement(IPM),athree-pronged to newecologicaldatawillalsobebrieflydiscussed.Thepapershowshowsupport on ruralwildlife.Thereactionbythoseingovernmentandthechemicalindustry icals cametoberecognised,especiallyinregardagriculturalusageandtheireffect market. Organophosphatecompoundssoonfollowed. dieldrin manufacturedbyShell,andheptachlorICI,enteredthe began tocompete,andnewchlorohydrocarboninsecticides,suchasaldrin DDT weremanufacturedtheretoo.Afterthewar,otherchemicalmanufacturers and yellowfever. British Guiana,wheresugarcaneworkerswereseriouslyaffectedbybothmalaria government tosupportatrial.MunrowasaskedsetupteamtestDDTin problem ofmalariainfectingtroopsoperatingintropicalcountries,hepersuadedthe Heilbron, Egertonwasascientificadvisortothewartimecabinet.Awareof The term“biologicalcontrol”was first usedinH.S.Smith,“OnSomePhasesofInsectControlbythe lead toproblemsshouldtheintroduced speciesrunwild,orconflictwiththeconservationofnativespecies. biocontrol, someexoticspecies(i.e.a speciesnewtotheecosystem)isintroducedcontrolapest.Thiscan Carson mayhavehadinmindclassical biologicalcontrol,whichcouldaccountforherattitude.Inclassical planting timesandcroprotations, leavingsomeuncultivatedareasclosetofields. Concept,” in California.SeeV.M.Stern,R.F. Smith,R.vandenBoschandK.S.Hagen,“TheIntegratedControl One ofthefirstsuccessesthisapproachwascontrolaphidpests ontheforagecroplucerne(alfalfa) this wartimechemistry,seeEdmundRussell, were developedasaresultofworkonnervegases,carriedoutfirstinGermany. Forthehistoryofsome Wartime chemistrywasalsothesourceofthisdevelopment.Organophosphate pesticidessuchasparathion Colonial Empire,”in nagana. SeeSabineClarke,“RethinkingthePost-WarHegemonyofDDT-insecticide ResearchandtheBritish Much post-waruseofDDTwasinAfrica,tocombattheinsectvectors ofmalaria,sleepingsickness,and Spraying MachineryCentre,atSilwoodPark,ImperialCollege. the war,sprayingtechnologywasmuchimproved,largelybecauseofwork attheColonial(laterOverseas) solution ofDDTinkerosene.Kerosenewasalsousedasthepropellant formostpyrethrumsprays.After later becamedirectorofresearchfortheColonialInsecticideCommittee. Thesprayusedwasa5percent wife MaudNorrishadcarriedoutresearchtherebeforethewar.ThefieldteamwasledbyC.B.Symes,who The collegealreadyhadconnectionstoBritishGuiana(nowGuyana),asO.W.Richards(seebelow)andhis Macmillan, 2012). (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress,2001). This paperwillpickupthestoryatpointwhereproblemswithnewchem- 14 Pheromoneresearchflourished,butbiologicalcontrolandIPMbecamethe Hilgardia 11 10 29(1959):81–101.Culturalchange in thiscontextmeantchangingoldroutinessuchas TheUSAhaditsownresearchprogramme,andlargequantitiesof Environment, HealthandHistory SprayingwithDDTcontrolledthemosquitovectorsofagents War andNature:FightingHumansInsectswithChemistry , ed.V.BerridgeandM.Gorsky(Basingstoke:Palgrave BEFORE ANDAFTER 13 12 ThefinalchapterofCarson’s SILENT SPRING 91

Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry 14 example, sheepdippingwithdieldrinneededonlyoneapplicationperyearand,by increases inyields.Thiswastrueforbothpastoralandarableagriculture.For costs relatedtoweedingandthedestructionofinsectpests)forconsiderable it wasclearthatpesticidesallowedformoreintensivefarming(throughsavinglabour cal problems.Theministerofagriculturewasinadifficultposition.Ontheonehand, which movedthefocusofdebateawayfromhumanhealthandtowardsecologi- ers atfirstchallenged.SomeofthesedatawereincludedinZuckerman’sthirdreport, the decade,thisschemewasfallingapartinlightofnewdata,whichmanufactur- asked toparticipateinavoluntaryprecautionaryinformationscheme.Bytheendof there wasnothoughtofbanningthenewchemicals.Manufacturersweresimply ing oftheusechemicalsandsomereportingsicknesswererequired.However, clothing forfarmworkershandlingchemicalswasmademandatory,andsomerecord- than thedeathandsicknessratesattributedtochemicals.However,basicprotective injury ratesrelatedtofarmmachineryandtraditionalworkpracticeswerefargreate r but itsmeasureswereweak.Onereasonmayhavebeenthattheaccidentaldeathand quence oftheinitialreportwasAgriculture(PoisonousSubstances)Act1952, and thethirdwithriskstoecosystemsinruralareassurroundingfarms.Oneconse- ers, thesecondwithrisktoconsumersoftreatedcropsandcontaminatedanimals, reports in1951,1953,and1955. Zuckerman tostudytheuseofchemicalsinagriculture.Theworkingpartyfiled the ministerofagriculture,SirThomasDugdale,setupaworkingpartyunderSolly herbicide 4,6-dinitro-orthocresol. protection. Inthelate1940s,eightfarmworkersdiedshortlyafterhandling handling chemicalswithoutmuchknowledgeoftheirtoxicityandproper The agriculturaluseofpesticidesgrewrapidlyafterthewar,andfarmworkersbegan Before challenged byworkontransgenicplantsandanimals. most popularmethodsofpestcontroloverthelongerterm,althoughtheyarenow 16 15 92 Metchnikoff toMonsantoandBeyond:ThePathofMicrobialControl,” wheat cockchafer,andtheuseofbacterialagentsforcontrollingsomeother pests.SeeJeffreyC.Lord,“From earlier, andwasdiscussedbyIlyaMetchnikoffinthe1880s,whenheproposed usingafungustocontrolthe Journal ofIndustrialMedicine hares andrabbitsdyingfromexposure tothesamechemical.SeealsoG.S.Wilson,“FarmSafety,” in GreatBritain,” P. L.BidstrupandD.J.H.Payne,“PoisoningbyDinitro-orthocresol:Report ofEightFatalCasesOccurring lopezi “Biological ControloftheCassavaMealybug, classical biocontroltookplaceinAfricaduringthe1970sand1980s.SeeP. Neuenschwander andH.R.Herren, (2005): 19–29.IamindebtedtoRafdeBontfortellingmeofthispaper. Oneofthelargestprogrammesin Biological Method,” Continued Toxic ChemicalsinAgriculture:Risks toWildlife and, in1964,chiefgovernmentscientist. ReportsoftheWorkingParty: Lord SollyZuckerman(1904–93)was laterappointedchiefscientificadvisortotheMinistryofDefence S. WoodandM.J.Way,in (London: HMSO,1951); inAfrica,” HANNAH GAY Silent Spring British MedicalJournal Biological ControlofPests,PathogensandWeeds:DevelopmentsProspects Journal ofEconomicEntomology Toxic ChemicalsinAgriculture:Residues inFood Philosophical TransactionsoftheRoyalSociety 23(1966),1–15,esp.2–4. : thenewinsecticidesandtheirproblems 16 Thefirstofthesedealtwiththesafetyfarmwork- 15 2,no.4722(1951),16–19.Therehad beenearlierreportsofbirds, Becauseofthisandothertroublingincidents, Phenacoccus manihoti (London:HMSO,1955). 12(1919):286–92.Theidea,however,existedmuch , bytheExoticParasitoid Journal ofInvertebratePathology B318(1988):319–32. Toxic ChemicalsinAgriculture (London:HMSO,1953);and Epidinocarsis , ed.R.K. British 89

Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry sides. were becomingincreasinglyclear.Needlesstosay,theministerwaslobbiedfromall the otherhand,returnsonpesticideusewerediminishing,andecologicalcosts exclusive factor,Britishwheatyieldsrosebyabout25percentduringthe1950s. lowering tickinfestations,increasedmeatyields.And,whilepesticideswerenotthe 20 19 18 17 causes, andhewasaneffectivechampionintheHouseof Commons. Combatting the“poisoningofcountryside,”ashesawit,becameonehis son. Hewasalsochairmanofthe22Committee,andsoaninfluentialbackbencher. the BritishFieldSportsSocietywasConservativeMPforSalisbury,JohnMorri- on thegamebirds,andamongfish-eatingbirds.During1950s,chairmanof partridges. Therewasalsoevidenceofincreaseddeathsamongraptorsthatpreyed numbers ofseed-eatinggamebirdsweredying,notablywoodpigeons,pheasants,and as antifungalseeddressingsandinsecticides.However,itwassoonnotedthatlarge chemicals werealsomanufacturedintheUK.Theysoldashavingadualrole: pany JuliusHyman.ThecompanywastakenoverbyShellin1952,afterwhichthe two formerBritishcoloniesthatarenowpartofMalaysia. aldrin anddieldrin,tosomeconsequencesofantimalariasprayingwithDDTin in thecountryside.Here,Iwilllimitdiscussiontoagriculturaluseofpesticides not onlyinBritain,wastheincreasingrecognitionofseriousecologicalconsequences thought tobeacceptableandachievable.Whatpromptedtheirgradualwithdrawal, the chlorohydrocarbons,werenotespeciallytoxicinmammals,lowlevels Given thattoxicologistshadclaimedthemostpersistentofnewchemicals, tion forfarmworkers;andsecond,bymonitoringresiduelevelsinanimalproducts. human safety.Thiswasthoughttobemanageable:first,byprovidingsuitableprotec- In myview,whattippedthebalanceagainstmanufacturerswasnotsomuch increased agriculturalproductivity,andyetotherspressedforsafetyaboveallelse. some acceptedthedatabutsawdeleteriouseffectsasapriceworthpayingfor be abandoned?Ontheseandotherissues,somequestionedthereliabilityofdata, human fattissues?Andifso,didthatmeansheepdippingwithdieldrinshould example, wassheepdippingresponsibleforthepresenceofchlorohydrocarbonsin 1955, vol.542,cols. 83–84W. vol. 504,col.85W;4May1953, 515,col.11W;9February1954,vol.523,cols.115–16W;and23June number ofparliamentarydebatesonchemical usageinagriculture.See,forexample, coalition withtheLiberalParty.Today, thecommitteeisopentoallTorybackbenchers.Morrisonjoinedina The 22Committeewasfoundedin1922 byasmallgroupofbackbenchConservativeMPswhorebelledagainst See Sheail, 1985). John Sheail, for adiscussionoftheresponseministrytonewdataonpesticidesduring the1950sand1960s.Seealso See JohnSheail, use ofherbicides. during the1960s,butotherinsecticidesreplacedthem.Insameperiod, therewasamajorincreaseinthe were beingmarketedinabouteighthundredapprovedformulations.The use ofchlorohydrocarbonsdeclined cereals, fruittreesandbushes,vegetableswerebeingtreated.Bythen, over twohundredactiveingredients principal pesticidesusedinBritaintheperiod1950–1975,andclaimsthat, bythe1970s,over90percentof of theRoyalCommissiononEnvironmentalPollution Data onfoodproductionfromthe1950sto1970scanbefoundin Aldrin anddieldrinwerefirstmanufacturedinthe1940sbyAmericancom- The scientificcommunitywasdivided.Allsortsofquestionswereraised;for 18 An EnvironmentalHistory Pesticides andNatureConservation:TheBritishExperience,1950 An EnvironmentalHistoryofTwentieth-CenturyBritain , 235–45. (London:HMSO,1979).Thereportlistsallofthe BEFORE ANDAFTER (Basingstoke:Palgrave,2002),235–45, 7th Report(AgricultureandPollution) – 1975 (Oxford:ClarendonPress, HC Debates SILENT SPRING 20 Inchallenging : 28July1952, 17 On 93 19

Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry 22 21 chemical pesticidesandfertilisers.Peoplehadcometolove itaswas. had reachedarelativelystableecologicalstatebefore thelarge-scalearrivalof rity ofthecountryside.Althoughinmanywaysahuman construct,thecountryside According toJohnSheail,Sanderswasscepticaloftheconcernsnaturalists. up aresearchstudygroupunderHaroldG.Sanders,hischiefscientificadvisor. complained ofpoormarketingdata. chairman oftheRoyalCommissiononEnvironmentalPollution,SirHansKornberg, sold andwhere.Compliancemusthavebeenpoor,because,stillinthe1970s, government ofwhichproductstheyweremarketing,andwhatquantitiesbeing of thepesticides.Chemicalmanufacturerswereaskedtovoluntarilynotify the earliernotificationschemeandattemptingtohavefarmersapplylowervolumes the seeminglybenigntoxicologicaldata,nostepsweretakenotherthanmodifying showing upnotonlyinlambandmutton,butalsobeefmilk.However,given tory oftheGovernmentChemistfoundthatrisinglevelschlorohydrocarbonswere Infestation ControlLaboratory(undertheMinistryofAgriculture)andLabora- and troublingdatawerebeingcollectedtheretoo.ChemistsinboththeGovernment as theFieldSportsSocietyandNatureConservancy,providebetterdata. refused toperformitsowncensus,insistingthatthebodiesdemandingaction,such before actingonthenewinformation,washowmanybirdsweredying.Theministry eaters themselves. centrations werefoundintheraptorsthatfedonseed-eatingbirdsthanseed- bird deathswereindeedduetochlorohydrocarboninsecticides,andthathighercon- Sports Society,butalsoofthewiderpublic.Veterinariansconfirmedthatincreased the useofnewpesticides,hehadsupportnotonlymembersField 26 25 24 23 at thetime. frequency ofpesticideoverusebyfarmworkers—aseriousandwell-knownproblem insecticides onthefloraandfaunaofuncultivatedlandadjacenttofarms, included weedecology,thelong-termeffectsofinsecticidesoncrops, evidence ofecologicaldamage,andidentifiedeightareasneedingfurtherstudy.These and appliedentomologydepartmentatImperialCollege.Thesubmissionprovided evidence. OwainW.Richards,whodraftedthesubmission,washeadofzoology sions ofevidence,promptingtheBritishEcologicalSociety(BES)tosubmititsown However, theresearchstudygroupsoughtoutsideadviceandinvitedformalsubmis- 94 concentrations overonemilliontimes greaterthanneededwerebeingused. See John Sheail, For testing,see:Sheail, Sheail, pesticide control,theyhavemadeacomeback. Some raptors,suchasthesparrowhawkandperegrinefalcon,cameclose to extinctioninBritain.Withbetter part ofournation now standsinrealdangerofdestruction.” .the countrysidewhichissomuch . He wrote“theEnglishcountrysidehas helpedshapeEnglishcharacter. Henry MooreinhisforewordtoMarion Shoard, and thefearofchangebecausea post-war“agriculturalrevolution”waswellexpressedbythesculptor although theyfluctuatedovertime,had remainedlargelyunchangedforalongperiod.Theloveofcountryside Relative stabilitywasreflectiveofadynamic equilibrium.Thepopulationsofvariouslocalplantsandanimals, pesticides. SanderswasprofessorofagricultureattheUniversityReading. Sheail wasamemberoftheadvisoryboardsetupbyMinistryAgriculture toadviseontheissueof In 1959,underpressureinparliament,theministerofagriculture,JohnHare,set At thattime,governmentresourcesweremorefocusedonthehumanfoodsupply, 7th ReportoftheRoyalCommissiononEnvironmentalPollution HANNAH GAY An EnvironmentalHistory 25 Seventy-five YearsinEcology:TheBritishEcologicalSociety MembersoftheBESwerenotaloneinfightingtomaintain theinteg- 21 Butthequestionthatministerofagriculturewantedanswered, Pesticides ; and , 237–38. 7th ReportoftheRoyalCommissiononEnvironmentalPollution 23 The TheftoftheCountryside , section2.7.Insomecases,itwasclaimed, (Oxford:Blackwell,1987),206–7. (London:TempleSmith,1980). 26 22 . 24

Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry and TechnologyActof1965. creation oftheNaturalEnvironmentResearchCouncil(NERC)underScience circumstances. Soamesthentookmoredecisiveaction. Thechemicalswouldno strongly advisedanendtotheuseofaldrinanddieldrin otherthaninexceptional ened. WhenCook’scommitteereportedin1964,itbacked uptheearlierpanel,and pesticides onlywhenthedensitiesofpestsweresuchthat yieldswereseriouslythreat- encourage anendtoroutinecalendricalapplicationsand forfarmerstousechemical and putinplacesomenewproceduresforeducatingfarmers. Stepsweretakento government, hesitanttoimposeacompleteban,stepped upprecautionarymeasures in thespring(butnotforautumn-sowedwheat,andasaninsecticide).The no ecologist. of theAgriculturalResearchCouncil.Hedisputedscientificevidence,buthewas their harmfulconsequences.Rothschildhadsomecredibilityasalong-termchairman in theRoyalSocietysupportofpesticides’continueduse,andplayingdown did hisbesttoprotectthecompany’sinterests. (Lord Victor)RothschildFRShadjustbeenappointedresearchdirectoratShell,and placed onShellforthevoluntarywithdrawalofitsproducts.ThezoologistN.M.V. already takenthedecisiontodiscontinuemanufacturingheptachlor,andpressurewas panel stronglyadvisedbanningtheuseofaldrin,dieldrin,andheptachlor.ICIhad chemist andthevice-chancellorofUniversityExeter,aschairman.Theresidues toxic chemicalsintheenvironmentwithSirJamesCookFRS,aneminentorganic chief scientificadvisor(HaroldSanders),andanadvisorycommitteeonpesticides Christopher Soames,setupachemicalresiduespanelunderthechairmanshipofhis In responsetothepublicoutcry,newministerofagriculture,fisheriesandfood, enced inexaminingsheepandcowcarcases,movedtoalsothoseofbirds. There wasapublicoutcry,andtheLaboratoryofGovernmentChemist,experi- surface ofthegroundthanusual,leadingtomanymorebirddeathsearlier. exceptionally dry,whichmeantthatmoretreatedcerealseedsremainedonthe engineers, sociologists,andeconomists. would benewenvironment-relatedjobopportunitiesforbiologists,chemists, believed inenvironmentalcauses,butalsosensed,rightlyasitturnedout,thatthere interdisciplinary. Theyprovedverypopular,becausemanyyoungpeoplenotonly and environmentalinterests.Coursesopeneduparoundthecountry,manyofthem tal science.Anewsourceoffundingbecameavailableforpeoplewithecological ing postgraduatecoursesandresearchintheearthsciences,ecology,environmen- 28 27 Agricultural Research Councilfrom1948to1958.Hejoined Shellin1961,andworkedthere until1970. World WarII.HejoinedtheLabour Partyafteritsgeneralelectionvictoryin1945,andwaschairmanofthe remained attheuniversityasaresearch scientist(althoughengagedinwarwork)untiljustaftertheendof Meyer VictorRothschildFRS(1910–1990), thirdBaronRothschild,wasaCambridge-educatedzoologistwho other governmentministerson-side(which hedid).SeeSheail, under pressurefromhisunder-secretary nottogiveinpressurefromRothschild.Hewasalsoadvisedget Sheail hasprovidedevidenceofSoames’s situationfrompapersheldintheNationalArchives.Soameswas Sheail, The 1959reportoftheMinistryAgriculture’sstudygroupwasonefactorin In 1961,Shellvoluntarilywithdrewdieldrinasatreatmentforcerealseedssown Political discussionintensifiedduringthe1960s.Forastart,springof1960was Seventy-five YearsinEcology 27 . Thecouncilwasgiventheresponsibilityforsupport- 28 Thisincludedlobbyinghiscolleagues BEFORE ANDAFTER An EnvironmentalHistory SILENT SPRING , 236–45.Nathaniel 95 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry herbicides andinsecticidesoninsect,mammalbirdpopulations. cussed. Itsfifthmeeting,heldinCopenhagen1954,wasontheeffectsofmodern provided aforumwhereproblemsrelatedtopesticidesandecologycouldbedis- hundred organisationsfromsixty-fourcountriesjoinedindependently.TheIUCN in Fontainebleu,twenty-threecountriesjoinedasmemberstates,andabouttwo for theConservationofNatureandNaturalResources(IUCN).Atitsfirstmeeting sity, butalsotoproviderefugesforthenaturalcontrolagentsofagriculturalpests. agriculture tocoexistwithwildhabitats,notonlyforthemaintenanceofbiodiver- and whyecosystemswerebeingseverelydamaged.Theyunderstoodtheneedfor worldwide, showednotonlythedirectconsequencesofpesticideuse,butalsohow 32 31 30 29 albeit expressedmoredrylyandtechnically. including thatofegg-shellthinning,canbefoundinthesymposiumproceedings, symposium heldatMonksWoodin1965. pesticides intheenvironment,andtheireffectsonwildlife.Theresultwasatwo-week In 1963,heapproachedNATOforsponsorshipofanadvancedstudyinstituteon control. MoorewastheBritishrepresentativeoncommitteeandalsoitssecretary. IUCN establishedacommitteeontheecologicaleffectsofchemicalinsectandweed there in1961underNormanMoore. ogist KennethMellanbywasappointeddirector.Workonwildlifetoxicologybegan station, toberunbytheNatureConservancy. National NatureReserveinHuntingdonshire.Thegovernmentagreedtofundthe bodies foranexperimentalresearchstationtobebuiltnexttheMonksWood agriculture wastobeseverelyrestricted. longer beavailableforpurchasebygardenersandhorticulturalists,theirusein 34 33 96 see especiallychapters12–15.ForMellanby,n.8above. Cambridge UniversityPress,1987)tellsmuchoftheperiodunderdiscussion inthispaper.Forpesticideuse, mammals. Mooreintroducedadragonfly protectionschemeundertheauspicesofIUCN. in theenvironment.Forexample,evidence waspresentedoftracesthesecompoundsinthetissuesarctic standing ofthepersistenceanddispersalbothchlorohydrocarbonpesticides andorganomercuryfungicides Moore, England, 1–14July,1965)(Oxford:Blackwell,1966),287–90. Study InstitutesponsoredbytheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization,Monks WoodExperimentalStation, Pesticides intheEnvironmentandTheirEffectsonWildlife John L.George,“TheWorkoftheIUCN’sCommitteeonEcological EffectsofChemicalControls,”in Effects ofModernInsecticidesonMammals,BirdsandInsects memoir, scientific workwasmovedtoanotherNERCsiteatWallingford,intheThames Valley.NormanW.Moore’s The stationopenedofficiallyin1963,butscientificworkhadbegunthere in1961.Itclosed2008,andits county in1974,itfellwithintheboundariesofCambridgeshire. oak andash.Afterthereformofcountyboundaries,decisiontoendHuntingdonshire’sstatusasa The reservehadbeensetupbytheNatureConservancyin1953toprotectanancientwoodland,principallyof chemicals remainedtheprincipalfocus. and othertoxicchemicalscontinuedtomeet,cameoutwithafurtherreportin1969,whichpersistent HC Debate Royal Commission onEnvironmentalPollution despite amajordecreaseintheuse of thosechemicalsduringthepreviousdecade.See notably raptors.Thesparrowhawkstill showedevidenceofchlorohydrocarbonsinitstissuesthelate1970s, major publicconcern,andwasseen asaprincipalfactorinthepopulationdecreaseofsomebirdspecies, Egg-shell thinning,establishedbycomparing shellswiththosefromearlierperiodskeptinmuseums,wasa Earlier, in1948,ecologistsandconservationistsfoundedtheInternationalUnion Because ofthevariousproblems,therewassupportwithinBESandother HANNAH GAY Pesticides intheEnvironment Bird ofTime:TheScienceandPoliticsConservation—APersonal Account on“organochloro”pesticides,24March,1964,vol.692,cols.244–52.Thecommitteepesticides . Athemerunningthroughtheseconferencepapersisincreasedunder- 31 , 3.22. EcologistsatMonksWood,alongwithothers 29 33 AlloftheconcernsexpressedbyCarson, 34 30 , ed.N.W.Moore(ProceedingsofanAdvanced Themedicalentomologistandecol- (ProceedingsandPapers,IUCN,1956).Seealso 32 7th Reportofthe In1961,the (Cambridge: Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry areas. Inmoreremoteareas,somewereevenparachutedin. population flourished.Replacementcatshadtobetruckedinthemostaffected in thelossofbiologicalcontrol.So,too,wasdeathcats,asrodent concentrations, DDTwasharmfultomammals.Thedeathofthewaspsalesson early evidenceofDDTworkingitswayupthefoodchain,andalsothat,atcertain people’s houses.Thegeckospreyedoninsects.catdeathsappearedtoprovide their furbylickingit,butbecausetheycaughtandatesmallgeckosthatlivedinside case thatmanydomesticcatsdied.Theywerepoisonednotonlybecausetheycleaned vulnerable toDDT,leavingthecaterpillarpopulationslesscontrolled.Itwasalso It turnedoutthataparasiticwasppreyedonthecaterpillarswasespecially roofs complainedthat,afterthespraying,theirwereeatenawaybycaterpillars. but therewereproblems.Forexample,manypeoplelivinginhomeswiththatched and seriousecologicalconsequences.Malariamosquitoeswereeffectivelycontrolled, indoor DDTsprayingprogrammeduringthe1950sthathadanumberofinteresting (WHO) teamsworkinginNorthBorneo(nowSabah)andSarawakconductedan in agriculturebutfrommalariacontrol.Forexample,WorldHealthOrganisation 37 36 35 prepared foritsreception. When RachelCarsonpublished Environmental politics,1962–1972 set thestageforfurtheraction. were learnedbackinBritainand,addedtotheproblemsalreadydiscussed,helped est,” Silent Spring the RiseofEnvironmentalism University ofPittsburghPress,2000). general coverage,seeSamuelP.Hays, Seminars, vol.19(2004)(availableat http://history.qmul.ac.uk/research/modbiomed/Publications).Formore see D.A.ChristieandE.M.Tansey, eds., 1960s andearly1970s;allmentioned being inspiredbyCarson’sbook.Forsomeotherretrospectivethoughts, American. Astothelaterperiod,Ihave spokentoseveralBritishecologistswhobegantheircareersinthelate pests ofthecottonplantinlate nineteenthcentury,anareaofresearchseenbyForbesasexclusively something thatthoseworkingatImperialCollegecouldwellhavechallenged. H.M.Lefroyworkedoninsect nally publishedin1915,andbeginswiththeclaim,“appliedentomology is peculiarlyanAmericansubject,” The first,anessaybyStephenA.Forbes,“TheEcologicalFoundationsof AppliedEntomology,”wasorigi- Policy lenge American viewsonthis,see:LisaH.SiderisandKathleenDeanMoore,eds., It ishardtodocumentCarson’seffectandlegacy,buttherelittledoubt thatitwasconsiderable.Forsome responsible foramajoroutbreakofDutchElmDiseaseduringthe1950s. environmental consequencesofDDTusageafteranattempttocontrol the barkbeetlevectorsofafungus major pestworldwide.SeeMoore, their naturalpredators,somemitesthatalsokepttheredspidermitein check.Redspidermitesbecamea There weremanysuchlessons.DDTwasusedworldwideinorchardstocontrolCodlinmoths.Italsokilled late 1960s,Conway(tobediscussedfurtherbelow)wasalectureratImperialCollege. time ofindependence.BothSarawakandNorthBorneo(renamedSabah)becamestatesMalaysia.Bythe article wasGordonConway,ascientistwhoworkedinNorthBorneotheearly1960s,andthereat of DDTtoControlMalaria,” 136–37; andPatrickT.O’Shaughnessy,“ParachutingCatsCrushedEggs:TheControversyOvertheUses House SprayingintheCourseofMalariaEradication,” Moore, There hasbeendebateoverthedegreetowhichchlorohydrocarbonsworktheirwayupfoodchain.See: Some oftheearlydataonecologicalproblemscamenotasaresultpestcontrol Hastings CenterReport (Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,2008);ThomasR.Dunlap, (Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1981);andThomasR.Dunlap, ed., Pesticides intheEnvironment (Boston,Mass.:HoughtonMifflin,1970);andDorothyNelkin,“Ecologists andthePublicInter- 6(1976):38–44.Dunlap’s2008bookisacollectionofexcerptsfromclassic papers. (Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress,2008).Seealso:FrankGrahamJr., American JournalofPublicHealth 37 Otherevents,too,helpedtoraisepeople’sawarenessof Pesticides intheEnvironment , 181;F.Y.Cheng,“DeteriorationofThatchRoofsbyMothLarvaeafter 36 A HistoryofEnvironmentalPolitics Since1945 Environmental Toxicology:TheLegacy ofSilentSpring Silent Spring Bulletin oftheWorldHealthOrganization BEFORE ANDAFTER in1962,thegroundwaswell , 145.IntheUSA,attentionwasdrawnto 98(2008):1940–48.Onesourceforthis 35 Rachel Carson:LegacyandChal- Theseecologicallessons Scientists, CitizensandPublic SILENT SPRING DDT, SilentSpringand (Pittsburgh,Penn.: 28(1968): , Witness Since 97 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry was muchconcernoverwhatdrillingwouldmeanfortheecologyofScottish Canyon resource beingexploitedinthisperiodwasNorthSeaoilandgas.Likethe by 2100unlessmajorstepsweretakentoconserveresources.OnenotableBritish 41 40 39 38 ogy. from scientists,includingsocialattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnol- tion. Itsfirstmajorpublication, industrialists togethertoseeksolutionsproblemsoftheenvironmentandconserva- appearance ofthehighlysuccessfulMöbiusstriprecyclinglogo. groups. On22April1970,thefirstEarthDaywascelebratedinUSA.Itsaw twenty countries,businessleaders,scientists,andrepresentativesofenvironmental Year. Inearly1970,aconferencewasheldinStrasbourgattendedbyofficialsfrom 1966, theCouncilofEuropedeclaredthat1970wouldbeEuropeanConservation movement inBritain,anditsspokespersonsbegantogainagreaterpoliticalvoice.In detergent onthebeaches.Theincidentwasatippingpointforenvironmental not onlybytheoilpollutionandlossofwildlife,butalsooverusedispersive major oilspillfromthewreckoftanker In 1967,therewasanenvironmentaldisasteralongtheCornishcoastcausedbya to scienceandtechnologymoregenerally. ways inwhichpeopleapproachedenvironmentalmatters,butalsotheirapproach environmental problems.Indeed,the“long1960s”wastransformativenotonlyin 42 mental conservationandlimitstotheearth’sresourcesneededbetakenseriously. Paul Ehrlich.Itportrayedaloomingpopulationcrisis,andarguedthatbothenviron- coverage was 98 Welfare,” well describedbyAbigailWoodsin “Together Forever?ThePast,PresentandFutureofAnimalHealth deal. Thefuroreoveranimalwelfare, whichparallelsthatoveragriculturalpestcontrolandecologicalloss,is book raisedpublicconcernoverfactory farming,anotherissuewithwhichtheministerofagriculturehadto Ruth Harrison’s Donella H.Meadows,DennisL.JørgenRandersandWilliam W.BehrensIII, America, amajorpaperrecycler. sity ofCaliforniaatLosAngeles,whowonadesigncompetitionsponsored bytheContainerCorporationof 150 countries.TherecyclinglogowasdesignedbyGaryDeanAnderson,an architecturestudentattheUniver- US senatorGaylordNelsonwasthepoliticalforcebehindfirstEarth Day. Today,itiscelebratedinover posed aproblemforthegovernment. entire cargoofoilspilledout,muchcomingashore.Althoughspillswere notunusual,thescaleofthisone This Liberian-registeredtankerranagroundnearLandsEndon18March, 1967.Itsoonbrokeup,andits America’s DecisionWhoWillSurvive? 11 January1960.AnotherbestsellerinthisveinwasWilliamPaddock andPaulPaddock, The “populationcrisis”wasatopicofdiscussionthroughoutthe1950sand 1960s.Itmadethecoverof saw parallelsbetweenradiationandpesticides. secondary literature.Herightlysees Journal fortheHistoryofScience of theperiodasitrelatestoscienceandtechnology,seeJonAgar,“WhatHappenedinSixties?” Italy andtheUnitedStates,c.1958 The “long1960s”isArthurMarwick’speriodisation.Seehis was BarryCommoner’s (New York:UniverseBooks,1972).I mention onlyafewofthemanybooksinthisvein.Anotherpopularone “The TragedyoftheCommons,” In 1968,theClubofRomewasfoundedwithaimbringingscientistsand 42 AcomputermodelledthemtopredictthecollapseofindustrialWest HANNAH GAY disaster,thenewindustryfedintoenvironmentaldebateinBritain.There Veterinary Times The PopulationBomb Animal Machines:TheNewFactory FarmingIndustry Science andSurvival 39(2009):8–9. – Science c.1974 41(2008):567–600.Agarprovidesasynthesisofsometheprincipal Silent Spring (Boston,Mass.:Little,Brown,1967).GarrettHardin’sinfluentialpaper, Limits toGrowth (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1998).Foraninterestingdiscussion 162(1968):1243–48,alsofocusedonthepopulationproblem. (NewYork:Viking,1966).RachelCarson wrotetheforewordto (1968)bytheUniversityofCaliforniabiologist asatextinspiredbyantinuclearactivism,andthatCarson 38 Anotherbookthatreceivedmuchpress Torrey Canyon The Sixties:CulturalRevolutioninBritain,France, (1972),wasaworkcommissioned (London:VincentStuart,1964).The . 40 Thepublicwasupset 41 Limits toGrowth Famine 1975: Torrey British Time 39 ,

Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry 45 44 43 the GreenPartyofEnglandandWales. edition hadasupportiveforewordbyPaulEhrlich.Goldsmithwasalsofounderof later thatyearasasmallbook, need toincludeecologicalandenvironmentalideasinschoolcurricula.Published call, pointingtoproblemsthatgovernmentsneededaddress,andarguingforthe move backtoasimplerwayoflife.Itisprogressiveinthatitwasseriouswake-up sive inthatitsuggestedtheneedtototallydismantlemodernindustrialsocietyand It isacuriousmanifesto,bothprogressiveandregressiveinitsradicalism.regres- Blueprint forSurvival ogist address concernsofthatkind. and protectingExmoor.TheWildlifeCountrysideAct(1981)wasanattemptto conservation projects,suchasprotectingfenlands,conservingsealpopulations, 1971). the UKbranchwasestablishedin1971)andGreenpeace(foundedCanada fast-growing organisations,suchasFriendsoftheEarth(foundedinUSA1969; coastline andforoffshoremarinelife.The1970ssawtheappearanceofmany for environmentalandecologicalscience,and,bylarge, theydelivereddespitethe given attheconference.ThegovernmentsrepresentedinStockholmpromisedfunding Ward. Duboscoinedthemaxim“thinkglobally,actlocally”anduseditinaspeech Dubos andtheBritisheconomistadvocatefordevelopingworldBarbara much attention.ItsauthorsweretheFrenchbiologistandenvironmentalistRené international politicalagenda. of theWHO,wasextremelyimportantinhelpingtoplaceenvironmenton Gro HarlemBrundtland,thefutureprimeministerofNorwayanddirector commission’s firstchairman. For thistheywerestronglylobbied,especiallybyEricAshby,whowasappointedthe conference, andsetuptheRoyalCommissiononEnvironmentalPollutionin1970. in Stockholm1972.TheBritishgovernment,too,actedanticipationoftheUN an unofficialmanifestofortheUnitedNationsHumanEnvironmentConferenceheld by theCamerongovernmentinApril 2011. on pesticidesinagriculture.Despiteits forty-yearrecordofprovidinggoodadvice,thecommissionwasclosed The RoyalCommissiononEnvironmental Pollutionproducedmanyimportantresearchpapers,includingsome Imperial College.HeendeditasMaster ofClareCollegeCambridgeandasvice-chancellortheuniversity. Lord EricAshby(1904–1993)beganhis distinguishedacademiccareerasabotanystudentandthenlecturerat it wentthroughseveralnamechanges beforebecomingtheGreenPartyofEnglandandWalesin1985. sprang upatroughlythesametime.The oneinEnglandwasfounded1973.AtfirstcalledthePeopleParty, political GreenPartywasfoundedinTasmania,but“green”ideaswereeverywhere, andseveralGreenParties in Britain.Theoriginoftheuseterm“green”todescribeenvironmental movementsisobscure.Thefirst basically conservativepoliticalideasweretoputhimatoddswithsomeco-founders oftheGreenmovement Edward R.D.Goldsmith(1928–2009)wastheolderbrotheroffinancier SirJamesGoldsmith.Goldsmith’s For moreonthisandothersuchgroups,seePhilipLoweJaneGoyder, the early1970s. for theEnvironment (London: GeorgeAllenandUnwin,1983).SeealsoRichardKimberJ. J.Richardson,eds., Among themanyresponsestoenvironmentalthreatwasfoundingof The book byEdward(Teddy)Goldsmithin1970.co-authoredthedocument 43 InBritainpeople,werealsoworkingonarangeofdomesticruralandmarine Only OneEarth (London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul,1974).Thisessaycollectioncaptures themoodof , whichtookuptheentireJanuary1972issueof 45 (1972),alsopublishedfortheUNconference,drew TheStockholmconference,energeticallychairedby Blueprint 44

Blueprint soldclosetoamillioncopies;itsAmerican BEFORE ANDAFTER became,asintendedbyitsauthors, Environmental GroupsinPolitics SILENT SPRING Campaigning Ecologist Ecol- 99 .

Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry 48 47 46 Station, alreadyamajorcentreinappliedentomology,tappedintothenewpolitical occurred inthewaythatitdid.ThoseatImperialCollege’sSilwoodParkField cal response,theexpansionofecologicalworkin1960sand1970swouldnothave Without thepublicawarenessofenvironmentalproblems,andconsequentpoliti- Towards biologicalcontrol today isunlikelytobeverydifferent. of thethreethousandchemicalsthatmadeup90percentusage. toxicological dataforhumansandwildlifewereavailableonlyasmallfraction sixty thousandtoseventychemicalswerethenstillinregularuse,yet continue. AccordingtoHelmutvanEmdenandDavidPeakall,writingin1996,about think about.Despiteincreasingawareness,problemswithchemicalcontamination Island, andtheExxonValdezoilspillinAlaska,providedmuchforscientiststo agendas. Newdisasters,suchasthenuclearaccidentsatChernobylandThreeMile Chemistry wasestablished.Itaninternationalbodywithplentytooccupyits science ofecotoxicology.In1979,theSocietyEnvironmentalToxicologyand by theuseofchemicalsinagriculture. number ofprojectsinthedevelopingworld,includingonesrelatedtoproblemscaused with headquartersinLondon.BarbaraWardwasitsfirstdirector.Sheencourageda The otherwastheInternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment(IIED), One wastheUNEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP),withheadquartersinNairobi. the beneficiaries.Theconferencealsoledtofoundingoftwonewbodiesin1973. recession. 49 100 discussed below,alsogaveapaper. Boulding, andtheecologistconservationist FrankFraserDarling.GordonConway,whoseworkwillbe ing weremajorfiguressuchasthebiologistandenvironmentalistBarry Commoner, theeconomistKenneth on EcologicalAspectsofInternationalDevelopment made ata1968conference;seeM.TagiFarvarandJohnP.Milton,eds., development funderssuchastheWorldBank.Theconnectionbetween environmentanddevelopmentwas developing world,waspresidentoftheIIEDfrom1973to1980.The wasfundedbyindustryand The economistBarbaraM.Ward(BaronessJacksonofLodsworth)(1914–1981), amajoradvocateforthe and authoreditsinfluentialreport, Green CrossInternational.BrundtlandlaterchairedtheWorldCommission onEnvironmentandDevelopment Kyoto Protocol.StrongwasasenioradvisortoKofiAnnan,andisinvolved alsowithMikhailGorbachev’s UN ConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopmentheldinRiodeJaneiro, andwasamovingforcebehindthe Strong, thebehind-the-scenesforceandsecretary-generalof1972UNconference. Helaterchairedthe1992 About £20millionwenttofoundingtheUNEP.Itsfirstdirectorwas CanadianbusinessmanMaurice environmentalism, ecologicalsciencewentrelativelyunscathed. the IranianRevolutionof1979.Theconsequencesforuniversityfundingweredirebut,becauserise link betweengoldandtheUSdollar.Theresultwasahugeinflationinoilpricesthatlasteduntilwellafter tion ofPetroleumExportingCountries),whichwasunhappywithPresidentNixon’s1971decisiontoseverthe against theUSA.TheembargowasfollowedbyamajorjumpinpriceofoilimposedOPEC(Organiza- The economicrecessiongatheredmomentumafterthe1973YomKippurWar,andatemporaryoilembargo safety. sity ofReading.ThewebsitetheUK PesticideResiduesCommitteeincludesmuchinterestingdataonfood Imperial College,isanemeritusprofessor ofhorticultureandprofessorappliedentomologyattheUniver- Safety Helmut F.vanEmdenandDavidPeakall, Another outcomeofgrowingecologicalconcernsworldwidewasthegrowth (London:ChapmanandHall,1996), x.H.F.vanEmden,aformerstudentofT.R.E.Southwoodat HANNAH GAY 46 Academicecologists,includingthosetobediscussedbelow,wereamong Our CommonFuture Beyond SilentSpring:IntegratedPest ManagementandChemical 48 (GardenCity,N.Y.:NaturalHistoryPress,1972).Attend- (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1987). The CarelessTechnology 49 Thesituation : Conference 47

Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry of theCarsonites,integrationistsandconservationists.” pest management,heseemsattimestobesuccumbingtheelbowjogginginfluence about Southwoodandthelecture,hewrote,butwhen“launchesintorealmof inaugural lectureasprofessor,Jepsonwasalittlecritical.Theremuchtoadmire insect communitiesandbiologicalcontrol.When,in1968,Southwoodgavehis Cyanamid. ButforSouthwood,theworkledindirectionofresearchintoplant– a readeratthecollege,lefttojoinagriculturalchemicalsdivisionofAmerican ogy. O. W.Richards’stenureasheadofthedepartmentzoologyandappliedentomol- reality andbecamewellfundedasaresult. 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 he wassupportivebothofthoseseekingmoreeffectivechemicalpesticidesand to including JulianHuxley,FrankFraserDarling,andPeterMedawar,hesignedaletter Committee onthetopicofoverpopulation. tion ofEhrlich’sbook,hewasinvitedtoaddresstheParliamentaryandScientific towards theecologicalandenvironmentalsciences. needed torespond.Underhisleadership,researchatSilwoodParkmovedfurther shared. Notonlydidhejointhepublicdebate,butrecognisedthatuniversities he understoodthegrowingpublicconcernoverenvironment,athat chemical industry.Hewasdefensive.ButSouthwoodhadsensitivepoliticalantennae; a generationthathaddevelopedrangeofchemicalpesticides,andhejoinedthe population andsodestroyingthatformofnaturalcontrol. preyed onfritflylarvae.Chemicalpesticideswerepreferentiallykillingoffthemite turned outthatfritflypopulationswereregulatedinpartbyparasiticmites they studiedthefritfly, member ofthestaff,WalterJepson.FundedbyAgriculturalResearchCouncil, His firstresearchprojectatSilwoodwascarriedouttogetherwithamoresenior As ajuniorstaffmember,Southwoodwasalreadyinterestedinbiologicalcontrol. will bediscussedfurtherbelow. first tosign,followedbytwootherImperial Collegezoologists,J.S.KennedyandGordonConway.Conway Bodleian Library,SouthwoodPapers, B16; of PopulationEstimates,”givenatthe WHOConferenceonVectorEcology,December1971. of overpopulation”(ImperialCollege London, Southwood wasapessimist,andclaimed thatthereis“onlya50/50chanceoftheworldsurvivingdangers Bodleian Library,SouthwoodPapers, E.58;seenotesandcorrespondenceon“man’spopulation,”1969–70. tionists,” Jepsonmeantthosepromotingintegratedpestmanagement. Comments byW.P.Jepson,dated18October,1969.BodleianLibrary, Journal ofAnimalEcology and W.F.Jepson,“StudiesonthePopulationsof They beganthisresearchprojectin1955,andpublishedseveralpapers.See, forexample,T.R.E.Southwood vice-chancellor oftheuniversity. to OxfordUniversitywhenappointedtheLinacreChairofZoology in 1979.In1989,hewasappointed Richards appointedhimtothestaffin1955,andhebecameheadofdepartment in1967.Southwoodmoved out doctoralresearchonsomecerealinsectpestsunderC.B.Williamsatthe RothamstedExperimentalStation. Sir ThomasRichardEdmund(Dick)SouthwoodFRS(1931–2005)waseducated atImperialCollege.Hecarried Owain WestmacottRichardsFRS(1901–1984). The fieldstation,nowknownastheSilwoodParkCampus,occupiesabout 250acresnearAscot,Berkshire. Southwood alsomadesomegoodpoliticalmoves.In1969,followingthepublica- The Times 51 Itwastodosoevenmoreunderhissuccessor,T.R.E.(Dick)Southwood. insupportofthe 31(1962):481–95. Oscinella frit Blueprint forSurvival The Times Topic , acerealpestthatwasattackingoatcrops.It , 11June1979).MSE.72isapapertitled “ThePrinciples Oscinella frit 50 , 25January1972,15.Southwood,the instigator,wasthe 55 Workoninsectecologyexpandedduring Threeyearslater,alongwith136others, BEFORE ANDAFTER L.(Dipt:Chloropidae)intheOatCrop,” document. Southwood Papers 53 Interestingly,Jepson, 54 56 Jepsonbelongedto SILENT SPRING Inhisdepartment, , B14.By“integra- 101 52

Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry developed foruseinthedevelopingworld. more effectivelywithlowerconcentrations.Small-scale(knapsack)sprayerswere Spraying technologywasimprovedsoastoprotectoperatorsanddeliverpesticides where ithelpedtocontrolthediamondbackmoth,amajorpestofcabbageplants. parasitic waspwasbredinlargenumbersandsuccessfullyintroducedintoAsia, of local(nonexotic)predatorsandparasiteswasanotherapproach.Forexample,a so thatthenaturalenemiesofpestscouldthrive.Researchonmassproduction educating farmerstoallowtheiragriculturalplotsbesurroundedbywildareas ing reducingchemicalusage,avoidingmonoculture,removingcropdebris,and But howtoconserveandincreasenaturalenemies?Manymethodsweretried,includ- control thatbecamethemostimportantaimofIPM,anditremainstoday. agriculture. given topeopleincountriesaroundtheworldonpestmanagementandsustainable working atboththesebodies.Therewasmuchcollectiveresearch,andadvice even beforetheyarrived,scientistsatSilwoodwerecollaboratingwithpeople Bureaux andtheCommonwealthInstituteofBiologicalControltoSilwood. stronger inthe1980swithrelocationofbothCommonwealthAgricultural served bothdomesticandoverseasneeds.Commonwealthconnectionsbecameeven as tea,rubber,and,especially,cotton.ResearchcarriedoutatSilwoodintoIPM Commonwealth) Officeandfromanumberoftropicalagriculturalindustries,such Centre locatedatSilwood. 57 College ofWalesatBangorin1959,Conwayjoinedthe colonialserviceand,after to publicpressure. logical controlofaphids. management. Way,anearlyIPMenthusiast,wascarryingoutresearchonthebio- human diseasevectors,andhepromotedMichaelWay’sintegratedapproachtopest those seekingbiologicalcontrolmethods.Healsosupportedworkontheof 62 61 60 59 58 co-signatory ofthe young ecologiststoworkatSilwood.ThefirstwasGordonConway,afuture result, whenSouthwoodbecameheadofdepartment,hewasabletobringseveral environmental scienceweretwoofthefewareaswhereuniversitiescouldgrow.Asa 102 in Malawi.SeeG.A.Matthews,“Pesticide ResearchatSilwoodPark,” IPARC wasGrahamA.Matthews,a specialist intheintegratedcontrolofcottonpests,whocarriedoutwork (IPARC). WaysucceededSouthwoodasdirectoroftheSilwoodParkcampus in1979.Alaterdirectorofthe Today, afterafewnamechanges,theunitisknownasInternationalPesticide ApplicationResearchCentre paralleling thatbeingcarriedoutatRothamsted. Environment M. J.Way,“TheNaturalEnvironmentandIntegratedMethodsofPestControl,” inMoore, Biological ControlofAphidsonBrusselsSprouts,” See, forexample,M.J.Way,G.MurdieandD.Galley,“Experiments on theIntegrationofChemicaland Conway wasappointedbeforethe1972 conference,butotherappointeesweretofollow. to seeitsrecommendationsactedon. Solly Zuckerman,chiefscientificadvisor tothegovernmentuntil1971,attendedconferenceandwaskeen For thesevariousdevelopments,seeMatthews, “PesticideResearchatSilwoodPark.” For thesebodiesandtheirwork,see Gay, Although classicalbiocontrolcontinued,itwastherestorationofnaturalbiological The Britishgovernmentrespondedwelltothe1972Stockholmconferenceand HANNAH GAY , 29–32.WayhadstudiedthepesticidalpropertiesofDDTatOxfordin theearly1940s,work 61 Blueprint DuringtherecessionfollowingOPECcrisis,ecologyand 57 HewasalsodirectoroftheOverseasSprayingMachinery 58 MuchresearchfundingcamefromtheColonial(later document. The HistoryofImperialCollegeLondon 62 Annals ofAppliedBiology OngaininghisBScfromtheUniversity 60 Antenna 21(1997):108–15. 63(1969):459–75.Seealso , 223passim. Pesticides inthe 59 But Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry mine whattypesofsustainableagriculturalprojectshouldbesupported. travelling toseveralAsiancountrieswiththefoundation’sGordonHarrisondeter- Conway alsotooksometemporaryworkwiththeFordFoundationthatentailed research foraPhDunderKennethWatt,specialistinNorthAmericanforestpests. Sabah, ConwayenrolledattheUniversityofCalifornia(Davis),wherehecarriedout survive, thetreestorecover,andcocoacropincrease. spraying didnotstopaltogether,butIPMallowedthenaturalcontrolagentsto was controlledbyremovalofsomenearbytreesthatwereitsnaturalhosts.Chemical over. Twomajorpestssooncameunderthecontrolofparasiticwasps.Anotherpest heavy spraying.Conwaypersuadedthemtostop,andallownaturalcontroltake the cocoatreeswereseriouslydefoliatedbyinsectpests.Thefarmersrespondedwith able putittothetest.Youngcocoaplantationswerelocatedinjungleclearings,and eradicate malaria,Conwayhadlearnedaboutbiologicalcontrolatuniversityandwas North Borneo,soontobecomeSabah.UnliketheearlierWHOteam,whichtried additional trainingintropicalagriculture,beganworkingoncocoaplantations 66 65 64 63 sell, anOxfordDPhilwhohadspentapostdoctoralyearwithleadingAmerican those cash-strappedtimes). soon receivedafurtherresearchgrantfromtheministry(£450,000,hugesumin ogy. ItofferedawiderangeofMSccourses.Conwaywasappointeddirector,and Ministry ofEnvironment,thecollegesetupCentreforEnvironmentalTechnol- considerable resourcesintropicalagriculture. encourage overseasstudentstocomeSilwood,andmakeuseofthecollege’s [in relation]topestmanagement.”Alsostatedwasthehopethatunitwould simulation andsystemanalysismethodstothestudyofnaturalresources,especially system ideas.Apressreleasestatedthatmembersoftheunitwouldapply“computer Management ResearchUnitatSilwood,whereConwayintroducedsomeofWatt’s agement andsustainableagriculture.TheresultwastheEnvironmentalResources grant of$500,000bythefoundationtosetuparesearchunitinenvironmentalman- must haveimpressedHarrison,because,ongaininghisdoctorate,hewasawardeda Unwelcome Harvest:Agricultureand Pollution ment. OneofConway’sbooksconnects directlytotheconcernsofCarson:GordonConwayandJulesPretty, tional developmentatImperialCollege andaschiefscientificadvisortotheministerforinternationaldevelop- Bhutan. HewaspresidentoftheRockefeller Foundation(1998–2005),returningtoaprofessorshipininterna- head ofitsNewDelhioffice,hedirected programmesinsustainableagricultureIndia,SriLanka,Nepal,and the auspicesofIIED(seeabove). In 1988,hebecameafull-timeemployeeoftheFordFoundation.As on leavefromthecollege,Conwayworked onamajorsustainableagricultureprojectinSoutheastAsiaunder Royal CommissiononEnvironmentalPollutionandunderstoodthepolitical situation.Duringthe1980s,while Funding forthenewcentrewashelpedbyfactthatcollegerector, Brian Flowers,waschairmanofthe Report in College. matters, and Earthkeeping Ford Foundation’smanyagriculturalprojects,andforresearchgrantsto universities.Heistheauthorof Gordon Harrison,aHarvardUniversityhistorygraduate,wasresponsible fororganisingthefundingof Twenty-first Century Some ofthisworkisdiscussedinGordonConway, Southwood alsoappointedseveralotheryoungecologists.OnewasMichaelHas- IC News (Boston,Mass.:Houghton-Mifflin,1971),anexcellentandveryprescientbook onenvironmental Mosquitoes, MalariaandMan , 31October,1969(copyavailableattheImperialCollegeLondonarchives). (Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,1998);seeesp.205–6passim. 66 (NewYork:Dutton,1978),writtenwhilevisitingImperial (London:Earthscan,1991). The DoublyGreenRevolution:FoodforAllinthe 65 BEFORE ANDAFTER In1976,withfundingfromthe 63 Afterhisworkin SILENT SPRING 64 Conway 103 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry 68 67 in CrawleyleadingoneoftheteamsPlannedReleaseSelectedand working ontheglobalimpactofinsecticides.ThisconnectionwithICIresulted agricultural researchsite).Therehebecamepart,andlatertheleader,ofanICIteam (now runbySyngentaand,nexttothenoncommercialRothamsted,UK’slargest toral fellow,RichardBrown.BrownlefttoworkforICIatJeallot’sHill,Bracknell Crawley, aherbivoryspecialist.Workingwithhiminthemid-1970swaspostdoc- with prey–predator(host–parasitoid)systems. models hadgreatheuristicpowerthathelpedmany,includingHassellinhiswork May diduntilmovingpermanentlytoEnglandin1988.May’spopulationbiology profit from.HeinvitedMaytoreturneachsummerasavisitingprofessor,something that May,althoughnewtoecology,hadsometheoreticalideastheycouldall much fromRobertMay,whofirstvisitedSilwoodin1971. biology isimportanttoappliedwork. excellent naturalcontrolagents,andsoagoodunderstandingoftheirpopulation other insects.Theparasitoidlarvaefeedon,andusuallykill,theirhosts.Theyare toids. Mainlyfly,ant,wasporbeespecies,theydeposittheireggsinthelarvaeof His specialinterestisininsectparasitoids.About10percentofinsectsareparasi- cannot bedescribedasanappliedentomologistinthemannerofWayorConway. He, too,wantedtogainaclearerunderstandingofpest–predatorsystems,buthe Berkeley. Hasselltoldmethat,likeConway,hewasinfluencedbyCarson’sbook. biological controlscientist,C.B.(Ben)Huffaker,attheUniversityofCalifornia 69 Silwood. Society captureswelltheworkofpreviousfifteenyears,muchitcarriedoutat interactions. Acollectionofpapersgivenata1988conferenceheldtheRoyal and thefactthatstabilityinnaturewassomethingmaintainedbycomplexdynamic problem. Moregenerally,May’smodelsbroughtoutthefragilityofecosystems, the biocontrolscientists’goal,muchoftheorisingwasdirectedatthiscomplex 104 Silwood. some gall-formingmites,tocontrol the bracken.Lawton,thenatUniversityofYork,latermovedto Lawton wasproposingclassicalbiocontrol: theimportofsomeherbivorousmoths(fromSouthAfrica),and was influencedbyMay’sideas.Bracken, amajorweedthatpoisonslivestock,isreservoirforsheepticks. Another interestingpaperisJ.H.Lawton, “BiologicalControlofBrackeninBritain,”335–55.Lawton,too, were beginningtoreplaceorganochlorine, organophosphateandcarbamateinsecticidesduringthe1980s. the UseofBeneficialOrganismswith ChemicalCropProtection,”203–11.Pickettnotesthatnewpyrethroids and M.P.Hassell,“PopulationDynamicsBiologicalControl,”129–69. SeealsoJ.A.Pickett,“Integrating Prospects See R.K.S.WoodandM.J.Way,eds., Model Ecosystems These ideasonpopulationmodellingwerebroughttogetherinRobertM. May, appointed chiefgovernmentscientistin1995,andwaselectedpresidentof theRoyalSocietyin2000. Royal SocietyresearchchairheldjointlyatImperialCollegeLondon and OxfordUniversity.Maywas appointed toachairinthezoologydepartmentatPrinceton.In1988,he movedtotheUKandtookupa MacArthur, aprofessoratPrincetonUniversity.ShortlyafterMacArthur’s prematuredeathin1972,Maywas common groundwithSouthwoodandothersworkingatSilwood.Hewas alsomuchinfluencedbyRobert of Sydney.Maybeganthinkingaboutecologicalmodellingduringasabbatical leavein1971–1972.Hefound Robert M.May(LordofOxford)isanAustralianwithaPhDintheoretical physicsfromtheUniversity Another scientistwhobeganworkingatSilwoodintheearly1970sisMichael Hassell, Conwayandother“pure”“applied”entomologistsweretolearn HANNAH GAY 69 , in Philosophical TransactionsoftheRoyalSociety (Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1973;3rd.ed.2001). Biological ControlofPests,PathogensandWeeds:Developments 68 Asstabilisingpestsatalowlevelwas B318(1988):109–376.SeeespeciallyR.M.May 67 Southwoodrecognised Stability andComplexityin Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry rice farmers.There,hedevelopedwhattermedagroecosystemanalysis. during the1980s,ConwaybeganworkinSoutheastAsia,muchofitThailandwith health. remit ofotherresearchteamstostudytheconsequencesforhumanandanimal genetic transferisboundtohappen,asitdoeswithnontransgenicplants.)Itwasthe and spreadingdangerousgeneticmaterialtonearbyweedsorotherplants.(Some main conclusionwasthattherenodangeroftransgenicplantsrunningrampant that gavethemeitherinsect-repellingorherbicide-resistantproperties.Crawley’s was anewtypeofbiologicalcontrol.Sometheplantsweregivengeneticmaterial if anything,followedfromintroducingtransgenicplantsintotheenvironment.This project entailedanumberoffieldexperiments,lastingtenyears,todeterminewhat, Manipulated Organisms(PROSAMO)project,whichbeganinthelate1980s. 72 71 70 proceedings ofthe1972UNHumanEnvironmentConference giveussomeclues. life, wereespeciallytransformative.Itisinterestingtoconsiderwhythiswasso.The followed soonafter.The1970s,asinsomanyotherareasofculturalandpolitical scientists withinarelativelyshortperiodfollowingWorldWarII.Publicawareness associated withintensiveagriculture,problemsthatcametobeunderstoodbymany Today, weseethingsalittledifferentlyfromSwift.Werecognisetheseriousproblems Some further,andconcluding,comments and theuseofchemicalshastobeviewedinthatcontext. wide. But,asHuxleyhadalreadynotedin1963,pestcontrolisanecologicalmatter, to theproblemofpestcontrolandachievementhighagriculturalyieldsworld- many others,heunderstoodthatchemicalswouldhavetoremainpartofthesolution Administration www.unlibrary-nairobi.org/PDFs/UN_environment.pdf. The papersarekeptattheUNSergio VieradeMelloLibraryinNairobi.Muchcanbereadon-lineathttp:// Conway, before muchtestinghadtakenplace. that thescientificvaluewasminimal, althoughmanyecologistsplayeddownthedangersofGMcropseven discovery thatPROSAMOwasundertaken. Itisnotclearwhethertheacademicscientistsinvolvedwouldagree competition, somethingalsodesiredbyindustry.Itwas,heclaims,for these reasonsratherthanscientific the public.Aregulatoryregimewouldprovidebothpublicreassuranceand laydowntherulesforindustrial crops wereharmless,butthattheresearchwasnecessarybecauseindustry neededtocalmthefearsof claims thatpeopleworkingwithindustrialpartnerssuchasICI,Unilever andMonsantobelievedthatGM ics intheGMRegulatoryDebateUK,1986–1993”(PhDThesis,University ofExeter,2008).Moroso a sociologist’stakeontheproject,seeMarioMoroso,“TheInstitutionalisation ofGMOs:InstitutionalDynam- nised theneedforregulatoryregimesGMcropsanduseof microbialagentsinagriculture.For PROSAMO aroseaftermuchdiscussion.Alreadyinthe1980s,peopleboth industryandgovernmentrecog- Conway andotherscontinuedworkingwithmoretraditionalIPM.Forexample, Jonathan Swift, put together. of mankindanddomoreessentialservicetohiscountrythanthewholeracepoliticians grass togrowuponaspotofgroundwhereonlyonegrewbeforewoulddeservebetter He gaveitforhisopinion,thatwhoevercouldmaketwoearsofcorn,orblades Doubly GreenRevolution 20(1985):31–55,foradiscussionof thisinterdisciplinaryapproachasdevelopedinThailand. Gulliver’s Travels;VoyagetoBrobdingnag . SeealsoGordonR.Conway,“Agroecosystem Analysis,” BEFORE ANDAFTER , chap.7

SILENT SPRING Agricultural 71 70 Like The 105 72 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry Universities tendtofollowthemoneyand,afterfounding oftheNERCin1965, new fundingforenvironmentalandecologicalresearch focused onBritishproblems. and SoutheastAsia,continued,despitetherecessionof the 1970s.Addedtothiswas Conway’s workisacaseinpoint.Generousfunding,especially forprojectsinAfrica much scientificresearchinBritainremainedfocusedon tropicalagriculture.Gordon countries oftheBritishEmpire.Althoughpost-warperiodsawanendtoempire, ecological damage.Similarproblems,oftenfargreater,werebeingexperiencedin domestic problemsduetopesticideuse.Theserelatedbothhumanhealthand World WarII.Ashasbeenshown,inthelate1940stherewerealreadysomeserious and insectecologythattookplaceinBritainduringthethreedecadesfollowing a moreintegratedapproachtopestmanagement. earlier GreenRevolution.Theconferencewasamajorcatalystinthemovetowards control ofpestsand,moregenerally,onfindingwaysavoidingthepitfalls UN placedmuchemphasisonagriculturalresearch,researchintothebiological countries. Delegatestothe1972conferencetookitseriouslyand,asaresult, ronmentalism hadmadeitontotheagendaatUN.Itwasapoliticalforceinmany by championsoftheGreenRevolution.By1970s,tidehadturned,andenvi- environment. use offertilisersandpesticideswasdamagingtolocalecosystemsthelarger It provedtooexpensiveforpoorfarmersandusedmuchwater,theheavy contribution tothereductionofglobalhunger,intoday’sparlanceitwasnotgreen. produce thehighyields.AlthoughGreenRevolutionhadmadeasignificant required notonlypesticidesbutalsoartificialfertilisersandmuchirrigationto they werenotpest-resistant. problems withthenewvarietiesrecognised.Althoughtheyweredisease-resistant, also grownsuccessfullyinSoutheastAsiaandthePhilippines. in MexicoandIndia.Newricevarietieswerealsodeveloped,mainlyIndia, disease-resistant wheatsuitedtowarmclimates.Theyperformedspectacularlywell Laureate, NormanBorlaug.Especiallynotablewerehishigh-yielddwarfvarietiesof notable figurewastheplantpathologist,agronomistand,later,NobelPeace with plant-breedingresearchinMexicoduringthe1940s.Therevolution’smost post-war developmentsinagriculturewastheso-calledGreenRevolution.Itbegan tional politicalgoalandacentralUNconcern—soitremains.Oneofthemajor 75 74 73 106 On pastevidence,weshouldexpectsome unintendedconsequences. more recentdevelopmentsinGMfood cropshavebeenfundedbycorporationsandentrepreneurialinvestors. the 1980s.TheGreenRevolutionwas largelyfundedbytheRockefellerFoundationandpublicmoney.The Pest resistancewassoonaddedtobreeding programmes,andsomeprogresshasbeenmadeinthisareasince Borlaug’s wheatvarietiestoIndia.Hewasthewinnerof1987World Food Prize. A majorfigureinthisdevelopmentwasM.S.Swaminathan,whoalso successfullyintroducedsomeof also Conway, the GreenRevolution:Sustainableand EquitableAgriculturalDevelopment,” For someoftheproblemswithGreen Revolution,seeGordonR.ConwayandEdwardB.Barbier,“After This paperhasoutlinedsomeeventsrelatingtopesticides,environmentalism During the1960s,environmentalmovementwasviewedsomewhatnegatively Providing safeandsufficientfoodforpeoplearoundtheglobewasaninterna- HANNAH GAY Doubly GreenRevolution 75 74 Furthermore,theseedswereexpensive,andplants , 176. Futures 73 Onlyaftertimewere 20(1988):651–70.See Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry for theexistenceofmanyspeciesnowthreatened. was thelatterthatproducedlandscapespeoplegrewtolove,andallowed problems, aboutwastage,andthemeritsoftraditionalfarmingpractices.It so muchtopesticidesaslossofhabitat.Clearly,weneedthinkaboutsuch being poisonedbypesticides, numbers areforecasttogrow.Furthermore,millionsofpeopleworldwidestill underfed, andafewmillionchildrendieeachyearfrommalnourishment.Those and thelackoftransportationinfrastructure.Aboutninehundredmillionpeopleare per centoftheworld’scropsarelosttorodents,insectpests,disease,poorstorage, can takesomeofthecredit. science withintheBritishscientificestablishment,aculturalchangeforwhichCarson During the1970s,renewalmeantinclusionofenvironmentalandecological to stayabreastofnewtrendsandrenewthemselves,ortheybecomeanachronistic. May isalsoaformerchiefscientificadvisortothegovernment.Oldinstitutionsneed in 1971,waselected1979.In2000,hepresidentoftheRoyalSociety. many more.RobertMay,thetheoreticalecologistinvitedtoSilwoodbySouthwood Richard SouthwoodandJohnHarperwereelected,afterwhichthedoorsopenedfor Society. Between1945and1977,onlyfourecologistswereelectedFellows.In ecology’s newimportanceisariseinthenumberofecologistselectedtoRoyal in the1970sandwhoonceheadedImperialCollegecentre.Anothermarkerof scientific advisor,SirJohnBeddington,isanecologistwhobeganhisworkinglife discipline, becamemorecentraltoBritishscience.Today,thegovernment’schief ogy wasoneamongmany.Ecology,whichbeforethewarhadbeenafringe tal scienceunitsopenedup.TheImperialCollegeCentreforEnvironmentalTechnol- and newresearchfundingpromptedbythe1972conference,manyenvironmen- 77 76 elsewhere inEurope. species disappearedfromthecountryside,andthatparallellosseswereexperienced twenty yearsofthetwentiethcentury,abouttenmillionbreedingindividuals bunting, linnet,lapwing,andyellowhammer.Itisestimatedthat,duringthefinal resulted inthesharpdecline,andevenloss,ofmanyfarmlandbirds,suchascorn today thanithadinthe1960sand1970s. while vitaltoourwellbeing,isbeing lost. EntomologyislesswellsupportedandhasfewerstudentsinBritain applied entomologyatImperialCollege London.Theletterexpressesconcernthatentomologicalexpertise, Leather etal.(fifteensignatories),letter to pests, aswellconcernovernewinsect-borne diseasesenteringBritainbecauseofclimatechange,seeSimon deaths, seeUNWorldFoodProgrammewebsite(http://www.wfp.org/).For today’scroplossesduetoinsect www.pesticides.gov.uk/guidance/industries/pesticides/advisory-groups/PRiF). Fordataonhungerandchild exist aroundtheworld.ForUK,seewebsiteofgovernment’sPesticide ResiduesCommittee(http:// reported in2006(CanWestNewsService,21June2007).Verydifferentstandards forpesticideresiduesonfoods Nature John R.Krebs,JeremyD.Wilson,Richard B.BradburyandGavinM.Siriwardena,“TheSecondSilentSpring?” Insect Pests?” were dyinginSriLankafrompesticidepoisoningthanmalaria.SeeGraham Matthews,“CanWeControl serious problemthanwasrealisedinthe1970s.AccordingtoGrahamMatthews, writingin1983,morepeople suicides. Deathandchronicillnessresultingfrompesticidepoisoning,especially amongchildren,isafarmore that deathsareinthethousands.Italsoshowsthat,especiallySouthAsia, pesticidesareamajorfactorin The WHOwebsitehasdatashowingthatthenumberofpesticidepoisonings isinthemillionseachyear,and Looking beyondBritain,however,anddespitemucheffort,eventodayabout40 400(1999):611.InBritain,birdcensuses arecarriedoutbytheBritishTrustforOrnithology. New Scientist 77 Thisnewlossofbiodiversity,notlimitedtobirds,isdue , 12May1983,368–72.EveninCanada,6,000casesofpesticidepoisoning were 76 andtheintensificationoffarminginBritainhas The Times , 20September2010,21.Leathersigned asareaderin BEFORE ANDAFTER SILENT SPRING 107 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry Imperial CollegeLondon,LondonSW72AZ;Email:[email protected] Centre fortheHistoryofScience,TechnologyandMedicine,2ndFloorLibrary, Century Britain Circle: AHistoryofEcologyandtheMakingScientificCareersinLateTwentieth- Technology andMedicineatImperialCollegeLondon.Herbook, Hannah Gay Notes onContributor London. senior archivistattheBodleianLibrary,andAnnBarrett,ImperialCollege indebted toColinHarris,superintendentofspecialcollections,andMichaelHughes, comments onanearlierdraftofthispaper.Fortheirhelpwithsources,Iam of Science,TechnologyandMedicine,ImperialCollegeLondonfortheirhelpful I wouldliketothankmembersofthedoctoralseminaratCentreforHistory Acknowledgements great effect.Butitwasherfocusonchemicalpesticidesinbook environmental problemsinthe1950s,andusedherliteraryskilltoalertothers— ing naturewriteronawiderangeoftopics.Alongwithothers,shebecamealertedto named theSecondSilentSpring.Trainedinmarinebiology,Carsonwasanoutstand- changes inthecountryside,tointensificationagriculture,andwhathasbeen important sciencebooksofthetwentiethcentury. of itsfar-reachinginfluence, biological control,andtoamoreintegratedapproachthefightingofpests.Because ecology duringthe1970s.This,inturn,ledtoanaccelerationresearchinto generation, andwasafactorinthegrowthofenvironmentalsciencesinsect the environmentalmovement,ithelpedtoaccelerateit.Itinfluencedayounger that caughttheimaginationofpeopleworldwide.Althoughbookdidnotlaunch 108 Were RachelCarsonalivetoday,shewouldhavebeensensitivetothemorerecent HANNAH GAY isanhonoraryassociateoftheCentreforHistoryScience, , willbepublishedbyImperialCollegePressinearly2013.Address: Silent Spring mustsurelycountasoneofthemost The Silkwood Silent Spring