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Water Conflicts

Water is the vital resource to support all form life on earth. Unfortunately it is not evenly distributed over the world by season or location. Throughout the history of the world and reservoirs have been constructed in order to prevent floods, to supply drinking and domestic water, to generate energy and for irrigation purpose. projects, which are useful in meeting the demand for water in desired times and in regulating stream regime, have undertaken an important function in the development of civilization.

Even today, water remains essential for the survival of mankind and the future development of the world’s cities, industries and, agriculture. Today there is a significant demand on the world’s water. As the world pollution continues to grow at the rate of over 100 million people each year, so does the demand for water. At the same time, there is a careless use of our natural resources.

One of the most efficient ways to manage water resources for human needs is by the construction of dam that creates reservoirs for the storage and future distribution. Currently there are about 45,000 dam higher than 15 meters throughout the world. While some are more than 2,000 year old, about 73% have been built in the last 50 years. The first known dam was built in 2900 BC across Nile River to protect the city of Memphis from flooding. The reservoirs formed by these dams store some 3,600 km3 of usable water. The tallest dam (305 meter) of the world is situated in China on Yalong Jiang River. The tallest dam in is (261meter), on the , near Tehri, in . Hirakund dam is the longest dam in India, about 26 km in length. It is built across the Mahanandi River, about 15 km from Sambalpur in the state of Orissa in India. Environmental Impact of Dams

Positive Effects of Dam on The Environment

Water Supply for Domestic and Industrial Use One of the fundamental requirements for socio economic development in the world is the availability of adequate quantity of water with the appropriate quantity. The world wide per capita the water demand is expected to about 750 liters per day in the year 2000, when the world population will be just over 6 billion. Properly planned, designed constructed and maintained dams contribute significantly toward fulfilling our water supply requirement. The primary source of fresh water supply is from precipitation. Of the total precipitation, only 1/3 remains for runoff our rivers, the rest is loss to infiltration and evaporation. Only 36% of this runoff is available for use. To accommodate variation in the hydrologic cycle, dams and reservoirs are needed to store water and then provide consistent yearly supply. Meeting the Agriculture Demand for Food Supply One of the biggest uses of water on world wide scale is agriculture irrigation. This will account for about 1147 liters per day per capita by the year 2000. Since the early 1990s, less than 1/5 of the land suitable for agriculture in the world has been irrigated, and it has contributed about 1/3 of world food production. It is estimated that 80% of additional food production by the year 2025 will come from irrigated land. Most of the areas in need of irrigation are in arid zones, which represent

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a major portion of developing countries. Even with the widespread measure to conserve water by improvements in irrigation technology, construction of more reservoirs and dams project will be required.

Flood Control Dams and reservoirs can be effectively used to regulate river level and flooding downstream of the dam by temporarily storing the flood volume and releasing it later. The most effectively method of flood control is accomplished by a number of multipurpose dams strategically located in river basin. The dams are operated by a specific water control plan for rooting floods through the basin without damage. Recreation The attractiveness of reservoirs and dams for tourism is often a significant benefit, in addition to the other purpose of dam. This is very significant area where natural surface of water is scare or non – existent. Recreational benefit associated with lakes, such as boating, swimming, fishing, bird watching and nature walks, are taken into account early at the planning stage, along with the other objective achieve a balance project. The operation of dams and reservoirs can enhance tourism

Hydropower The availability of energy is essential for socio – economic development of nation. It is advantageous to use energy that is clean, efficient, dependable and renewable. Hydro power meets all these requirements. in countries, where a vast amount of development still lies ahead, good condition often exist for renewable energy sources. The technically most advanced and economical source of energy is hydro power. Less than 20% of the world’s estimated feasible hydro power potential has been developed. The greatest amount of potential remains to be developed in Asia, South America and Africa. Hydropower projects produce energy with a high rate of efficiency and without burdening future generation with pollution or waste.

Inland Navigation Inland navigation is transport with ships via inland water (canal or river etc.) between inland ports. The advantage of inland navigation over highway and rail are the large load carryi capacity, the ability to handle cargo with large-dimensions and fuel savings. Enhanced inland navigation is a result of comprehensive basin planning and development utilizing dams.

Negative Effects of Dam on the Environment

. Habitat fragmentation

Unless specifically engineered to allow fish to pass through them, dams present a barrier to fish that need to migrate to spawn and reproduce downstream and upstream along a river. This not only impacts the populations of the fish themselves, but it can negatively impact other species in the food chain that either eat that fish or are preyed upon by that fish.

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. Flooding and the destruction of surrounding habitat

Dammed rivers create a reservoir upstream from the dam, which spills out into the surrounding environments and floods ecosystems and habitats that once existed there. Such flooding can kill or displace many different organisms, including plants, wildlife, and humans.

. Greenhouse gases

The flooding of surrounding habitat around dams kills trees and other plant life that then decomposes and releases large amounts of carbon into the atmosphere. Because the river is no longer flowing freely, the water becomes stagnant and the bottom of the reservoir becomes becomes depleted of oxygen. This lack of oxygen creates a situation where methane (a very potent greenhouse gas) is produced from the decomposition of the plant materials at the bottom of the reservoir that eventually gets released into the atmosphere, contributing to global climate change.

. Sediment builds up behind the dam

Because a dammed river no longer flows freely, the sediment that would have otherwise been deposited naturally downstream begins to build up behind the dam, forming new riverbanks, river deltas, alluvial fans, braided rivers, oxbow lakes, levees and coastal shores. These changes in sedimentation can lead to dramatic alterations in plant life and animal life and how they are distributed.

. Downstream sediment erosion

Due to the restrictions in the sediment flow above a dam, the lack of sediment that would have once flowed downstream ultimately leads to a deficiency in sediment load, and therefore, leads to an increase in downstream erosion. This lack of sediment load causes the riverbed to deepen and narrow over time, a compromised water table, the homogenization of the river’s flow, reduced wildlife support, and a reduction in sediment that reaches coasts and deltas.

. Negative impacts on local fish populations

Typically, local fish species will not be adapted to the new environment that is present after a dam is built and do not survive, leading to the extirpation of local populations. Many factors impact their survival, including the blockage of migration routes, a disconnection from the river’s flood plain, changes in a river’s flow, changes in temperature, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, and changes in local plant life.

o Organic materials from within and outside the river that would normally wash downstream get built up behind dams and start to consume a large amount of oxygen as they decompose. In some cases this triggers algae blooms which, in turn, create oxygen-starved “dead zones” incapable of supporting river life of any kind.

o Also, water temperatures in dam reservoirs can differ greatly between the surface and depths, further complicating survival for marine life evolved to handle natural temperature

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cycling. And when dam operators release oxygen-deprived water with unnatural temperatures into the river below, they harm downstream environments as well.

. Production of methyl-mercury

The stagnant water in reservoirs creates a situation where the decomposition of organic matter from decaying plants can transform inorganic mercury into methy-mercury. Unfortunately, methyl- mercury tends to bio-accumalate and cause toxic effects in humans and wildlife that eat the fish in reservoirs.

Resettlement and Relocation The construction of large dam has resulted in the displacement or resettlement of many million people across the world which causes loss of over million people’s homes, the loss of many valuable archaeological and cultural sites, as well as significant ecological change. It is estimated that to date, 40-80- million people worldwide have been physically displaced from their homes as a result of dam construction.

Earth’s Crust Even though it is claimed that the dam reservoirs have some seismic effects, it must be stated that this is not proven scientifically.

Aquatic Life The dam is a real obstacle for the animals swimming from one end of the river to the other end. The existence of dam means death for fish species spending certain part of their life in the spring or in the flood gates, turbine and pumps of high bodied dams. a dam that will be built on this way will interrupt the life cycle of these creatures and cause deaths in a mass. It has been seen that by pass flow are designed for this purpose.

Disappearance of Historical Places Archaeological and historical places in company with geological and topographical places that are rare with their exceptional beauties disappear after lying under reservoir.

Scouring of River Water releases from reservoir including that existing a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediments, and this in turn can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of river banks.

Generation of New Species Temperature of water, salt and oxygen distribution may change vertically as consequence of reservoir formation. This may cause the generation of new living species and the replacement of original environment. (According to ICOLD)

Human Health

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Wood and garbage accumulated because of dam may cause increase in water sourced illnesses like typhus, typhoid, fever, malaria and cholera which affect the human health living around the dam and reservoir.

 How dams are killing India’s rivers, environment, and ecology

The Sardar Sarovar Dam in Gujarat is one of the largest dams in India across the . The result of the Narmada Valley Project makes it the world’s second-largest concrete gravity dam. Every time the dam’s height is raised, people get displaced. Does the sociological, ecological, and environmental damage overweigh the benefits. Medha Patkar-led Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) estimates 40,000 households have been affected in . There is a debate raging on the touted benefits of such a huge project. So much so that it is one of the hot issues in the Gujarat Assembly Elections 2017. Let us find out the myriad ways in which a dam affects or destroys a river. Throwing caution to the winds and without considering the damaging impact of unfetter dam building activity, central and state governments approved hundreds of hydroelectric dam projects in several Himalayan rivers. However, after several ecological disasters such as the massive Uttarakhand floods of 2013, the Supreme Court of India had to intervene and it directed that no further clearances should be given and that a committee must look into whether existing or under- construction projects are exacerbating the crisis. Although many people may be of the view that dams can play a key role in the development of India, however, such a view is faulty on many counts. Project implementation is surrounded by several problems. Several studies have noted that destructive impacts of big dams usually outweigh the benefits. And the biggest impact is on the rivers themselves, which are damaged beyond recognition. How big dams destroy rivers and environment Dams destroy the environment and bring about environmental catastrophes. Dam projects usually result in significant losses of arable land, flora, and fauna. The flow of the river, on which a dam is built, changes irreparably. Dams severely affect the continuity of river flow and bring about total or partial change in natural river hydrograph. Changes in the flow of a river should be of paramount concern when a dam is being built. This is together with several other complex changes. However, the entire process of sanctioning dams usually turns a blind eye to the environmental disasters that are in the making. Dam proponents, including the Expert Appraisal Committee of the MoEF or the EAC and Central Water Commission (CWC) have a completely lackadaisical attitude to maintaining environmental flows or eflows in the rivers. Experts and even government officials accept that proper eflows in the rivers must be ensured since “a river should look like a river” aesthetically as well. eflows must be considered crucial criteria for any dam projects. However, the reality on the ground is grim. Dams have already irreversibly damaged and altered river flow. Justified concerns about eflows from the existing dams are thrown into a limbo. Moreover, proponents and nodal government bodies claim they try to ensure minimum changes to the water

Dr. Anirban Biswas for SEM-II 6 flow by taking care of the dam design and choosing the best site or location. However, even such vague assurances are seldom followed. For example, Nath said the EAC follows a thumb rule for considering a cascade of dams. According to the rule, the river should freely flow for one to two km between the tail race of upstream dam and tail end of reservoir of the downstream dam. Although experts maintain there is no scientific basis for such a conclusion, the EAC itself doesn’t follow the thumb rule. This can be observed from a number of cases. For instance, this minimum distance criteria wasn’t ensured in the case of 240-MW Kuther and 180-MW Bajoli hydropower projects on the River Ravi.

No guidelines followed for dam building The EAC recommends release of river water in the following pattern: 20 per cent of the average lean season flow for the lean months; 30 per cent of average monsoon flow for monsoon months; and between 20 and 30 per cent of average flow for non-lean and non-monsoon months. However, such rules exist only for the books. When dam developers claim they can’t release the waters, which are inadequate in any case, the nodal body happily negotiates with project proponents. The standards that get prescribed and followed thereby end up being highly arbitrary, without scientific, ecological, or sociological basis. In spite of several environment groups such as the Wildlife Institute of India recommending greater environment flows in select rivers, EAC doesn’t pay any heed. Moreover, it is not even clear how dam developers as well as the nodal bodies such as the CWC and CEA are able to ensure minimum water flow that is prescribed in the environmental clearances as there are no clear cut guidelines governing the monitoring of minimum water flow.

No monitoring of river water flow after dam construction Changes to significant river flow have been a big concern for environmental activists. Even members of the EAC itself accept the river flow gets altered. The government must take all possible steps to ensure that the alterations are kept to a minimum. As rivers are the lifelines of communities, alterations in their flow adversely impacts people’s livelihoods. Non existence of guidelines for dam building The maximum number of dams that can be permitted on a river is also still not clear. There is no limitation to the maximum number of dams that can be built on a single river. Even Terms of Reference of basin studies fail to include such a rule. Environmentalists suggest that basin studies must include the following: • Number of dams that can be allowed on one river • The location of dams • The installed capacity of dams • The type of dam (run-of-the-river or storage) • Type of operations (that is, base load, peaking power, or a combination of the two criteria) • The impact of operations on downstream communities and ecology, particularly the effect of peaking power operations Dam building States not adequately compensated

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For example, in the case of hydropower dams, the states in which the dams are built are meeting power needs of the other states. In this process, forests get destroyed, ecology is impacted and the displaced people lose their homes, livelihoods, and villages. However, they hardly get properly compensated. Moreover, ministries and nodal bodies that are involved in building dams continue to focus on optimum utilization of water resources for power generation, irrigation, as well as drinking. The state governments are also eager to sanction projects without even considering the detrimental future impacts that the projects can have for the environment. The Central Government’s approach towards the environmental as well as social concerns is lackadaisical.

Increasing power and irrigation demands and state government pressure is now resulting in the fast-tracking of clearances, which is sure to become a trigger for ecological and environmental disasters as well as climate change. What is most ironical is that the people for whom the stakes are the highest have no say in the process. The project-affected victims and families, who have to bear the brunt of such development, lose everything: their land and livelihood without even getting their voices heard.

Water remains the vital resource to sustain civilization around the world. Sustainability of life in some region of the world is threatened by the imbalance between the demands and available supplies of water, food and energy. Dams and reservoirs can and should be compatible with the social and natural environment of the region. The challenge for the future will be the utilization of dams and reservoirs for the wise management of the world’s water resources as a part of each nation’s social and economic development goal. The negative effects of the dam on the environment can be minimized or eliminated by careful planning and design that incorporate the public involvement and input in the early stage of this process. When the appropriate mitigation measure are identified early in the planning and design process for a dam and reservoir, they can be effectively and efficiently incorporated into the design, construction and operation of the project.

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THE NARMADA ISSUE: AN OVERVIEW

The Narmada Valley Project (NVP) is made up of plans for 30 major, 136 medium and 3,000 minor dams in India. In Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) in the state of Gujarat and the Narmada Sagar Project (NSP) in the state of Madhya Pradesh are, at present, the NVP's major constituents. Estimates show that the cost of the whole project would be around US $19 billion over the next 25 years. The present estimate for the NSP and the SSP is US $3 billion and $9 billion, respectively. The state governments of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh claim that the SSP and the NSP would irrigate 1.9 million ha and 0.14 million ha of land and generate 1,450 megawatts (mw) and 1,000 mw of power, respectively. The hydroelectric power of the SSP would be shared by the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh; the irrigation benefits would accrue to the states of Gujarat and . All irrigation and power benefits of the NSP would go only to Madhya Pradesh. Without the NSP, the SSP would not be able to achieve its full irrigation and power potential - it needs regulated water supply from upstream. These projects had been treading water for many years for want of environmental clearance from the Ministry of Environment and Forests. Recently, the Indian government gave clearance for the construction of the SSP in Gujarat and the NSP in Madhya Pradesh. But very few dispute the fact that the ecological impacts of these projects have not been properly studied. Both environmentalists and social activists have raised serious questions about the projects. The studies done thus far have been found to be inadequate, or the follow-up actions to rectify the damages not up to the mark. The government of Gujarat commissioned a study of the projects carried out by the department of botany, M.S. University, Baroda, in just six months. The study did not take into consideration the seasonal temporal variations in the climate and many other important parameters. This study was commissioned only after the work on the project had begun. Moreover, much of the information in this study derives from government data, rather than from recent, independent, empirical data. Similarly, the Environment Planning and Coordination Organization (EPCO), in Bhopal, carried out a study to assess the environmental impact of the NSP. This study is an almost worthless exercise; it is based on secondary data, which were at times found to be contradictory. Such a report can hardly be passed off as legitimate environmental research. Other studies, conducted by Consulting Engineering Services Pvt. Ltd., in New , and the Indian Institute of Sciences, in Bangalore, can only be considered a piecemeal approach to the whole project, because they only examine one or two dams. Submerging Forests and Agricultural Land The Sardar Sarovar Project will submerge about 10,000 ha of forest land. The case of the Narmada Sagar Project is even worse: it will submerge 40,332 ha of forest land. The forests to be submerged are basically teak, with excellent strands of bamboo and other woods. The only pure stand of anjun left in India is located in the Dewas district of Madhya Pradesh. Many of these species no longer naturally regenerate. Although the Madhya Pradesh state policy guarantees that "for all forest areas submerged in the project, an equal area will be taken up under compensatory forestry," the same document also

Dr. Anirban Biswas for SEM-II 9 states that big chunks of land are not available in the districts close to the submergence area. The question then is: Where is all the land for afforestation going to come from? An amount of US $238,000 has been allocated for the afforestation in Madhya Pradesh. A conservative estimate would allocate US $1,150 for replanting trees on one hectare of land, meaning that US $238,000 can be used to replant a mere 206 ha. These projects will also flood a large amount of agricultural and grazing land. Most of the agricultural land, situated close to the river Narmada, is highly fertile and produces fine yields of wheat, jowar (barley) and cotton. The official document for the NSP says, "big chunks of cultivable land are not available in Khandwa, Khargone, Dhar, Jhabua, Dewas Hoshangabad and other districts...In these circumstances the only course left is to allot the affected families small bits of government land available in the nearby districts of the submergence area." This policy would lead to serious sociocultural disruption in the life of the area's residents. A report carried out by National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA), in New Delhi, mentions that adequate areas in every district would be available for the residents. However, the project authorities have made no serious attempt to find cultivable land for the residents. Loss of Wildlife The project report of the NSP states, "the impact of the project on the wildlife shall be nil. Since wildlife has got natural characteristics of shifting to nearby jungles wherever it is felt unsuitable to them." In other words, the wildlife will relocate itself. Similarly, the policy document prepared by the government of Madhya Pradesh says, "wildlife in submerged forests will be guided to adjacent localities. Protection of the wildlife will be the responsibility of the forest authorities." These statements not only contradict each other but also reflect the irresponsible attitude of the project authorities toward the fate of the area's wildlife, which consists of several rare and endangered species. To date, no one has taken an inventory of the species of plants and animals found in the forests; these studies have only just been commissioned. Displacement and Rehabilitation Both these projects will displace nearly 200,000 people from their homes. Officials sources state that, in the case of the SSP, 182 villages in Madhya Pradesh, 36 in Maharashtra and 19 in Gujarat will be under water, and the NSP will submerge an additional 254 villages in Madhya Pradesh. These figures, however, are incorrect, because they only include revenue villages, with no mention of forest villages. A recent field report by Multiple Action Research Group (MARG), a nongovernmental organization in New Delhi, mentions six forest villages of Tehsil Barwani (Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh) that will go under Sardar Sarovar's waters. Similarly, no attempt has been made to list those villages that will fall victim to the backwater effect. Out of the more than 25,000 people affected by the SSP in Gujarat and Maharashtra, more than 90 percent of them are members of the Bhil and Tadavi tribes. Most of them are landless, and fall into two categories: traditional tribal cultivators with no land titles, and the real landless agricultural laborers found in many villages of Madhya Pradesh. For the forest-dwelling tribals, the most serious impact of displacement will be the separation from their natural surroundings. The forest and the river play central roles in their cultural and economic life; neither will be present at resettlement sites. The families to be displaced by the SSP are to be rehabilitated through the directives of the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal. Although these directives are a marked improvement on past

Dr. Anirban Biswas for SEM-II 10 rehabilitation polices, they contain serious loopholes and omissions. First, the policy applies only to those resettled from Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Second, only those families from whom more than 25 percent of their land holdings are acquired will be entitled to irrigable land, with a minimum of two hectares. The directives contain no mention of any resettlement and rehabilitation of forest dwellers, who eke out a living on common property resources. Most of the potential oustees of Madhya Pradesh are not aware of any of these directives, and, according to MARG's report, the directives have been misquoted by project officials. In the case of Maharashtra Gujarat, the initial phase of resettlement and rehabilitation has been far from satisfactory. According to activist Medha Patkar, the land-for-land policy has largely failed in the state of Maharashtra, and in Gujarat, the state government has not bothered to find adequate land for the residents. Many people in Gujarat have complained that the lands sold to them came with heavy debts. Many others received lands which the same SSP was about to acquire for the construction of canals. In many cases, the cash compensation has been inadequate. According to a news report, the lands acquired in the village of Panchmuli, in Gujarat, were to be compensated at the rate of US $438 per acre; the villagers received only US $354 per acre. The resettlement sites do not have adequate drinking water supplies. To date, civic amenities like electricity, schools and panachayat ghar (town halls) have not been provided in one resettlement village, Suka. Waterlogging Every year, a large portion of good, fertile land is rendered unproductive and barren by almost all the irrigation projects. The annual increase in soil salinity and waterlogging was as high as 50,999 ha and 27,000 in project area in . About 25 percent of the arable lands of Punjab and have been affected by waterlogging and soil salinity, too. The problem of waterlogging and soil salinity in the Narmada projects is expected to be serious because the command areas of the projects have largely black soils, which have very good water retention capacity. A study by Indian Institute of Science, in Bangalore, found that about 40 percent of the NSP's command area will become waterlogged unless stringent preventive measures are taken. Significantly, the cost of these measures does not figure in the original cost-benefit analysis for NSP-the analysis submitted for funding approval. Catchment Area Treatment There is no denying the fact that the catchment areas of the river Narmada are subject to heavy ecological degradation. If this is not properly checked, the increasing soil erosion will lead to salutation and sedimentation, thereby reducing the life span of the reservoirs. No comprehensive study has been commissioned on the existing state and future demands on the catchment forests in the Narmada Valley. However, an expert committee has looked into the matter for part of the area, and has suggested a US $38 million scheme to treat the catchment. As the Department of Environment report points out, however, this study was commissioned several years before the projects were sanctioned. Cost-Benefit Analysis A project is sanctioned by the planning commission only when the cost-benefit ratio is 1 to 1.5 - that is, for every rupee spent, there must be a return of at least Rs. 1.50. It has been found that this ratio is often distorted by exaggerating the benefits and underplaying the costs. Environmentalists have made the following points, among others, on the NSP and the SSP: 1. The costs of land acquisition have been underplayed.

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2. The allocation of money for compensatory afforestation is inadequate and distorted. For the NSP, it is US $238,000 for afforestation of 40,332 ha. It is US $4 million for afforestation of 10,000 ha in the case of the SSP. 3. The value of the forest land has been calculated only in terms of commercial products. The analysis does not consider the loss of ecological benefits of forests. 4. The loss of wildlife is omitted from the cost-benefit analysis. 5. The cost of preventive measures for waterlogging is also omitted from the cost-benefit analysis. 6. Due to delays in the clearance of these projects, present costs of construction run much higher than anticipated. Other Impacts Environmentalists and social activists have anticipated many other negative impacts of these projects. Some of them are: 1. Seismicity - a hotly debated issue that seems to produce more confusion than clarity. 2. Contamination by pollution, pesticides and minerals. 3. Saltwater ingress at mouth of river due to reduced water flow. 4. Spread of waterborne diseases in the command area. 5. Impact on aquatic ecology. On the basis of these serious inadequacies and distortions, we strongly demand that all the initial assumptions and ideas be reevaluated before pushing ahead with these projects. The following steps should be taken to prove inadequacies and distortions in the existing assessments: Independent Assessments: Detailed sociological and anthropological studies on the existing sociocultural lifestyle of those to be relocated are desperately needed in order to assess the likely impact of the changes. Equally vital are studies on the environmental impacts of the projects. Independent cost-benefit analyses must be carried out to judge the feasibility and viability of these projects. Public Awareness and Mass Media The full utilization of communication techniques, including mass media, would help create widespread awareness and understanding of these issues. Exhibitions plays, film shows and publication of articles and books can bring awareness at many different levels. Local People's Action The people Maharashtra and Gujarat have been able to organized themselves to demand better rehabilitation with the help of Narmada Dharangrasht Samiti/SETU and Chattra Yuva Sangharsh Vahini. Little sign of this mobilization is evident among the people of Madhya Pradesh, however; out of the total 491 villages to be submerged (from the NSP and the SSP), 436 (more than 90 percent) are situated in Madhya Pradesh alone. Two local organizations in the state - Narmada

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Ghati Sangharsh Samiti, Harsude and Narmada Ghati Nav Nirman Samiti, Tavlai - are working in these areas, but the existing sociopolitical situation has not allowed these samitis (organizations) to organize the potential oustees. Legislative Measures Both the projects involve displacing nearly 200,000 people, many of whom make their livings from common property resources. There is no comprehensive resettlement and rehabilitation scheme for them in the directives and rules laid down thus far. A petition on behalf of these people can be filed under Article 21 of India's Constitution, which says, "no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law." A position proving the inadequacies and distortions in the existing assessments can also be filed in the court.

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THE TEHRI ISSUE: AN OVERVIEW

Overview of the dam

Tehri Dam is the highest dam in India and fourth highest dam in the world. It is around 260.5 metre high and 592 metre long. It is part of the Tehri Dam & Hydro Power Project (the multi-purpose river valley project) taken up for construction on River Bhagirathi to tap its vast potential for irrigation and hydro-electric purposes. It is located in the Tehri district of Uttarakhand.

Tehri dam is an earth and rock fill dam. Its spillway system consists of chute spillway (consisting of three spillway radial gates) and four shaft spillways. It is designed for Probable Maximum Flood (PMF) of 15540 cumec and a drop of 220 m. The reservoir has gross storage capacity of 3540 MCM and effective storage capacity of 2615 MCM.

Tehri Hydro Power Project

It consists of an underground power house housing four Turbine/ Generator sets of 250 MW each (1000 MW capacity), designed to operate with a head variation of 90 m. (4 units of 250 MW each). Construction and operation of dam & power house was taken up by Tehri Hydro Development Corporation (THDC) and was commissioned in 2006. Some of its benefits are:

The project is intended to provide additional irrigation in 2.70 lakh hectares in the command area of Lower Ganga, Parallel Lower Ganga, Madhya Ganga Stage - I and system.

It stabilizes irrigation in 6.04 lakh hectares in the existing command.

Besides providing much needed power to the Northern Grid and irrigation benets to command areas, the project also supplies drinking water to Delhi and UP.

For the last 12 years construction has continued unabated on India's Tehri Dam amidst staunch opposition, massive environmental degradation and social upheaval. Even lack of sufficient funds has not stopped this monstrous, concrete Juggernaut; it has been moving along in stages, with money acquired from state and national budgets.

At present, the four water diversion tunnels (two on the Bhilangana River and two on the Bhagirathi River) are complete; work is almost finished on the four head-race tunnels that bore deep into the mountainside to where the turbines will be housed, which will eventually generate, according to the Dam Authority, 2,400 megawatts (mw) of power. Construction on the actual dams- the massive Tehri Dam, a coffer dam just upstream of the actual dam site, and the smaller about 20 km downstream-has not yet begun; the Indian government has had

Dr. Anirban Biswas for SEM-II 14 difficulty funding the project since its inception. In the meantime, bulldozers and trucks have been scraping roads out of the mountainsides and building housing colonies for the engineers and workers, churning up rock and dirt and depositing it onto the town of Tehri and its environs. The only apparent purpose for all this commotion is to keep the project alive. The valley is now covered with dirt and rubble, and every living tree and plant is coated with a dried layer of earth, strangling respiration.

During Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's visit to India in November 1986, a Soviet economic aid package for India's nuclear program suddenly fell through due to Indian opposition. In an attempt to salvage the prestige of the visit, a project was promptly sought that would win Soviet and Indian approval. As a result, Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and Gorbachev signed an agreement on the Tehri Dam project, which had been smoldering on a back burner for many years. The project is now heating up once again, its embers fanned by international politics and other business concerns.

But the inhabitants of the district of Tehri are coughing to catch their breath. Local opposition, which began in 1978 with the formation of the Tehri Bandh Virodhi Sangarsh Samiti (the Anti-Tehri Dam Struggle Committee), now encompasses the entire valley and beyond. Many successful nonviolent demonstrations have been staged, during which many were arrested and jailed, especially in the early days of the campaign. Since the signing of the agreement between India and the USSR in 1986, international opposition has gained momentum.

Environmental Consequences of the Project

The project proposes to construct one of the five largest rock-and-earth-filled dams in the world about a half-mile downstream from the sacred of the Bhilangana and Bhagirathi () rivers. The town of Tehri, the district headquarters for the entire Garhwal region of the Himalaya and home to more than 20,000 people, would lie directly behind it. The dam would rise to a height of 260.5 meters and stretch to 1,100 meters wide at its base. The reservoir behind this formidable wall would stretch over 70 km long, 40 km up the Bhagirathi valley and 35 km up the Bhilangana. The valley contains the region's best agricultural land. The reservoir would displace over 100,000 people.

Mr. V.D. Saklani, lawyer and founder of the Anti-Tehri Dam Struggle Committee, is quick to point out the obvious consequences of such a large project. Fearing heavy siltation due to logging in the Himalayan watershed, he states that the expected life span of the dam will be about 35 years, compared to the 100 years claimed by the Dam Authority. Is the US $2 billion being spent on the project and the human displacement currently taking place worth only a scant 35 years of electricity?

Mr. Saklani also notes that the highly absorbent shale, customary in the valley, makes the slopes susceptible to frequent slides. Once the reservoir fills, landslides from above the submergence line will further heighten and compound the siltation problem. In fact, landslides are already a problem as a result of the deforestation and road-building now in progress.

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One of the largest technical problems of the Tehri Dam, however, has to do with a little-researched phenomenon known as R.I.S. or Reservoir Induced Seismicity. Data are sorely lacking on the effects of a large body of water on a geologic fault, and the site of the Tehri Dam rests in an area prone to . The region's last major quake occurred in 1935; experts agree that mounting pressure could lead to an of 8.0 or more on the Richter scale.

The recently appointed a working group to investigate these allegations, which submitted its findings in early 1986. The government committee, headed by Sunil K. Roy, strongly opposed the construction of the dam and offered alternatives. The government has chosen to ignore the findings of its own committee and continues to follow a potentially destructive path.

Mr. Saklani and Sunderlal Bahugana of the Chipko Andolan (and one of the recent recipients of 1987's Right Livelihood Award) are currently fighting the construction in India's Supreme Court. They are basing their writ petition on the likelihood of a disaster - that the compounded weight of the water in the reservoir will trigger the fault into a devastating earthquake. Mr. Saklani states that a possible earthquake could crack the dam, resulting in a disaster unknown in human history. The downstream populations in the holy cities of Devaprayag, and Haridwar (important sites of Indian learning and pilgrimage) would be wiped off the face of the earth. Hundreds of thousands of people would be killed; millions more along the banks of the holy Ganges (Ganga) would be directly affected. These "ifs" have not daunted the Dam Authority: the Soviet engineers have just proposed raising the height of the dam and increasing the width at its base to 1,500 meters.

Sardar Prem Singh, secretary of the anti-Tehri struggle group, points out that if the dam is constructed and the flow of the sacred river impeded (the Bhagirathi becomes the holy river Ganges when it meets downstream with the Alakananda at Devaprayag), the entire Gangetic valley will suffer as a consequence. Silt, brought down from the upper reaches of the catchment and containing valuable mineral deposits, will be caught behind the dam strangling the holy river. This has enormous consequences for all who live on the Gangetic plain; to halt the flow of this natural fertilizer could cause severe agricultural problems in the foreseeable future, possibly even famine.

Social Consequences of the Project

But what of the social impacts of the dam project? What of the 100,000 people currently being affected by the dam's construction? The Dam Authority and the Government of India's Planning Commission have not sufficiently dealt with this problem. Sunderlal Bahugana points out that the dam's social and humanitarian impacts have been totally ignored. Statistics show that over two- thirds of those to be relocated live in small villages in the valley that fall below or in the vicinity of the submergence line. In their forced relocation, no attention has been given to the breakup of village and family units. Although the government reports state that communities are to be relocated as a whole and adequate land and monetary compensation is to be given, researchers have found that this is not the case. Entire families have been split apart and deprived of their only means of economic support. The cultural survival of these "backward classes," who have lived and survived without modern technology or electricity for centuries, has been ignored.

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Those already relocated have received inadequate monetary compensation and unproductive lands. In the village of Khandal, over half of the original 50 families have accepted government funds and have been relocated to plots near Dehra Dun, a city about a half-day's journey from the village. Those remaining have refused government money and land - they will stay until the government forces them to leave. The remaining villagers say that those who moved are unsatisfied with their new land and low yields; that water is scarce and the fields poorly irrigated; and that crops are unproductive. Many of those who moved have given up and fled to the cities in search of jobs. Some have returned to Khandal only to face social ostracism by the remaining villagers. This scene repeats itself in the many villages throughout the valley.

The government is now offering compensation to the residents of Tehri. It has already distributed money to about one-sixth of the town's population, payments that many have accepted because they fear the power of the local authorities. When these people are forced into relocation (scheduled completion of the dam is in 1997), however, the sum they receive now will be of little use when they buy new land or seek new homes.

The Building of Town

The government says adequate land is available for all oustees in the neighboring valleys and nearby on the plains. Sunderlal Bahugana states that, as people settle in previously forested areas, further environmental destruction and increased deforestation will result. The Dam Authority has been illegally encroaching upon state and village land in the vicinity of New Tehri Town, the area stated to be the new district headquarters, according to Sardar Prem Singh. Government housing and offices are almost completed. But much of the acquired land for New Tehri has been taken without approval and against the government's own Forest Conservation Act of 1980.

Because the government removed many villagers from their lands to make way for New Tehri Town, it has now redoubled the refugee problem by relocating more people to make way for already relocated people. Where will this vicious cycle end?

New Tehri Town is rapidly nearing completion. Land was acquired on a nearby mountaintop from villages that had been there for centuries. Concrete, box-like structures erected like fort walls in identical pink and blue lines along the steep mountain slopes now stand as brutal monuments to the folly of "modern" Indian architecture.

None of the residents of Tehri want to move to the new city. The only ones who will shift will be those whose jobs depend on their moving - the government workers and employees associated with the court and the bureaucracy needed to control an entire district. New Tehri is approximately 4,000 feet above Tehri, which is located at the bottom of the valley. Residents claim they will have trouble adapting to a colder climate, not to mention the steep slopes of the new town.

The site for the new town was chosen because no other land was available anywhere in the district. The government courts and offices in Tehri could not be relocated to an existing city in the district because these are all located on mountaintops with limited land. The Tehri valley holds the only flat

Dr. Anirban Biswas for SEM-II 17 land and has the best agricultural acreage in the entire Himalayan region of the state of Uttar Pradesh.

All other construction and development projects in Tehri were stopped in 1969, when news of the dam became known. Since then, no new buildings have been constructed, no new projects undertaken and no major repairs made to crumbling buildings and potholed roads. Instead, all money earmarked for the town's development has gone into the construction of New Tehri. The population of Tehri since 1969 has more than doubled. New schools that were stated for Tehri have instead been built in New Tehri, even though the city has no permanent residents. Children from the old town - children of New Tehri's future inhabitants - must be bused daily to the schools in New Tehri.

The road that currently links the two towns winds a circuitous route from the bottom of the valley up to New Tehri, a mountain journey of about 35 km, almost two hours by bus. The Dam Authority never conceived of local opposition when a shorter connecting road was started a number of years ago. Villagers in the peaceful hamlets of Baurori and Pipli, land adjacent to New Tehri and through which the shorter road must pass, have refused to release their lands to the developers, despite the fact that this land has been included in the New Tehri Town plan. The villagers have organized their opposition and have succeeded in preventing construction workers from even stepping on their lands. What remains is a completed road from Tehri up the mountain to Baurori and a road from New Tehri down to Baurori's opposite side - a gap of 4 km in between. Since the villagers have refused to give up their land, the road has been rendered totally useless. All traffic must travel via the longer route, which takes more than an hour than the shorter route, thus increasing transportation and construction costs. The villagers have given no sign of bowing to government pressure.

The homes in New Tehri will be sold at a fixed price to government employees and others who will move, according to Sardar Prem Singh. Those in Tehri who have agreed to move have not received enough compensation to afford the prefabricated houses. How will they be able to afford the new homes if they are being compensated now for a move that will not take place for another 10 years?

Shifting the district courts and offices to New Tehri will add a considerable burden on the remaining villagers in the district, who might have to travel to New Tehri to settle land disputes, legal arguments and so on. Tehri, which is down in the bottom of the valley, is easy to reach and does not require an overnight stay or considerable expense. If a villager on the opposite side of the proposed reservoir needs to go to New Tehri Town, however, he or she must travel the added length to go around the reservoir (if the proposed ferry is not installed in time) and up the mountain to New Tehri, a round-trip journey that may take two or three days.

The milk vendors and fruit and vegetable growers on the opposite side of the proposed reservoir complain that the dam will send their transportation costs skyrocketing, inflating prices and making their goods unacceptable to the discerning markets on the plains far below. This would have the ill effect of economically devastating an already depressed region.

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In the early 1970s, the residents of Tehri were optimistic that the project would bring plentiful jobs and boost the local economy. However, not a single construction worker or engineer comes from Tehri or its environs: the majority of the laborers come from small villages in the state of , where labor is cheap, and the engineers come from all over north India, with the exclusion of Tehri. Where will all of these outside workers and employees live? More forests are destroyed and more roads built to make room for them.

Many people are fighting this US$2 billion project. Dedicated people such as V.D. Saklani, Sunderlal Bahugana and Sardar Prem Singh will not rest until the project is completely scrapped. World Wildlife Fund-India and a New Delhi-based conservation group called INTACH (Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage) have helped to raise the funds to support a court case. At present, the writ petition filed in India's Supreme Court is still pending. The apathetic attitude of the courts continues to result in a postponement of the hearing, wearing down the resources of the opposition. The opponents of the dam appear certain of victory, albeit a Pyrrhic victory. Even if construction is halted, what will be done about the environmental destruction and social upheaval that have already occurred? It will take generations to undo the harm already inflicted, but this is work that the opponents await the chance to begin.

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Multipurpose River Valley Projects in India

Multipurpose river valley project are basically designed for the development of irrigation for agriculture and electricity through the construction of dams. Initially, dams were built only for storing rain water to prevent flooding but now it became multipurpose. Here, we are giving the list of important river-valley projects in India which will help the students for quick revision.

Source: www.simplydecoded.com Multipurpose River-Valley Projects in India 1. Almatti Dam It is a hydroelectric project constructed on the river Krishna.

2. Baspa Hydro-Electric Project It is the first Independent Power Producer (IPP) project after the Government of India liberalized the power policy by inviting private sector participation in setting up a hydropower project on “BOO” basis. It is located in of . It is the largest private hydroelectric project and has been built by . It is located on Baspa River, a tributary of the Satluj.

3. Beas Project It is a joint venture of the governments of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. It consists of two units: (i) Beas- Link and (ii) Beas Dam at Pong. The project links the Beas and the Sutlej rivers in Punjab through 38.4 km of hills and valleys. The waters of the Beas were poured into the mighty

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Sutlej river on July 10, 1977 at the first-ever man-made confluence of the two major rivers at Slapper in Himachal in a mighty bid to augment the water resources of the Gobind Sagar Lake of the Bhakra-complex. This completed the Rs 380- crore dream which was realised in a period of only 12 years.

List of Towns situated on the Banks of River 4. Bhadra Reservoir Project It is constructed across the river Bhadra which is in Karnataka.

5. Bhakra-Nangal Project (Himachal Pradesh) Largest multipurpose project in India and the highest straight gravity dam in the world (225.5 m high) on the river Sutlej.

6. Chambal Valley Project It is a joint undertaking by the Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh governments. The Rana Pratap Dam at Bhata, 48 km from Kotah, was inaugurated on Feb 9, 1970. The project comprises construction of two other dams: Gandhi Sagar Dam in Madhya Pradesh and Jawahar Sagar (Kotah) Dam in Rajasthan.

7. Chamera Hydro-Electric Project The 540 MW Chamera hydro-electric project on the Ravi river in Himachal Pradesh was implemented with Canadian credit offer of about Rs 335 crore.

8. Chukha Project The 336 MW project is the most prestigious and largest in Bhutan. It has been completely built by India. The dam has been constructed on Wang Chu River. The project costed Rs 244 crore.

River Project Towards East (Bay of Bengal) 9. Damodar Valley Project (West Bengal and Bihar) Principal object of this multipurpose scheme is to control the flowing of the Damodar which is notorious for its vagaries and destructiveness. It is designed on the lines of the Tennessee Valley Authority (T.V.A.) in U.S.A.

10. Dul-Hasti Hydro-Electric Project The Rs. 1263 crore project is being built on river Chenab in Jammu and Kashmir. The foundation of the project was laid in September 1984. The project will consist of a power plant of 390 MW capacities. The power house will be located underground.

11. Dhauliganga Project The Rs. 600 crore, 280 MW project is to be located on in Uttaranchal.

River Valley Projects of Peninsular India 12. Farakka Barrage The basic aim of the Farakka Barrage is to preserve and maintain Calcutta port and to improve the navigability of the Hooghly river. It consists of a barrage across the Ganga at Farakka, another barrage at Jangipur across the Bhagirthi, a 39-km long feeder canal taking off from the right bank of

Dr. Anirban Biswas for SEM-II 21 the Ganga at Farakka and tailing into the Bhagirathi below the Jangipur barrage, and a road-cum- rail bridge have already been completed. Specially, the object of Farakka is to use about 40,000 cusecs of water out of the water stored in the dam to flush the Calcutta port which is getting silted up.

13. Gandak Project (Bihar and U.P) This is a joint venture of India and Nepal as per agreement signed between the two governments on Dec 4, 1959. Bihar and Uttar Pradesh are the participating Indian States. Nepal would also derive irrigation and power benefits from this project.

14. Hirakud Project (Odisha) It is the first of a chain of three Dams planned for harnessing the .

River Valley Projects of North - East India (Brahmaputra) 15. Idukki Hydro-Electric Project It is a giant hydro-electric project of Kerala and one of the biggest in the country, constructed with Canadian assistance with an installed capacity of 390 MW in the first stage and 780 MW in the second stage. The project envisages to harness Periyar waters, has three major dams, the 169 m high Idukki arch dam across Periyar river, 138 m high Cheruthoni Dam across the tributary of Cheruthoni river and 99.9 m high Kulamavu Dam.

16. Jayakwadi Dam (Maharashtra) The 10-km-long Jayakwadi dam on the Godavari is Maharashtra’s largest irrigation project located near Paithan.

17. Kalpong Hydro-Electric Project This is the first hydel power plant of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The 5.25 MW project was commissioned on July 1, 2001. It is located near Kalara village of Diglipur Tehsil in North Andaman and has been built by National Hydel Power Corporation.

18. Kakrapara Project It is situated on the Tapti near Kakrapara, 80 km upstream of Surat. The project is financed by the Gujarat Government.

19. Koel Karo Project The project envisages construction of earthen dam across river south Koel at Basia in Bihar and another dam over north Karo at Lohajimi. The capacity will be 710 MW.

20. Kol Project The 600 MW project is to be located on the Satluj, 6 km upstream of the Dehar Power House on the Beas-Satluj link project in Mandi district, Himachal Pradesh. Besides generating power, the dam will also serve as a check dam for the 1,050-MW and prolong its life by at least 10 years.

21. Kosi Project This project will serve Bihar and Nepal. The Kosi rises in Nepal, passes through Bihar and joins the Ganges. The river is subject to heavy floods. Two dams are to be built across it.

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22. Nagarjunasagar Project This Project is a venture of Andhra Pradesh for utilizing water of the Krishna River. The Nagarjunasagar Dam was inaugurated on Aug 4, 1967. It is situated near Nandikonda village in Miryalguda Taluk of Nalgonda district.

23. Nathpa-Jhakri Hydro-Electric Project India’s largest hydro-electric project, it is located at Nathpa Jhakri in Himachal Pradesh. It is built on Satluj River. The first of the six 250 MW units was commissioned on December 30, 2002. The project is being executed by Satluj Jal Nigam (formerly Nathpa Jhakri Power Corporation).

River Valley Projects of River Ganga 24. Parambikulam Aliyar Project It is a joint venture of Tamil Nadu and Kerala States. It envisages construction of seven inter- connected reservoirs by harnessing rivers including two major rivers viz., Parambikulam on the western slopes of Annamalai Hills and Aliyar on the eastern slopes.

25. Parappalar Dam The Rs 1-crore Parappalar Dam with a storage capacity of 167 million cubic feet near Oddenchatram, about 75 km from Madurai in Palni taluk (Tamil Nadu), was inaugurated on August 30, 1976.

26. Parvati Valley Project It is the first inter-State hydel power project of India. Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi have joined hands with Himachal Pradesh to set up the project. The 2050 MW project will be built near Kullu, on Parvati river, a tributary of Beas.

27. Periyar Valley Scheme (Kerala) The scheme envisages the construction of a masonry barrage 210.92 metres long across the river Periyar near Alwaye, in Ernakulam district.

28. Rajasthan Canal Project It is a bold venture of bringing irrigation to a desert area. The project, which uses water from the Pong dam, consists of 215-km long Rajasthan feeder canal (with the first 178 km in Punjab and Haryana and the remaining 37 km in Rajasthan) and the 467-km long Rajasthan main canal lying entirely in Rajasthan.

29. Ramganga River Project This Project in Uttaranchal envisages construction of a dam across the river Ramganga, one of the major tributaries of the Ganga at 3.2 km upstream of Kalagarh in Garhwal district. RANJIT SAGAR DAM PROJECT Formerly known as Thein dam, it was dedicated to the nation on March 4, 2001. It is built on the Ravi River near Thein village in Punjab. Total installed capacity is 600 MW.

30. Rihand Project ( District—U.P) This project has been completed by the U.P. Government and comprises the construction of a concrete gravity dam across the in (U.P.) and a Power House at Pipri and necessary transmission lines. Gobind Ballabh Pant Sagar is a part of this project.

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31. Rongtong Project World’s Highest Hydro Power Project It is ringtone project that is situated in Kazan in the Spiti Valley in Himachal Pradesh. The project has helped transform the entire cold mountain desert into a lush greenbelt.

32. Salal Project It has been built on River Chenab in Jammu and Kashmir. The first stage was completed on February 9, 1989 and marked the beginning of the harnessing of hydro power potential of river Chenab. At present the capacity of the powerhouse is 345 MW. With the completion of the second stage the capacity will double.

33. Sankosh Hydel-Power Project India and Bhutan have signed an agreement for building of a gigantic Sankosh hydel power project. It will be one among the ten largest projects in Asia. The project is to be constructed near Kerabari in Gaylegphug district of Bhutan on Sankosh River. It will include a 600 metre-long and 239 metre high dam and a reservoir with a catchment area of 10,525 sq km. It is estimated to cost around Rs 2000 crore. Once completed, the project will generate 1,525 MW of power and help irrigate eight lakh hectares of land.

34. Sanjay Vidyut (Hydel) Project It is Asia’s first fully underground Hydel Project. The 120 MW project is located near Bhaba Nagar in Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh. It harnesses the water of the Bhaba Khud, a tributary of the Satluj.

35. Sardar Sarovar Project It is one of the largest river valley schemes in the country. The project envisages construction of 163-metre-high cement concrete dam at Navagam in Gujarat. This will create irrigation potential of 1.79 million hectares and generate 1450 MW of power.

Drainage System in India 36. Sawalkote Hydro Project The 600 MW project in Jammu & Kashmir is being built by a Norwegian consortium.

37. Sharavati Project (Karnataka) It is located 400 km from Bangalore near the Gersoppa falls; the Sharavati Project is one of the world’s major power projects, built by Indian engineers with American collaboration.

38. Srisailarn Project It is a massive power project, 110 km away from Nagarjunasagar in the upper reaches of the river Krishna.

39. Subarnarekha Project It is Rs 130-crore multipurpose project, which would, when completed, provide assured irrigation to 7,06,000 acres to the chronically drought-prone areas of Orissa and Bihar.

40. Tehri Dam Project

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The World’s fifth and Asia’s largest hydroelectric project has been constructed on river Bhagirithi, a tributary of Ganga in Tehri district of Uttaranchal. The height of the earth and rockfill dam is 260.5 m, making it the highest dam in the country. Once fully operational, the project will produce 1000 MW electricity.

41. Tungabhadra Project (Andhra And Karnataka) It is a joint undertaking by the governments of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The project comprises a dam across the Tungabhadra River near Mallapuram.

42. Ukai Project It is a power project of Gujarat equipped with power generating sets manufactured by Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited was inaugurated on October 12, 1977. It has added a 540,000 KW of installed capacity to the State’s existing power network.

In the above list of Multipurpose River-Valley Projects in India will be concretising the general knowledge of the readers.

Dr. Anirban Biswas for SEM-II