SECWEPEMC (SHUSWAP) TREE Namffi: KEY to the PASTI the Other Languages

SECWEPEMC (SHUSWAP) TREE NAMffi: KEY TO THE PASTI the other languages. Only two terms, for whitebark pine and Rocky Mountain maple, are cognate between secwepemc, Ullooet and Nlaka'pamx, but not with Nancy J. Turner Okanagan or Aathead. No terms are cognate exclusively between secwpemc Environmental Studies Program and llllooet, yet 8 terms are cognate exclusively between Ullooet and University of Victoria Nlaka'pamx. Victoria. B.C. V8W 3P4 INlRODUCTION Marianne Boelscher Ignace Trees are regarded as a descrete unit of cognltlvely related objects. Secwepemc Cultural education Society/Simon Fraser University Program which are. in almost all indigenous societies. both culturally highly • Kamloops. B.C. V2H 1HI significant and linguistically macked at a generic level, usually by primary lexemes (Berlin et a1. 1974: Brown 1977. 1984: Witkowski et a1. 1981). As a and general taxonomic unit. of a rank commonly termed "life form." "tree" Is among the first inclusive taxa to be developed and named In languages (Berlin Brian D. Compton 1972; Brown 1984). Names for the class. "tree" often derive either through Department of Botany. The University of British Columbia, Vancouver. B.C. semantic expansion of reference of the folk generic name of a common tree of V6T lZ4;and high salience in a region. or through reference to the woodiness or growth Secwepemc Cultural Education Society/Simon Fraser University Program, form of trees as a group (Trager 1939: Berlin 1972; Turner 1974; Witkowski et Kamloops, B.C. V2H IHI at. 1981). In Shuswap, for example, as well as in Okanagan and Ullooet,. the term for tree is derived from the root for "standing upright" (ct. Kuipers 1989 :

ABSTRAcr Turner 1988b). Secwepemc terms for 23 species of trees were examined and compared with names in four neighbouring Interior Salish languages. Distributions of Tree terms are often used in linguistic analyses, together with the these species across southern British Columbia and nonhern Washington and known distribution patterns of the tree species named, to give some insights Idaho were also determined. Of the 23 tree species included in the study, 12 into the historical origins of groups of people (Kinkade 1989; Sieben 1967; have Secwepemc names cognate with Okanagan and Aathead, whereas only 9 Hock 1986). At least one comparable study (Newman 1974) has provided names are cognate between secwepemc and Nlaka'pamux, and 7 between insight into the volume, direction and historical dimension of the borrowing Secwpemec and Ullooet. Six Secwepemc tree names are unrelated to those of of biological terms from neighbouring tongues Into the Salish isolate. Nuxalk,

73 3 4 which has retained relatively few such forms to show evidence of its Salish The Secweoemc I; linguistic and Cultural Affiliations affiliation. In this study. we examine the corpus of tree names in Secwepemc The are the northernmost Salish-spe.aking occupants of the British Columbia plateau. BeSIdes and compare them with those of neighbouring Interior Salish languages to try to gain a better understanding of the origins of Shuswap-speaking peoples in border ing on three Interior Salish speaking neighbours, Le. t,'8 li Ilovet (Stttamx) to the west, I ' relation to other Salishan groups. Tree names from other language groups, the Thompson (.t kipmx) to the southwest, and the Okanagan (C'Wln~mx) to the southeast, they are both Salish and non-Salish, are also cited on occasion to clarify the origins of surrounded by numerous other tribes or first nations of a number of different linguistic stocks, specific terms. including the Chilcotin, Carrier, Sekani. Cree, Stony, Blackfoot, Ktunaxa (Kutenai), and former Iy, the Athapaskan-speak Ing people of the Nicola Valley

Secwepemc contact and interchange with their Interior Salish neighbours was frequent and

resulted in frequent intermarriage, and a general similarity of cultural traits between the

Secwepemc and their Salish neighbours has been noted, likely the result of common cultural

origins as well as diffusion at a later date (e.g. Teit 1909; Boas 1890; Dawson 1891; Ray

1939; Palmer 1975b). The Secwepemc and their Interior Salish neighbours themselves, in the

past as well as today, acknowledged the shared cultural and linguistic heritage, although they saw

themselves as politir.ally and culturally distinct nations occupying distinct territories, although

obviously, this self- image increased with increasing pressure on their control of land and

resources by Intruders (c.f. Teil 1909; Memorial to Sir Wilfred Laurier 1910, Secwepemc

Nation Tribal Council 1989) Contact and interchange wit~, non-Salish neighbours was far less

frequent and intense than contact with their Salish neigMours. with tna exception perhaps of the

Kinbasket Secwepemc, who interacted with the Ktunaxa since their emigration to the Columbia

area in the ear Iy 19th r.entury.

The Secwepemc language is most closely related to that of their Thompson neighbours,

sharing some 75% cognates (Swadesh 1950; Elmendorf 1965). According to the same sourr.es

and based on Swadesh's data, the percentage of shared cognates with Lillooet is 48%, and with

Okanagan 50~. Elmendorf ( 1965; see also Suttles and Elmendorf 1963) also elaborated on the

I While the correct phonetic rendition of the Shuswap people's self designation in NPA is S xw pmx, the spelling "Secwepemc" is used here throughout the text to reflect the practical alphabet (see Kuipers, A Shuswap Course)spelling common Iv used among the people themselves today

74 5 6

geographic and temporal divisions between the Interior Salish languages He posited Okanagan as

the link between the Northwestern group comprising 1I1100et, Secwepemc and Thompson, and the The Secepemc Environment and Vegetation

Southeastern group represented by Kalispel, Spokane, Flathead and Coeur d'Alene, Elmendorf, In Secwepemc traditional territory covers a vast and diverse area,

comparing cognate percentage with spatial distance and contact Invervals among these groups Including dry valleys, rolling grasslands, extensive plateau lands, and high (op,clt. 69), noted that "",It is obvious that territorial proxlm ity and intervals of contact mountain ranges. The area Is drained by the North and South Thompson and

correspond closely to cognate relations. This suggests In turn that the differentiation of the Fraser rivers and their tributaries, and. In the southeastern part, by the

present-day IS languages has taken place during a period In which their relative spatial Columbia river system. In all, the region encompasses 180,000 square

arrangement has remained more or less constant." He postulated further that "the fact that all kilometers, and extends from west of the Fraser River at Dog Creek and Canoe

other members of the Salish stock occur west of lil[ooet] , and in contact only with the Creek, east as far as Jasper House, beyond the Rocky Mountains. Maps of

westernmost IS SPeech communlt·les, In d' lca tes th e dIrectIon. . of expansion as southeastward" Secwepemc territory, and the seven major divisions of the Shuswap Nation, are (op.cit.: 72). In a temporal sense, he suggests that, following an IS split from Coast Salish, the shown in lntroduction to the ShUswap (Secwepemc Cultural Education Society

northwestern SPeech communities (lIllTho-Shu) split from the Southeastern speakers, 1986; see also Telt 19(9).

accompanying am Igration in that direction. Subsequently, Thompson [Nlakapamux] and

Secwepemc spilt, accompanied by a northward expansion of the latter. As would be expected over such a diverse area, there are Significant The latter movement, in turn, may explain the etymological origin of the Secwepemc self-designation as resulting from variations In climate, and in plant and animal life. In aU, Shuswap territory the root xw p- [cwep] "to spread, unfold", hence Secwepemc ="spread-out people" [~pref = encompasses nine major vegetation :zones: Alpine Tundra; Sub-Boreal Pine -

nominalizer; mx suff = "people"]. The split and migration within the Northwestern group, in Spruce; Sub-Boreal Spruce; Engelmann Spruce - Subalpine Fir; Montane turn, co-inCided with Similar splits in the southeastern group (ibid.). However, these spatial Spruce; Bunchgrass; Ponderosa Pine; Interior Douglas-fir; lnterlor Cedar - relations based on shared cognates in general may not tell the entire picture as to internal Hemlock (d. Ministry of Forests 1988). Of these, all except for Alpine Tundra connections and diffusion between the groups. Environmental and geographic factors may play a and Bunchgrass are characteri:zed by assemblages of dominant forest trees and role here and it is useful to turn to an examination of the latter. associated plants and animals. Thus, Secwepemc culture and history, like that of most other Aboriginal Peoples of western North America, is closely intertwined with forest ecosystems, and It Is not surpriSing that virtually every tree species occurring in in Secwepemc territory has Its own, generic level name, and a relatively high degree of cultural Significance.

75 7 8

One ecological phenomenon of Secwepemc territory should be noted particularly in the context of this study: the rain shadow effect of the Coast Another factor to consider when investigating peoples' historical and Cascade Mountain ranges, producing a large belt of relatively dry association with trees is that the distribution of the tree species themselves has landscape running in a general north-south direction in the central interior not remained static. Since the retreat of the last continental glaCiers, of British Columbia, Washington and Oregon. This dry landscape, commonly approximately 10,000 years ago, vegetation distribution has changed known as the Interior Dry Belt, is bordered on the east by the Monashee, considerably (Pielou 1991). On the basis of pollen records from cores taken in Purcell and Selkirk Mountain ranges, which, being of higher elevation, have lake bottoms and bogs in central and eastern British Columbia, paleoecologist a moister climate. The leeward side of these ranges is again dryer, but most of Dr. Richard Hebda (personal communication to NT, July 1992) has determined the lands of the Columbia and associated drainages In the eastern part of that lodgepole pine (Pinus conto/ta) and trembling aspen (Populus Secwepemc territory have relatively high levels of precipitation. This region tremuloides ) have been common and widespread throughout the Interior is known as the Interior Wet Belt. since the time of the ice retreat. Douglas-fIT (Pseudotsuga menziesii ) also came into the region relatively early, probably within the last 8,000 to 10,000 In general terms, Secwepemc territory Is evenly extended over the years ago, and has apparently replaced lodgepole pine in many areas (Pielou Interior Dry Belt and the Interior Wet Belt, and these belts extend southward 1991). The establishment of western red-cedar (Thuja plicara ) was apparently into Okanagan and flathead Interior Salish territories. To the west of conSiderably more recent, possibly 2,000 years ago. Pollen from a species of Secwepemc territory, the Ullooet and Nlaka'pamx peoples occupy homelands the cypress family (Cupressaceae), probably of Rocky Mountain juniper that straddle the Coast and Cascade ranges, where the climate is moist, and (Juniperus scopuiorum ), indicates a long-standing presence of this species. extend Into the western part of the Interior Dry Belt.

Obviously more data are required on the history of dispersal of various Secwepemc people thus share the Interior Dry Belt, and its associated tree species, particularly in terms of which would have been available to the vegetation with the Ullooet, Nlaka'pamx, but whereas all three groups also Secwepemc and other Interior Salish peoples at the time of their arrival to the have moist, heavily forested ecosystems within their territories, often with the area. As further paleoecological research Is undenaken in the region, more same associated tree species, the moist forests of the Secwepemc lands are part answers should be forthcoming. of the Interior Wet Belt, while the moist forests of UlJooet and Nlaka'pamux lands are within the Coastal Montane forest lands. This factor may be RESULTS Significant when one is conSidering at what stage historically groups of Salish Table 1 lists the trees occurring within Secwepemc territory, with their people encountered particular tree species. Secwepemc nam~s, and those of adjacent interior Salish peoples. Notes on

76 9 10

general importance In the traditional Interior Salish economies, and on any Include "translation borrowings," and semantic shifts of terms to apply to special circumstances relating to Individual species are also provided In Table different, more culturally or ecologically salient species. Terms may also be 1. applied to one species on the basis of a perceived relationship with another

species, or, a basiC term may apply to twO or more types of plants, one of which

In all, 14 conifero,!s species and 9 broad-leaves deciduous species (or Is often the "type" plant of primary Imponance, and the other(s) subsumed groups of closely related species) are considered. Of these, six have Individual within the sphere of Influence of the first. folk generic-level names In Secwepemc. Only two of these (western larch and white pine) are obviously analyzable in Secwepemc, except for the suffi" -atp, Nevertheless, the Secwepemc tree terms presented In Table 1 seem or variants of it, Indicating "plantness, which Is used In at least 14 of the tree relatively unambiguous In their application, with the possible exception of the • terms. In general, unanalyzabiUty is taken as an Indication of a term that Is names for grand fir and subalpille fir. either very ancient, and has, over the years, lost Its original meaning to most speakers of a language, or one that is borrowed from another language, where

Its original meaning may be still perceived (Hess n.d.). In the case of Secwepemc Tree Terms in Relation to Tree Pistrlbution Secwepemc, cognate forms at least some of these names are readily analyzable When Secwepemc tree terms are examined together with those of in other Salishan languages. neighbouring Salish groups according to the known distribution patterns of the trees themselves, do any patterns emerge that might give Insights Into Historical linguistic relationships, however, are confounded by the historical and geographical relationships? development of so-called "folk etymolOgies,· where the original meaning or derivation of a word may be obscured by the Imposition of another, possibly Table 2 shows tree species faDing within panicular categories of culturally more appropriate, meaning. This semantic shift may be cognate relationships, together with notations on the distributions of these accompanied by a phonological shift to produce abetter "fit" for its new species. A comparison of Secwepemc tree names with those of Chllcotln meaning. For example, In English, the name, "strawberry,· Is actually derived, (Myers, Turner and Hebda, unpublished notes on Chilcotin ethnobotany, 1989), not from "straw: but from the old Anglo Saxon word, "streow," for "trailing Kootenay (Han 1974; Han et aI. 1978), and Sahaptin (Hunn 1990) reveals no long the ground," as in "strew." Similar folk etymologies are evident for the apparent similarities or cognates, although note that the Okanagan name for words, "dandelion." (originally from French "dent de 1100"), and "Jerusalem tree willow Is apparently related to the Sahaptln name. anlchoke" (originally from Italian "girasole" for "sunflower") (cf. Berlin 1972; Turner 1974). Other processes that occur In the development of language

77 11 12

With this relatively small sample of tree terms. there seems to be no and cascara) have disjunct distributions. and three (mountain and green obvious relationship between tree distribution and linguistic affiliation of alders. willow. and choke cherry) have relatively continuous distributions. Secwepemc tree names. However. there are some interesting potential relationships that need to be funher investigated. Perhaps most significant in this comparison of tree terms is the sparclty of etymons encompassing Secwepemc. Wlooet and Nlaka'pamux DISCUSSION exclusively, and the relatively large number of etymons encompassing Secwepemc. Okanagan. and Flathead. At the same time. a close affiliation Tree Names. Tree Distributions and Unguistic Affinities between Ullooet and Nlaka'pamux is indicated, with several examples. It may be notable that lodgepole pine. Rocky Mountain juniper and especially in lillooet. of affiliations with Coast Salish languages and/or Nuxalk paper birch, all eVidently of ancient and widespread occurrence in British (Bella Coola). Columbia'S Interior, have names that are apparently unanalyzable, and have cognates in all five study languages. "Pine" (including both lodgepole pine The Secwepemc share one major feature with Okanagan and Aathead and ponderosa pine) was an highly salient plant taxon among contemporary which might give an answer to their apparently closer relationship vis-a-vis Secwepemc university students polled in a recent SCES/SRJ Program their nomenclature of trees: These three groups are further removed than ethnobotany c1ass--a fact undoubtedly related to its common appearance in Nlaka'pamux and lillooet from the apparent Proto-Salishan homeland. as Secwepemc territory. On the other hand, western red cedar, a tree of recent determined by Kinkade (1989). namely, the lower Fraser valley and environs. origin to the area, and with a definite disjunct distribution (i.e. with a coastal To arrive at their present locations, Secwepemc, Okanagan and Aathead occurrence, absent from the Interior Dry Belt. and re-occurring in the peoples would all have had to traverse the Interior Dry Belt. where cenain interior Wet Belt), has a Secwepemc name affiliated only with Okanagan and tree species --those with disjunct distributions-would have been absent. Did Aathead. Another species with a disjunct distribution, whose Secwepemc such a migration occur before these three languages diverged? Such large name has eastern Salish affiliations only. is Engelmann spruce. Stlll, there scale movement of peoples may have occurred over a period of hundreds. or are trees whose Secwepemc names are affiliated with lillooet and Nlaka'pamux thousands, of years. Could the original (Proto-Salish) names for trees like only, including one (Rocky Mountain maple). with continuous distribution. western red-cedar have been forgotten in the interim? If so. new names for and one ( whitebark pine) with restricted, timberline distribution across the these trees would have had to have been developed when they were once again Interior. Of the six species with apparently unique Secwepemc names. encountered. Would these new terms have been developed by an eastward unrelated to those of the other languages. three (white pine, western hemlock travelling group of people, who came in contact with the Interior Wet Belt? Are the Secwepemc therefore more closely allied historically with the

78 14 13

We hope to undertake further comparative analysis of Secwepemc plant Okanagan and Flathead, having broken away from them after crossing the names during the course of our three-year Secwepemc Ethnobotany Study. We Interior Dry Belt and moved northwards along the Interior Wet Belt7 have called this study "More than the Sum of the Pans." and, indeed, this

Future Directions of Inquiry deSCription seems to fit. Such speculations are only that. A much more comprehensive ACKNOWUDGEMOO"S examination of the entire body of Secwepemc biological terms, and a determination of the distribution patterns of the plants and animals named, is We are grateful to the speakers of Secwepemc and other AbOriginal needed before any real conclusions can be drawn. Other Salishan languages languages for their knowledge of plant terms, incorporated into this paper. need to be drawn in to such a study. Columbian, for example, would be a key • Major Secwepemc contributors Int:lude: Bill Arnouse, Aimee August, Leslie language to incorporate. Comparison with the biological lexicons of non Jules, Nellie Taylor, Mary Thomas and Ida William. Other Aboriginal Salish languages such as neighbouring Athapaskan, and even Upper North consultants are named In the works referred to for their languages, as per the Wakashan and Tsimshlanlc languages, could also prove valuable in footnote In Table 1. Our work was facilitated by the Secwepemc Cultural contributing to the understanding of arboreal and other biological terms in Education Society and the Shuswap Nation Tribal Council. We would also like to Interior Salish and other Indigen6~Ss of British Columbia. thank the following people for their contributions: Dr. Dwight Gardiner; Dr. Jan van Ejk; Dr. M. Dale Kinkade; Dr. Laurence C. Thompson; M. Terry From an examination of 23 tree names in Secwepemc and four other Thompson; Dr. Leslie Saxon; Dr. Bill Poser; Randy Bouchard; Dorothy Kennedy; Interior Salish languages, we found a greater affinity in terms of shared Brian Compton; Alison Davis; Bob May; Ron Ignace; and Dr. Richard Hebda. The cognates among Secwepemc, Okanagan and Flathead than between Secwepemc, project was funded in part by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Ullooet and Nlaka'pamux. On the other hand, Ullooet and Nlaka'pamx tree Research Council of Canada (#410-91-0550) to the authors. (Othersn7) names, have greater linguistic affiliations with each other, and for both there is a greater afftliation with Coast Salish tree names. Further comparative research on biological terms In Interior Salish languages is needed to determine if linguistic relationships are in any way related to biotic distributions, to other Salish arboreal terminology and to those terms in more geographically and linguistically distant languages.

79 15 16

Brown, Cecil H. 1984. l;lnguage and UYing Things. Unjfonuitjes in Folk REFERENCES Classification and Naming. Rutgers University Press. New Brunswick. Berlin, Brent. 1972. Speculations on the growth of ethnobotanical NJ. nomenclature. lournal of lAnguage in Society 1:63-98.

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83 T- 1 T - 2 Table 1. Secwepemc Tree Terms, with Names in Neighbouring Interior Salish Languages· Grand Fir [Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D. Don ) Undl.]

Secwepemc mal&n-~p (7 mainly A. lasiocarpa) CONIFEROUS TREFS Ullooet m~! {n-~ap/nm8s-aka7 (also A. lasiocarpa) Common Juniper Uuniperus commuJlis L) Nlaka'pamux X'sa~pl XaMl1'M-aka7 ('sweet branch')? (also A. Secwepemc c'ic'SIIC'&lIt, sc' emerh~ lasiocarpa, A. amabi/is)

Ullooet cfk-cakt-aZ' (?) Okanagan (s)t'ak-I(?~p (cr. t'ile'" 'burst')1 ma¥1tp (mainly A /as;ocarpa ) Nlaka'pamux c'(C'I,C-c'al,C-t Flathead q"i lcan Okanagan snc'lc'qpna'1 ('prickly')

Flathead e'lqc'aq8n-~p ('prickly-plant'); juniper bush: q'·16stomn~ (cr. q"eH 'cook, roast, ripe, ripen') ------;------~------Subalpine Fir [Abies lasioca/pa (Hook.) Nutt.) (7 see Halsla d'xc'os IIsJr~c'lall1s 'swamp-evergreen leaves' for J. communis) , Secwepemc mal&n-tp Rocky Mountain Juniper Uunlperus scopulorum Sarg.) Ullooet m'!(n-~ap/nmDs-akIl7 Secwepemc pun-tp (P) Nlaka'pamux tl'sefpl U'axtl'x-aka'1 ('sweet branch') (also A. grand;s)

Ullooet pdn-tep, pdn-tp Okanagan (slt'sk-l('1fp (cr, t'lle'" 'burst')! mS'd(fp (also A grand;s) Nlaka'pamux pdn-tp Flathead men(n-tp (cr. m8'd(1)m 'to heal' 1) Okanagan pun-tp Flathead plln-tp Western Larch (Larix occidentalls Nun.) (7 see also Sahaptin PIl.$II-uh (fruit: pu,sll) (for J. scopu/orum and J. occidenta/is) Secwepemc ceQ"'& itel('" ('red bark') Ullooet Western Red-cedar (TbuJa pUcata Don ex D. Don) Nlaka'pamux caq"-al x (Cf Cllcf' 'red) Secwepemc estq" (P); ;stq ..p (MBI; OG) Okanagan Ullooet c6tew-aZ' (ct. Nuxalk cectaw-ip; Upper Chehalis clltawi) Flathead caq-alsh (cr. ceq'alx 'red' in Nlaka'pamux) Nlaka'pamux Okanagan mx-Hp. aslQ" Flathead esUe" (boughs - msll- efp)

84 T- 3 i- 4

Engelmann Spruce (Picea engelmannii Parry ex Engelm. and WhIte Pine (Pinus montleola Doug!, ex D. Don) White Spruce [ P. glauea (Moench) Voss) Secwepemc 581 twt (lit. 'two-containers') Secwepemc Xsttp Ullooet zelC-olm()("-u' ('tell lend plont') Ullooet cs~-az'/c'Q"-atp [cf. Halkomelem - c'Q·"-etp (cr. c'eq'" 'poke, pierce, stab') and 1 Upper Chehalis Nlaka'pamux z()("e?, zhc"'eh-ttp ceqat, both for Sitka spruce] Okanagan X't'liI8q'" (tJ'ty('I 'bark canoe') Nlaka'pamux cl$a?z-Hp (1 lit. 'rustling-plant') (see note for Lillooet, above) Flathead celp'e (approx.) Okanagan t'est'as-(tp ( lit. 'hard tree')1 c'fQc'aQt ('prickly') Ponderosa Pine (Pinus ponderosa Doug!. ex P. &: C. ~wson) Hathead t'ast 'es e (lit. 'hard leaf i sharp) Secwepemc S'lctq'"tp (P)

Whitebark Pine (Pinus aIbleaulls Engelm.) Ullooet (5- )'I'~tq'"-et',

Secwepemc scak'-t!tp Nlaka'pamux s-?ttq"-tp

Ullooet s-c'8<' (edible seeds, cones), c'k'-oz' (tree) Okanagan 57 etq'" -tp,

Nlaka'pamux s-c'~ (edible seeds, cones). s-c'l<'-e?itp (tree) Flathead

Okanagan sk'awk'sw (edible seeds); sk'ew'l<'ew'-(?tp (tree) (cf. also Coeur d'Alene "sow(sttc" - Teit 1973:91) Douglas-fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco)

Flathead Secwepemc cq'etp Ullooet S-lfep-?!ll (lit. 'real-tree') (but ct. c'q'oq'lap - Douglas fir sapling) Lodgepole Pine (Pinus contorta Doug!. ex Loud.) Nlaka'pamux c'q'-6tp (ltt. ?sttCky-pl ant') Secwepemc q"'eq'"I(7t Okanagan C'q'-Itp Ullooet q'"llt, Q"lft-at' Flathead cq'-6tp Nlaka'pamux q'"?(t/ q'"i?t-Up Okanagan q"'aq'"al'(?t Western Hemlock [Tluga lJeteroplJylIa (Raf.) Sarg.) Flathead q"'aq'"ailt Secwepemc (cf. also 1 Sechelt - qeQlIn-au; Comox - qeqy(n7 -ay; and Kwakwaka'wakw - Qaqasal'lams (also for P. monticola) Ullooet p'!lxtn-ez'

Nlaka'pamux IC"'tk"'astn-6tp ('scrubber-plant')

Okanagan

Hathead pWne (7 'thick·')

85 T-5 T-6

Western Yew (Taxus brevlfolia Nun.) ------Secwepemc skan(k (BC, 00; ong. Dawson 1891:17) Paper, or White Birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh.) lillooet ,ll(amq'-h' (cr. Straits Salishxang'Q'-Hc; Squemlsh Secwepemc q"' aqwt f tn-tp fl:amq'-lty; Upper Chehalis KemQ'~; Kwakwaka'wakw ~a'mq'l; Hen~ksiala/Haisla xmq'es; Ullooet q"'at?ln-ez' Heiltsuk )IIrtlq'es; Oowekyala xlJlq'es) , Nlaka'pamux q"'t{n'-tp Nlaka'pamux l'i7l('"-a-tp (cr. Helkomalem tel,<"'ac (\it. 'bow-plant'), OR ck-ln'ak, OR ck-(n'ak-e-tp ('hew-plant') Okanagan q"'tln

Okanagan ck'"lnk ('bow'); OR nak'"OIJk'" (ct. Ray 1932) Flathead Q"tn-61q"' (cr. Q-t 'dusty/dirty'; -elq- 'round')

Flathead ck-nea (lit. 'bow-wood') COttonwood, or Balsam Poplar (Populus balsamifera Torr. Ie Gray. ex Hook.) DOClDUOUS TREES Secwepemc mullc R~kY-ii;;;t~~--Maple-(JlC;ir--giabn;a;--To~:f------Ullooet naq""-nlq"'-az' [ct. Upper Chehalis nf q-'l', Squamish Secwepemc c'weHn (P) q""anlq""-III/ and Kwakwaka'wakw q'-anlq'-I, OR Q"snlq'- for cottonwood) [but NOTE: mlmalx 'bushy' Ullooet c'wUtn-ez' cognate with Sec and Ole: . : mlJx)

Nlaka'pamux c'ol"'ln-el'p (lit. 'scabby-plant') Nlaka'pamux naq'--n(q'"'-ac'(-t-tp) (ct. note under Ulfooet, above); mullc (Nicola Valley); [NOTE: muyx 'bush' is cognate with Okanagan spak-m-Hp Sec and Olt mulx)

Flathead sl,<"'uxullt Okanagan mullc

(1 see HenaksialalHalsla c'ewlkllills 'snowshoe tree') Flathead mdlsh (cr. mul- 'to dip water')

Trembling Aspen, or WhIte Poplar (Populus tremuloides Michx.)

Secwepemc k'"ak'"I-7tl'p , k'"le-7&l'p Secwepemc malmallatiHp (P)

Ullooet zasew-ez' (ct. Halkomelem w6sawau; Squamish Ullooet wew-alekze?/c'anlln-az' (Pemb) y6saw-ay) Nlaka'pamux wal-welc-l!-tp ('shivering-plant') Nlaka'pamux zasu7s-e-tp ('forest plant') (see note for UUooet, above) Okanagan malma!t-i-l'p Okanagan k'1 7k'l'tn'-Up (1 lit. 'dry, dry-tree' - Ray 1932, for SanpoillNespelem, A. tenuifolia) Flathe-old mlmlll! (lit. 'shimmering leaves')

Flathead c'lel tane (possessive, short for c'lcilan- 6l'p) Note: name means 'dancing-plant' in Straits Salish and Cowichan Halkomelem. and 'shimmering-leaves' in Squamish,

86 T- 8 T- 7

Pacific Willow and other large Willow species (S;allx lula.odr;a Beath.; Salix spp.) pakdn (calso pin cherry (Prunus pensylvanica L)) Secwepemc Secwepemc Q"'alsHp (P) Wlooet pssdss-er/?CW'lI"'-ez' Ulloaet lI"'d"I'-az' (firedrtll planr) fcr. ? Squamish l;C"8u-all ("pussy willow"), and Halkomalam spez-o.. -~tpl pekliEn (bark) fcf. Nuxalk pUkn-lp Nlaka'pamux Kelcap-atp (lit. 'firedrill-plant' - 5. lasiandra)J; OR (baric pt\knH tlj6lp-aZ'

Okanagan p~kUn' (bark)/pakln'Clp Nlaka'pamux zIlY-YIQ" laic stlj-Up/swU?f-cfp/swaWl-tlp ('fish plant') Flathead Okanagan how-('llp fcr. Sahaplin hohow (5. ;amygda/oides)] • Flathead Q'awQ;ewpul ('habitual mover'); OR ppd Choke Cherry (Pronus virginian a L)

tk"'lu"ttP (P) Secwepemc Note: The following Ullooet and Nlaka'pamux tree names, not listed In Table I, Ullooet za 1k"~7-ez' are cognate with Coast Salish fonns: flowering dogwood, broadleaved maple, and red alder. Nlaka'pamux zal k"u? -ttp lalS'"h"-CfP (cr. Halkomelem Okanagan t81:'''-ielS'" (cr. tlS'"-6t 'spit-it-out'; Tait dialect) • Tenns are taken from the following sources: Secwepemc: most originally from Palmer 1975; all checked with tll"' tll"'-6fk'" (fruit: tl:C"to) (ct. also Coeur d'Alene Flathead 'lDl;CtEI:" - Teit 1973:88) contemporary Secwepemc speakers by MBI, and/or BOC and/or Dwight Gardiner; analysis checked In Kuipers 1989: UlI00et: Turner et aI. 1987: Nlaka'pamux (Thompson): Turner et al. 1990; Okanagan: Turner, Cascara (Rhamnus pursblana DC.) Bouchard and Kennedy 1980: Flathead: Hart 1974, 1979; Haikomelem: Galloway 1982; Turner, Hebda and Montier. in prep.; Squamish: Bouchard Secwepemc Un-tn and Turner 1976; Sechelt: Turner and TImmers 1972; Comox: Bouchard and q'ey't\-Up/Q'6Yl;C-tn (cr. Halkomel~m Q'eUlj-a~p (cr. Ulloaet Q'6yl:' 'blec\c') end Straits Salish Q 6Yll-atp) Kennedy, British Columbia Indian Language Project, Victoria, personal communication, from unpublished field nOle5,1973-1978; Nuxalk (Bella Q'6Yl!<-8tp (see note for Ullooet, .above)/Sll:C-ellQ'" Nlaka'pamux Coola): Turner 1973: Upper Chehalis: Kinkade 1990; Sahaptin: Hunn Okanagan ktaptapselaQ" 1990; Kwakwaka'wakw: Turner and Bell 1973; Upper Nonh Wakashan, Including HenaksialalHaisla, Heiltsuk. and Oowekyala - notes from ROC's Flathead CaQ""Q"'ls6 (cr. Q"I 'belch') unpublished doctoral research; Kootenay: Han 1974.

87 T- 9 T - 10

Table 2. Ungulstlc Affinities of Secwepemc (Shsuwap) Tree Names, With Notes 3 (Sec name ponderosa dry interior zone; inner bark eaten; wood on Distribution and Traditional Uses of Tree Species (Note: Sec - Secwepemc; NI cognate with Ok, pine eastofeascadesto for ("onstructlon, fuel; _ Nlaka'pamux (Thompson): U - Ullooet: Ok - Okanagan; A - Aathead) A and NI, but not Rocky mts pilch for medicinal U) salve 3 Douglas-fir common and sugar produced from Major Traditional Affinity Cia.. Tree Distribution widespread boughs eaten; boughs Utes· for Secwepemc Species throughout used for flooring, pit- Name cooking; pitch for medicinal salve Rocky dry interior zone: wood for bows; boughs 1 (Sec name 3 bitter general bark used for cordage, east of Cascades to used as Incense, cognate with NI, Mountain cherry throughout, decoration of cedar-root Rocky mts fumiaant: medicine; U, Ok and Fl) juniper except driest baskets cambium eaten: wood for 1 lodgepole widespread from • Interior zone pine Coast to Rocky fuel, construction; pitch 3 common occurs "berries" chewed mts, except driest for medicinal salve juniper throughout in casually; boughs used valleys of interior upland forests for medicine paper widespread In bark for containers; 1 3 Pacific yew Coastal forests to tough wood used for birch moist areas from wood for fuel east side of bows, snowshoe frames Coast to Rocky mts Cascade,S, then In roots for coiled baskets; 2 (Sec name western Coastal forests to Interior wet belt red-cedar eastside of wood for dugout canoes cognate with Ok 4 (Sec name whitebark timberline tree of large seeds eaten; an Cascades, then in (Inner bark Unle used andlor Flathead. cognate with NI, pine Cascades, Rockies important food for many but not NI or U) Interior wet belt by Interior peoples) U, but not Ok and ranges west Interior forests bark for contalners; 2 Engelmann andlor Fl) of Rockies and white from Cascades to wood for ,fuel; pitch for 4 Rocky c:ommonand Inner bark used for Rocky mts; absent medicinal'salve spruce Mountain widespread cordage: wood for from dry interior maple throughout snowshoe frames, Inner bark eaten: bark 2 black widespread construction c:ononwood throughout, eap. for containers; wood for S (Sec name subalpine Interior forests boughs used for along waterways duaout canoes, fuel, cognate with U, fir from Cascades to bedding, incense: pitch contruction; bark and Ok, A but not Nil Rocky mts; absent and bark an Important bud resin for medicine from dry Interior medicine 2 trembling common and wood for construction, aspen widespread fuel; bark for medicine throughout

88 T- 11

6 (Sec narne white pine Coastal forests to bark used for unrelated to ll, east side of containers, canoes; N1, Ok or AI Cascades, then in pitch and bark for Interior wet belt medicine 6 western Coastal forests to boughs for scrubbers In hemlock east side of ritual bathing: pitch and Cascades, then in bark for medicine Interior wet belt 6 mountain moist sites, bark used for red dye, alders especially and for medicine montane, from Coast to RockJes 6 cascara Coastal forests to bark used as laxative east side of medicine and tonic Cascades, then in Interior wet belt 6 willow common In moist Inner bark used for (tree) sites throughout cordage: wood for fire- making; bark, leaves used for medicine 6 choke common and fruits eaten: bark used cherry widespread for medicine throughout

• Most of these applications are general for Interior Salish. For furthet details on use, refer to Palmer (1975), Turner (1978, 1979, 1988b), Turner et al. 1980, 1990.