Irrigated Agriculture Improvement Project (RRP CAM 51159-002)
Detailed Gender Analysis
November 2019
Cambodia: Irrigated Agriculture Improvement Project
Prepared by the Pacific Rim Innovation and Management Exponents, Inc. on behalf of the Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology for the Asian Development Bank.
ABBREVIATIONS
ADB – Asian Development Bank ADC – Agricultural Development Community CEDAW – Convention to Eliminate All Forms of Discrimination Against Women CNCW – Cambodian National Council on Women CPS – Country Partnership Strategy FGD – focus discussion group FHH – female-headed household FWUC – farmer water user community FWUCC – farmer water user community committee GAP – gender action plan GFP – gender focal point GMAG – Gender Mainstreaming Action Group GMAP – Gender Mainstreaming Action Plan GWG – Gender Working Group ha – hectare MAFF – Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries MFI – micro-finance institution MHH – male-headed household MOP – Ministry of Planning MOWA – Ministry of Women’s Affairs MOWRAM – Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology NGO – nongovernment organization NIS – National Institute of Statistics O&M – operation and maintenance PBA – Program-based approach PDA – Provincial Department of Agriculture PDWRAM – Provincial Department of Water Resources and Meteorology PFMRP – Public Financial Management Reform Program PMU – project management unit SC WUG – secondary canal water user group SDG – Sustainable Development Goal SES – socio-economic survey t/ha – ton per hectare TWG-G – Technical Working Group – Gender WUG – water user group
I. INTRODUCTION
1. The Irrigated Agriculture Improvement Project is a sector project to improve agricultural productivity and water resource management. It is funded by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) that will support the Government of Cambodia through the Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology (MOWRAM). The project impact will be inclusive economic growth through agriculture and irrigation attained aligned with the Rectangular Strategy on Growth, Employment, Equity and Efficiency, Phase IV, 2019-2023, and the outcome will be water and agriculture productivity in the project areas enhanced. The project has two outputs: (i) efficiency and climate resilience of irrigation systems enhanced; and (ii) water resources management improved.
2. The project will assist the Government of Cambodia to: (i) modernize, and improve climate and disaster resilience of four irrigation systems in Battambang, Kampong Cham, Kampong Thom, and Takeo provinces to supply water to 43,500 hectares (ha) for 291,847 persons, of whom 148,288 (51%) are women; (ii) ensure sustainability of these irrigation schemes by strengthening institutional and financial capacity of the government staff and farmer water user communities (FWUCs) in operations and maintenance (O&M); (iii) improve farming practices for increased agriculture productivity and crop diversification; and (iv) establish a national water resources data management center (NWRDMC), a water resources information system (WRIS), and an irrigation asset management system for better water resources management, planning, operations and investment.
A. Gender Assessment
3. The project is categorized as an “effective gender mainstreaming” project, with a commitment to ensure that the outputs of the project address opportunities to enhance women’s access to the benefits of upgraded irrigation systems and their participation in community-based management of irrigation schemes. The gender assessment has been prepared to support the development of the gender action plan (GAP), and gender targets have been defined in the project’s design and monitoring framework.
4. The project’s gender assessment is based on the four core subprojects, as noted above. Its scope includes identification and assessment of: (i) the legal, policy and institutional framework in Cambodia to support gender equality and mainstreaming, with a focus on the agriculture sector; (ii) an analysis of gender relations in Cambodia and, specifically, in the communes where the core subprojects are located, to identify the social, economic and cultural conditions, and issues that define gender relations in the agriculture section; and (iii) potential benefits and adverse impacts of the project on women, as well as recommendations for measures to mitigate negative impacts and promote women’s as well as men’s active participation in project implementation and benefits.
5. The approach in preparing the gender assessment includes: (i) a total of six targeted focus group discussions (FGDs) with women from households that have land in the command areas of the core subprojects (referred to as: FGDs with women); (ii) semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders at MOWRAM, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF), and the Ministry of Women’s Affairs (MOWA) as well as other agencies and organizations working on gender issues in the agriculture sector; (iii) the results of the project socioeconomic survey (SES) that included household surveys and FGDs with people in communities where the core subprojects are located (referred to as SES survey or SES FGDs); (iv) demographic and socioeconomic data at the national, provincial, and commune levels including the Commune Database; and (v) an extensive literature review of research, project documents, policies, etc., regarding gender relations and agricultural development in Cambodia. 2
II. INTEGRATED AGRICULTURE IMPROVEMENT PROJECT
A. Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme
6. The Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme has a total command area of 19,000 hectares (ha) in Battambang Province. The Kamping Pouy Reservoir is the source of water for the irrigation scheme. The project will upgrade infrastructure for 12,000 ha command area.1 The 12,000 ha command area is located in five communes (see Table A1). Of the 5,265 households that have land within the 12,000 ha,2 80%, have landholdings that average 2-3 ha; 5% of households have holdings of 10-15 ha; and 5% have one hectare or less of land (no data exists on the number of female-headed households [FHH]).
7. About 70% of the farmers in the irrigation scheme are limited to one rice crop per year, with an average yield of 2.5-3.0 tons per ha (t/ha). In the wet season, the full 12,000 ha are cultivated; in the dry season, only 8,000 ha are cultivated. The upgraded infrastructure will enable farmers to cultivate the full 12,000 ha in both wet and dry seasons, and increase the average yield to 5.0 t/ha. Much of the cycle of rice cultivation is now mechanized, with farmers using hand tractors or larger tractors to prepare fields, rice planting equipment and large combines to harvest and thresh rice. Farmers in the irrigation scheme sell their wet grains harvest to traders and millers who prefer to dry the rice themselves. As a consequence, farmers sell at a very low price ($0.30 per kilogram) and do not benefit from higher prices for milled rice ($0.75 per kilogram).
B. Prek Po Irrigation Scheme
8. The Prek Po Irrigation Scheme is located in Srei Santhor District on the left bank of the Mekong River, in Kampong Cham Province. Water pumped from the river is distributed to a total command area of 8,000 ha that encompasses portions or all of six communes (see Table A2). There are incomplete data on the number of households with landholdings in the irrigation scheme; however, assuming average holdings of 2.0-2.5 ha, the number of households is estimated to be 4,000 to 5,000.
9. The irrigation infrastructure is in poor condition. With water distributed through the system, farmers are able to cultivate 1,200 ha in the dry season and 300 ha in the wet season.3 However, many farmers in the irrigation schme have invested in deep wells; in Tong Tralach Commune, for instance, this enables 70% of the farmers in the irrigation scheme to produce three rice crops per year.4 The proposed improvements to the irrigation scheme will enable farmers to cultivate the full command area in both the wet and dry seasons, and increase yields to 5.0 t/ha. Most of the cycle of rice cultivation in the irrigation scheme is now mechanized, with farmers using hand or larger tractors to prepare fields, rice planting equipment and large combines to harvest and thresh rice.
C. Stung Chinit South Irrigation Scheme
10. The Stung Chinit Irrigation Scheme was constructed in Kampong Thom Province in the
1 An additional 2,200 ha located north of the project area will also have improved access to water as a result of the proposed works, but is not considered within the scope of the project. Improvements to infrastructure in the 7,000 ha portion of the Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme outside the project area have been or are being made under a financing from Korea and another ADB project. 2 Interview with Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme FWUC Chief at FWUC offices, Ta Kream Commune, 15 March 2018. 3 ADB. 2018. Subproject Feasibility Study for Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme. Consultant’s report. Manila (TA9349- CAM). 4 Interview with Tong Tralach Commune Chief at Commune office, 22 March 2018.
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1970’s. A weir constructed on the Stung Chinit River diverts water into two main canals. A north- south canal extending 7 kilometers (km) north from the weir has a total command area of 3,900 ha (Stung Chinit North). A north-south canal extending 35 km south from the weir has a total command area of 19,900 ha (Stung Chinit South). The ADB-funded Stung Chinit Irrigation and Rural Infrastructure Project upgraded the Stung Chinit North infrastructure, to irrigate 2,617 ha; the project was completed in 2009. The ongoing ADB-funded Climate-Resilient Rice Commercialization Sector Development Project includes several subprojects to upgrade some of the Stung Chinit South infrastructure, to provide irrigation to 3,900 ha. The project proposes to upgrade Stung Chinit South infrastructure to provide irrigation to the remaining 16,000 ha in the command area.
11. The Stung Chinit South command area is located in Baray District along National Road No. 6. The geographic scope of the project includes a total of 49 villages in 11 communes (see Table A3). Farmers cultivate two types of paddy rice: (i) a traditional, long-duration, wet-season paddy covering 60% of the command area, that is grown once a year between April-May and December; and (ii) short-duration varieties covering 40% of the command area, with two crops (May-August and November-February). Much of the cycle of rice cultivation is now mechanized, with farmers using hand tractors or larger tractors to prepare fields, rice planting equipment and large combines to harvest and thresh rice. The scope of works in the project includes upgrading irrigation infrastructure as well as improving drainage. As result, a total of five annual crops are projected, increasing the cropping intensity within the command area from its present level of 140% to 250%; wet season yields are expected to increase to 4.0 t/ha and dry season crops yields to 5.0 t/ha.
D. Canal 15 Irrigation Scheme
12. The Canal 15 Irrigation Scheme was initially constructed in the early 1980’s. The project will work on three components in a command area of 7,500 ha encompassing 26 villages that are located in 9 communes in 4 districts (see Table A4). Located in the floodplain of the Mekong delta; the low-lying portions of the command area flood annually to depths of 2 meters or more from late July to December. Farmers in low-lying areas grow one or two short-duration, dry-season rice crops, 100% of farmers cultivate a recession crop, and about 20% of farmers have water to cultivate rice before the annual flood. In the higher areas, in addition to two dry season crops, farmers also grow a wet season crop. Much of the cycle of rice cultivation is now mechanized, with farmers using hand tractors or larger tractors to prepare fields, rice planting equipment and large combines to harvest and thresh rice. The irrigation scheme main canal is used regularly by farmers to move equipment on and off their land and to remove their harvests; it is also used to transport people and other goods between Angkor Borei and Daun Keo. Fishing in the irrigation scheme main canal is a main source of livelihood for many households.
13. The project will upgrade irrigation infrastructure, improve drainage, and upgrade the supply capacity of the Samput Pumping Station. As a result, greater water availability in canals will enable farmers in low-lying areas to enlarge the area to cultivate the second dry-season crop from 20% to 50%. Increased water availability may also facilitate dry-season cultivation of non- rice crops in other parts of the command area.
E. Farmer Water User Communities
14. Sub-Decree No. 31, 2015, defines an FWUC as a legal autonomous entity serving the common interests of people through the use of an irrigation system in an effective and sustainable
4 manner aimed at enhancing economic and social development and poverty reduction. 5 Membership is open to any person who (i) owns or rents land within the irrigation scheme; (ii) is a citizen of Cambodia; and (iii) is 18 years old “of either sex”.6 The overall purpose of the FWUC is to manage the O&M of the irrigation scheme.7 The Provincial Department of Water Resources and Meteorology (PDWRAM) is mandated to facilitate the establishment of FWUCs.
1. Kamping Pouy FWUC
15. The Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme FWUC comprises of a main FWUC Committee (FWUCC); and 47 water user groups (WUGs) that are responsible for O&M of secondary canals (SC WUGs). Initially, 239 WUGs responsible for tertiary canals were established, but they no longer function. Notwithstanding the provisions of the Sub-Decree, the heads of households are generally designated as members of the Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme FWUC (footnote 2). Women are members only if they are recognized as the head of household. It is estimated that female members of the FWUC are less than 10%.8 A recent study that included data on the Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme FWUC identified a total membership of 6,000 people, including 115 women (2%).9 There is a 4-person management committee for the FWUCC and each SC WUG. Of the 192 people elected to management committees in the Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme FWUC, three are women (1.5%). The Accountant of the FWUCC is a woman; and two members of SC WUG management committees are women.
2. Prek Po Irrigation Scheme
16. There is no FWUC that functions to provide community management of the Prek Po Irrigation Scheme.
3. Stung Chinit South SC WUGs
17. During the implementation of the ADB-funded Stung Chinit Irrigation and Rural Infrastructure Project, a FWUC was established in the Stung Chinit North scheme, with technical assistance from several nongovernment organizations (NGOs) and financial support from the Agence française de développement. In total, 2,417 households with land in the 2,617 ha command area are members of this FWUC.10 At present, there is no overall FWUC for the Stung Chinit South command area. However, eight SC WUGs have been or are being established to manage secondary canals, with technical support from PDWRAM and financial support from various sources (See Table A5). One of the SC WUGs, Thnaot Chum, includes 36 people elected to management committees, including two women.11 Information received during a women’s FGD conducted in Boeng Commune suggests that a woman may head the SC WUG in that commune.12
5 Government of Cambodia. 2015. Sub-Decree on the Procedures for Establishment, Dissolution, Roles and Duties of FWUC. Article 7. Phnom Penh. 6 Footnote 5, Article 9. 7 Footnote 5, Article 11. 8 Personal communication with Chem Phalla, February 2018. 9 M. Sithirith. 2017. Water Governance in Cambodia: From Centralized Water Governance to Farmer Water User Community. MDPI Resources. 6 (3). p. 44. 10 P. Rousseau and S. Balmisse. 2009. Stung Chinit Irrigation & Rural Infrastructure Project: Main lessons learnt from project implementation. Paris: Gret Publications. 11 Personal communication with Chem Phalla, August 2018. 12 Women’s FGD, Boeng Commune, Baray District, Kampong Thom, July 2018.
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4. Canal 15 Private Water Sellers
18. In the Canal 15 command area, private water sellers supply water to secondary and tertiary canals, for farmers with land that is far from canals or in highland areas. The Samput Pumping Station is operated and managed by a FWUC.13 The FWUC was established in 2017, with members elected in June 2018. There is, however, no further information about its structure or membership. For the Canal 15 scheme as a whole, there is no FWUC that functions to provide community management of the irrigation scheme.14
III. LEGAL, POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR GENDER EQUALITY
A. Government of Cambodia Gender Policies and Laws
19. The Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia, 1993, 15 enshrines the rights of and protections for women and states that “men and women have equal rights before the law and shall enjoy equal participation in political, economic, social and cultural life” (Article 31); endorses “equality in employment and equal pay for equal work” and explicitly prohibits “all forms of discrimination against women and exploitation of women” (Article 45).
20. The Rectangular Strategy, Phase IV, 2019-2023,16 sets out the government’s overarching objectives and a roadmap for economic growth and development and the reduction of poverty. The government strategy recognizes women as “the backbone of the Cambodian society and economy. Under the fourth rectangle, capacity and human resource development, the government strategy proposes to improve the status of women by strengthening vocational training programs, empowering women with technical and entrepreneurial skills, promoting the role of women in the public sector, strengthening women’s abilities to pursue leadership at management and technical levels and further mainstreaming of gender in government initiatives. The National Strategic Development Plan (2014-2018) identifies ministerial commitments to achieving national development goals and emphasizes the cross-cutting nature of gender mainstreaming throughout policies and programs.17
21. The National Gender Policy, Neary Rattanak IV 2014-2018, is a 5-year strategic plan for gender equality and women’s economic empowerment. Developed by MOWA), the policy supports the government strategy through its objective to "empower women in the economy, education, attitude change and public leadership, to combat gender-based violence, trafficking and sexual exploitation, and to further mainstream gender in policies and programs across all sectors of government.”18 The MOWA strategy for women’s economic empowerment identifies three priority areas of intervention: (i) training for women for jobs that are consistent with market demands; (ii) ensuring that women have the capacity to lead and transform informal sector small
13 Transaction technical assistance (TRTA) FWUC expert. 14 A women’s FGD in Sambuor Commune, Trean District (July 2018) provided information about a PDWRAM-supported FWUC, Kbal Pou, established in 2011. This information has not been corroborated; moreover, the TRTA FWUC expert reports no FWUC in the Canal 15 command area. 15 The Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia, 1993. Unofficial English translation supervised by the Constitutional Council, October 2015. http://ngocedaw.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Constitution-of-Cambodia-2015-EN.pdf (accessed 18 March 2018). 16 Government of Cambodia. 2018. Rectangular Strategy for Growth, Employment, Equity, and Efficiency, Phase IV. Phnom Penh. 17 Government of Cambodia, MOWA. 2014. Cambodia Gender Assessment, Policy Brief 1: Gender Mainstreaming, Institutional, Partnership and Policy Context. Phnom Penh. 18 Government of Cambodia, MOWA. 2014. Neary Rattanak IV, 2014-2018. Phnom Penh.
6 and medium enterprises into the formal sector; and (iii) improving livelihoods in rural communities, especially for poor women (footnote 17).19
22. Other Cambodian laws promote women’s rights and interests and include, among others, Marriage and Family Law (1989), Labor Code (1997), Land Law (2001), Law on the Prevention of Domestic Violence and the Protection of Victims (2005), Amended Law on Commune Councils (2006), Civil Code (2007), Law on the Suppression of Human Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation (2008), and De-concentration and Decentralization Law (2008). Cambodia also has a National Social Protection Framework introduced in 2011 although to date it has played a limited role in addressing gender risks and vulnerabilities.20
B. Government of Cambodia International Commitments to Gender Equality
23. In 1992, the government ratified the United Nations (UN) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and in 2011 Cambodia ratified the Optional Protocol to CEDAW.21 Cambodia is also signatory to other international conventions to promote women’s and girls’ rights including the Platform for Action of the UN Fourth World Conference on Women; Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child.22
24. In 2015, the government endorsed the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda that carries forward and amplifies the work of the Millennium Development Goals. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)23 include SDG 5 which focuses on achieving gender equality and empowering women and girls, as well many other targets that include gender equality related targets and indicators. Of the nine targets in SDG 5, two are highly relevant to the project, namely, to end all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere and to ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision making in political, economic and public life. The MOWA has taken SDG5 into consideration in the priority programs of the Neary Rattanak IV: (i) freedom from violence against women and girls; (ii) gender equality in capabilities and resources, including education, health and economic resources and opportunities; and (iii) gender equality in decision making power in the public and private sectors.
C. Institutional Frameworks for Gender Equality
1. Ministry of Women’s Affairs
25. The Ministry of Women’s Affairs (MOWA) was established in 1993. Its mandate has evolved from implementing and managing projects related to gender equality and women’s empowerment, to a role to coordinate, facilitate and advocate for gender mainstreaming and gender-responsive policies, strategic plans and programs within and across government and public institutions. In this role, MOWA is responsible for monitoring and evaluating policy and program compliance with the government’s goals for promoting gender equality and the
19 Footnote 17, Policy Brief 3: Women’s Economic Empowerment 20 UN Women. 2015. Report on Social Protection and Migration in Cambodia. Bangkok. 21 United Nations. 1979. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. New York. 22 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2016. Summary of the Impact of Gender Policy Processes on the Right to Food: The Case of Cambodia. Phnom Penh. 23 United Nations Development Programme. http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development- goals.html.
7 empowerment of women. Through its offices in provinces and districts, MOWA coordinates the implementation of women’s programs with other line departments in their jurisdictions. Development agencies provide technical support and resources to MOWA for this process.
26. MOWA provides support to a national machinery for gender equality that includes:
(i) The Cambodian National Council for Women (CNCW) which is an inter-ministerial committee that coordinates, monitors and evaluates the implementation of national policies, laws and international conventions to promote the rights and status of women. Established in 2001, the CNCW is led by Her Majesty the Queen as Honorary Chair, the Prime Minister as Honorary Deputy Chair, and the Minister for Women’s Affairs as the Executive Chair. Secretaries of State from all key line ministries and government agencies are members of the CNCW.
(ii) The National Committee for Upholding Cambodian Social Morality, Women’s and Khmer Family Values whose mandate is to contribute to the enhancement of the status and roles of Cambodian women by protecting national culture and promoting social morality. MOWA is the chair and members come from relevant ministries and institutions.
(iii) The Technical Working Group on Gender (TWG-G) was formed in 2004 as a forum to discuss and contribute to the formulation of gender-related policies, laws, and strategies. MOWA chairs the TWG-G with the United Nations Development Programme and the Japan International Cooperation Agency as co-facilitators. The TWG-G has membership from 31 government ministries and agencies, 14 development partners ,and 15 civil society organizations.
(iv) The Program Based Approach (PBA) Committee, established in 2012, directs the implementation of PBA to government policy to support gender equality, and coordinates collaboration and mobilization of resources and capacity building around the PBA. MOWA chairs the PBA Committee with members from key line ministries and government agencies.
(v) MOWA supports the government to mainstream gender in the Public Financial Management Reform Program (PFMRP). Gender-responsive budgeting is a crosscutting issue introduced in Phase 2 of the PFMRP (2008-2015). The third phase of the PFMRP (2016-2020) is focusing on building further capacity across government ministries to integrate gender into planning and budgeting for government policies and programs.24
27. Since 2005, MOWA has supported the establishment of Gender Mainstreaming Action Groups (GMAGs) in all line ministries and government agencies (footnote 17). GMAGs are chaired by a Secretary of State or other senior person in each ministry, and include representation from all ministry departments. At present, 24 ministries have prepared Gender Mainstreaming Action Plans (GMAPs) that set out ministerial objectives and actions to support gender-responsive policies and programs and gender mainstreaming capacity development within the ministry at national and sub-national levels.
24 Government of Cambodia, MOWA. 2017. Perspective on Gender-Responsive Budgeting in Cambodia, presentation to the Regional Forum on Gender-Responsive Budgeting in Asia and the Pacific, organized by UN-ESCAP, July 2017. Phnom Penh.
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28. MOWA and the CNCW are working together to promote gender mainstreaming across the ministries and agencies of the government. Ministries are encouraged to update GMAPs aligned with the 5-year mandates of the government. However, the ability of most ministries to implement or update GMAPs depends on the availability of financial and other resources, largely from donors. MOWA is working actively through the PFMRP to develop acceptance among and capacity within ministries to adopt gender-responsive budgeting, including the identification of pilot initiatives in key ministries (footnote 24).
2. Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology
29. The Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology (MOWRAM) is the lead institution in Cambodia for water resources management and development, flood and drought management, water-related legislation and regulations and water resources information. MOWRAM is mandated to implement the 2007 Law on Water Resources Management (the Water Law).
30. At the national level, MOWRAM has a staff of 633 people working in 12 departments. PDWRAM are established in each of the 24 provinces with a total provincial staff of 625 people and includes 54 women (9%). In Battambang Province, the PDWRAM has a staff of 67 including 8 women (12%). Overall, women account for less than 10% of MOWRAM managers. At the national level, there is a single female Deputy Director General, the most senior among other female managers are several Deputy Directors of departments. At the provincial level, 1 province has a female Deputy Director and among 63 District Chiefs, there is 1 woman.
31. To ensure effective water resources management and to supply sufficient water for agriculture, MOWRAM develops, rehabilitates, and maintains irrigation systems and implements a policy of Participatory Irrigation Management and Development that encourages farmers to self- manage irrigation systems. The Department of FWUCs at MOWRAM is tasked with establishing the institutional environment, including support for the establishment, registration, and operation of FWUCs. As of 2012, there were an estimated 2,500 irrigation systems in Cambodia with 500 FWUCs; of these, MOWRAM reported 288 FWUCs registered in 21 provinces.25
32. For the implementation of the project, MOWRAM has established a project management unit (PMU) based in the Department of FWUCs. Its overall function is to oversee the implementation of the project, in close coordination with the project management implementation consultants. The PMU is composed of 13 staff including 2 women who are responsible for administration, finance, and procurement. The Deputy Director of the Department of FWUCs is the designated gender focal point in the PMU.
3. MOWRAM Gender Mainstreaming Action Plan
33. In 2007, MOWRAM established a gender working group (GWG) composed of senior staff from the ministry and each of its 12 departments; presently, 14 of the 18 members are women (78%). A gender focal point (GFP) is designated at the national offices of the ministry and in each of the 24 PDWRAMs; the GFPs are generally women who hold staff positions in administration or the Department of FWUCs and, in one instance, the PDWRAM Deputy Director.26 Their role is to collect gender data and identify gender issues, particularly with reference to FWUCs.
25 Trustbuilding. 2012. FWUCs Development in Cambodia. https://trustbuilding.wordpress.com/2012/09/22/fwucs- development-in-cambodia/ (accessed 30 March 2018). 26 Interview with Ms. Dom Thach, Deputy Director, Planning and International Cooperation and member, MOWRAM GWG, at MOWRAM office, Phnom Penh, 19 March 2018.
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34. Following its establishment, the GMAG prepared a GMAP 2007-2011, with support from ADB. The GMAP 2007-2011 identified strategies and targets to be achieved by 2010 (see Table A7). In 2014, ADB again supported MOWRAM GMAG to update the GMAP to cover the period 2014-2018 (see Table A8).
35. The principal constraints that affect the ability of MOWRAM to effectively implement its GMAP have been identified as a continued lack of knowledge of and ability to integrate gender into the work of the ministry, including integrating gender analysis into the project cycle and preparing gender-responsive proposals (footnote 26). The priorities for assistance from the project include support for strengthening the collection and management of sex-disaggregated data, training needs assessment and development of a capacity development program and opportunities for members of the GWG and GFPs to participate in study tours to irrigation schemes in Cambodia in order to meet with FWUC members for the schemes (footnote 26). These are addressed in the gender action plan (GAP).
4. Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
36. In 2015, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) updated its Gender Mainstreaming Strategy and Gender Action Plan (GAP).27 The GAP defines activities to support the strategic objectives, namely: (i) promote women’s economic empowerment through women’s access to goods and services for agricultural development and markets; (ii) strengthen capacities, resources and commitment within MAFF to ensure effective gender mainstreaming in the sector; and (iii) increase women’s and men’s equal representation and participation in the sector. Partners including Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, European Union, Oxfam, and SNV Netherlands have supported the MAFF GAP. MAFF promotes and supports farmers to establish and register Agricultural Development Communities (ADCs) under the Law on Agricultural Cooperatives adopted by the government in 2013. Farmers who join ADCs receive support from the Provincial Department of Agriculture (PDA) in areas such as rice seed production, vegetable production, and facilitating access to inputs and equipment. Women are very active in ADCs: in Battambang, they account for 56% of ADC members;28 in Kampong Cham, women account for 47% of ADC members.29
5. Commune Committee for Women and Children
37. The Commune Council is elected for a 5-year term by people living within its territory, and represents local government in Cambodia. In 2004 with support from UNICEF, the government established the Commune Committee for Women and Children, a consultative committee that addresses, raises awareness about and advocates for issues relevant to women and children in the commune including, amongst others, gender equality, children’s health and protection, hygiene and sanitation, and domestic violence. The membership of the Commune Committee for Women and Children includes the commune chief as chair, a commune women and children’s focal point and other members that represent local schools, health centers, and village chiefs. The focal point is most often a woman who is an elected member of the Council or, if there are no female councilors, a woman appointed by the commune chief.
27 Government of Cambodia, MAFF. 2015. Gender Mainstreaming Policy and Strategic Framework in Agriculture, 2016- 2020. Phnom Penh, and Government of Cambodia, MAFF. 2015. Gender Mainstreaming Action Plan in Agriculture, 2016-2020. Phnom Penh. 28 Interview with Mr. Chev Choeum, PDA staff, Battambang, 14 March 2018. 29 Interview with PDA staff, Kampong Cham, March 2018.
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D. ADB Gender Priorities for Cambodia
38. The ADB Cambodia Country Partnership Strategy (CPS), 2014-201830 prioritizes support for development that will achieve goals for: (i) sustainable economic growth; (ii) creating employment; (iii) reducing poverty; and (iv) strengthening institutional capacity. The CPS commits to investing in gender equity and women’s empowerment to ensure inclusive growth, with a particular focus on strong gender results in the agriculture and natural resource management, education, water supply and sanitation and transportation sectors.
39. The gender analysis conducted to inform the preparation of the CPS highlights the continued reliance of Cambodian women on employment in the agriculture sector, the high proportion of women engaged in vulnerable employment, and the resistance to women’s participation in public decision making.31 The proposed gender strategy with reference to the agriculture sector of particular relevance to the project includes initiatives to (i) address productivity constraints; (ii) increase women’s farming income through increased efficiency and climate-resilience of irrigation systems; (iii) promote women’s access to economic and financial resources; and (iv) enhance women’s voice through representation on decision making bodies (footnote 31).
IV. GENDER CONDITIONS AND RELATIONS IN CAMBODIA
A. Gender Issues in Agriculture Sector
40. The agriculture sector accounts for about 28% of the gross domestic product of Cambodia.32 Rice cultivation is the dominant agricultural activity: (i) it occupies nearly 75% of agricultural land;33 (ii) accounts for 87% of households that engage in crop production;34 and (iii) contributes 60% of the sector’s value addition to gross domestic product (footnote 32). About one- quarter of households grow at least two different crops (footnote 34). The increases in the production of maize, cassava, sugarcane, and vegetables have been significant in recent years (footnote 33). Three-quarters of agricultural households also raise livestock of which 70% keep poultry and nearly 100% raise pigs as sources of household food and income (footnote 34). Most rice grown in Cambodia is rain-fed and vulnerable to climate events. Only 28% of rice land is irrigated, primarily to supplement rainfall during the wet season rice crop (footnote 33). Less than 10% of rice land is irrigated in the dry season, the lowest rate in Asia.35 As a consequence, fewer than half of farms produce two or more crops annually (footnote 33). Cambodian farms are small with 60% are less than 2 ha and 41% are less than 1 ha (footnote 34).
1. Women’s participation in agricultural value chains
41. Cambodia has a population of slightly more than 16 million people, 79% of whom live in rural areas.36 Women comprised 49% of the labor force in 2012, with a labor force participation
30 ADB. 2014. Country Partnership Strategy: Cambodia, 2014-2018. Manila. 31 Footnote 30, Gender Analysis (Summary). 32 World Bank Group. 2016. Cambodia Economic Update, October 2016: Enhancing Export Competitiveness, the Key to Cambodia’s Future Economic Success. World Bank, Phnom Penh. 33 Government of Cambodia, Ministry of Planning (MOP), National Institute of Statistics (NIS). 2015. Census of Agriculture of the Kingdom of Cambodia 2013. Phnom Penh. 34 Finscope. 2016. Consumer Survey Cambodia 2016 Agriculture Dashboard. http://www.finmark.org.za/wp- content/uploads/2017/04/finscope-cambodia-agriculture.pdf (accessed 20 April 2018). 35 World Bank Group. 2015. Cambodian Agriculture in Transition: Opportunities and Risks. Washington, D.C. 36 World Bank Group. Data for 2017. https://data.worldbank.org/country/cambodia (accessed 30 August 2018).
11 rate of 80% compared to 89% for men.37 While just over half of all employment is in the agriculture sector, 38 two-thirds of women’s employment is in agriculture. 39 Moreover, 70% of women compared to 59% of men are engaged in vulnerable employment, they work as unpaid contributing family members and own-account workers, often in the agricultural sector.40 Female- headed households (FHHs) account for 26% of all agricultural households.41
a. Crop Production
42. Rice production requires the participation of both men and women. Men plough and prepare the land, manage irrigation and apply fertilizers and pesticides. Women prepare rice seedlings and weed them after they are transplanted. Transplanting and harvesting rice and drying rice paddy are activities that are done by women and men working together. Roles may change depending on the availability of human labor or machines that replace human labor. For example, the introduction and increasing use of mechanized equipment involves primarily men. In households where men migrate for wage employment, women are increasingly responsible for carrying out and/or recruiting labor to manage growing and harvesting rice, and trading (footnote 38). Rural women often engage in a reciprocal system of providing unpaid labor to help extended family and relatives. Throughout the rural areas in Cambodia, farmers hire non-family labor at critical points in the rice cycle, for example during transplanting and harvesting. This provides a source of cash income for rural women and men, in particular people from landless households.42 Cambodian women have always grown diverse vegetables in home gardens, primarily for household consumption. Women as well as men are very active in the cultivation of vegetables as cash crops for sale in local and regional markets. Data indicates that 21% of FHHs produce cash crops compared with 29% of male-headed households (MHHs) (footnote 33).
b. Livestock
43. Raising livestock is an important source of income for many agricultural households. Most rural women raise poultry (chickens and ducks) and pigs, while men tend to be responsible for larger animals.43 This division of labor allows women to care for animals that can be raised in close proximity to home. The smaller animals are important sources of household food. All livestock is a source of household income and larger animals are often considered a form of savings or insurance against accidents, illness, death, and natural disasters.
c. Marketing
44. Rice farmers frequently sell their paddy at the farm gate to rice mills that buy wet paddy that they will dry themselves, or to traders who come from Viet Nam and Thailand. Vegetables are most often sold as fresh produce in local and regional markets. Vendors in these markets are predominantly women. Women also operate businesses as collectors and traders to buy produce
37 Footnote 35, Labor force participation rate (LFPR) defines the proportion of the population aged 15 to 64 years that is economically active. 38 The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries has issued a report in 2017 that finds that the proportion of the Cambodian labor force employed in agriculture has dropped to 40%. It was not possible to access this report. https://opendevelopmentcambodia.net/topics/agriculture-and-fishing/ (accessed 20 April 2018). 39 Government of Cambodia, MOP, NIS. 2013. Cambodia Inter-Censal Population Survey. Phnom Penh. 40 Government of Cambodia, MOP, NIS. 2012. Cambodia Socio-Economic Survey. Phnom Penh. 41 ADB and International Labour Organization (ILO). 2013. Gender Equality in the Labor Market in Cambodia. Manila. 42 World Bank Group. 2015. Cambodian Agriculture in Transition: Opportunities and Risks. Washington, D.C. 43 ADB. 2015. Promoting Women’s Economic Empowerment in Cambodia. Phnom Penh.
12 from farmers for resale to vendors and regional and provincial wholesale market businesses.
2. Land access, control and ownership
45. In Cambodia, men have greater access to and control of land, they own 73% of all agricultural holdings while women own 27%.44 More than half of women landowners (55%) have holdings of less than 1 ha compared with 43% of men. Men are twice as likely as women to own larger holdings of more than 4 ha. Women’s knowledge of their rights regarding land ownership is generally low. Although the government's systematic Land Titling Program stipulates joint land ownership for spouses, there is pervasive evidence that women are not being included equally in the land registration process (footnote 43). When women attempt to register land themselves, they face challenges related to a lack of documents to prove their claims, poor understanding of the process and insufficient money to pay informal fees to local officials.45 Women are at risk of losing access and rights to land as a result of divorce, separation, or abandonment (footnote 19). FHHs who own very small holdings are particularly vulnerable, they are at greater risk of falling into a cycle of indebtedness, including forced sales of their land assets.
3. Access to labor and credit
46. Rural households traditionally rely on the labor of everyone in the household, women, men and, sometimes, children. Women who head agricultural households are very often at a disadvantage as there are fewer or no adult men to contribute their labor. As a consequence, many FHHs are less productive or must hire-in labor or acquire technology to compensate for the lack of labor.
47. Cash flow is a perennial problem for most Cambodian farmers. As many as 50% of farmers obtain credit from informal moneylenders including input suppliers, millers, family, and friends (footnote 35). These funds are available at short notice when farmers need to buy inputs and do not require collateral that many female farmers do not have. However, repaying loans to suppliers and millers often entangles farmers in a cycle of debt. Another source of informal credit is village- based savings and lending groups that have been facilitated by NGOs in many rural communities. These groups generally target women and provide small amounts of money to subsidize agricultural input and labor costs, buy inventory for micro-enterprises, pay medical expenses and, often, to enable members to buy food for home consumption. However, the amount of money available is often insufficient to satisfy women farmers’ needs. Also, data collected at the national level suggest that only 5% of households accessed self-help groups or cooperatives (footnote 45).
48. Formal credit is becoming more available in Cambodia with 90% of rural villages now have access to a micro-finance institution (MFI) (footnote 35). However, only one-third of rural households use MFI loans to finance their agricultural activities (footnote 45). Several factors limit women’s access to and use of formal credit: (i) the lack of collateral, illiteracy or low reading skills, low financial literacy and lack of experience dealing with formal institutions or negotiations may make women reluctant to approach MFIs; and (ii) there may be institutional bias on the part of MFIs based on gender and/or economic criteria that make it less likely that women’s loan requests
44 The data on land ownership have been sourced from: FAO. 2015. Thematic Papers from the Census of Agriculture of the Kingdom of Cambodia 2013. Phnom Penh. and Government of Cambodia, MAFF. 2015. Gender Mainstreaming Policy and Strategic Framework in Agriculture 2016-2020. Phnom Penh. 45 FAO. 2015. Thematic Papers from the Census of Agriculture of the Kingdom of Cambodia 2013. Phnom Penh.
13 are approved.46
4. Access to information, technical assistance, and training
49. Price information is crucial to farmers. The use of mobile phone technology to disseminate price information is relatively new in Cambodia. To date, it is primarily private parties (farmers and suppliers) sharing price information by phone, with only 10% of farmers receiving text messages from government or NGO sources (footnote 35). As of late 2015, 94% of Cambodians owned a mobile phone, including a majority having a phone with Khmer script capability.47 However, phone ownership was lower in rural areas and less than half of women had a phone compared with two- thirds of men. Women frequently have access to radio (if not TV) and, therefore, access to the price information available from these sources.
50. Throughout Cambodia, many farmers lack access to government agricultural extension services. There are too few agricultural extension officers; the majority work from provincial offices and due to a lack of budget, they are often only able to work with farmers as counterparts to donor and NGO projects. Increasingly, farmers receive technical information from private companies that sell seeds, fertilizers, and other agricultural inputs or from donor and NGO projects.
51. Women account for only 12% of government agricultural extension officers48 and female farmers receive only 10% of government agricultural extension services.49 There are systemic problems with women’s access to technical information and training, including: (i) many field extension officers have limited knowledge and experience with improved cultivation and water management technologies, climate-smart practices, agriculture-nutrition linkages, etc.; (ii) training programs often do not take into consideration the time and mobility limitations of women; (iii) agricultural extension officers have limited capacity to address limited literacy, use adult learning methods or incorporate other means appropriate to working with women; and (iv) socio- cultural norms continue to impede and affect how unrelated men and women interact.
5. Mechanization
52. The introduction of mechanized farm equipment is a natural part of the evolution of Cambodian agriculture and an explicit response to the increasing shortage of agricultural labor. As with many changes, the impacts on gender roles are mixed. In general, men are benefiting more than women, for example, 31% of FHHs have access to a plough compared with 48% of MHHs (footnote 49). Mechanization has contributed to increased agricultural yields that raise household incomes (footnote 35). Time and labor saving are key factors (footnote 35). It takes a man with a pair of cows 8 days to plough a 1 ha field; with a tractor, the same work takes half a day. Direct sowing of rice seed reduces the time to about one day per hectare. This compares to the 20-28 days it takes women to manually transplant a hectare of rice seedlings. A mechanized harvester can harvest a hectare of rice in 1 day compared with the 20-28 days it takes men and women to do this manually.
53. The development of new technologies is often assumed to be gender-neutral and, therefore, does not take into consideration relevant ergonomic or functional characteristics that
46 USAID. 1993. Women and Financial Services in Developing Countries. https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/1811/66485/CFAES_ESO_2056.pdf?sequence=1 47 USAID and The Asia Foundation. 2015. Mobile Phones and Internet in Cambodia in 2015. Phnom Penh. 48 MAFF. 2015. Gender Mainstreaming Policy and Strategic Framework in Agriculture 2016-2020. Phnom Penh. 49 Footnote 17, Policy Brief 3: Women’s Economic Empowerment.
14 are particular to women’s use of machines such as size, weight, cost, and time-use. 50 In Cambodia, traditional societal norms tend to discount women’s capacities, and consider technical knowledge, education, and the adoption of new technologies to be a male domain. Very small farms including those owned by FHHs are more risk averse and less able to mechanize production processes.51 Labor will continue to be replaced by mechanized equipment in Cambodia (footnote 35). When women are able to benefit from the time savings afforded by mechanization, they will gain opportunities to expand their agricultural activities or off-farm businesses (footnote 35). At the same time, however, women are at risk of being displaced from traditional activities and sources of income. Transplanting and harvesting rice are, for example, primary wage-earning opportunities for landless and land-poor women (footnote 43). As new technologies are introduced, there are also potential unintended risks for women associated with male capture of women’s productive activities, increased time demands on women and intra-household stress as gender roles adapt (footnote 51).
6. Vulnerability to shocks
54. Cambodia is highly vulnerable to changing climatic conditions that include increased frequency and intensity of droughts and floods, leading to crop failure, spread of disease among animals, family illness or other unplanned expenditures. Women and girls constitute the largest social group that is adversely affected by natural disasters and climate change;52 women are affected in different and, often, disproportionate ways compared with men.53 Women’s greater vulnerabilities are closely linked to (i) their reliance on agriculture for employment and income, and the financial impacts of crop failure; (ii) the additional time and energy required to carry out their family and household responsibilities during periods of floods and drought, due to lack of safe water and basic food supplies, increased family illness, etc.; and (iii) women’s limited decision making power and unequal access to and control over resources.54 These constraints often prevent women from adopting effective strategies to prepare, adapt, and respond to natural disasters and climate change.
B. Women’s Economic Opportunities
1. Access to education
55. Major achievements in recent years have been the increased enrolment in primary schools and the virtual elimination or reversal of the gender gap in basic education (grades 1-9). Approximately 97% of young girls and boys aged 6-11 years are enrolled in primary school (footnote 19). At the lower secondary level, there is a significant decline in overall enrolment, but the net enrolment for girls (33%) is higher than for boys (27%) (footnote 54). However, drop-out, and non-completion rates at both levels are higher for girls than for boys. Young women (15-24
50 M.S., Meena. 2013. Gender Perspective in Integrated Farming System. Indian Council of Agricultural Research. 51 C. Ragasa. 2012. Gender and Institutional Dimensions of Agricultural Technology Adoption: A Review of Literature and Synthesis of 35 Case Studies. International Association of Agricultural Economists. 52 UN Women. 2016. Action Not Words, Confronting Gender Equality through Climate Change Action and Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: An overview of progress in Asia with evidence from Bangladesh, Cambodia and Viet Nam. Bangkok. 53 ActionAid. 2014. Flood Impacts on Women: Exploring Possibilities of Gender Sensitive DRR Planning. Phnom Penh. 54 The Asia Foundation in Cambodia and Open Development Cambodia collaborated in 2017 to produce the “Cambodia Atlas of Gender and the Environment” that analyzes existing data and maps to understand a engendered perspective of climate change impacts. https://data.opendevelopmentmekong.net/dataset/8d960343-d3d6-4a2c-8e5a- 618d06321628/resource/df811327-8e9c-45fc-be8a-411676444f8d/download/cambodia-atlas-on-gender-and- environment.pdf.pdf (accessed 30 August 2018).
15 years) have achieved literacy rates over 90% with near gender parity.55 Among older people, however, there is a literacy gender gap of nearly 15%: in 2013, the literacy rate for women in rural areas over the age of 15 years was 69.7%; for men in rural areas, the rate was 84.1% (footnote 39). In rural areas, compared to men, fewer adult women attended school and, among those who did, were more likely to drop out before completing their basic education in order to work, start a family or both.56 Women’s lack of reading skills and education are major reasons they do not participate in training programs, and miss out on opportunities to learn, participate, discuss issues that concern them and find solutions to their problems. These gaps also reinforce many women’s lack of self-confidence, their shyness and fear of ridicule at speaking out, especially in mixed groups with men.
2. Economic opportunities
56. The Cambodian economy has begun to transition from reliance on agriculture to a more diversified economy based on services and industry. However, fewer women than men have as yet moved to wage employment in non-agricultural sectors (footnote 43). Wage employment for women represents only 30% of women’s paid work.57 Manufacturing, particularly garments and footwear,58 accounts for 45% of women’s wage employment. Women benefit less than men from wage work, with average monthly wages equal to less than 81% of men’s earnings (footnote 30). Women own 65% of private businesses in Cambodia although, on average, women operate microenterprises that are smaller than those run by men. 59 Women’s businesses are less profitable than businesses run by men, and they are more highly concentrated in the wholesale and retail trade, and services. Women are less likely than men to have a registered business.
3. Gender and income poverty
57. The level of income poverty in Cambodia dropped from 53% of the population in 2004 to 18% in 2012 (footnote 35). Cultivation of new, more profitable rice species, crop diversification, increased productivity and higher wages in the agricultural sector are among key reasons for moving millions of Cambodians out of poverty. However, half of Cambodia’s poor live in rural areas and many households remain vulnerable to falling back into poverty. It is estimated that a loss as small as 1,200 Riels per day ($0.70) could result in doubling the incidence of poverty (footnote 35). Households headed by women in Cambodia do not have income poverty levels that are significantly different from those of households headed by men. Nonetheless, FHHs are more vulnerable than other households, particularly those with two or more children and no adult male members.60 As noted previously, FHHs have smaller landholdings than men and 70% of women are engaged in vulnerable employment. Further, recent declines in poverty rates do not necessarily improve women’s conditions if benefits are not shared equally in households (footnote 60).
4. Labor migration
58. Labor migration is a coping strategy increasingly used by women and men in response to
55 UNESCO Institute for Statistics. http://uis.unesco.org/en/topic/literacy. 56 CARE International. 2015. Know and Grow Proposal in Response to the Patsy Collins Trust Fund Initiative Request for Proposal. 57 Footnote 43, The remainder, 70%, is classified as vulnerable employment. 58 Based on ILO data for 2016, the Cambodian garment sector employs 630,000 people, 80% of whom are women. 59 Government of Cambodia, MOP, NIS. 2013. Census of Agriculture of the Kingdom of Cambodia 2011. Phnom Penh. 60 ADB. 2014. Cambodia Country Poverty Analysis 2014. Manila.
16 diminishing opportunities in the agriculture sector. Rural-urban migration has been predominantly to Phnom Penh and other urban centers in the country (footnote 43). More recently, due to the large number of people entering the labor force and limited opportunities in Cambodia, men and, increasingly, women are leaving the country to find work abroad.61
Table 1: Migration Rates in Core Subprojects (% of population, 18-60 years) National International Core Subproject Male Female Male Female Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme 6.9% 4.7% 22.2% 14.8% Prek Po Irrigation Scheme 12.3% 16.4% 1.7% 1.0% Stung Chinit South 15.2% 14.4% 10.6% 6.2% Canal 15 14.9% 15.6% 8.6% 9.2% Sources: Commune Database (Kamping Pouy and Prek Po Irrigation Schemes) and Commune Database (Stung Chinit South and Canal 15), 2014.
59. The attraction of work-related migration is higher wages. Women working in the garment sector earn, on average, 45% more than an agricultural laborer (footnote 35). Unskilled Cambodians that migrate elsewhere in Southeast Asia can earn 2-4 times the daily wage of agricultural laborers in Cambodia (see Table A9). The factors that push people to migrate from rural communities include: (i) landlessness or lack of sufficient land for sustainable agriculture; (ii) the impact of climate change on rural livelihoods; (iii) persistent cycles of indebtedness; and (iv) the most important factor, the lack of alternative employment opportunities.62
60. Women account for nearly 60% of all migrants to Phnom Penh.63 The occupations of migrants tend to be gender-specific: women work primarily as garment workers, small business owners, domestic workers and in the service or entertainment sector; men work as unskilled or skilled labor in construction or as drivers or security personnel (footnote 63). Among migrants, women regularly earn less than men (footnote 63). Nonetheless, women are more likely to send remittances back home to their families and to remit as much as 20% more of their earnings than men (footnote 60). In 2010-2012, women accounted for 38% of Cambodians registered to work in Thailand; and 87% of Cambodians who migrated to Malaysia (footnote 61). Cross-border labor migration is projected to increase due to demand from large numbers of young Cambodians entering the labor force, the wage disparities between Cambodia and other countries, and increased economic ties and regional integration through the Associate of Southeast Asian Nations (footnote 62).
61. For women who migrate for work, the social and economic impacts are both positive and negative. The income they earn helps to meet household needs and finance household economic activities (footnote 35). However, women migrants are concentrated in low paying jobs which are exposed to physical and sexual abuse, at greater risk of under-nutrition, and experience high levels of stress over money and loneliness (footnote 43). When women return to their communities, cultural and social norms influence whether the knowledge and skills they gained
61 ILO. 2013. Cross-Border Labor Migration in Cambodia: Considerations for the National Employment Policy. Bangkok. 62 USAID. 2016. Economic Targeting for Employment: A Study on the Drivers Behind International Migration from Cambodia and the Domestic Labor Market. 63 Government of Cambodia, MOP. 2013. A CRUMP Series Report: Women and Migration in Cambodia. Phnom Penh.
17 will be recognized as a source of greater empowerment or whether they will be expected to readjust to traditional roles. 64 Difficulties in reintegrating may lead to domestic violence or women’s re-migration.65
62. Women who remain when their husbands migrate may begin to assume greater management roles in agriculture, often taking on responsibilities that would normally be done by men such as hiring in labor and negotiating with traders. However, migration leads to heavier work burdens, particularly for grandmothers who care for young children when mothers migrate. Moreover, young girls and boys appear to be filling rural labor gaps: 63% of young people are out of school, never having attended or having dropped out before completing grade 9 and 69% of the youth workforce in Cambodia is in the agriculture sector.66
C. Women’s Participation in Community Affairs
1. Local Government
63. Women’s representation in the political sphere and their participation in public decision making remains low. At the local level, the proportion of women elected to commune councils increased from 14.6% in 2007 to 17.8% in 2012, but dropped slightly in 2017 to 16.8%. 67 Cambodia has yet to achieve the Millennium Development Goal for 2015 that 25% of commune councilors are women.68 Among reasons cited in the most recent commune elections are gender bias and the influence of party politics.69
64. Notwithstanding, men and women in Cambodia are increasingly supportive of more active roles for women in local government at the commune and village levels, and in community affairs.70 Women are seen as particularly well-placed to understand, address, and advocate for the needs of women in their communities. Many women have dynamic social networks at the local level, facilitating roles to disseminate information and mobilize participation. Men as well as women recognize that women often have personal skills and experience that make them more successful at finding peaceful resolutions to conflict and disputes.71 The principal constraints on greater participation of women include time and mobility constraints due to their reproductive responsibilities; low self-confidence that stems from their perception they do not have the necessary education or qualifications; and lack of strong support from their families and husbands (footnote 70).
2. Farmer Water User Group
64 ILO and UN Women. 2015. Valuing the contributions of women migrant workers in ASEAN. Bangkok. 65 International Organization for Migration and Migration Policy Institute. 2015. Women’s Labor Migration from Asia and the Pacific: Opportunities and Challenges. Institute for Public Policy Research (IPPR), 2009. Return Migrants in Sri Lanka. 66 ILO. 2015. Youth Employment: Why it is an issue for Cambodia?. Bangkok. 67 The Cambodian NGO Committee on CEDAW. http://ngocedaw.org/womens-representation-decreases-after- commune-election/ (accessed 2 May 2018). 68 USAID. 2013. Policy Brief: Women’s Political Representation in Cambodia. Phnom Penh. 69 L. Kijewski and Y. Sineat. 2017. Women make few gains at polls. The Phnom Penh Post. 14 June. https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/women-make-few-gains-polls (accessed 2 May 2018). 70 S. Ky. 2016. How Women’s Roles in Local Politics are Understood at the Commune Level: Boeung Preah Commune, Cambodia (Prey Veng). University of Wellington. 71 B. Resurreccion. 2008. Mainstreaming Gender in Community Fisheries in the Tonle Sap. Water & Development Publications, Helsinki University of Technology.
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65. Farmer water user groups (FWUCs) were first established in Cambodia in 1999,72 in conjunction with MOWRAM’s Participatory Irrigation Management and Development program to promote community management of irrigation infrastructure. A decade later, only 230 of 2,525 irrigation schemes had a FWUC, of which 62% were non-functional (footnote 72). Assessments of the issues that contribute to this situation include, among others, the passive or non- participation of members.73 Farmers do not have a sense of ownership or responsibility for FWUCs which leads to non-payment of irrigation service fees and lack of participation in system maintenance. In farmers’ views, the FWUC is only useful as a source of information about whether they will get water and to resolve their problems with irrigation. A further reason for the poor performance of FWUCs is that the government does not invest in building the management skills of farmers.74
66. The government adopted Sub-Decree No. 31 that establishes the management structure of FWUCs. Membership in the FWUC is open to any citizen who is a landowner or tenant within the irrigation scheme, and is at least 18 years old of either sex.75 Notwithstanding these criteria, relatively few women are members of FWUCs and women account for a very small percentage of FWUC management at the scheme level or secondary or tertiary canal levels. A case study of the Roung FWUC in Kampong Speu provides some insight into the activities of women who do participate in FWUCs: among members, 40% of women and 39% of men participated in meetings; however, only 7% of women contributed to management decisions compared with 41% of men.76 Women were mostly involved in activities such as planting grass on canal banks.
67. As noted, men and women in rural communities are increasingly open-minded and encouraging of women’s participation in community activities including FWUCs. However, the experience in FWUCs also demonstrates the constraints that women face.77 Major barriers for many women are their lack of time and, if FWUC meetings are outside their villages, their more limited mobility. Women talk about not being confident or “brave enough”, for instance, to speak up and influence decisions in community meetings. As a consequence, men dominate the leadership of FWUCs although a woman may be chosen to the FWUC accountant and men provide the technical inputs and make final decisions. Women are outnumbered and delegated to a passive position where they must seek men’s support to ensure their water allocation and resolve conflicts (footnote 77).
D. Gender and Social Norms
1. Traditional roles for women and men
68. Cambodia is a country steeped in social and cultural traditions that permeate gender relations. Gender stereotyping is deeply rooted in the Chbab Srey, the traditional code of conduct
72 International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and Australian Center for International Agricultural Research. 2013. Local Institutions for Irrigated Agriculture in Cambodia. Colombo. 73 IWMI. 2013. Agriculture, Irrigation and Poverty Reduction in Cambodia: Policy Narratives and Ground Realities Compared. Penang. 74 J. Ojendal and R. Bandeth. 2017. The Imperative of Good Water Governance in Cambodia. The Handbook of Contemporary Cambodia. 75 Government of Cambodia. 2015. Sub-Decree No. 31 on the Procedures for Establishment, Dissolution, Roles and Duties of the FWUC. Phnom Penh. 76 N. Bunthan. 2006. A Review of the Current Situation for Water Resources Management and the Role of Agricultural Education in Cambodia. Journal of Developments in Sustainable Agriculture. 77 Cambodia Development Resource Institute (CDRI). 2014. Gender and Water Governance: Women’s Roles in Irrigation Management and Development in the Context of Climate Change. Phnom Penh.
19 for women. This moral code instructs women to be ‘‘calm, courteous, and polite to everybody”, take care of the children and their husbands’ needs, and always show respect to their husbands.78 Gender norms see (i) men as breadwinners and heads of households; and (ii) women as weak and passive rather than active. Despite gender responsive legislation and other strategic interventions to eliminate discrimination against women and girls in Cambodia, socio-cultural norms continue to constrain educational and economic opportunities for girls and women, particularly in poor rural and remote areas where parents generally have lower literacy levels and may not value education highly. 79 These societal norms often result in undervaluing and discounting women’s economic contributions in rural households. Women’s reproductive work and much of their productive work is considered unpaid family labor. Moreover, because much of their work such as subsistence agriculture is related primarily to ensuring food security for the household, this work is often considered an extension of their reproductive roles, not productive work.80 Women’s opinions as less important than those of men and much of women’s work as invisible and not valued because it is unpaid or supports the work of men.
2. Emerging opportunities for women
69. In rural communities in Cambodia, individual and household goals, interests, and resources are constantly being reassessed and changing in light of changing social and economic conditions. Increasingly, agricultural livelihoods are no longer the default for rural households.81 Some people will continue to prosper as farmers. Others will diversify their income sources away from resource-based livelihoods because they see opportunities elsewhere in Cambodia or abroad, or because they can no longer sustain agricultural livelihoods.
70. Some women can renegotiate their position within the household as they pursue employment outside agriculture and increase their earnings. An example is a young married woman with children who now has a full-time job at a new garment factory in her home province. Because she is away all day and because her salary has become the principal source of household income, she and her husband have agreed that he will do more child care and housework.82 For young women (and their male counterparts), increased access to education and exposure to new ideas through the internet and social media are transforming their perceptions of themselves and their futures: the incidence of arranged marriages is declining; and, women are saying “if we earn our own money, men will respect and value us (footnote 70).”
71. At the community level, a recent gender study found a shift in attitudes and perceptions about FHHs in the decade between 1991 and 2011.83 By 2011, women were seen as more entrepreneurial and braver than their earlier counterparts, they could be considered the household head even if they were married and their husbands lived at home; and, it was acceptable for women working as traders or other types of entrepreneurs in local markets to earn more money than their husbands. At present, these changes are more anecdotal than systemic. As with any social change, there will be support and there will be resistance. Women will sometimes be encouraged to take steps forward; at other times, they will only be allowed to take steps sideways or may be required to step backwards. Cell phones have increased communication opportunities
78 USAID. 2015. NOURISH Gender Analysis and Integration Strategy. 79 CDRI. 2014. Legal, Policy and Institutional Context to Promote Gender Equality and Women’s and Girls’ Education. 80 FAO. 2015. Running Out of Time: The Reduction of Women’s Work Burden in Agricultural Production. Rome. 81 M. Marschke. 2017. Exploring Rural Livelihoods through the Lens of Coastal Fishers. The Handbook of Contemporary Cambodia. 82 Personal communication with So Rothavy, November 2017. 83 I. Gray. 2011. Cambodia Agriculture Value Chain Gender Study: "The rice yield is high because of the good soil” (Khmer proverb)
20 and access to information in rural communities yet the internet is not yet widely accessible outside of Phnom Penh and provincial towns. However, the rapid increase in rural villages that are now able to connect to grid electricity means increased connectivity is not far behind.
V. GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE PROJECT COMMAND AREAS
A. Demographic, Poverty, and Social Characteristics
72. In order to understand the context of gender relations in the command areas, this section describes the population characteristics and poverty conditions, as well as access to education for women and men in villages and communes in the command areas.
1. Population characteristics
73. The populations of communities in the core subprojects resemble the populations of their respective provinces, although population density is significantly higher in all of the command areas with the exception of Canal 15. The ratios of women to men in all subprojects are similar to their respective provinces, however there are more women relative to men in the Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 command areas.
74. Household sizes in subproject areas are similar. The majority of households consist of a single family. However, based on the SES survey results, between 12% and 21% of households consist of two or more families; in most cases these are multi-generational families including grandparents and/or married children. Throughout Cambodia, the large proportion of young people and the growing proportion of elderly continues to result in high dependency ratios. This is true in core subproject areas and particularly in the Stung Chinit South command area where one-third of the population is under the age of 15 years and nearly 10% is over the age of 60. The exception is with the Canal 15 command area, relatively fewer young people and elderly results in lower dependency ratios in these communities.
Table 2: Population Data in Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme and Prek Po Irrigation Scheme Command Areas Kamping Kampong Battambang Prek Po Pouy Cham Population (2014) 53,973 1.2 million 30,906 703,106 Population density (people per ha) 1.26 0.5 2.1 0.3 0-14 years (%) 31.0 31.8 31.2 30.0 15-60 years (%) 60.3 59.8 58.6 58.5 60+ years (%) 8.6 8.3 10.2 11.4 Female and male ratio 0.99 1.00 0.99 0.99 Household size (average persons) 4.5 4.8 5.0 4.6 Total dependency ratio 65.7 67.2 70.7 71.0 Youth dependency ratio 51.4 53.2 53.2 51.4 Elderly dependency ratio 14.3 14.0 17.5 19.6 Source: Commune Database (villages in Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme and Prek Po Irrigation Scheme command areas), 2014.
Table 3: Population Data in Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 Command Areas Stung Chinit Kampong Canal 15 Takeo South Thom Population (2014) 57,247 756,605 33,205 999,842 Population density (people per ha) 1.02 0.4 2.8 2.8 0-14 years (%) 32.7 32.7 29.6 30.4 15-60 years (%) 57.3 59.0 63.0 59.8
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Stung Chinit Kampong Canal 15 Takeo South Thom 60+ years (%) 10.0 8.3 7.4 9.8 Female and male ratio 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.06 Household size (average persons) 4.7 4.8 5.0 4.8 Total dependency ratio 74.5 69.5 58.7 67.2 Youth dependency ratio 57.1 55.4 47.0 50.8 Elderly dependency ratio 17.5 14.1 11.7 16.3 Source: Commune Database (villages in Stung Chinit South Irrigation Scheme and Canal 15 Irrigation Scheme command areas), 2014.
2. Ethnic Minorities
75. In the Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 command areas, there are communities of Cham, a Muslim religious minority in Cambodia, as well as some ethnic Vietnamese. In the Stung Chinit South command area, the Cham are concentrated in the villages of Doun Paen and Trapeang Chhuk (Boeng Commune), where they account for most if not all residents. In the Canal 15 command area, Cham account for slightly more than one-third of households in two communities, namely Stung Kambot (Angkor Borei Commune) and Chong Thnal (Baray Commune); and, for a smaller proportion of households in Kampong Luong (Angkor Borei Commune). Small numbers of ethnic Vietnamese live in the Canal 15 command area, primarily in the villages of Kampong Luong and Chong Thnal.
76. The Government of Cambodia classifies all Cambodians who practice Islam as Cham or “Khmer Islam;”84 it is estimated that Muslims account for 4% of the 15 million population of Cambodia.85 Cham communities in the Canal 15 command area self-identify into two distinct groups: ethnic Cham who trace their ancestry to the Champa Kingdom in what is now Viet Nam and who comprise about 70% of the Cham living in Cambodia and the Chvea, a group that originated in Java Indonesia, that is not ethnically Cham and that accounts for 20%-25% of Muslim Cham in the country (footnote 84). These two groups share religious practices such as praying five times a day, and, distinguish themselves from a third group, Jared, that are ethnically Cham but pray only once a week. The Jared account for 5% of Cham in Cambodia but do not appear to be living in subproject areas.
77. Cham in Cambodia tend to live in communities centered around their mosques, most often separate from Khmer communities. They share strong ties as a religious group who often prefer to see their children educated in religious as well as state schools and in recent years, have gained confidence in their distinct cultural identity (footnote 84). They have, nonetheless, integrated with increasing success into the mainstream of Cambodian economic and political spheres (footnote 84). Historically, Cham have been identified as and continue to practice as fishermen, particularly in communities situated along rivers. In inland areas, however, Cham are farmers, market vendors, and engage in many of the same economic activities as other Cambodians. Cham are increasingly visible as local and national political leaders.
78. Cham society is matriarchal, with property inheritance passing through the female line.86 That said, there are gender biases in Cham communities that parallel those in Khmer communities. There is a bias in favor of sons staying in school longer and getting an academic education, while daughters are more likely to receive a shorter, religious education (footnote 84).
84 USAID. 2008. Assessing the Marginalization of Cham Muslim Communities in Cambodia. Washington, D.C. 85 Islam Cambodia. www.islamcambodia.org. 86 J. Hays. 2008. Cham Facts and Details. http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Vietnam/sub5_9d/entry- 3400.html#chapter-10.
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Cham women assume primary responsibilities for child care, family health, and household management. In addition, more than three-quarters of Cham women interviewed in a study stated they earned money, although in many instances this appears to be as unpaid labor contributions to family farming and fishing activities (footnote 84). However, 26% of female respondents said someone in their families forbids them from working outside the home and 35% of husbands responded they did not want their wives to work outside the home (footnote 84).
3. Households Headed by Women
79. In communities in the core subprojects for the project, the proportion of households headed by women is, on average, 50%-75% below the national rate of 27% FHHs.87 There are no data available for Cham or ethnic Vietnamese households in Stung Chinit South or Canal 15 command areas. In the Prek Po Irrigation Scheme and Canal 15 command areas, there are several communities where one-third or more of households are headed by women. In Tong Tralach (Prek Po Irrigation Scheme), commune officials when asked about the proportion of FHHs, responded that, “nearly all our households are headed by women.”88 While understood at the time as a comment on the dynamics of households in the commune, the comment may also reflect the actual situation. On the other hand, there are communes in each of the subproject areas where the proportion of FHHs is below 10%. There is no information available to explain the differences (high and low levels) compared with the national rate.
Table 4: Female-Headed Households Core Subproject Communities by Commune Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme Prek Po Irrigation Scheme Phnom Sampov 15.2% Chi Bal 9.7% Ta Kream 11.7% Khnar Sa 36.5% Ou Ta Ki 7.0% Pram Yam 36.3% Chrey 14.9% Preaek Pou 14.6% Ou Mal 18.8% Svay Pou 14.3% Kamping Pouy Irrigation Tong Tralach 14.1% 33.2% Scheme Prek Po Irrigation Scheme 21.2% Canal 15 Stung Chinit South Angkor Borei 11.3% Chong Doung 15.1% Prey Phkoam 5.4% Boeng 21.4% Ponley 7.9% Triel 14.4% Trea 21.3% Sralao 11.9% Roka Krau 15.9% Andoung Pou 30.0% Baray 13.1% Chrolong 16.4% Sambuor 31.4% Sou Young 15.0% Srangae 14.9% Pongro 23.9% Thlok 20.8% Thnaot Chum 9.1% Canal 15 16.5% Baray 16.8% Chhuk Khsach 10.9% Stung Chinit South 16.1% Cambodia 27%
Note: Analysis by commune for villages that are included in the core subproject command areas. Sources: Commune Database, 2014 and 2016 and Ministry of Planning, 2015.
80. In FGDs with women farmers, they indicated that women who head households very often have a teenage or adult son (or son-in-law) who lives in or near her household and does not
87 Government of Cambodia, MOP, NIS. 2015. Demographic and Health Survey 2014. Phnom Penh. 88 Interview of Tong Tralach Commune Council, 22 March 2018.
23 migrate for work.89 This is relevant for rice cultivation and work-related.
4. Poverty levels
81. Between 2004 and 2012, poverty levels as measured as the proportion of people living in poverty in the core subproject communes dropped by at least 10% and, in some instances, by more than 40% (footnote 40). More recent data have been provided by the Ministry of Planning and commune officials in the core subproject areas for households that are classified as identified poor (ID Poor).90 While the proportions of people and households are not fully commensurate, the data provide a perspective on poverty within communes where the core subprojects are located. In Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme communes, approximately one-quarter of households are currently designated as poor. This represents a slight increase in the overall level of poverty in recent years, comparing the ID Poor households with poor people in 2012. The commune of Phnom Sampov is an exception in that the proportion of ID Poor is very low, although ID Poor levels are much higher in the communes of Ou Ta Ki and Chrey.
82. In Prek Po Irrigation Scheme communes, about 17% of households are designated as poor. The declines in poverty levels experienced from 2004 to 2012 appear to be sustained or there have been further declines as measured by ID Poor households in 2018, with the possible exception of the commune of Svay Pou.
Table 5: Poverty Incidence in Kamping Pouy and Prek Po Irrigation Schemes ID Poor Households Headcount, (No., 2018) Commune 2012 Number Percentage (% population) ID Poor 1 ID Poor 2 ID Poor 1 ID Poor 2 ID Poor Total Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme Phnom Sampov 21.2% 78 157 2.1% 4.3% 6.4% Ta Kream 28.5% 899 267 18.0% 5.4% 23.4% Ou Ta Ki 23.1% 740 731 16.8% 16.6% 33.5% Chrey 18.5% 470 966 12.2% 25.1% 37.4% Ou Mal 16.7% 208 512 7.5% 18.5% 25.9% Total n/a 2,395 2,633 12.2% 13.4% 25.6% % ID Poor 47.6% 52.4% Prek Po Irrigation Scheme Chi Bal 21.1% 89 117 9.5% 12.5% 22.0% Khnar Sa 22.3% 32 91 3.2% 9.2% 12.5% Pram Yam 22.1% 100 219 6.4% 14.0% 20.3% Preaek Pou 19.8% 110 233 2.9% 6.1% 9.0% Svay Pou 19.8% 250 260 14.0% 14.5% 28.5% Tong Tralach 24.4% 59 130 6.1% 13.5% 19.6% Total n/a 640 1,050 6.4% 10.5% 16.8% % ID Poor 37.9% 62.1% ID Poor = identified poor, n/a = not applicable. Note: In calculating the percentage of ID Poor households, the total number of households. Sources: Ministry of Planning, 2012 and Project socioeconomic survey, 2018: Interviews with Commune Officials (ID Poor data).
83. In the Stung Chinit South command area, the overall level of poverty has declined since 2012. Some communes have experienced dramatic further decreases in poverty levels, for
89 Women’s FGDs, Ta Kream and Chrey Communes (Battambang) and Chi Bal (Kampong Cham), March 2018. 90 The ID Poor program was initiated by the government to identify households that are eligible for social protection including, among others, health equity cards that enable households to obtain free medical services. An index measuring several parameters is used to define ID Poor levels. It is updated every 2-3 years although most village and commune leaders maintain lists of ID Poor households that they update regularly based on local knowledge.
24 example, the incidence of poverty in Baray Commune is half of the 2012 level while the level in Chong Doung is one-third of the 2012 level. On the other hand, the number of poor households nearly doubled in Chrolong Commune and increased in several other communes. In Canal 15 command area, the incidence of poverty in 2016 is moderately higher, compared to the 2012 levels. The increases have occurred in all communes in the command area. Throughout the communes in the core subproject command areas, there is a significant proportion of households that are classified as extreme poor (ID Poor 1), ranging from one-third to nearly one-half of all poor households.
Table 6: Poverty Incidence in Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 Command Areas ID Poor Households Headcount, (No., 2016) Commune 2012 Number Percentage (% population) ID Poor 1 ID Poor 2 ID Poor 1 ID Poor 2 ID Poor Total Stung Chinit South Chong Doung 26.5% 86 159 3.3% 6.0% 9.3% Boeng 26.3% 146 273 7.0% 13.1% 20.1% Triel 27.3% 502 620 12.3% 15.1% 27.4% Sralau 30.0% 446 349 18.6% 14.5% 33.1% Andoung Pou 23.2% 131 118 10.1% 9.1% 19.2% Chrolong 28.7% 230 440 14.6% 27.9% 42.5% Sou Young 20.2% 203 268 10.7% 14.2% 24.9% Pongro 25.4% 293 294 15,1% 15.1% 30.2% Tnaot Chum 30.8% 197 147 10.8% 8.1% 18.9% Baray 26.4% 130 218 5.0% 8.4% 13.4% Chhuk Khsach 29.7% 166 373 5.5% 12.3% 17.8% Total n/a 2,530 3,259 10.0% 12.8% 22.8% % ID Poor 43.7% 56.3% Canal 15 Angkor Borei 20.6% 290 491 10.3% 17.4% 27.7% Prey Phkoam 24.3% 215 361 9.6% 16.1% 25.6% Ponley 17.0% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Trea 23.4% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Roka Krau 18.0% 256 380 7.6% 11.3% 19.0% Baray 18.1% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Sambuor 19.9% 236 360 9.6% 14.6% 24.2% Srangae 19.1% 166 275 8.4% 13.9% 22.3% Thlok 22.5% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Total 1,163 1,867 9.0% 14.5% 23.6% % ID Poor 38.4% 61.6% ID Poor = identified poor, n/a = not applicable. Notes: 1. n/a indicates communes where ID Poor data were not collected during socioeconomic survey. Note: In calculating the percentage of ID Poor households, the total number of households. Sources: Ministry of Planning, 2018 and Project socioeconomic survey, 2018.
84. The principal reasons for poverty are similar across the communities in the core subproject irrigation schemes, namely insufficient income and lack of productive land. In the Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 communities, the strength of these reasons is greater than in the Kamping Pouy and Prek Po Irrigation Schemes communities. Also, when disaggregated by sex, men in the Stung Chinit Soyth and Canal15 communities felt that insufficient income was more important than lack of productive land to explain poverty (respective responses were 60% and 25%), whereas women in these communities indicated that both reasons were equally important as causes of poverty.
Table 7: Reasons for Poverty
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(% responses) Kamping Pouy Prek Po Stung Chinit South Canal 15 Insufficient income 38.6% 38.0% 54.4% 54.2% Landless or land poor 13.7% 8.9% 34.1% 33.3% Unemployed or no jobs 9.8% 7.6% n/a n/a Lack of education or skills 0.7% 2.9% n/a n/a Lack of labor force n/a n/a 6.8% 6.3% Health expenses n/a n/a 4.5% 6.3% n/a = not applicable. Note: n/a indicates that the reasons were not included in questionnaires and/or responses of people surveyed in the different subproject areas. Source: Project socioeconomic survey, 2018: Household Survey.
85. In rural communities in Cambodia, people’s perceptions about the level of well-being of local households often inform many decisions. Households in Kamping Pouy and Prek Po Irrigation Schemes communes were asked to rank the households in their communities and then, identify how their own household compares with others in the community (SES survey). 91 Households in both irrigation schemes tend to have similar evaluations of the levels of well-being in their communities and, interestingly, perceive that a large majority of households are well-off or even rich. However, when they compare their own households to others, the majority in the Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme communes believe their household level of well-being is the same as others. Households in the Prek Po Irrigation Scheme communes, on the other hand, are more likely to consider their households to be poor compared to others.
Table 8: How People Evaluate the Economic Situation of Households in their Village (% respondents) Kamping Pouy Prek Po Kamping Pouy Prek Po Most households in the community are Compared to others, my household is Well-off or rich 69.8% 62.0% Richer 6.4% 9.0% Have enough 22.3% 29.8% Same 68.3% 42.7% Poor 7.9% 8.2% Poorer 25.3% 48.2% Source: Project socioeconomic survey, 2018: Household Survey.
5. Education and literacy
86. More than 75% of children aged 6-11 years in the communities in the subproject command areas are enrolled in primary school, with the exception of Prek Po Irrigation Scheme communities where the net primary enrolment rate is only 65%. The rates in subproject areas compare favorably with provincial net enrolment rates, again except in Kampong Cham where the provincial rate is 84.5% (footnote 87). It is unclear why the rate is so low in Prek Po Irrigation Scheme communities. In Prek Po Irrigation Scheme communities there is a primary school in the village that is less than 1 kilometer away from most households (SES survey).
87. At the lower secondary level, enrolment rates drop dramatically. In all communities in the subproject command areas, fewer than 40% of children aged 12-14 years are enrolled in lower secondary school. The lack of financial resources to support children to remain in school is a major reason for drop-outs, as well as the need for girls, in particular, and boys to leave school to work to contribute to household work and income. In Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme, there may be a relation between girls and boys leaving school after the primary level and work migration to Thailand. The gender gap in access to basic education has largely disappeared in core subproject communities. The primary and secondary net enrolment rates for girls are generally higher than for boys; in the communities in the Canal 15 command area, the rates for girls are slightly lower
91 Similar questions were not asked during the SES and FGDs in the Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 communities.
26 than for boys. Girls are only outnumbered by boys among all primary school students regardless of age, perhaps because boys are more likely to start school at a later age than girls.
Table 9: Enrolment in Basic Education in Kamping Pouy and Prek Po Irrigation Schemes Command Areas Kamping Pouy Prek Po
Male Female Total Male Female Total Net enrolment rate Primary (% 6-11 years) 82.4 83.1 82.7 64.4 66.5 65.4 Lower secondary (% 12-14 years) 36.2 42.4 39.0 33.0 35.4 34.2 Gross enrolment Primary: Female and Male ratio 0.81 .85 Lower secondary: Female and Male ratio 1.06 1.09 Source: Commune Database, 2016 (villages in Kamping Pouy and Prek Po Irrigation Schemes command areas).
Table 10: Enrolment in Basic Education in Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 Command Areas Stung Chinit South Canal 15
Male Female Total Male Female Total Net enrolment rate Primary (% 6-11 years) 76.9 77.1 77.0 82.7 81.0 81.8 Lower secondary (% 12-14 years) 26.8 32.0 29.4 45.5 39.2 42.2 Gross enrolment Primary: Female and Male ratio 1.00 1.10 Lower secondary: Female and Male ratio 1.14 1.06 Source: Commune Database, 2016 (villages in Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 command areas). 88. Among adults in the command areas, basic education achievement levels are low and there is a clear gender gap. Relatively few adults have completed primary or lower secondary school and 10%-15% have no schooling. Women are more likely to have no schooling and have consistently, and often significantly, lower education achievement levels compared to men.
Table 11: Adult Education Achievement, Command Areas (% Socioeconomic survey respondents) Male Female Total Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme Communities No schooling 8.0% 12.8% 9.4% Primary completed 32.2% 30.5% 30.9% Lower secondary completed 7.5% 3.8% 6.4% Prek Po Irrigation Scheme Communities No schooling 5.3% 17.9% 11.4% Primary completed 15.2% 4.1% 9.8% Lower secondary completed 9.8% 2.4% 6.3% Stung Chinit South Communities No schooling 12.0% 17.6% 14.7% Primary completed 13.4% 3.8% 8.8% Lower secondary completed 11.5% 7.0% 9.2% Canal 15 Communities No schooling 8.7% 15.1% 12.2% Primary completed 10.4% 2.9% 9.1% Lower secondary completed 11.5% 10.4% 11.0% Source: Project socioeconomic survey, 2018.
89. Women as well as men tend to view their educational opportunities through the lens of traditional stereotypes about what is appropriate for women and men.
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Table 12: Perceptions of Differences in Women’s and Men’s Access to Education Women’s Views Men’s Views • It is normal, women always get less education than • It is traditional, men always have more opportunities men than women to study and work • Women do not have the same opportunities as men • Parents will encourage their sons (but not their to study daughters) to study • Women are weaker and less confident than men, • Men are confident and can go anywhere to study especially if they have to leave the village to study without having to think about their safety during • Women have less time to study; they must do travel or about sexual violence housework • It is safe for men to travel to study at night • Women have difficulty to travel safely to school; it is not safe for women to travel at night to study • Parents worry about their daughters’ safety and do not let them go to school (e.g., in Phnom Penh) Source: Project socioeconomic survey, 2018: Focus group discussions. 90. Notwithstanding, literacy rates in the core subproject command areas are very high for both women and men, including both young people and older adults. 92 The increasing net enrolment and gender parity at the primary level contribute to nearly universal literacy in young people aged 15-24 years. While the rates drop slightly, adults in these communities also have high levels of literacy among both women and men.
Table 13: Literacy Rates in Command Areas (% age group) 15-24 years 25-35 years 36-45 years Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Kamping Pouy 98.7 97.3 98.0 97.9 96.4 97.1 93.5 93.6 93.5 Prek Po 97.0 97.1 97.0 94.6 94.3 94.4 90.1 88.4 89.3 Stung Chinit South 95.1 94.4 94.8 90.6 91.0 90.8 86.6 89.0 87.9 Canal 15 95.0 93.9 94.5 96.5 96.0 96.2 91.5 92.3 91.9
Note: Commune Database does not include data for older people. Source: Commune Database, 2016.
B. Women and Men in Agriculture and Rural Livelihoods
1. Access to Agricultural Land
91. In the communes where core subprojects are located, rice land accounts for 60% or more of non-residential land uses, with the exception of the communes where the Stung Chinit South command area is located.93 In general, wet rice land accounts for two-thirds to three-quarters of all rice land. In the Canal 15 command area communes, however, the distribution of wet and dry rice land is more equal. The average area of irrigated rice land per household is 2-3 ha in communities in the Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme command area and 1.5-2.5 ha in communities in the Prek Po Irrigation Scheme command area.94 The survey data from Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme communities is similar to information provided by the Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme FWUC officials: 80% of households in the command area have 2-3 ha; 5%
92 The data on literacy in the command areas come from the Commune Database which does not include literacy data for people over the age of 45 years. 93 In Boeng Commune, over 90% of the commune territory is designated as “other”; this represents more than one- third of the total territory of communes where the Stung Chinit South command area is located. 94 Similar questions were not asked during the project socioeconomic survey in the Stung Chinit South and Canal15 command areas.
28 have as much as 10-15 ha; and, 15% have 1 hectare or less.95
Table 14: Access to Agricultural Land in Communes in the Command Areas
Stung Chinit Canal 15 Kamping Pouy Prek Po South Total area (ha) 42,783 14,961 121,766 39,234 Area on non-residential land (ha) 38,920 11,539 117,084 35,901 Area of rice land (ha) 24,304 7,422 46,273 29,712 Rice land as % non-residential land 62.4% 64.3% 39.5% 82.8% Wet rice land as % total rice land 74.1% 68.9% 67.2% 44.4% Dry rice land as % total rice land 25.9% 31.1% 32.8% 55.6% Irrigated Rice Land Average holding (ha) 2 – 3 1.5 – 2.5 n/a n/a Ownership with certificate 97% 97% n/a n/a Non-Irrigated Agricultural Land Average holding (ha) 1.5 – 2.5 1 – 2.5 n/a n/a Ownership with certificate 97% 97% n/a n/a Landless and Land-Poor Households Landless (no rice land) 28.1% 10.3% 15.2% 15.6% Land-Poor (< 1 ha rice land) 14.1% 46.4% 43.2% 41.0% ha = hectare, n/a = not applicable. Note: n/a indicates that data were not collected in the project socioeconomic survey in Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 communities. Sources: Commune Databases, 2014 and 2016; and project socioeconomic survey, 2018: Household Survey.
92. Most people in Kamping Pouy and Prek Po Irrigation Scheme communities own their agricultural land (97%), for which they have certificates.96 Local people estimated that fewer than 10% of households with land in the command areas are headed by women.97 In Cambodia, land titles issued under the government systematic land registration process should, in the event of a married couple, include the names of both the husband and the wife.98 There is, however, no available information to document how titles have been issued for land in the two command areas.
93. Households with less than 1 ha are generally considered to be land poor, that is, their holding may be too small to be profitable unless they are able to use improved technologies to increase productivity. In communes where the core subprojects are located, as many as 55%- 60% of households are land poor or landless, although these data do not specifically indicate the situation of households that have land in the command areas.
2. Gender Roles and Responsibilities in Rice Cultivation
94. In FGDs with women and interviews with other stakeholders in the core subproject command areas, it is clear that most households are using mechanized equipment to prepare fields and to plant, harvest and thresh rice crops; they are using rice varieties that can be direct sowed; and, they are selling wet paddy to traders rather than drying it themselves. These innovations and changes have a direct impact on the roles of women and men. On the one hand, women are relieved of many of the time consuming and physically difficult jobs of transplanting seedlings, harvesting and threshing rice by hand and overseeing rice drying. On the other hand,
95 Interview with Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme FWUC officials, 15 March 2018. 96 Project SES, 2018: Household Survey. Data are not available for the Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 command areas. 97 FGDs and interviews with local people, March 2018. 98 Between 2002 and 2007, 70% of properties were registered jointly in the names of the husband and wife, 20% to women alone, 5% to men alone and 5% to pagodas.
29 the increased use of machinery is perceived by both women and men as men’s work.
95. In FGDs with women, they clearly indicated that they are very active and assist their husbands during all stages of rice cultivation. When rice seed is broadcast, women ensure men have a steady supply of seed; women also help men to transplant seedlings in areas where broadcast seed did not germinate; and, during the harvest, they work with men to collect and bundle the rice.99 Among SES survey respondents, the only activities that are done primarily by men alone are land preparation and insecticide spraying. For all other activities, the work is done by husbands and wives working together.
96. In Kamping Pouy and Prek Po Irrigation Scheme communities, respectively, 87% and 96% of households sell their crops to collectors or traders who come to their farms; fewer than 10% sell at local or district markets (footnote 89). Women are largely responsible for keeping records of the sales of rice and other agricultural production, as well as inputs that are purchased and debts incurred to support agricultural activities (footnote 89).
97. At present in most core subprojects, most rice is grown during the wet season.100 When asked what preferences farmers had for what they would grow when the improved irrigation schemes can provide water all year-round, the unanimous response in command areas was a preference to grow more rice. Among women, they recognize that this will mean more time spent on rice cultivation, and that the time they spend in the fields is unpaid family labor (footnote 89). However, they also appreciate that the additional income from increased production will enable their households to better meet needs for health care and other essentials and, as well as, to buy more agricultural land.
3. Other Agricultural and Non-Agricultural Economic Activities
98. People living in Kamping Pouy and Prek Po Irrigation Scheme communities are primarily farmers. This is the primary and secondary source of income for many households. Rural households normally have diversified strategies to generate income. As evidenced by SES results, sales of livestock are the principal secondary source of household income in the command areas. Households raise poultry (chickens and ducks), cows and, to a lesser extent, pigs. Women are primarily responsible for poultry raising.
99. Income from rental property is an important primary and secondary source of income for households. There is, however, no available information about whether this is rental of land or other property, or whether men and/or women are engaged in this activity. Similarly, wage employment in the private and public sectors is an important contribution to household income. n Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme communities, the proximity of the provincial town may explain the level of wage employment as a primary source of income. There is no available information about the proportions of women’s and men’s work wage employment.
Table 15: Primary and Secondary Sources of Income in Kamping Pouy and Prek Po Irrigation Schemes Command Areas (% population)
99 Footnote 89, These issues were not addressed in FGDs or the SES survey in the Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 command areas. 100 The exception is the low-lying areas of the Canal 15 command area where annual Mekong floods mean that dry season rice is grown, just before and/or as a recession crop after the floods.
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Kamping Pouy Prek Po Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Farming 66.4% 16.2% 74.2% 21.7% Livestock sales 0.4% 37.7% 1.6% 34.3% Income from property rental 14.0% 24.5% 11.8% 23.2% Casual labor (agriculture, construction) 0.4% 0.8% 0.0% 0.0% Wage employment 12.5% 12.8% 7.1% 13.0% Handicrafts 0.8% 2.6% 0.0% 5.1% Supported by children 3.8% 1.9% 3.5% 2.4% Remittances 0.4% 0.9% 0.0% 0.0% Source: Project socioeconomic survey, 2018: Household Survey.
100. In communities in the Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 command areas, farming is the primary source of income for 80% of households. Rental income is an important primary and secondary source of income. There is a high diversity of secondary sources of income and nearly 10% of households in both command areas have no secondary source of income.
Table 16: Primary and Secondary Sources of Income in Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 Command Areas (% population) Stung Chinit South Canal 15 Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Farming 81.0% 8.8% 79.9% 7.1% Livestock sales 0.4% - 1.6% - Fishing 1.5% 1.1% 3.9% 6.3% Forestry (selling firewood, charcoal) - 0.4% - 0.4% Market sale of produce - 0.0% 0.4% Income from property rental 7.0% 12.8% 5.5% 11.8% Own business 4.0% 6.2% 3.9% 7.9% Wages (private and public sectors) 4.4% 7.3% 3.1% 9.1% Handicrafts - 2.6% - 2.4% Casual labor (agriculture, construction) 1.8% 4.8% 2.0% 6.9% Supported by children - 5.5% - 3.9% No secondary income source - 9.5% - 10.6% Source: Project socioeconomic survey, 2018: Household Survey. 101. The primary occupations of Cham and ethnic Vietnamese living in communities in the Canal 15 command area are significantly different, for both women and men, from those of Khmer living in these communities. Ethnic Vietnamese predominantly operate small businesses. Cham women and men are predominantly fishermen.
Table 17: Primary Occupations of Ethnic Vietnamese and Cham in Canal 15 (% population) Ethnic Vietnamese Cham
Male Female Male Female Business 90.5 92.2 4.3 6.8 Farming 9.5 7.8 14.9 17.9 Fishing - - 80.8 75.3 Source: Canal 15 commune officials.
4. Work-Related Migration
102. Commune Database data for communities in the core subproject command areas confirm the importance of labor migration for both women and men. Between 20% and 30% of adult men and 15%-25% of adult women migrate to work.
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103. In FGDs with women as well as SES FGDs, participants confirmed that there is increasing work-related migration involving both women and men. Migration is driven by push and pull factors, namely: (i) lack of land or other income-generating opportunities in home villages; (ii) the ease of finding employment abroad, e.g., in Thailand; and (iii) the higher wages that can be earned in factories, construction, tourism, and other activities elsewhere in Cambodia and abroad (footnote 89).
104. The destination of migrants, however, is very different in the Kamping Pouy and Prek Po Irrigation Schemes command areas and reflects factors or proximity and access to work opportunities.101 The majority of migrants from Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme communities go to Thailand and to a lesser degree, to Phnom Penh. More than three-quarters of migrants from Prek Po Irrigation Scheme communities stay in Cambodia, either in Phnom Penh or other nearby provinces.
5. Decision Making about Economic Activities
105. In core subproject communities, there is a majority view among both women and men that decisions about household economic activities are made jointly by husbands and wives. Nonetheless, about 40% of both women and men who participated in SES FGDs subscribe to a more traditional view that men make decisions (“men are leaders for women”). Interestingly, among SES survey participants, the view that women alone make household economic decisions was expressed 2-3 times more often than the reverse, i.e., that men alone make these decisions. In Cambodian households, women have traditionally been responsible for managing household finances. Also, in rural communities across Cambodia, about three-quarters of women who earn income make their own decisions about how their earnings are used (footnote 87). However, when talking with Cambodian women about how decisions are made regarding the principal activities that are sources of household income or expenditures, they will frequently say that they are very much part of decision making about the types of and planning for these activities, but that their husbands will often make the final decisions about major expenditures such as the purchase of farm equipment.
Table 18: Decision Making about Household Economic Activities (Views of Focus Group Discussions Participants and Women) Kamping Pouy Prek Po Men and women make decisions together 60.4% 62.3% Men make the decisions 39.6% 37.7% Men’s Views Men and women make decisions together 56.6% 59.1% Men make the decisions 43.4% 40.9% Views of Survey Respondents Decisions are made by Men + Women Women only Men only Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme respondents 54.2% 28.9% 10.2% Prek Po Irrigation Scheme respondents 64.8% 20.7% 10.0% Stung Chinit South respondents 55.9% 28.4% 10.0% Canal 15 respondents 62.7% 21.9% 9.8% Source: Project socioeconomic survey, 2018: Household Survey. C. Intra-household Gender Relations
1. Division of Labor for Household Activities
101 No similar data were collected in Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 communities.
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106. On a daily basis, women in Kamping Pouy and Prek Po Irrigation Scheme communities fulfill traditional roles of women to care for children, prepare meals, and clean the house.102 On a weekly basis, they assume the major responsibility for going to market to buy food, doing household laundry, tending to sick family members, and managing household finances. When men are involved in these activities, it is largely intermittent and for a very short duration.
107. Men are primarily responsible for solid waste management on a daily basis and less frequently, house repairs. What is interesting is that in these communities, men spend more time than women on collecting water. In Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme communities, more than 50% of households collect rainwater for drinking water, this would normally be rain barrels adjacent to the house. In Prek Po Irrigation Scheme communities, however, more than 60% of households get their drinking water from deep wells. These are presumed to be the deep wells that people have dug to irrigate their rice land, this could explain why men who have been in the rice fields would collect water from the wells to transport home on their motorbikes. In many other Cambodian villages, women and girls spend considerable time collecting water from ponds and other sources, which they haul home in pails, on shoulder poles, or on bicycles; this does not appear to be an issue in the command areas.
Table 19: Division of Labor for Household Activities (average hours per day) Kamping Pouy Prek Po Women Men Women Men Daily Activities (average hours per day) Child care 2.1 0.6 2.1 0.5 Food preparation 1.1 0.1 1.6 0.0 House cleaning 0.9 0.1 0.9 0.0 Collecting drinking water 0.3 0.7 0.2 0.7 Solid waste management 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.7 Weekly Activities (average hours per week) Buying food at market 3.3 0.1 5.6 0.1 Family laundry 2.3 0.3 2.5 0.0 Tending to sick family member 1.7 0.4 2.0 0.3 Managing household finances 5.2 0.4 7.5 0.4 House repair 0.1 1.5 0.2 1.8 Note: The data collected in Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 communities cannot be validated, thus are not being reported. Source: Project socioeconomic survey, 2018.
2. Decision Making in Households
108. In a significant majority of households surveyed in the core subproject communities, the wife and husband make decisions together about family health care and social and religious obligations. In at least half of the households, joint decisions are made about children’s education and purchases of household appliances. In all these cases, if a decision is not made jointly, it is more likely that the wife makes the decision. The only decision that is primarily made by husbands concerns the repair or renovation of the family’s house.
D. Women’s and Men’s Participation in Community Affairs
1. Opportunities for Women’s Leadership
102 The data collected in Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 communities cannot be validated, thus are not being reported.
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109. As a result of the 2017 commune elections, women in the four core subprojects account, overall, 16.7% of local government representatives are in the commune councils. 103 This compares with a national average of 17% (footnote 67). However, the representation of women varies considerably in different subproject areas.
Table 20: Commune Council Representation Subproject Men Women % Women Kamping Pouy 39 11 28.2% Prek Po 35 3 8.6% Stung Chinit South 79 12 15.2% Canal 15 39 6 15.4% Total 192 32 16.7%
Source: Results of the 2017 Commune Elections (ncdd.gov.kh). 110. In general, commune councils tend to have between one and three female members. There are, however, several subproject communes with no female members, including Chi Bai, Tong Tralach, and Khnar Sor Communes in the Prek Po Irrigation Scheme and Prey Phkoam Commune in Canal 15. Across a total of 27 communes in the 4 core subproject areas, there are 2 communes with a female Commune Chief. A woman was elected as Chief in Triel Commune (Stung Chinit South). In Preaek Pou Commune (Prek PO), a woman who was elected as 2nd Vice Chief was named as Commune Chief when the man elected to this position stepped down.104 Two women were elected as 1st Vice Chief (Stung Chinit South) and two women in Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme communes and one each in Prek Po Irrigation Scheme and Stung Chinit South communes were elected as 2nd Vice Chief.
111. Some view that only women who are unmarried and/or have no small children can or should pursue an elected or appointed position in local government or organizations such as a FWUC (footnote 89). Once a woman marries and, particularly, has children, it is assumed that she does not have time for significant involvement in local government or community organizations. Also, women say that their husbands do not want them to work and may become jealous if they travel out of the village and/or work with other men. These views are endorsed by women who participated in FGDs, including women who currently hold positions as Commune Councilors, Vice Chiefs of their villages, and the Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme FWUC Accountant, as well as other women. The women who hold positions are all unmarried and/or do not have small children. Participants also spoke of 15 women who had previously been elected to the Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme FWUC but later resigned for reasons similar to those cited above.
112. These women, nonetheless, believe that is it important for women to be actively involved in community affairs, including elected and appointed positions (footnote 89). In their view, women are better able to understand and advocate for the needs of women and children in their communities and to conduct outreach to other women and men in the communities. Women in positions of authority are also able to influence the decisions of men and to strengthen men’s understanding of and agreement to support for women in leadership positions.
103 Government of Cambodia, National Committee for Sub-National Democratic Development. ncdd.gov.kh. Results of the 2017 Commune Elections (accessed 20 March 2018). 104 This information was provided by a local informant. It is assumed, but not verified, that the female Commune Chief is the woman who was elected as the 2nd Vice Chief.
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2. Community Participation in Core Subproject Communities
113. Across the core subproject communities, there are general observations about the participation of women and men in community organizations. Men often express a belief that there are no differences between men and women regarding their participation in community affairs, although they also believe that men are more aware than women about social responsibility.105 Women, on the other hand, feel strongly that in comparison to men, women have less time for community activities, they have less understanding of community issues and when they participate, women’s ideas are undervalued by men.
114. Based on SES respondents, the participation rates of women and men vary widely in communities in the core subprojects. Most respondents said that men are primarily involved in commune councils, although the views are more evenly divided in the Canal 15 command area. Men are seen in Kamping Pouy and Prek Po Irrigation Schemes communities to be more involved in farmers’ associations, while the participation is more balanced in other command areas. It should be noted that information received from the Battambang PDA suggested that women account for more than 50% of members of agricultural cooperatives in the province (footnote 28).
115. Women, in the majority, are members of mothers’ or women’s associations, although it is interesting to note that one-third of respondents in Stung Chnit South and Canal 15 command areas state that men alone are involved in these organizations. Women are also the primary participants and/or very active in credit cooperatives and village-based savings or lending groups. Men and women are both involved in parent or school associations and temple committees.
Table 21: Community Participation Households in Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme Communities Men and Women Men only Women only Commune Council 11.6% 75.0% 13.4% Farmers’ association 15.9% 74.6% 9.5% Mothers’ or women’s association 20.0% 10.0% 70.0% Savings or lending group 46.7% 13.3% 40.0% Credit cooperative 100.0% 0.0% 0.0% Parents’ or school association 60.0% 10.0% 30.0% Temple committee 72.7% 22.7% 4.5% Households in Prek Po Irrigation Scheme Communities Commune Council 5.1% 86.6% 8.3% Farmers’ association 3.6% 78.3% 18.1% Mothers’ or women’s association 4.0% 6.0% 90.0% Savings or lending group 86.4% 0.0% 13.6% Credit cooperative 73.3% 13.3% 13.3% Parents’ or school association 71.4% 0.0% 28.6% Temple committee 0.0% 50.0% 50.0% Households in Stung Chinit South Communities Commune Council 8.2% 86.9% 4.9% Farmers’ association 45.5% 9.1% 45.5% Mothers’ or women’s association 8.8% 33.8% 57.4% Savings or lending group 50.0% 12.5% 37.5% Credit cooperative 5.9% 11.8% 82.4% Parents’ or school association 44.4% 11.1% 44.4% Temple committee 68.8% 25.0% 6.3% Households in Canal 15 Communities Commune Council 37.5% 31.3% 31.3% Farmers’ association 7.7% 33.3% 59.0%
105 Project socioeconomic survey, 2018: focus group discussions; and Women’s focus group discussions, 2018.
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Mothers’ or women’s association 85.7% 0.0% 14.3% Savings or lending group 2.3% 4.7% 93.0% Credit cooperative 12.5% 25.0% 62.5% Parents’ or school association 0.0% 50.0% 50.0% Temple committee 37.5% 31.3% 31.3% Source: Project socioeconomic survey, 2018: Household Survey.
116. Nonetheless, men as well as women are not very involved in community organizations, according to household survey respondents in the Kamping Pouy and Prek Po Irrigation Schemes command areas (footnote 94). Only about one-quarter to one-third of both women and men are involved in a group activity in her or his village. Among these people, the vast majority have little or no actual involvement with the group. Women do not have much time for such activities, but neither do men who are busy with farming and other economic activities.
Table 22: Participation in Community Organizations Kamping Pouy Prek Po Women Men Women Men Level of involvement Not at all or very little 61.5% 71.2% 81.1% 79.4% Active only when requested 23.1% 22.0% 13.5% 17.6% Active or very active 15.4% 6.7% 5.4% 0.0% Joined because invited by Family member 11.5% 34.1% 18.9% 29.4% Friend 80.8% 44.1% 73.0% 47.1% Source: Project socioeconomic survey, 2018: Household Survey. 117. The motivation to join a community group is, for women, primarily related to being invited by a friend. An invitation is also a strong motivation for many men although there are more diverse reasons that men get involved in community activities including networking, following other’s example, or being committed to the group’s activities.
E. Perceptions of Gender Issues in Core Subproject Communities
118. Based on SES FGDs conducted in Kamping Pouy and Prek Po Irrigation Schemes communities, the perceptions of gender issues are largely negative (footnote 94). When asked what they knew about gender issues in their community, 58% of respondents agreed that, “Women are weak, have less power than men and are more prone to be emotional” (footnote 105). Other respondents noted that women do heavy work and are subject to verbal and physical abuse. When asked if they would participate in training on gender as well as other subjects, about 60% indicated they or a household member would participate.106 There was a similar level of support for participation in training among people who participated in household surveys.
119. In FGDs with women, they confirmed that there is need for village-based training to raise awareness among women and men about gender issues (footnote 89). This includes training on management and leadership skills and practical skills such as financial literacy that would strengthen women’s abilities to get involved in and assume leadership positions in organizations such as the FWUC.
F. Women’s and Men’s Perceptions of and Participation in the Project
106 Project socioeconomic survey, 2018: focus group discussions. The question asked about a number of different training topics including gender, but did not differentiate the level of interest in the different topics.
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1. Benefits of Improved Irrigation
120. In FGDs with women, they clearly understand the benefits they enjoy as a result of having irrigated rice land, and that they expect will continue following upgrading of irrigation infrastructure (footnote 89). These benefits derive from the increased household income that comes from being able to increase the number and yields of rice crops grown each year. For many women in particular, increased financial resources reduces the need for them to work as unpaid labor on family land; as noted previously, they have greater time to devote to child care and managing the household. The additional income has also enabled many households to improve existing housing or build new housing and to have the money to send their children to high school and university. And as a result of the additional income, there is less pressure on men and women to migrate to look for work.
121. In SES FGDs conducted in all core subproject communities, men and women were alike in their support for the project (footnote 106).107 People had a range of reasons to support the project, most of which related to having enough water for multiple rice crops (70% of women and men) and, therefore, increasing household incomes (70% of women and men).
2. Farmer Water User Communities
122. In FGDs with women, there was support for expanding the existing FWUC in the Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme command area to include committees at the level of tertiary canal and the establishment of a FWUC in the Prek Po Irrigation Scheme command area. In Chi Bal Commune in the lower end of Prek Po Irrigation Scheme command area, women specifically mentioned resolution of water disputes as a reason for establishing a FWUC because the district committee presently mandated to address these issues does not act in a timely manner.108 Women participating in FGDs in the Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 command areas also strongly supported the establishment of FWUCs.109
123. Women in these FGDs also identified specific benefits from women’s participation on management committees at different levels of FWUCs. For them, important issues are how women can help other farmers and how women’s participation would increase their knowledge, experience and help them to network in their communities. The availability of a financial incentive for people who serve on management committees is also a benefit for women who get involved.
124. The support for joining a FWUC is high among women and men in all subproject command areas; while some people indicated they are still undecided, very few respondents said they did not want to join a FWUC. More than half of the people in the command areas are willing to pay for irrigation operation and water supply.
Table 23: Farmer Water User Community Interest Yes Undecided No
Male Female Male Female Male Female Support for joining a farmer water user community Kamping Pouy 84.0% 88.5% 12.3% 10.3% 3.7% 1.3% Prek Po 89.4% 93.5% 8.3% 5.7% 2.3% 0.8% Stung Chinit South 74.6% 74.0% 23.2% 24.4% 2.1% 1.5% Canal 15 75.7% 71.9% 22.6% 25.9% 1.7% 2.2% Willing to pay for irrigation services
107 Project socioeconomic survey, 2018: focus group discussions. 108 Women’s FGD, 2018: Chi Bal Commune. 109 Women’s FGD, Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 command areas, July 2018.
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Yes Undecided No
Male Female Male Female Male Female Kamping Pouy 51.9% 46.2% 31.6% 32.1% 16.6% 21.8% Prek Po 56.1% 54.5% 33.3% 35.8% 10.6% 9.8% Stung Chinit South 57.7% 60.3% 29.6% 26.7% 12.7% 13.0% Canal 15 55.7% 51.8% 29.6% 30.2% 14.8% 18.0% Source: Project socioeconomic survey, 2018. 3. Work on the Project
125. In FGDs with women, they endorsed the idea that women as well as men would be interested in paid work on the improvements to irrigation infrastructure. The primary reason was the additional income this work would generate. There is a high level of interest among people in all command areas for paid work on the project. The level of interest is significantly higher among people in the Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme command area than in the Prek Po Irrigation Scheme command area and the level of interest is particularly high among women in Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme communities. It is also interesting to note that between 15% and 20% of men are not interested in paid work, perhaps because this work would divert energy from rice cultivation that is providing sufficient income to the household.
Table 24: Interest in Paid Work on IAIP Women Men Kamping Pouy Command Area Yes 85.9% 79.7% Undecided 6.4% 2.3% No 7.7% 17.6% Prek Po Command Area Yes 60.2% 66.7% Undecided 22.8% 13.6% No 17.1% 19.7% Stung Chinit South Command Area Yes 75.0% Undecided 10.0% No 15.0% Canal 15 Command Area Yes 70.0% Undecided 12.2% No 17.8% Note: Sex-disaggregated data are not available for Stung Chinit South and Canal 15 command areas. Source: Project socioeconomic survey, 2018: Household Survey.
126. Despite the high level of interest among women for paid work, there are also strong opinions about whether or not women should work on the civil works to improve irrigation infrastructure, as expressed during SES FGDs. Approximately 40% of participants in command areas think that women should not work on the project for diverse reasons: (i) the proposed work is men’s work; (ii) women are not able to do heavy work; and (iii) women are busy with housework and have no time for paid work.
4. Project Training
127. Overall, there is support for project training among more than 60% of people in all command areas. However, the support is significantly higher in the Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme command area than in other command areas and women in the Kamping Pouy Irrigation
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Scheme command area expressed the highest level of interest in training (footnote 109). Among participants in SES FGDs, there is wide support for training on irrigated cultivation of rice and other crops. Men who participated in SES FGDs with women, support training on increasing rice productivity and rice seed productions, vegetable growing, water resource management, and land analysis.
Table 25: Interest in Project Training Subproject Women Men Kamping Pouy Command Area 75.6% 68.4% Prek Po Command Area 56.1% 54.5% Stung Chinit Command Area 64.9% 65.5% Canal 15 Command Area 60.4% 67.0% Source: Project socioeconomic survey, 2018: Household Survey.
128. In the FGDs with women, women participants expressed very clear ideas about the training that women need. As mentioned previously, women as well as men can benefit from training to raise greater awareness of gender issues and to support women’s empowerment and women need greater knowledge and skills in the areas of management, leadership and financial literacy. In order to support the development of FWUCs, the women suggest training in outreach methods and skills, that is, how to disseminate technical and other information more effectively to FWUC members and training in participatory and other training methods. Women also highlight the importance for women and men in rural communities for training that teaches people new skills to support or enhance other household economic activities, for example, raising livestock.
Appendix 39
TABLES
A. Core Subproject Tables
Table A1: Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme by Commune Kamping Pouy Commune Villages Area (no.) (hectare) Phnom Sampov 6 1,350 Ta Kream 7 3,120 Ou Ta Ki 2 170 Chrey 7 4,650 Ou Mal 9 2,700 Total 31 12,000 Note: An additional 10 hectare is located in Anlong Run Commune (Thma Koul). Source: Transaction technical assistance, geographic information system data.
Table A2: Prek Po Irrigation Scheme by Commune Prek Po Commune Villages Area (no.) (hectare) Chi Bal 5 2,420 Khnar Sa 5 1,424 Pram Yam 1 674 Preaek Pou 4 1,124 Svay Pou 6 951 Tong Tralach 3 1,430 Total 24 8,023 Source: Transaction technical assistance, geographic information system data.
Table A3: Stung Chinit South by Commune Stung Chinit South Commune Villages Area (no.) (hectare) Tnaot Chum 2 784 Chong Doung 8 3,336 Boeng 5 1,468 Chhuk Khsach 4 1,134 Baray 1 986 Triel 18 2,780 Sralau 7 1,652 Andoung Pou 1 30 Chrolong 1 1,731 Sou Young 1 431 Pongro 1 1,668 Total 49 16,000 Source: Transaction technical assistance, geographic information system data.
Table A4: Canal 15 by Commune C15 District Commune Villages Area (no.) (hectare) Angkor Borei Angkor Borei 2 1,290 Prey Phkoam 2 1,275 Ponley 2 2,065 Samraong Trea 1 97 Doun Kaev Roka Krau 1 211 Baray 3 393 40 Appendix
C15 District Commune Villages Area (no.) (hectare) Treang Sambuor 5 1,027 Srangae 8 1,048 Thlok 2 94 Total 26 7,500 Source: Transaction technical assistance, geographic information system data.
Table A5: Secondary Canal Water User Groups in Stung Chinit South Command Area Command Secondary Canal Water Year Commune Area Funding User Group (estimated) (hectare) Hun Sen Baray Baray 2,000 2005 CPP Nang San Chong Doung 250 2010 ADB – Lowland Pralay Thmor Andet Pongro 200 2011 ADB – Rice SDP Sra Lau Sra Lau 750 2012 ADB – Lowland Thnaot Chum Thnaot Chum 1,200 2012 AusAID - CAVAC Chhuk Khsach Chhuk Khsach 750 2016 ADB – Rice SDP Boeng Tboung Boeng 200 2018 ADB – Lowland Ta Soung Baray 800 2019 ADB – Rice SDP ADB = Asian Development Bank, AusAID = Australian Agency for International Development, CAVAC = Cambodia Agricultural Value Chain Program, CPP = Cambodia People’s Party, Rice SDP = Climate Resilient Rice Commercialization Sector Development Program. Source: Transaction technical assistance consultants.
B. Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology Tables
Table A6: Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology Management Staff Men Women Total National Level Director General 4 0 4 Deputy Director General 16 1 16 Inspector, Director 1 0 1 Inspector, Deputy Director 2 0 2 Department, Director 20 0 20 Department, Deputy Director 48 6 54 Chief Office 53 3 56 Vice Chief 137 34 171 Provincial Level Provincial Department, Director 25 0 25 Provincial Department, Deputy Director 54 1 55 Provincial Office, Chief 84 3 87 Provincial Office, Vice Chief 109 17 126 Khan or District Level District, Chief 62 1 63 District, Vice Chief 3 0 3 Total 618 66 683 MOWRAM Gender Working Group Gender Technical Working Group 4 14 18 MOWRAM = Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology. Source: Transaction technical assistance, based on statistics from Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training, 2018.
Appendix 41
Table A7: Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology’s Gender Mainstreaming Action Plan, 2007-2010 Strategies Status of Outputs and Targets, 2010 1 Create gender network in MOWRAM Outputs and targets achieved: • Gender focal points identified in all MOWRAM departments at national level • Gender Working Group established in all provincial departments of MOWRAM 2 Build capacity of gender network in gender • GMAG assessment: knowledge and capacity of awareness and analysis gender network increased through trainings, workshops, etc. 3 Increase the number of female officials at • 2010 target: 15% female staff MOWRAM through recruitment • Progress, 2006-2010: +3% • 2010 status: 16%, MOWRAM; 9%, PDWRAM; 13% overall 4 Increase the participation of female staff in national • 2010 target: 30% female participants and international training and education • 2010 status: 15%-17% female participants • Constraints: time required for family responsibilities, lack of support from family, low English skills, low education, low self-confidence 5 Promote women to decision making positions within • 2005: Director of Department, most senior MOWRAM position held by a woman • 2012: Deputy Director General, most senior position held by a woman 6 Ensure all services result in more benefits for • 2010 target: women’s membership in FWUC is women at community level 10% • 2005: women’s membership in FWUC = 0% • 2012: women’s membership in FWUC = 16% FWUC = farmer water user community, GMAG = gender mainstreaming action group, MOWRAM = Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology, PDWRAM = Provincial Department of Water Resources and Meteorology. Source: MOWRAM, 2014. Gender Mainstreaming Action Plan, 2014-2018.
Table A8: Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology’s Gender Mainstreaming Action Plan, 2014-2018 Strategies Outputs 1 Strengthen the capacity of MOWRAM on • GMAG receives incentive support for its operations gender at all levels • Capacity of gender network in gender mainstreaming and gender analysis is strengthened and a pool of master trainers on gender is established • Awareness of MOWRAM officials raised at all levels with regard to gender concepts and gender awareness issues as they relate to their areas of work • Public information and media messages related to MOWRAM are more gender responsive. 2 Continue to provide opportunities for • Women’s representation in decision making is increased women officials in MOWRAM to be promoted into decision making positions 3 Enhance gender mainstreaming in • Number of women officials in MOWRAM is increased human resources management through new recruitment • Technical capacity of women officials in MOWRAM is built through the increase of their participation in national and international training and education 4 Ensure that all services in the water Strategic areas for the following are gender responsive: resources and meteorology sector bring • Water resources management and development more benefits to women in the • Flood and drought management communities • Development of laws and regulations • Information management in relation to water resources and meteorology • Administrative management and human resources
42 Appendix
Strategies Outputs 5 Build good collaboration and partnership • Aid effectiveness is promoted within MOWRAM through between GMAG and all MOWRAM gender mainstreaming in the Ministry’s projects projects to increase aid effectiveness • Collaboration and networking are strengthened among all stakeholders implementing gender equality, especially on the Ministry’s projects 6 Monitor and evaluate the implementation • M&E framework is designed and implemented of the GMAP • Gender Data Bank is created GMAG = gender mainstreaming action group, M&E = monitoring and evaluation, MOWRAM = Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology. Source: MOWRAM, 2014. Gender Mainstreaming Action Plan, 2014-2018.
Table A9: Wage Employment in Cambodia and Overseas ($ per day, 2013) Agricultural Labor Off-Farm Labor Cambodia $4.56 n/a Thailand $16.50 $10.30 Viet Nam $8.90 n/a Philippines $7.60 $6.80-$11.10 Malaysia n/a $9.80 n/a = not applicable. Source: World Bank Group. 2015. Cambodian Agriculture in Transition: Opportunities and Risks. Washington, D.C.
Table A10: Decision Making about Family and Household Matters Households in Kamping Pouy Irrigation Scheme Communities Men and Women only Men only Women Children’s education 54.5% 22.3% 19.4% Family health care 71.0% 14.9% 2.9% Family, religious and social obligations 70.5% 14.2% 6.0% Purchase of household appliances 49.0% 36.5% 7.2% House repair and renovation 6.9% 5.5% 80.6% Households in Prek Po Irrigation Scheme Communities Children’s education 72.9% 16.9% 8.9% Family health care 69.9% 18.8% 5.2% Family, religious and social obligations 67.7% 20.6% 5.3% Purchase of household appliances 56.5% 33.6% 5.6% House repair and renovation 8.6% 8.1% 78.6% Households in Stung Chinit South Communities Children’s education 90.2% 3.8% 5.3% Family health care 74.7% 20.5% 3.2% Family, religious and social obligations 72.9% 13.8% 5.3% Purchase of household appliances 56.5% 35.5% 7.0% House repair and renovation 8.8% 2.3% 87.4% Households in Canal 15 Communities Children’s education 82.7% 9.5% 7.3% Family health care 66.2% 22.8% 4.8% Family, religious and social obligations 65.8% 20.5% 5.8% Purchase of household appliances 57.5% 34.1% 5.6% House repair and renovation 6.6% 7.1% 83.5% Source: Project socioeconomic survey, 2018: Household Survey.