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Thesis Title Archaeomalocological methods, forager decision-making, and intertidal ecosystems: Two millennia of mollusc exploitation on a remote Pacific atoll. Matthew Harris BA (Hons) A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2017 School of Social Science Abstract Marine mollusc shells are excellent proxy records for human behaviour and environmental archives as they are ubiquitous in coastal archaeological deposits and preserve well compared with other marine fauna. Archaeomalacology, the study of molluscs from archaeological sites, has generated new data on the role of coastal environments in the human story, elucidating patterns of forager behaviour, human impacts to the environment, the role of marine foods in coastal palaeo- economies, and responses to changes in climate and environments both within and outside the Pacific Islands. Molluscs are also critical to the functioning of coral reefs and intertidal ecosystems, and as such, can be useful in tracking long-term trajectories of change in marine environments. This thesis presents the first high-resolution study of the archaeomalacological record of Ebon Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands, eastern Micronesia, demonstrating that molluscs had been a stable component of the diet for two millennia. Atolls, consisting primarily of unconsolidated biogenic sediments atop a narrow reef platform that surrounds a lagoon, have long been considered marginal environments for human habitation. A lack of standing fresh water, poor soils for agriculture, and exposure to storms and extreme weather due to low elevation present considerable challenges for inhabitants in the past as they do today. The relatively small land area is, however, bounded by an expansive reef platform which hosts a rich and diverse range of mollusc species, offering an easily accessible source of protein and other minerals not available in terrestrial foods. Nevertheless, mollusc remains from Marshall Islands archaeological sites have been assessed only in broad terms as part of synthetic works on settlement and subsistence patterns in the archipelago. This thesis presents a detailed analysis of mollusc remains from a number of archaeological sites on Ebon Atoll, using a newly developed quantification protocol that incorporates a greater number of non-repetitive shell elements, and a new method for tracking forager decision-making in tropical intertidal settings. In addition, a review of the archaeological literature pertaining to human impacts to molluscs during the prehistoric period of the Pacific Islands facilitated investigation of these processes on Ebon Atoll. No discernible human impacts were noted, and mollusc assemblages from Ebon Atoll spanning two millennia of occupation were consistently rich, even, and diverse, incorporating a broad range of taxa from different habitats. Variation in assemblage composition is likely related to the configuration of intertidal habitats on windward and leeward exposed islets, rather than site function or alterations to marine environments. These results indicate that this generalised foraging strategy, low human populations and a productive marine environment i produced sustained yields of molluscs by spreading impact across trophic levels and functional groups. These data contest traditional perceptions of atolls, and are in line with current discourses that challenge traditional notions of small islands, and especially atolls as remote, isolated and marginal settings for human habitation. ii Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis. iii Publications during candidature Peer-reviewed papers Harris, M. and M.I. Weisler. 2017. Two millennia of mollusc foraging on Ebon Atoll, Marshall Islands: sustained marine resource use on a Pacific atoll. Archaeology in Oceania (accepted Jun 2017). Harris, M., P. Faulkner and B. Asmussen. 2017. Macroscopic approaches to the identification of expedient bivalve tools: A case study investigating Polymesoda (=Geloina) coaxans (Bivalvia: Corbiculidae) shell valves from Princess Charlotte Bay, Queensland, Australia. Quaternary International 427, Part A:201-215. Harris, M. and M.I. Weisler. 2016. Prehistoric human impacts to marine molluscs and intertidal ecosystems in the Pacific Islands. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology (accepted Dec 2016). Harris, M. and M.I. Weisler. 2016. Intertidal foraging on atolls: prehistoric forager decision making at Ebon Atoll, Marshall Islands. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 12(2):200-223. Harris, M., A.B.J. Lambrides and M.I. Weisler. 2016. Windward vs. leeward: Inter-site variation in marine resource exploitation on Ebon Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 6:221-229. Harris, M., M.I. Weisler and P. Faulkner. 2015. A refined protocol for calculating MNI in archaeological molluscan shell assemblages: a Marshall Islands case study. Journal of Archaeological Science 57:168-179. Publications included in this thesis Several chapters within this thesis are composed of manuscripts accepted for publication in peer- reviewed journals. The research design, analysis of data, interpretation of results, writing, submission and revisions of each manuscript were performed primarily by myself. Chapter 2: ‘Prehistoric human impacts to marine molluscs and intertidal ecosystems in the Pacific Islands’ has been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication in Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology. Contributor Statement of contribution M. Harris (Candidate) Collation and Review of literature (100%) iv Wrote and edited the paper (70%) M.I. Weisler Wrote and edited the paper (30%) Chapter 3: ‘A refined protocol for calculating MNI in archaeological molluscan shell assemblages: A Marshall Islands case study’ has been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication in Journal of Archaeological Science. Contributor Statement of contribution M. Harris (Candidate) Research conception and design (60%) Analysis and interpretation of data (80%) Wrote and edited the paper (65%) M.I. Weisler Research conception and design (20%) Wrote and edited the paper (17.5%) P. Faulkner Research conception and design (20%) Analysis and interpretation of data (20%) Wrote and edited the paper (17.5%) Chapter 4: ‘Intertidal foraging on atolls: Prehistoric forager decision making at Ebon Atoll, Marshall Islands.’ has been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication in Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology. Contributor Statement of contribution M. Harris (Candidate) Research conception and design (70%) Analysis and interpretation of data (100%) Wrote and edited the paper (80%) M.I. Weisler Research conception and design (30%) Wrote and edited the paper (20%) Chapter 5: ‘Windward vs. leeward: Inter-site variation in marine resource exploitation on Ebon Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands.’ has been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication in Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. v Contributor Statement of contribution M. Harris (Candidate) Research conception and design (40%) Analysis and interpretation of data (50%) Wrote and edited the paper (50%) A.B.J. Lambrides Research conception and design (40%) Analysis and interpretation of data (50%) Wrote and edited the paper (40%) M.I. Weisler Research conception and design (20%) Wrote and edited the paper (10%) Chapter 6: ‘Two millennia of mollusc foraging on Ebon Atoll, Marshall Islands: sustained marine resource use on a Pacific atoll.’ has been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication in Archaeology in Oceania. Contributor Statement of contribution M. Harris (Candidate) Research conception and design (70%) Analysis and interpretation of data (90%) Wrote and edited the paper (70%) M.I. Weisler Research conception and design (30%) Analysis and interpretation of data (10%) Wrote and edited the paper (30%) vi Contributions by others to the thesis Professor Marshall Weisler was my principal supervisor and directs the Marshall Islands archaeological research project that this thesis
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