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Structure of the Stem Structure of the stem Structure of The young dicot. stem Epidermis Cortex Stele Pericycle Phloem Cambium Xylem Pith Types of stele Protostele (monostele) Siphonostele Ectophloic Amphiphloic Dictyostele (polystele) siphonostele Dissected Siphonostele (Eustele) Atactostele Dictyostele Types of Vascular bundles Collateral Open Closed Bicollateral Concentric Amphivasal Amphicribal Radial Types of Vascular bundles The secondary thickening Crude drugs Crude drugs are unrefined medications in their raw or natural forms, may be Entire plant or animal as mentha, cochineal. Entire organs of plant or animal as leaves (senna), flowers (chamomile),… animal part (thyroid), mineral (talc). Plant or animal product (unorganized drugs) as gums, beeswax. Entire plant or animal mentha cochineal Carminic acid is extracted from the female cochineal insects and is then mixed with aluminium or calcium salts to produce carmine dye Entire organs of plant • leaves (senna) Flowers (chamomile) Plant or animal product gums beeswax Classification of crude drugs Alphabetical: using either Latin or vernacular names, employed for dictionaries, pharmacopoeias. Taxonomic: according to botanical classification in classes, orders, families, genera and species. Morphological: groups as leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, ……(organized drugs), dried extracts, gums, oils,…(unorganized drugs). Classification of crude drugs Pharmacological or therapeutic: according to pharmacological action of their most important constituents or their therapeutic use. Chemical or Biogenetic: according to the most important constituents (alkaloids, glycosides, volatile oils,…)or their biosynthetic pathway. Description of crude drugs Origin Cultivation and preparation Constituents and tests Adulterants Evaluation of physical and chemical characters Uses and application in medicine Origin of drugs 1-Natural or biological origin: Latin name of plant or animal yielding the drug and its family The BINOMIAL SYSTEM, devised by Linnaeus, giving two names to each plant. The first name indicates the Genus; the second name denotes the species. BINOMIAL SYSTEM The name is printed in italics or underlined, e.g. Digitlais purpurea or Digitlais purpurea A capital letter is used for the genus but the specific name is in lower case unless it is named after a person. e.g. Cinchona Ledgriana In pharmacopoeia and research publications, the botanical name is followed by the name of the person who first described the species. e.g. Commiphora molmol Engler, in case of Linnaeus this is denoted as “L”. Origin of drugs The generic or the specific names may denote some characters for the plant such as: Taste: Glycrrhiza, Glycr from glucose=sweet, rhiza=root Odor: Myristica fragrance, having fragrant odor Caryophyllus aromaticus, having aromatic character Color: Piper nigrum (nigrum=black), black fruits Cynapis alba (alba=white), white seeds Digitalis purpurea (purpurea=purple), purple flowers, D. lutea (lutea=yellow) yellow flowers Origin of drugs Touch: Glycrrhiza glabra(glabrous=smooth), smooth fruits External features of the plant: Conium maculatum (maculate= spotted), stem shows reddish spotted patches Hyoscyamus muticus (muticus= short), the plant is short Geographical source: Cannabis indica (growing in India), Olea europaea (native to Europe) Origin of drugs Pharmacological activity: Papaver somniferum (inducing sleep) Strychnos nux-vomica (causing vomiting) Quillaia saponaria (soap like due to saponins) Ipomea purge (having purgative action) 2-Geographical source: It indicates the habitat or the region in which the plant or animal yielding the drug grows. E.g. Hyoscyamus muticus is indigenous to Egypt. Others called exotic. Taxonomy Taxonomy is the science of naming organisms and their correct integration into the existing system of nomenclature. It is a branch of biology that deals with the naming and classification of organisms. The kingdoms Until relatively recently, all living things were classified into just two great kingdoms The Animal Kingdom and the Plant Kingdom. But in the last decade or so, as a result of studying gene sequences, a revolution has taken place in our understanding of the diversity of life. Algae, fungi and bacteria have all been removed from the ‘old’ Plant Kingdom (some systems keep the seaweeds [macro-algae] under the plant kingdom) Modern classification The Three Domain System, Six Kingdoms Under this system, organisms are classified into three domains and six kingdoms. The domains are Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. The kingdoms are Archaebacteria (ancient bacteria), Eubacteria (true bacteria), Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Taxonomic characters All plants possess hundreds of characters of a morphological, histological, embryological, chemical and genetic nature which are potentially available for building up a classification of the plant kingdom. Chemical plant taxonomy (chemotaxonomy) Plants can be classified on the basis of their chemical constituents. Compared with morphological characters, chemical constituents are often more precisely definable and can be of more fundamental significance for classification purposes. Kingdom Sub-kingdom Division (phylum) Sub-division (sub-phylum) Class The names of the orders Sub-class terminate in “-ales” (Rosales). Order Families usually in Sub-order “aceae” (Solanaceae) Family {there are exceptions as Compositae, labiatae,..}Sub-family Genus Species The main categories in plant classification (e.g. Liquorice) Kingdom Pantae Division (or phylum) Spermatophyta Seed plants Sub-division Angiospermae Seeds enclosed by fruits Class Dicotyledoneae Embryo has 2 cotyledons Sub-class Archichlamydeae Flowers have sepals and free petals Order Rosales Specific features of flowers Family Leguminosae 2nd largest family of flowering plants Sub-family Papilionaceae Herbs, shrubs or trees; fruit is a legume Genus( plural Genera) Glycerrhiza Glycr, from glucose= sweet, rhiza = root Species glabra L Glabrous = smooth, smooth fruit Variety typica Reg. et Herd Thallophyta The plant body is undifferentiated into stem; root or leaves and thus called thallus Reproduce both sexually and asexually Most members are aquatic E.g. Algae Bryophyta There are the simplest form of land plants. The plant body is flat and lack true leaves and roots. Show beginning of Alteration of generations Sporophyte depends on the gametophyte Gymnosperms (naked seeds) Gymnosperms are a group of plants that share one common characteristic: they bear seeds, but their seeds do not develop within an ovary. The wood is composed of tracheides, vessels being absent. Angiosperms (flowering plants) Angiosperms are seed plants that enclose their seeds in an ovary and are vastly more diverse than gymnosperms The dicotyledons The monocotyledons.
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