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Q What species would you expect to find in a rain forest? Not all rain forests are teeming with monkeys and macaws. The temperate rain forest of the Pacific Northwest is inhabited by an entirely different community of plants and animals than is found in tropical rain forests. Location, climatic conditions, and other abiotic factors determine what species you will find in a particular area.

R E a d IN G T o o lb o x This reading tool can help you learn the material in the following pages.

USING LANGUAGE Your Turn Hypothesis or Theory? To scientists, a theory is a Use information from the chapter to complete the well-supported scientific explanation that makes useful following tasks. predictions. The main difference between a theory and 1. Is the greenhouse effect a hypothesis? Explain. hypothesis is that a hypothesis has not been tested, and a 2. Write your own hypothesis that explains the increase theory has been tested repeatedly and seems to correctly in global temperatures. explain all the available data.

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15.1 Life in the Earth System

3F, 10c Key Concept the biosphere is one of Earth’s four interconnected systems. VOCABULARY MAIN IDEAS biosphere The biosphere is the portion of Earth that is inhabited by life. biota Biotic and abiotic factors interact in the biosphere. hydrosphere atmosphere geosphere Connect to Your World You’ve probably seen many photos of tropical rain forests, complete with monkeys and brightly colored frogs. But did you know that there are also temperate rain 3F research and describe the history of biology and forests? They get just as much rain but have cooler temperatures and different types contributions of scientists and 10C of plants and animals. These are just two of the biomes found within the biosphere. analyze the levels of organization in biological systems and relate the levels to each other and to the whole system

MAIN IDEA 10C The biosphere is the portion of Earth that is inhabited by life. VISUAL VOCAB The biosphere is the part of Earth The biosphere includes living where life exists. All of Earth’s eco­ organisms and the land, air, and systems, taken together, form the water on Earth where living things biosphere. If you could remove all the reside. nonliving parts of the biosphere—all biosphere the water, air, rocks, and so on—you would be left with the biota. The biota biota are the living things within the bio­ sphere. The collection of living things in READI N G TO OLB ox The biosphere is one of Earth’s four the biosphere may also be called major interconnected systems. The the biota. TAKING NOTES other three Earth systems are Use a diagram to take notes on the biosphere. • the hydrosphere, all of Earth’s water, ice, and water vapor • the atmosphere, the air blanketing Earth’s solid and liquid surface Biosphere • the geosphere, the features of Earth’s surface—such as the continents, biota rocks, and the sea floor—and everything below Earth’s surface

land You need to look at how all four Earth systems interact to really under­ stand how an ecosystem works. For example, a plant growing in a swamp air depends on the soil in which it grows just as much as on the water in the water swamp. It uses carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to make sugars, and it gives off excess oxygen, slightly changing the air around it. One plant growing in one swamp has a small effect on the Earth system as a whole. But all living things together throughout the planet’s history have had a vast effect. Connect Is the air in your classroom part of the biosphere or the biota? Explain.

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MAIN IDEA 3F, 10C Biotic and abiotic factors interact in the biosphere. Just as one ecosystem is connected to another, all four Earth systems are also connected. A change in one sphere can affect the others. If plants are removed from a riverbank, for example, rain may flow more easily from the land to the water. This increased flow would likely carry more sediment and therefore make the river water murkier, as shown in FIGURE 1.1. The murky water might block sunlight, affecting the growth of aquatic plants. This change might in turn prevent these plants from taking up carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen.

James Lovelock, an atmospheric scientist from the United Kingdom, FIGURE 1.1 Deforestation, or proposed the Gaia hypothesis to explain how biotic and abiotic factors interact the removal of forests, along the in the biosphere. This hypothesis considers Earth itself a kind of living organ­ Mahajamba Bay in Madagascar has led to erosion along the ism. Its atmosphere, geosphere, and hydrosphere are cooperating systems that waterway, clogging the water yield a biosphere full of life. He called this living planet Gaia after the Greek with silt and soil. goddess of Earth. In the early 1970s, Lynn Margulis, a microbiologist from the United States, added to the hypothesis, specifically noting the ties between the biosphere and other Earth systems. For example, when carbon dioxide levels increase in the atmosphere, plants grow more quickly. As their growth contin­ ues, they remove more and more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The atmospheric carbon dioxide level drops, and plant growth slows. This give- and-take, known as a feedback loop, helps maintain a fairly constant level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Sometimes, people mistakenly believe that the Gaia hypothesis suggests that Earth is a thinking being that regulates the geosphere, the atmosphere, and the hydrosphere. This is obviously not the case. Rather, the Gaia hypoth­ esis recognizes the extensive connections and feedback loops between the living and nonliving parts of the planet. Many scientists are now devoting their careers to organizing new fields of study, such as geobiology and geomicrobiology, to examine these intriguing relationships.

©NASA/Corbis Summarize Explain the Gaia hypothesis in your own words. 3F

Self-check Online HMDScience.com 15.1 Formative Assessment GO ONLINE Reviewing Main Ideas Critical thinking CONNECT TO 1. What is the relationship between the 3. Apply A frog jumps into a pond and Predator-Prey biota and the biosphere? 10C its skin absorbs water. What spheres 5. Explain how feedback loops, 2. How does the Gaia hypothesis has the water moved through? such as those described in explain the interaction between 4. Predict How might a rise in global the Gaia hypothesis, might biotic and abiotic factors in the temperatures affect the biosphere? apply to predator-prey 12A biosphere? 3F 10C relationships.

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A Climate Zones te zones. E arth byarth thesunresults inthree 90° Figure 2.2. Figure 2.2. N These threeThese zones are polar, the tropical, temperate temperate tropical polar polar length. summer andwinter seasons ofaboutequal tropical climate zones. Thiszone experiences the broad area lying between thepolar and The temperate climate zone is located in t ized by warm, moistconditions. to theTropic ofCapricorn andischaracter- the equator, runsfrom theTropic ofCancer The tropical climate zone, whichsurrounds Tr cold andoften below freezing. planet, where thetemperature istypically andfarnorthern southern reaches ofthe The polar climate zone islocated infar POLA e mp op i R er cal CL at I CL MAT e CL I MAT I E MAT December solstice. The opposite istrueat the Hemisphere enters winter. enters summerandtheSouthern Hemispherethe Northern AttheJunesolstice,sunlight. receive equal amountsof equinoxes, both hemispheres At theMarch andSeptember Se E CO aso E NNE Chapter 15:TheBiosphere n C s T

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of theSierras ismuchdrier. the rain shadow, theeastern slope tation throughout theyear. Dueto prevailing winds,receives precipi- the Sierra Nevada, whichfaces the F IGURE Unit 5:Ecol 2.3

The western sl ogy Western slope E astern sl ope of ope of ope QUICK LAB QUICK mountains is dry. slope receives alarge amount of precipitation, Great the to Basin east the of the shown in precipitation.decreased The Sierra Nevada mountain range inCalifornia, of mountain, the and drier air cooler produces arain shadow, or area of tion on side the of mountain the range facing wind. the downwind On the side air nears amountain, it and rises cools.This cooling of air results inprecipita- general have higherhumidity and receive more precipitation than inland areas. fromdoes or soil through plant transpiration. As aresult, sites coastal in much larger range and of high low seasonal temperatures. in temperature than areas inland. farther Farther inland, areas a experience morecool quickly than water. Thus, areas coastal tend to have changes smaller have adifferent climate from areas away farther land because tends to heat and shapeLandmasses also climates. For example, areas of closer to water bodies Landmasses waterEarth, temperatures, and interact salinitylevels also to form currents. of leadsto air movement also inwater, forming currents. The rotation of tropical the defines rain forest regions found near equator. the The movement rain. This large amount of precipitation, along with warm temperatures, less moisture than warm air alarge does, amount of precipitation drops as moves into its take place. As warm the airit rises, cools.Since cold air holds warmthe air here and rises air cooler the from areas to northor the south therefore tropics the Because rise. they near equator the are warm, especially Warm air and warm water are less dense than air cooler and water, and waterthe and air. the This heating causes movements water inboth and air. When sun the it heats warms Earth, not only land the and rocks the but also Air and Water Movement classmates at different locations. Compare thetemperatures you collected withthose recorded by your An Proc Probl to identifydifferent microclimates. Determine thetemperature ofinsideandoutsideareas ofyour school Microclimates 2. 1.

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©Jason Edwards/Getty Images DATA ANALYSIS Connect 15.2 Section 4ofthechapterSection Interactions inEcosystems. period oftime.Refer to theData Analysis Feature in weather data for aspecificlocation orbiomeover a Climatograms are combination graphs that represent C 2. 1. Re the rainsthe end. If tadpoles the are not ready to leave die. ponds,will the they through its quickly water life the because very cycle evaporates quickly once hatch into tadpoles, and tadpoles the develop into frogs. This frog must move form indepressions along ground. the Within amatter of weeks, eggs the out of burrows their to mate, and females the lay inwater eggs puddles that formed from frog’s the shed skin.When ground, the rains soak frogs the crawl rates more slowly. Moisture reduced loss is by further structure acocoonlike by season burrowing dry the frog survives underground, where water evapo- comesseason only once ayear. can last 10months periods Dry or more. The grasslandslives of and dry inthe inland deserts Australia, where rainy the climate. The water-holding frog shown in Many organisms have adaptations that allow inaspecific to them survive Climate to Adaptations o

n climate zones, andwhere are they located? What are thethr What isthedifference between 4. 2. vi 5. 3. 1. s E g e t New Mexico? Ifso, explain how they are related. temperature andprecipitation inAlbuquerque, Analyze Identify change throughout theyear in thislocation? Analyze line graph. bar graph, andplot theaverage temperature asa graph to illustrate anarea’s climate? level lowest for thislocation?

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15.3 Biomes

12B Key Concept Biomes are land-based, global communities of organisms. VOCABULARY MAIN IDEAS canopy Earth has six major biomes. grassland Polar ice caps and mountains are not considered biomes. desert deciduous coniferous Connect to Your World taiga Have you ever seen a cactus in a tropical rain forest or a penguin in a desert? Indi- tundra vidual plant and animal species have adaptations that let them thrive only in certain chaparral biomes. In this section, you will learn about the major biomes of the world and the characteristics of each. 12B compare variations and adaptations of organisms in different ecosystems MAIN IDEA 12B Earth has six major biomes.

CONNECT TO The global distribution of biomes is shown in Figure 3.1. Characteristics of each biome are given in FIGURE 3.2. As you will see, these broad biome types can be Levels of Organization divided into even more specific zones. For example, the grassland biome can Recall from the chapter be further separated into zones of temperate and tropical grassland. Principles of Ecology that a A variety of ecosystems are found within a biome. However, because a biome is a major community of organisms, usually characterized biome is characterized by a certain set of abiotic factors, ecosystems located by the climate conditions and across the globe in the same biome—the tropical rain forest of Brazil or plant communities that live there. Madagascar, for example—tend to have similar plant and animal species.

FIGURE 3.1 World Biomes A biome is defined by its climate and by the plant communities that live there.

ARCTIC OCEAN Biomes Tropical rain forest Grassland Desert ATLANTIC OCEAN PACIFIC Temperate forest OCEAN Taiga 0° Equator 0° Tundra PACIFIC INDIAN OCEAN OCEAN Non-Biome Areas Mountain zones Polar ice

Identify Which biomes are found in North America?

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MapQuest

McDougal-Littel, Middle School Science Program '03 Map 023 - slpe-d0104-023-e World Biomes Map-W/OUT Boundaries Image Area: 38p6 wide x 19p6 deep 3rd proof date: 4/29/03 DO NOT EDIT--Changes must be made through “File info” CorrectionKey=A desert FIGURE 3.2 Biomes Tropical evergreen forest Tropical • Warm temperatures and abundant rainfall occur rain forest all year. • Vegetation includes lush thick forests. • Animals that live within the thick cover of the upper-

©John Cancalosi/Peter Arnold, Inc.; Arnold, ©John Cancalosi/Peter most branches of rain forest trees use loud vocaliza-

lizard tions to defend their territory and attract mates. ©PhotoDisc/Getty Images;

moose Grassland Tropical • Temperatures are warm throughout the year, with grassland definite dry and rainy seasons. • Vegetation includes tall grasses with scattered trees

©Layne Kennedy/Corbis; and shrubs. • Hoofed animals, such as gazelles and other herbivores, dominate this biome.

Temperate • This biome is dry and warm during the summer; most

temperate grassland grassland precipitation falls as snow during the winter. ©Comstock; ©PhotoDisc/Getty Images;

owl • Vegetation includes short or tall grasses, depending on the amount of precipitation. • Many animals live below ground to survive the dry and windy conditions in this biome. Desert

©PhotoDisc/Getty Images Desert • This biome has a very dry climate. ©Ed Reschke/Peter Arnold, Inc.; Arnold, ©Ed Reschke/Peter • Plants, such as cacti, store water or have deep bison root systems. • Many animals are nocturnal; they limit their activities during the day. temperate rain forest Temperate Temperate • Temperatures are hot in the summer and cold in the deciduous winter; precipitation is spaced evenly over the year. ©Frank Krahmer/zefa/Corbis; forest • Broadleaf forest dominates this biome, and deciduous ©Brand X Pictures; trees lose their leaves in the winter.

Temperate • This biome has one long wet season and a relatively tropical grassland rain forest dry summer. • Evergreen conifers, which retain their leaves (needles) ©Corbis; year-round, dominate this biome. lion temperate deciduous forest • While some species remain active in the winter, ©Wolfgang Kaehler/Corbis others migrate to warmer climates or hibernate. tundra taiga Taiga • This biome has long, cold winters and short, warm, humid summers. ©PhotoDisc/Getty Images; • Coniferous trees dominate this biome. • Mammals have heavy fur coats to withstand the Animals; ©Michael Fogden/Animals raccoons

©PhotoDisc/Getty Images; cold winters.

rams Tundra Tundra • Subzero temperatures are the norm during the long tropical rainforest winter, and there is little precipitation. • The ground is permanently frozen; only mosses and

©Corbis; other low-lying plants survive. Andrew Brown; Ecoscene/Corbis; ©PhotoDisc/Getty Images; parrot • Animal diversity is low.

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Tropical Rain Forest Tropical Rain Forest Biome A tropical rain forest has warm temperatures and abundant precipi­ 60 Manaus, Brazil 40 Temperature tation throughout most, if not all, of the year. This climate typically 50 Precipitation 30 produces lush, thick forests that can completely shade the forest floor. 20 40 The limiting factor for plants that live on the forest floor is sunlight. 10 30 In fact, as little as 1 percent of the sunlight that strikes the uppermost 0 branches of the trees, called the canopy, may make it through to the 20 -10 ground. The soil is very thin and low in nutrients. Most organisms 10 -20 that live in this biome inhabit branches of the upper canopy. Some Average temperature (°C) temperature Average Average precipitation (cm) precipitation Average 0 -30 JFMAMJ AJSOND plants, called epiphytes, grow above the ground on the branches of Month trees. A few of these, such as some figs, sprout and develop on Source: World Meteorological Organization branches and then send down long lengths of roots that grow into the ground below. Grassland Biomes Grassland biomes occur in a variety of climates. A grassland is an area where the primary plant life is grass. Tropical grasslands are found in the tropical climate zones of South America, Africa, and Australia. Temperate grasslands are found in the temperate climate zones of South Africa, eastern Europe, and central North America. Tropical grasslands, also called savannas, are covered with grass plants that may stand 1–2 meters (3–7 ft) in height. Some grasslands have scattered trees or shrubs, but the trees are never as thick and lush as in the tropical Temperate grassland rain forests. The limiting factor in the savanna is rainfall. For five Rapid City, South Dakota months or more each year, precipitation averages at most 10 centi­ 30 40 Temperature meters (4 in.) a month; often there is much less. During the rainy 30 Precipitation season, however, water can replenish lakes, rivers, streams, and 20 20 wetlands and form temporary ponds. This biome is home to plants 10 and animals that have adapted to the extreme shifts in moisture. 0 10 Temperate grasslands receive 50–90 centimeters (20­–35 in.) of -10 annual precipitation, most occurring as rain in the late spring and -20 Average temperature (°C) temperature Average

Average precipitation (cm) precipitation Average early summer. Summers may be warm or quite hot, depending on the 0 -30 JFMAMJ AJSOND latitude of the grassland. Under such arid conditions, fast-spreading Month fires are common. Some plants in temperate grasslands have adapted Source: National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration to fire by producing fire-resistant seeds that require the fire’s heat to start germination. Desert

30 Tucson, Arizona 40 Desert Biome Temperature Precipitation 30 Desert biomes receive less than 25 centimeters (10 in.) of precipita­ 20 tion annually, and are always characterized by a very dry, or arid, 20 10 climate. There are four types of deserts: hot, semiarid, coastal, and 0 cold. 10 -10 In hot deserts, such as the Sonoran Desert in Arizona, the daily -20 summer temperature may easily top 38°C (100°F). At night, however, Average temperature (°C) temperature Average Average precipitation (cm) precipitation Average 0 -30 the temperature can drop by 10 degrees Celsius or more. During the JFMAMJ AJSOND Month winter, the temperature may be as low as 0°C (32°F). The precipita­ Source: National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration tion falls as rain in hot deserts.

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Semiarid deserts, like hot deserts, have long and dry summers and low amounts of rain in the winter. In comparison with hot deserts, however, temperatures are cooler and rarely exceed 38°C. Coastal deserts are character­ HMDScience.com ized by cool winters followed by relatively long, warm summers. Tempera­ GO ONLINE tures range from a maximum of 35°C (95°F) in the summer to –4°C (25°F) in Ecosystems and Energy the winter. In cold deserts, such as the Great Basin of the western United Pyramids States, precipitation falls evenly throughout the year and often occurs as snow in the winter. Summer temperatures range between 10°C (50°F) at night to 24°C (75°F) during the day, and winter temperatures can drop below freezing. Plants use a variety of strategies to survive a desert’s heat and lack of moisture. The reduced surface area of a cactus’s spines helps it to retain more CONNECT TO water by avoiding moisture loss from transpiration. Many desert plants have Local Ecosystems the ability to conserve or store water over a long period of time. Some desert See Appendix D for information plants, such as mesquite, have extremely long root systems that absorb water about local ecosystems and guidelines for analyzing an by reaching down to the water table. Desert plants also have heat- and ecosystem. drought-resistant seeds. Contrast How do rainfall amounts differ in deserts and in tropical rain forests? Temperate Forest Biomes A key feature of temperate biomes is their distinguishable seasons. The growing season occurs during the warmer temperatures from mid-spring to mid-fall and depends upon the availability of water. The temperate deciduous forest typically receives about 75–150 Temperate Forest centimeters (30–59 in.) of precipitation spread over the entire year 30 Burlington, Vermont 40 as rain or snow. This biome is characterized by hot summers and Temperature cold winters. Deciduous trees have adapted to winter temperatures Precipitation 30 20 by dropping their leaves and going dormant during the cold 20 season. Trees, such as oaks, beeches, and maples, along with 10 shrubs, lichens, and mosses, make up the main vegetation. 0 10 The temperate rain forest does not receive precipitation evenly -10 spaced across the year. Instead, it has one long wet season and -20 Average temperature (°C) temperature Average Average precipitation (cm) precipitation Average 0 -30 a relatively dry summer, during which fog and low-lying clouds J F M A M J J A S O N D provide the needed moisture. Precipitation in the temperate rain Month forest averages over 250 centimeters (98 in.) per year. Evergreen Source: National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration conifers, such as spruces, Douglas firs, and redwoods, dominate Taiga this biome. Coniferous trees retain their needles all year. Mosses, lichens, and ferns are plant species found on the forest floor. 30 Banff, Canada 40 Temperature Precipitation 30 Taiga Biome 20 20 The taiga (TY-guh), also known as the boreal forest, is located in 10 cooler climates. Winters are long and cold, often lasting six months 0 10 or more. The average winter temperature is below freezing. Sum­ -10 mers are short, typically with only two to three months of frost-free -20 Average temperature (°C) temperature Average days. However, they may be quite humid and warm, sometimes (cm) precipitation Average 0 -30 reaching 21°C (70°F). Precipitation in the taiga is 30–85 centimeters JFMAMJ AJSOND Month (12–33 in.) per year, which is similar to that in the arid temperate grasslands. Coniferous forest is dominant in the taiga. Source: Environment Canada

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Average temperature (°C) 3.3. What biome includes the area where you live? where area the includes biome What Often described as bleak, the asthe bleak, Often described T plants do not grow here. a few scattered shrubs are able toTrees survive. and most flowering less than 13centimeters (5in.)annually. Summers last just 6to 10weeks. Precipitation is meager, averaging issurface always frozen. This frozen ground is known as permafrost. average winter temperature is below The freezing. ground below the far latitudes. northern Winter lasts as long as 10months ayear. The tundra is quite barren. Only mosses, other tiny, low holds moisture, little available making very to plants. Therefore, the

Chaparral undra Biome undra In ad dition to limited precipitation, permafrost captures and (shap - uh - r a l), als l), tundra o called Mediterraneano called shrubland, is is located beyond taiga the in - ly ing plants, and -

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the differentthe abiotic factors that shape each biome. similar across biomes, of species their plants and animals differas aresult of zone at mountain’s the top. While life the zones found on mountains are upward through aconiferous forest, and reach finally adesolate tundralike ple, you may ahike inagrassland begin at of base mountain, the continue similar to biomes the found indifferent latitudes across For globe. the exam­ As you move up amountain, different the communities that you are see adapted to variety of the ecosystems found at different mountain elevations. only penguins north,while are inthe found only south. inthe and northern the southern polar regions. For example, polar bearsare found keep warm them cold inthe polar conditions. Different animals are found in food. Animalsfood. such as polar bears,shown in mosses and lichens. Most animals region inthis for on depend sea the their tions found polar inthe regions. found Some species inAntarctica include year. all surface Very few plants or are fungi able harsh the to survive condi­ cov islands. In Southern the Hemisphere, polar the icecap includes glacier the frozen portions of Arctic and the Ocean surrounding ice cap includes of parts Greenland and permanently bottom In of Northern the Earth. Hemisphere, polar the polar caps and mountains are not categorized as biomes. depending on elevation. of characteristics, these Because climate and animal the and plant communities change do no Polar icecaps are ice MAI

nsidered biomes. the tundra. of desertorganisms withorganisms in Compare v mountains andpolar ice caps? What are s ty List anddescribe thesixmajorbiome vi Moun Pol ered continent of Antarctica. At icecaps, the iceand snow cover the pes. N e t have plant aspecific community. In mountains, the wi ID ar icecapsaround occur poles at the top the and

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Organisms that 12 b Marine Ecosystems T about theuniquehabitats found along theocean’s coasts. learnwill aboutthese andother zones that dividetheocean. You also will read you went into thewater, you were swimming intheneriticzone. Inthissection,you you walked onthebeach at theedge ofthesurf, you were intheintertidal zone. If If you’ve ever been to theocean, you are already familiar withsome ocean zones. If Your to World Connect K ey he oceanhe can divided be into zones.

a few centimeters at low to tide more than 200meters deep. edgethe of continental the shelf. The depth of neritic the zone may range from using distance from shoreline the and water depth as dividing factors. where sunlight not does reach. sunlight. In contrast, aphotic the zone refers to depths the of ocean the The photicocean. zone is portion of the that ocean the receives plentiful zone, from floor, ocean the benthic the zone. which is called simplest division of separates ocean the water the or of open pelagic the sea, systemsScientists several use to into divide ocean the different zones. The Ocean Zones deep-sea vents. living things that dwell from coastal shallows to the great depths of the The oceans are expanse of aglobal water containing alarge variety of avoids out during drying low by tide closing up. anemone,sea for example, opens up underwater when during tide. It high contend with changes intemperature, amount of moisture, and salinity. The variety of conditions that result from changing water levels. Organisms must Organisms zone, inthis such that as those inhabit must pools, tidal tolerate a MAI MAI C

o The In ath The p The Coastal waters contain uniquehabitats. The ocean can bedividedinto zones. N n N ID ce IDEAS neritic zone intertidal zone resence of to light differentiate used is also areas between of the pt EA ird system, as shown in

Marine ecosystems are global. are ecosystems Marine (nuh-RIHT-ihk) extends from intertidal the zone out to 12B

is strip the of and landhigh the low between lines. tide Figure 4.2, 4.2, Figure the ocean is separated ocean the into zones

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FIGURE 4.2 Ocean Zones The ocean is divided into four major zones. intertidal zone neritic zone Biology HMDScience.com GO ONLINE Where Do They Live? bathyal zone

abyssal zone

The bathyal zone (BATH-ee-uhl) extends from the edge of the neritic zone to the base of the continental shelf. The bathyal zone lies between the depths of READI N G TO OLB ox 200 and 2000 meters. This zone is characterized by water that is turbid, or VOCABULARY murky, due to the accumulation of silt. Fish that have adapted to living in areas In the word bathyal, the prefix of high pressure live in the bathyal zone. Burrowing animals thrive in this zone. bathy- comes from a Greek word meaning “deep.” In the The abyssal zone (uh-BIHS-uhl) lies below 2000 meters and is in complete word abyssal, the word part darkness. While deep-sea vents support a large number of organisms, the total abyss comes from a Greek number of species found in this zone is much smaller than the number found in word meaning “bottomless.” the neritic zone. Because there is no light, photosynthetic organisms do not exist. Chemosynthetic organisms are the base of the food webs at the deep-sea Biology VIDEO vents. Many organisms that live in the abyssal zone make their own light, much CLIP as a firefly produces its glow. This light is often used to attract mates and prey. HMDScience.com GO ONLINE Life in the Neritic Zone Arctic Marine Ecosystem Although the neritic zone represents less than one-tenth of the total ocean area, it contains 40 times more biomass than the rest of the ocean. Much of the CONNECT TO biomass consists of organisms called plankton. Plankton are tiny free-floating organisms that live in the water. These organisms include both animals and Invertebrates protists. Zooplankton is another term for animal plankton. Phytoplankton are Some invertebrates, such as sea stars and lobsters, are plankton photosynthetic plankton, which include microscopic protists such as algae. during their larval stage. You will Marine phytoplankton, especially blue-green algae and other types of algae, learn more about the life stages are critical to life on the planet. These organisms carry out the bulk of photo- of invertebrates in the chapter Invertebrate Diversity. synthesis on Earth, and therefore provide most of the oxygen. According to many estimates, 70 percent or more of the oxygen in every breath you take can be traced back to marine phytoplankton. In addition to their role in oxygen production, phytoplankton also form the base of the oceanic food web. Hypothesize What other adaptations might organisms have in the abyssal zone? 12B

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MAIN IDEA 12B Coastal waters contain unique habitats. The shallow, coastal waters that make up the neritic zone contain much more than plankton. Two highly diverse habitats found within these coastal waters are coral reefs and kelp forests. Coral reefs are found within the tropical climate zone. In this area, water temperatures remain warm all year. A single coral reef may be home to 50 to 400 species of corals, along with hundreds of other species, including fishes, sponges, and sea urchins. Studies indicate that the biomass in coral reefs may be up to 1000 times greater than the biomass in a similar area of ocean that does not contain a reef. Corals are animals that have a mutualistic relationship with algae. The coral provides a home for the algae, and algae provide nutrients for the coral as a byproduct of photosynthesis. Coral reefs are made mostly of coral skeletal material, which packs together over thousands of years into solid structures. Coral reefs are delicate. A change in conditions, such as increased water temperature or pollution, can kill the algae, which then starves the coral. With global ocean temperatures on the rise, coral reefs are in decline around the FIGURE 4.3 Ecologists are work- ing to rebuild coral reef ecosys- world. tems by building artificial reefs, Ecologists are trying to reintroduce these diverse communities in some such as this network of cables, onto which corals can adhere. areas by making artificial reefs, shown in FIGURE 4.3, where organisms can find shelter. In addition, some shipwrecks and sunken oil rigs have become artificial reefs that can support fishes and other species associated with coral reefs. In contrast to coral reefs, kelp forests exist in cold, nutrient-rich waters, such as those found in California’s Monterey Bay. These forests are composed of large communities of kelp, a seaweed. Kelp grows from the ocean floor up to the water’s surface, sometimes extending up to a height of over 30 meters (about 100 ft). Kelp forests are areas of high productivity that provide habitat and food sources to many marine species ranging from tiny invertebrates to large mammals, such as sea lions. Compare What are the similarities between coral reefs and kelp forests? 12B ©Wolf ©Wolf Hilbertz/Global Coral Alliance Reef

Self-check Online HMDScience.com 15.4 Formative Assessment GO ONLINE Reviewing Main Ideas Critical thinking CONNECT TO 1. What criteria do scientists use to 3. Connect A red tide occurs when a Food Webs divide the ocean into different bloom of plankton causes discolor- 5. How might the disappear- zones? ation of ocean waters. What causes ance of coastal habitats 2. What conditions account for the this increase in plankton populations? affect an oceanic food development of highly diverse 4. Predict What might organisms that web? 12C, 12F habitats in coastal waters? inhabit the abyssal zone eat? 12B

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©Morro Bay National Estuary Program F zone benthic zone limnetic zone littoral watershed estuary VOCABULARY can impact ecosystem stability describe how environmental change different ecosystems and12F and adaptations oforganisms in of species. and provide habitat for anumber Estuaries are highinbiodiversity where ariv IGURE 12Bcompare variations 5.1 15.5

er flows into theocean. An estuaryoccurs 12B, 12F Estuaries andFreshwater Ecosystems fl flow into ocean. the are environments dynamic where riversEstuaries to survive. more importantly for you, freshwater ecosystems provide thewater that you need thatshellfish you mighteat depend,at least for oftheirlives, apart onestuaries.But You rely onaquatic ecosystems more thanyou mightrealize. Manyofthefishand Your to World Connect K ey owing and standing water. standing and owing

An and salt water. Largeocean. numbers of thrive rich inthis mixture species of fresh water large volumes of organic matter and avariety of marine from species the from inland areas. movements The tidal of water bring also in ocean inthe river with salt water from The river ocean. levels the high carries of nutrients tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Photosynthetic organisms thrive in sounds, and around inlets world. the Louisianathe bayous, Florida Bay Everglades, inthe and many other harbors, into an The San ocean. Francisco and Chesapeake bays are estuaries. are So MAI MAI C

o Est The di Ponds andlakes share common features. Freshwater ecosystems includemoving andstanding water. Estuaries are dynamicenvironments wher estuary N n N uaries are productive highly ecosystems, on alevel comparable to ID ce IDEAS pt EA stinctive feature of an is mixture the estuary of fresh water from a is a partially enclosed body of enclosedbody water is apartially formed where ariver flows

Freshwater ecosystems include estuaries as well as as well as estuaries include ecosystems Freshwater shown in thatspecies on depend Morro the Bay inCalifornia, estuary Morro the called manzanita are threatened all or endangered brownthe pelican,Morro the Bay kangaroo rat, and aplant number of endangered and threatened For species. example, ecosystem. Estuaries provide also habitat necessary the for a waters. decomposers These return nutrients vital back to the plantdead and animal matter that build up estuary’s inthe communities that decompose enormous the amounts of aquatic web. food Estuaries have also thriving detritivore estuaries throughout year, the providing basis the for the 12B, 12F

Figure 5.1. Figure e rivers flow into theocean. Chapter 15:TheBiosphere

461 CorrectionKey=A DO NOT EDIT--Changes mustbemadethrough “File info” 462

estuarine ecosystem. the horseshoe crab inits illustrates theimportance of food source. Thisdependence horseshoe crab eggs asamain Delaware Bay dependon ecosystem. Migratory birds inthe has alarge effect onits keystone speciesisathat Principles ofEcology that a Recall from thechapter K F such asthese greater flamingos. over pointfor migratory birds in Por IGURE Unit 5:Ecol eys CO tugal stop- isanimportant NN t 5.2 o EC n ogy T The Tejo Estuary e

Sp T O eci es Analyze land development. United States, over 80percent of habitat estuary original the lost has to been and land.a buffer ocean the coastal between In areas some coastal of the damage fromflood catastrophic storms such as hurricanes. Estuaries as act organisms that live within are them lost. also land development and other human ecosystems activities, these and the flats, open water, mangrove forests, When and pools. estuaries tidal are lost to Estuaries are made up of avariety of ecosystems, including salt marshes, mud T ofpart migration the paths of many bird as shown species, in why areas these are nurseries often Estuaries of called sea. are the akey also venturing into Theof use ocean. the estuaries as spawning grounds explains waters, many aquatic lay species and eggs, young their mature there before from storms and ocean’s the strong currents and waves. In an estuary’s calm islands along an estuary’s protect with ocean the boundary species estuary an important resource for commercial the fishing industry. 75 percent of we fish the eat on depend ecosystems, estuary making estuaries andfish crustaceans. Humans rely also on estuaries source. as afood In fact, source. food primary their In turn, birds and consumers other secondary eat variety of Populations species. of and fish crustaceans on depend plankton as The large number of phytoplankton and zooplankton inan support estuary a Characteristics Estuary

levels may lower and with tide the of during drought periods or heavy rainfall. adaptation helps organisms cope with an estuary’s changing salinitylevel. Salt have glands that remove excess the salt that builds This up bodies. intheir there. For example, inorder to withstand changing salinities, some organisms ofparts range their during of parts year. the certain rely on estuaries as arefuge from cold the weather that northern inthe occurs hreats to Estuary Ecosystemshreats to Estuary The r Est Cha

uaries provide aprotected refuge for many and Reefs species. barrier What characteristics make an estuary such a productive ecosystem? aproductive such estuary an make characteristics What nging conditions inestuaries present challenges for that species live emoval of estuaries makesareas coastal also more vulnerable to F IGURE 5.2. Birds

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MAIN IDEA 12B, 12F Biology IDEO Freshwater ecosystems include moving and V CLIP standing water. HMDScience.com GO ONLINE Rivers and streams are the flowing bodies of fresh water that serve as paths Land Biome, Temperate Bog through many kinds of ecosystems. Rivers and streams, along with lakes and ponds, originate from watersheds. A watershed is a region of land that drains into a river, a river system, or another body of water. Freshwater Ecosystems If you have ever paddled down a river in a canoe, you have probably witnessed the change in shoreline ecosystems, perhaps with a forest along one stretch and sand dunes along another. Along its course, a river may vary in many ways. For example, the speed of its flow is greater in narrow areas than in wide ones. The river bottom may be alternately sandy, gravel-covered, or rock-strewn. The water level may differ across seasons. In some areas, spring brings about the melting of snow and causes river water levels to rise. Humans also affect water levels by damming rivers or by draining water for irrigation or drinking water. Unlike rivers and streams, wetlands have very little water flowing through them. A wetland is an area of land that is saturated by ground or surface water for at least part of the year. Bogs, marshes, and swamps are different types of wetlands that are identified by their plant commu- nities. Common wetland plants include cattails, duckweed, and sedges. Like estuaries, wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth. They provide a home for a large number of species, some of which are only found in wetlands. Wetlands also help maintain a clean water supply. A wetland filters dirty water and renews underground stores of water. Adaptations of Freshwater Organisms The particular variety of freshwater organisms found in a body of water depends on a number of factors. These factors include water tempera- ture, oxygen levels, pH, and the water flow rate. Each type of freshwater ecosystem is home to species with adaptations suited to its conditions. In fast-moving rivers, for example, trout are adapted to swim against the current. They have streamlined bodies that can slice through the water easily. Some aquatic insects, such as the stonefly, have hooks on their bodies. The stonefly uses the hooks to attach itself to a solid surface in fast-running water to avoid being swept away. Similarly, tadpoles that live in fast-running water often have sucker mouths that they use to attach FIGURE 5.3 As the Colorado to a surface while feeding. These tadpoles also have streamlined bodies with River travels southward from Colorado to Mexico, it flows long tails and low fins that help them to move in the fast water. Tadpoles that through different ecosystems, live in pools or in slower moving water often lack sucker mouths and have including forests and deserts. more rounded bodies and higher fins. Predict What effect would the construction of a dam have on a river ecosystem? 12F (t) ©John Kelly/The Image Bank/Getty Images; (b) ©Corbis

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MAIN IDEA 12B Ponds and lakes share common features. Biology Although they are much smaller in size than oceans, freshwater ponds and HMDScience.com lakes are also divided into zones. Scientists use the terms littoral, limnetic, and GO ONLINE benthic to identify and separate these zones. Lake Turnover • The freshwater littoral zone is similar to the oceanic intertidal zone, and it is located between the high and low water marks along the shoreline. The waters of the littoral zone are well-lit, warm, and shallow. A diverse set of organisms, including water lilies, dragonflies, and snails, live in this zone. • The limnetic zone (also called the pelagic zone) refers to the open water located farther out from shore. This zone is characterized by an abundance of plankton communities, which support populations of fish. • The benthic zone is the lake or pond bottom, where less sunlight reaches. Decomposers, such as bacteria, live in the mud and sand of the benthic zone. During the summer and the winter, the water temperature within a lake is stratified, which means that different layers of the lake have different tempera- tures. In the summer, water is warmer near the surface and colder at the FIGURE 5.4 In the spring and fall, bottom of the lake. These warm and cold regions are separated by a thin zone the water in a lake turns over, called the thermocline. bringing nutrients from the bot- All of the water within a lake “turns over” periodically. This happens tom of the lake to the top. because water is most dense at 4°C (39°F). When water reaches this tempera- ture, it will sink beneath water that is either warmer or cooler. In autumn, colder air temperatures cool the surface layer of water to 4°C, causing it to sink and mix with the water underneath. During the winter, the surface layer of water cools to less than 4°C. In the spring, when the surface water warms to Web 4°C, it sinks and mixes with the layers of water below. In both autumn and spring, the underlying water flows upward and switches places with the HMDScience.com surface water. This upwelling brings nutrients such as bits of decaying plants GO ONLINE and animals from the benthic zone to the surface, where they are eaten by Explore an Ecosystem surface-dwelling organisms. Analyze What is the significance of lake turnover to the lake ecosystem?

Self-check Online Woodfall/NHPA/Photoshot ©David HMDScience.com 15.5 Formative Assessment GO ONLINE Reviewing Main Ideas Critical thinking CONNECT TO 1. What are the characteristics of an 4. Compare and Contrast How are Adaptation estuary ecosystem? coastal wetlands different from and 6. Many fish species and other 2. What abiotic factors might affect a similar to estuaries? aquatic animals have color- river ecosystem? 12F 5. Connect What adaptation do some ations that closely resemble the rocks or silt found on the 3. How is a lake different from the organisms living in estuaries have in bottom of their aquatic ocean? How is it the same? order to survive the changing water conditions? 12B habitat. What types of ecological advantages might such an adaptation give an aquatic species? 12B

464 Unit 5: Ecology DO NOT EDIT--Changes must be made through “File info” CorrectionKey=A G Online! HOME ••••Sweet HOME

BIOLOGY Web Amphibian Distribution Where Do They Live? Explore an Ecosystem Graph the number of known Use the adaptations of marine Dig further to explore amphibian species by region organisms to place them in the the organisms, geology, and analyze the distribution. appropriate ocean environments. soils, climate, and other Find out how amphibians characteristics of one major are distributed all over ecosystem. the world. (r) ©Susan Berg/SJB Photography

online biology 465 HMDScience.com CorrectionKey=A DO NOT EDIT--Changes mustbemadethrough “File info” Unit 466

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CHAPTER 15 G N I D A E R

two terms ineach ofthefollowing pairs. Describe onesimilarity andonedifference between the Compare andContrast R 15.3 15.2 15.1 vo Chapter 10. 12. 11. 8. 6. 4. 2. 5. 9. 3. 7. 1. eviewing

kelp for neritic, intertida meaning related to thedefinitionofdeciduous ? decidere, whichmeans “to fall off.” How isthis The term deciduous taiga, tundr definition oflittoral zone. meaning “shore.” Explain how thismeaning relates to the The term lit climate, micr explain how itrelates to what anestuaryis. which means “tide” or“surges.” Usingthismeaning, The term estuary hydro zooplank meaning relates to thedefinitionofclimate. which means “surface oftheearth.” Explain how this The term climat biosphere, biota this meaning relates to plankton. plank The term plankton comes from theGreek word

microclima climate desert gras canopy geosphere atmosphere hydrosphere biota biosphere tos, whichmeans “wandering.” Explain how sphere, atmosphere sland Review est, coral reef X O B L O O T ton, phytoplankton c a V toral comes from theLatin word litoralis, oclimate abu te ocabulary l e comes from theGreek word klima, lary comes from theLatin word æstus, comes from theLatin word Word Word and Greek O ri g L ins 15.4 ati n

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15.5 M AIN aps andmountains not considered

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ershed ater depth, would you expectto IDEAS ers flow into theocean. What Chapter 15: TheBiosphere Chapter 15: 12B 12B

467 DO NOT EDIT--Changes must be made through “File info” CorrectionKey=A

Critical Thinking 23. Apply A deer drinks water from a stream, and then later Analyzing Data Construct a Combination Graph it breathes out some of the water as vapor into the air. Below is a climatogram for the city of Portland, Oregon. Through which three Earth spheres has this water Use the graph to answer the next four questions. moved? 10C 24. Infer How would Earth’s three main climate zones be Average Climate of Portland, Oregon different if Earth’s axis were not tilted in relation to the 60 40 Sun? (Hint: The tropical climate zone would likely be the Precipitation most similar to how it is now.) 10C 50 Temperature 30 20 25. Infer Do you think it is possible for a biome to change 40 from one type into another? Explain a situation in which 10 this might happen. 30 0 20 26. Connect Why does the health of an entire coral reef -10 ecosystem depend on algae? 10c, 12F

10 (°C) temperature Average

Average precipitation (cm) precipitation Average -20 27. Analyze Describe two reasons why it is critical to 12F 0 -30 protect estuary ecosystems. JFMAMJ AJ SOND Month Interpreting Visuals Use the diagram of a rocky intertidal zone to answer Source: National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration the next three questions. 31. Analyze Which month receives the highest amount of Spray Zone rain? the highest temperature? 32. Summarize Describe in one or two sentences the barnacle green algae climate of Portland throughout the year. periwinkle snail 33. Analyze A family is planning to vacation in Portland. High-Tide Zone Many of their planned activities occur outdoors. If they high tide wish to avoid rain, in which month should they travel? limpet shore crab hermit crab 34. Connect Based on the data in the graph, which biome is Portland a part of? Explain your choice. Mid-Tide Zone

rockweed starfish mussel Making Connections sea anemone barnacle 35. Write a Policy The majority of the wetlands in the United States have been drained and used for develop- Low-Tide Zone ment. A company has submitted a proposal to purchase an area of 100 acres of wetland that it plans to develop. laminaria sea urchin If you were an official in the area, how would you surf grass abalone sea palm respond to this proposal? What would you say to a local low tide environmental group that opposes the proposal? What might be a possible compromise? Use information from 28. Predict How do you think the organisms above the the chapter to convince your fellow elected officials to high-tide mark are able to obtain the water they need take your position. 12F to survive? 12B 36. Synthesize Reread the information about the 29. Compare What adaptations are necessary for a species temperate rain forest at the beginning of the chapter. to survive in the spray zone compared with a species in Using your knowledge of climate, biomes, and evolution, 12B the low-tide zone? explain why different species are found in temperate 12B 30. Hypothesize Why do you think there aren’t any fish and tropical rain forests. shown in the diagram? Why wouldn’t fish be a major part of the rocky intertidal zone? 12B

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Biology End-of-Course Exam Practice

Record your answers on a separate piece of paper. 12f MULTIPLE CHOICE 4 Tropical rain forests have the greatest number of species of any biome. However, the alteration of 12B rain forest habitats into farmland threatens to 1 Sylvilagus auduboni is a rabbit species that lives in most likely — dry desert regions, while the species Sylvilagus A increase biomass palustris lives in marshes. Which variation in B increase species diversity behavior would most likely benefit S. palustris, C cause a mass extinction but not S. auduboni? D decrease biodiversity A an ability to swim B being active at night 12c, 12e C building a nest immediately after mating 5 D burrowing to avoid predators

2g, 12b 2 Average Monthly Temperature and Precipitation 30 30 Temperature 25 Precipitation 20 20 10 15 0 10 -10 The diagram above shows the zones that exist in 5 -20 freshwater lakes. In the benthic zone, dead

-30 (°C) temperature Average Average precipitation (cm) precipitation Average 0 organic material is converted into nutrients that JFMAMJ AJSOND Month can be used by other organisms. What type of organisms carry out this conversion? The graph above shows how the average temperature and precipitation for a given A decomposers environment change over the course of a year. B consumers Which of these most likely describes an organism C carnivores that is adapted to living in this environment? D producers A low growing mosses B epiphytes that grow on tree branches 9b, 12f C a cactus that is able to store water 6 High concentrations of sediment in the water can block out sunlight needed by aquatic plants for D a teak tree that blocks out most of the sunlight photosynthesis. This condition will most likely from reaching the ground result in — A increased concentrations of nitrogen 11b, 12f 3 Over thousands of years, the plants in a region B decreased concentrations of nitrogen change from plants with lush foliage to deep- C increased concentrations of oxygen rooted plants adapted to dry conditions. This D decreased concentrations of oxygen shift is most likely the result of a change in — THINK THROUGH THE QUESTION A predators B climate Think about what is produced and what is consumed during photosynthesis. If rates of photosynthesis C sunlight decrease, the products of photosynthesis will D weather decrease in the ecosystem.

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