The Salinity Strategy March 2000

Natural Resource Management in Western Australia The Salinity Strategy March 2000

Government of Western Australia

Prepared by

In association with community groups and government agencies Foreword

In 1996, in recognition of the magnitude of the threat salinity poses to agriculture, rural towns and the environment, the Western Australian Government released the first Salinity Action Plan. It provided a blueprint for applying government resources in an integrated and effective way for salinity management.

The State Salinity Council formed by this initiative has reviewed the Salinity Action Plan and developed a strategy which gives greater focus to community based programs. Partnerships between government, community and industry will be needed to implement the strategies required to protect our water resources, biodiversity, regional towns and maintain agricultural productivity.

All levels of government accept the need for joint action on salinity management. For example, the Commonwealth Government’s Natural Heritage Trust is important in funding community groups to plan for and take action against salinity on individual farms and catchments. The Western Australian Government makes a significant contribution through its agencies, but it is acknowledged that most of the resources for salinity management come from and will continue to come from the private sector.

It is appropriate that the community is well represented in any structure established to implement the new Salinity Strategy. Regional Natural Resource Management Groups are fundamentally important in ensuring salinity management strategies are developed by community groups in partnership with government agencies.

I congratulate the State Salinity Council, and its Chairman Alex Campbell, on the production of the new Salinity Strategy. It sets clear goals for the planning and implementation of activities by all stakeholders engaged in the fight against salinity.

Hendy Cowan MLA

Deputy Premier; Chairman of the Cabinet Standing Committee on Salinity Management and the Natural Heritage Trust The Salinity Strategy

iii Contents

Foreword iii

Preface vii

1 Executive summary 9

2 The impact of salinity 13

2.1 The recharge/discharge imbalance ...... 15 2.2 Biophysical impacts ...... 17 2.2.1 Water resources ...... 17 2.2.2 Biodiversity ...... 18 2.2.3 Increased flood risk ...... 19 2.3 Economic impacts ...... 20 2.3.1 Agricultural productivity ...... 20 2.3.1.1 Irrigation and high rainfall salinity ...... 21 2.3.2 Infrastructure ...... 21 2.4 Social impacts ...... 22 2.4.1 Individual and family impacts ...... 22 2.4.2 Community impacts ...... 22 2.4.3 Recreation and tourism ...... 22

3 The strategy 23

4 Strategic approach to addressing salinity 25

4.1 Evolving natural resource management in Western Australia ...... 26 4.2 Regional planning ...... 27 4.3 Priority setting ...... 28 4.3.1 Catchment assessment ...... 29 4.3.2 Focus catchment support teams ...... 31 4.4 Biodiversity conservation ...... 32 4.4.1 Seed collection, storage and databasing ...... 32 4.4.2 Protecting fauna from extinction ...... 32 4.4.3 Natural diversity recovery catchments ...... 33 4.4.4 Protecting other wetlands ...... 33 4.5 Water resource recovery catchments ...... 33 4.6 Infrastructure protection ...... 34 4.7 Flood risk assessment ...... 34 4.8 Research and development ...... 36

5 Tools to manage salinity 37

5.1 Land management practices ...... 38 5.1.1 Changing agricultural practices ...... 38 5.1.1.1 Cropping options ...... 38 5.1.1.2 Pasture options ...... 40 5.1.2 Commercial farm forestry ...... 40 The Salinity Strategy

iv 5.1.3 Using saline lands productively ...... 42 5.1.3.1 Productive use of saline water ...... 44 5.1.4 Irrigated agriculture ...... 45 5.2 Native vegetation management and revegetation ...... 45 5.2.1 Native vegetation management ...... 45 5.2.2 Native revegetation ...... 46 5.3 Engineering options ...... 47 5.3.1 Surface water management ...... 49 5.3.2 Groundwater management ...... 49 5.3.2.1 Deep drains ...... 49 5.3.2.2 Groundwater pumping ...... 50 5.3.2.3 Relief wells and syphons ...... 51 5.4 Social impact management ...... 51 5.5 The way forward ...... 52

6 Community action to address salinity 53

6.1 State Salinity Council ...... 54 6.2 Community and government partnerships ...... 55 6.3 Shared investments ...... 57 6.4 Options for cost sharing ...... 58 6.4.1 Commonwealth funding ...... 58 6.4.2 Corporate funding ...... 59 6.4.3 Public contributions ...... 59 6.4.4 Landholder contributions ...... 60 6.4.4.1 Catchment levies ...... 60 6.4.4.2 Land trading within a catchment group ...... 61 6.5 Capacity building ...... 61 6.5.1 Solutions for managing the effects on people ...... 61 6.5.2 Participation in decision-making processes ...... 61 6.5.2.1 Participatory planning ...... 62 6.5.3 Communication and information ...... 62 6.5.4 Adjusting to change in catchments ...... 62 6.5.5 Knowledge building ...... 62 6.5.5.1 Knowledge networks ...... 63 6.5.6 Information provision and barriers to adoption ...... 64 6.5.7 Leadership development ...... 65 6.5.8 Community involvement ...... 65 6.5.8.1 Indigenous interests and participation ...... 65 6.5.9 Support and advisory services ...... 65 6.5.9.1 Community coordinators ...... 65 6.5.9.2 Private consultants ...... 66

7 Monitoring and evaluation 67

8 Bibliography 71 The Salinity Strategy

v Preface

In 1996 the Western Australian Government launched a Salinity Action Plan with a 30-year vision to address dryland salinity in the State. The State Salinity Council was formed in May 1997, representing key stakeholder groups with a role in salinity management. The original plan proved to be a robust base from which we could move forward and develop the present strategy.

In December 1998, in response to calls for the Salinity Action Plan to be more community-focused, a revised plan was released as a draft for public comment. This strategy has been further developed following considerable public input. Its release coincides with the restructure of the Salinity Council that will allow greater integration between government, industry and regional and local community groups, reflecting a broader approach to salinity management for the future.

Recent research shows that an enormous effort is needed to reduce the impact of salinity significantly. It will not only require large-scale planting of deep- rooted perennials, changing crop rotations and appropriate engineering works including pumping and drainage, but will also see most farmers completely changing their land use practices. We will not be able to control salinity without changing from the traditional farming practices of annual crops and livestock grazing to new types of farming across large parts of the agricultural area.

There is encouraging evidence from around the State that these new systems are potentially more profitable and sustainable, once established. However, there are high social and economic costs to be considered with these changes and the wider community will need to share this responsibility.

With 1.8 million hectares already affected by salinity in Western Australia, we have to accept that some land will be saline in the future and we have to live with this and learn to manage it. However, the effort we put in during the next few years will determine how much more land and resources will be affected and what levels of intervention are appropriate.

Management measures will also be required to help deal with the social effects of salinity. Impacts on rural families and communities must be acknowledged and assistance provided during the process of change.

There are crucial questions facing the Western Australian community, as there will be trade-offs as we develop and implement measures to address salinity. The restructured Council with regional involvement will take a leading role in tackling these difficult decisions. The Salinity Strategy

vii The good news is that we now have a better understanding of appropriate control measures and can more accurately assess where these need to occur within each catchment in the region. As we enter the 21st century, we offer a vision of hope, that we will be able to manage salinity for economic and environmental benefits, and take advantage of new and evolving management practices for saline land.

During the past three years the community and Government have developed a strong working relationship which will be vital to manage salinity. I believe this strategy will provide a new impetus to help us achieve our goals for sustainable and profitable natural resource management in the future.

Alex Campbell

Chairman, State Salinity Council The Salinity Strategy

Opposite: Planting to rehabilitate the headwaters of a stream, near Mt Barker. viii Photo: Simon Neville – Ecotones/Water and Rivers Commission Section 1 Executive summary The Salinity Strategy Section 1 - Executive summary 10 that hasbeenundertakenrecently. Salinity Action Plan,andonnewresearch Action Planandthe1998DraftUpdate Australian SituationStatementandSalinity This strategybuildsonthe1996Western manage it(adaptation). (containment), orlearntolivewithand (recovery), stopitfrom gettingworse area whetherweshouldtrytoreverse salinity salinity inthelongerterm,andforanygiven would bepossibleand/or economictocontrol The communityneedstoconsiderwhere it 1996 Salinity Action Plan. area, andmore quicklythananticipatedinthe actions mustbeundertakenacross awider the lightofrecent research thatindicated salinity andoutlinesthetoolstobeused,in Australia. Italsosetsoutastrategytomanage problems, andtheirimpactsinWestern This documentexplainswhatleadstosalinity equilibrium isreached. be affected bythetimeanewgroundwater hectares, or30percentoftheregion,will be affected by2010-2015andsixmillion practices, aboutthreemillionhectareswill significant changestocurrentlanduse rapid, large-scaleintervention,including some extent.Projectionsshowthatwithout region arealreadyaffected bysalinityto hectares inthesouth-westagricultural facing Western Australia–1.8million Salinity isthegreatestenvironmentalthreat 1 Executivesummary waterbird specieswill severely decline. extinct, andthree-quarters ofthe region’s species endemictotheregion will become become saline.Without intervention,450plant enormous ifthearea atriskisallowedto private buildings.Theimpactispotentially water andwastewaterfacilities,public regional infrastructure, includingroads, rail, and future watersupplies,agriculture and had aseriousimpactonbiodiversity, current The area ofsalt-affected landhasalready The impactofsalinity help determinethesepriorities. catchments. Inputattheregional levelwill and privateassetsunderthreat inindividual the relative importanceoftherangepublic to whicheachgoalispursuedwilldependon west agriculturalregion. However, thedegree Each ofthesegoalsappliesacross thesouth- toprotect infrastructure affected • to provide communitieswiththe capacity • to protect andrestore highvalue • to protect andrestore keywaterresources • to reduce therateofdegradation • region of Western Australia. Ithasasitsgoals: of salinityinthesouth-westagricultural This strategyaimstoreduce theimpact The strategy on familiesaffected bychange. and increased healthproblems duetostress restructure iffarmsbecome unprofitable, existing andpotential),thecostofrural declining population,lossofbusiness(both includes thecosttorural communitiesof of thiseffect isdifficult toquantifybut Salinity willalsoaffect people.Themagnitude 75 percent. road lifeexpectancywillbereduced byupto increased floodriskinmanyareas, andsealed agricultural production by2050.There willbe Up to$400millionperyearwillbelostin by salinity. the changesbrought about bysalinity;and to address salinityissues andtomanage of Western Australia; diversity withinthesouth-westregion maintain natural(biologicalandphysical) wetlands andnaturalvegetation, in perpetuity; that permitssafe,potablewatersupplies to ensure salinitylevelsare kepttoalevel or managesalt-affected land; practical recover, rehabilitate agricultural andpublicland,where • developing continuousmonitoring developing • planningtoaddress shortfallsinactions • promoting research anddevelopment to • addressing equityconcernsthatarise; • helpingthefarmingcommunitytomake • adoptinganappropriate mixofthetools • retaining nativevegetationandprotecting • analysingriskindifferent areas overtime • workinginpartnershipsthatinvolveall • The keyelementsofsuchanapproach are: salinity onthescalefacingWestern Australia. strategicapproach isessentialtomanage A Strategic approach the strategy needstobeimplemented • developingpracticalandenvironmentally • salinityneedstobeaddressed bytreating • are basedonthree fundamentalprinciples: The proposed actionstoachievethesegoals management actions. and evaluationofsalinity affected; and unacceptable risk,orare significantly and otherpublicassetsremain atan where priority biodiversity improve salinitymanagement; capacity todoso; production systemsandbuildingtheir the transitiontomore sustainable available tomanagesalinity; the remaining biodiversityvalues; to beset; to allowappropriate priorities stakeholders; scale. stakeholders attheregional andcatchment in apartnershipapproach betweenall salinity bymanagingthedischarge; and sound methodsthatmitigatetheimpactof managing recharge andrisingwatertables; the causesofproblem, focussingon promoted, where appropriate. productively willbedevelopedfurtherand Opportunities tousesalinelandandwater will beanessentialpartofthisstrategy. involved meansthatcommercial tree crops revegetation required andthesubstantialcost and forcommercial returns. Thelarge area of revegetating strategicareas forbiodiversity remnant nativevegetation,andby will beachievedbyprotecting andenhancing Deep-rooted perennial shrub andtree cover complementary engineeringoptions. management andabroad spectrum of alongside catchment-scaledsurfacewater and alternative,high-wateruseenterprises (rotations whichincludeaperennial phase) perennial shrubs and trees, phasefarming be covered byacombinationofdeep-rooted south-west agriculturalregion willneedto 18 millionhectares ofcleared landinthe control. Ithasbeenestimatedthatmostofthe required toachieveamoderatelevelofsalinity changes tolandmanagementpracticesare The SalinityCouncilbelievessignificant the landscape. appropriately locatedinallpartsof and thetoolsusedwillneedtobe No onetoolislikelytoworkinisolation specific needsandtomeettheirobjectives. to selectacombinationofthesesuittheir manage salinity. Eachcatchmentwillneed There isarangeoftoolsavailableto Tools tomanagesalinity broader strategicplans. management strategiesin the contextoftheir recognised andsupportedtodevelopsalinity resource management groups willbe salinity management.Theregional natural been restructured toincrease integrationin community andgovernmentstakeholders,has The StateSalinityCouncil,whichrepresents Community actiontoaddress salinity 11 The Salinity Strategy Section 1 - Executive summary The Salinity Strategy Section 1 - Executive summary 12 involvement). network buildingandcommunity to information,leadershipdevelopment, (including knowledgebuilding,access support systemsandcapacitybuilding data andinformationavailability, decision must address issuesofequity, biophysical opportunity todevelop,whichmeansthatwe important thatthiscapacityisgiventhebest sustainable naturalresource management.Itis waters thatprovides thepotentialfor capacity tomanagevegetation,soilsand Within eachcatchment,itisthecommunity’s possibly catchmentlevies. mechanisms forlandholdercontributions, funding, publiccontributionsandnew investment isrequired through corporate agriculture andinfrastructure meansfurther The threat tobiodiversity, waterresources, to befundedbyprivatelandholders. investment hascomefrom andwillcontinue Western Australia. However, thelargest contributed significantlytoprograms in and theCommonwealthGovernmenthasalso $40 millionayeartosalinitymanagement, State Governmentcurrently contributesabout costs andthebenefitsofmanagingit.The affected bysalinityandwillhavetoshare the The wholeWestern Australian communityis longer-term biophysicaltrends andthe • progress towards agreed goalsfor • the communityandgovernmenton: It willprovide information tolandholders, State scaleandwillinvolveallstakeholders. out attheproperty, catchment,region and Monitoring andevaluationshouldbecarried Monitoring andevaluation management; and likely impactofchangesinlanduse capacity-building; natural diversity, infrastructure and agricultural systems,waterresources, Opposite: Thestark impactofsalinityontheAvon RiveratYenyenning Lakes. Photo: Simon Neville– Ecotones/Water andRiversCommission knowledge comestohand. on specificissuesandupdatedasnew notes andoptionspaperswillbedeveloped information. Inaddition,aseriesoftechnical budgets andmonitoringevaluation operating plansdetailingcurrent projects, The SalinityCouncilwillprepare annual • • • with thisstrategy: Three otherdocumentsare alsoassociated not managesalinity. pastures systemsintheircurrent formatwill with justbroadacre annualwintercrops and practices throughout theregion. Continuing required inlanduseandmanagement quick solutionsandfundamentalchangeis take averylongtimetoabate.There are no requires persistencebecausetheproblem will developed andrefined. Managingsalinity actions toaddress salinitycontinuetobe development ofmanagementsystems.New to beaffected, andmostimportantly, the affected areas, theprediction ofareas likely progress isbeingmadeinthemappingof incomplete answers.However, considerable This strategysetsadirection inthefaceof performanceoflandholders,community • this strategy. New initiativesarehighlighted throughout 1998 DraftUpdateSalinity Action Plan. Summary ofpublicsubmissions scale; and activities atthefarmandcatchment contacts tohelplandmanagersplan includes managementoptionsandinitial guideforlandmanagers A Salinity: 1998 DraftUpdate; under the1996Salinity Action Planand Council, togetherwithactionsbegun recommended bytheStateSalinity Salinity actions objectives oftheirplans. meeting theirresponsibilities andthe groups andgovernmentagenciesin , whichlistsnewactions on the , which Section 2 The impact of salinity The Salinity Strategy Section 2 - The impact of salinity 14 rainfall andthisunusedwatereitherruns-off pastures donotuseasmuchoftheincoming effective initsuseofwater. Annual crops and to survivingbothfloodsanddrought and perennial anddeep-rooted, well-adapted indigenous vegetationof Australia is to thehydrology ofthelandscape.The pasture thatuselesswater, causingchanges replacing itwithshallow-rooted crops and result of clearingnativevegetationand either drylandorirrigationsalinity)isthe Secondary salinity(whichtakestheformof and landscapeformfunction. Australia, causingchangesinbiologicalsystems accumulated beneaththesouth-westofWestern Over thousandsofyears,saltslowly from thesoilprofile andevaporationishigh. areas where rainfallisinsufficient toleachsalts Primary salinitydevelopsnaturally, mainlyin areas (generallyflatandpoorlydrained). and welldrained),highestinlowrainfall high rainfallareas (generallymoderaterelief stored saltinthesoilprofile isleastinthe year) inrainfallanddust.Theamountof on thelandinsmallamounts(20-200kg/ha/ inland bytheprevailing windsanddeposited Salt, mainlysodiumchloride,hasbeencarried Western Australia originatedintheocean. Most ofthesaltresponsible forsalinityin 2 Theimpactofsalinity Figure 1:Typical changesin waterandsaltbalancesfollowingclearing. marginal reductions inyieldcanbeseen. can alsobepresent inareas where only surface expression ofsalinity, although salt resources. Seepageareas andscaldsare the lakes, degradingwetlandhabitatsandwater eventually drainingintostreams, riversand damaging soilson-siteanddownslopes, and are concentratedbyevaporation, groundwaters discharge atthesoilsurface suffer from increased waterlogging.Saline pastures thatare notsalttolerant.Plantsalso to thedeathofnativeplantsandcrops and surface, saltenterstheplantroot zoneleading As salinegroundwater comesclosetothesoil addressed inthisstrategy. surface. Thissecondarysalinityisthethreat emerging where waterisforced totheland mobilised withtheriseingroundwater levels, areas, thisaccumulationofsalthasbecome much as10,000t/hainsalinevalleys.Inmany with aslittle300t/hainuplandsand profile betweenthesurfaceandbedrock, of saltstored beloweveryhectare inthesoil region hasanaverageofabout2000tonnes to clearing.Ithasbeenestimatedthatthe agricultural region wasprone tosalinityprior Much ofthelandinsouth-west accumulates asgroundwater (recharge). or infiltratesbeyondtheroot zoneand 1 encrusted withwhite salt. characteristics. Itisnotall totally bare and land hasarangeofvisibleandnotso where leaching isnotsoeffective. Thussaline watertables thaninthelowrainfallareas will enablecropping overshallower additional leachingofsaltsbythewinterrains metres. Also inhigherrainfallareas the not produce acrop withthewatertableattwo textured soil(clayorsandy clayloam)may the watertableatonemetre, whereas afine loams) mayproduce areasonable crop with textured soils(forexamplesandsorsandy with soiltype,climateandlanduse.Coarse soil surface.Theexpression ofsalinityvaries groundwater risestowithinonemetre ofthe Land isconsidered salinewhen an environmentally soundandpracticalway. or findingwaystoremove groundwater in amount ofrainthatreaches thegroundwater slowed orreduced byeitherreducing the rise andthespread ofsalinitycanonlybe The rateofgroundwrechargedrainfall. by south-west agriculturalregion asitis average rateof20centimetres peryearinthe speaking, groundwater continuestoriseatan Wheatbelt groundwater systems.Generally impermeable andflatnature ofmany of annualrainfallandtherelatively The primarycauseofsalinityisunder-use imbalance 2.1 Therecharge/discharge salinity andwaterloggingproblems. correct thewaterimbalancethatleadsto economic useofthispreciousresourceand This strategysetsoutwaystomakebetter use annualrainfalltobestadvantage. We liveinadrycontinent,yetfailto the areas athighestriskofsalinity. most ofthetownsinregion, are nowin near watercourses.Theseareas, including agricultural region occurred inthevalleys Most earlysettlementinthesouth-west Dr Tom HattonandDrPaoloReggiani (CSIROLandandWater). Dr Richard George (Agriculture Western Australia), DrChristopherClarke(Murdoch University), The SalinityCouncilwouldliketo acknowledgeitsappreciation ofthefollowingpeopleforthis work: ater Murdoch Universityand CSIRO scientists from Agriculture Western Australia, In 1999theStateSalinityCouncilasked equilibrium isreached. especially thosethathavelittletimeuntil parts ofthesouth-westagriculturalregion, to current landusepracticesacross large very quicklyandtomakesignificantchanges currently salineoratrisk.We needtoact larger thantheestimated30percentofland makes thescaleofimplementationmuch is required over mostoftheregion. This However, wenowknowthatremedial action despite significantaction,willgosaline. contributing torecharge) andsomeareas, affected bysalinity(whiletheycouldbe remedial action.Someareas willneverbe affected, whichmakesitdifficult toplan The landscapewillnotbeuniformly in theeastandnorth. western areas, toaslong50100years as little30yearsinthesouthernand catchments intheregion butitcouldtake reach equilibriumvaries between zonesand groundwater level.Theestimatedtimeto towards anew(buthigher)equilibrium management systems,there willbeashift system continuetorespond tocurrent land As recharge anddischarge tothegroundwater management toreduce waterlogging. considerable emphasistosurfacewater and protecting biodiversity, thestrategygives other reasons, suchasreducing floodrisk salinity inwell-drainedsoils.Forthisand Plants cantoleratemuchhigherlevelsof exacerbated whenthesoilisalsowaterlogged. The effect ofsalinityonplantgrowth is being implementedbysome farmers. being proposed inthisstrategyandalready recharge ratesofchangestofarmingsystems Australia. Theyalsoestimatedtheimpacton of salinityintheagriculturalareas ofWestern reducing recharge would haveontheextent an initialassessmentoftheimpactthat 1 to undertake 15 The Salinity Strategy Section 2 - The impact of salinity Salinity projections for Western Australia 35 6.2 30

40 years Do nothing 4.5 20 50% reduction 50% Reductionin recharge in recharge Area (Mha) Area 10

Q1: Change in eventual extent? 25% % Area affected by salinity affected % Area Q2: How much time do we buy? 40 years 0 1990 2010 2030 2050 2070 2090 Year

Their scenarios showed that catchments The scenario modelling is a generalisation and responded differently to reductions in does not provide the picture for all recharge. In dissected landscapes, the catchments. Possible high intervention groundwaters were more responsive scenarios include: and lower levels of recharge control • A Wheatbelt catchment could revegetate were required than in areas with flat 30 per cent of the total area to woody landscapes. However, even in these areas, perennials with phase farming introduced recharge reduction resulted in significant over the rest of the catchment, as well as delays in the onset of salinity (25-100 years) appropriate surface and discharge water “buying time” for many catchments. In management. The woody perennials could unresponsive catchments (flat landscapes) be planted in different ways, such as in

Section 2 - The impact of salinity recharge reductions in excess of 50 per cent alleys across the contours, or at the break of are required to reduce significantly the final the slope and near saline areas, and would area that may become saline. This level of include appropriately managed areas of intervention is significantly greater natural bush. Changes in rotations could than is currently being achieved. include warm season cropping and/or phase farming with perennial pastures This work showed that change needs to occur across catchments on a bigger scale • Around 10 per cent of the catchment could and more quickly than had previously been be planted to a shrub with the remainder considered. It is already too late to prevent of the catchment area planted with two rows some areas from developing high of trees or shrubs (for example oil mallees) groundwater levels. at nominal belt spacings of 50 metres. The Salinity Strategy

16 Cropping or pasture could continue industrial use) has become brackish or saline between the alleys. The alleys could be and can no longer be used. A further 16 per spaced further apart if more rows cent is of marginal quality. of trees were added or a higher percentage of the catchment was revegetated. Clearing controls were introduced by legislation on five catchments during the Engineering options will form an important 1970s in response to increasing salinity and component in a number of catchments to over $46 million has been spent on protect high value assets, particularly surface compensating farmers for not being able to water management but also including clear their land in these catchments. Three of groundwater pumping and deep drains in these (Helena, Collie and Denmark River some instances. However, they will need to catchments) have been developed for water form part of an overall strategy and their cost supplies, and the others (Warren and Kent may be a limiting factor in many cases. River catchments) are important future sources. These five catchments have the The research showed different responses to potential to yield almost 440 gigalitres per treatment between catchments, emphasising annum (one gigalitre is one thousand million the need for prior investigations that lead to litres) in total. This is equivalent to about risk assessment, and site evaluations prior twice Perth’s current water supply. to works. Without increased and continuing action, water quality of the Collie, Warren and Kent 2.2 Biophysical impacts rivers will deteriorate and the potential of these water resources will be lost or become 2.2.1 Water resources too expensive to restore.

Water is one of our most precious resources More than $25 million has been spent on and potable water is in short supply. The salinity management and research in these salinity of many rivers in the south-west three water resource catchments. agricultural region has increased significantly over the years and is likely to continue to increase in many cases. For example the Avon River salinity is increasing at the rate of 100mg/L while the Frankland is increasing at 40mg/L. Where management practices have changed to reduce salinity, the increase has been controlled. For example the Collie River increase is close to zero. Stream salt loads are Section 2 - The impact of salinity likely to increase five-fold over the next 50 years. As a result, many rivers and wetlands have become more saline with a corresponding impact on their aquatic and associated terrestrial ecosystems. Some surface water systems and fresh groundwater resources are becoming saline which could affect the availability of fresh water for rural and urban areas in the future.

More than one-third (36%) of the south-west’s previously divertible surface water resource Wellington Dam on the Collie River. (suitable for domestic, agricultural or some Photo: Water and Rivers Commission The Salinity Strategy

17 Replacement storages have been built for the The impacts of salinity on natural biodiversity Collie and Denmark rivers in the past eight are most obvious in the lower parts of the years at a cost of $50 million. Costs of over $100 landscape, and this will continue. The beds million will also be incurred in constructing a and banks of 80 per cent of the region’s rivers pipeline into the south-west, instead of using and streams are seriously degraded. The nearby brackish water sources for Perth. degradation of wetlands is already severe and the relief of the region is so low that large Rivers other than those used for public water areas are being affected by salinity almost supplies are also affected or threatened by simultaneously. Valley floors and wetlands salinity. The full impact of salinity on riverine contain plant species that are at most ecosystems is not well established, but imminent risk of extinction, for example: includes a loss of fringing vegetation and • Flora: The south-west agricultural region decreased water quality. Wetlands are also has a vascular plant flora of over 4000 significantly affected by rising watertables species and approximately 60 per cent are and salinity is causing major changes in endemic to the region. Of these endemic ecological and social values. species, 450 occur low in the landscape 2.2.2 Biodiversity and are under threat of extinction from salinisation and hydrological changes. Maintaining biodiversity is essential for our • Fauna: The region also has a diverse future wellbeing. The agricultural sector, for terrestrial and aquatic fauna, with example, relies on biodiversity to maintain soil high species diversity in areas low in the health, absorb nutrients, allow pollination and landscape, including naturally saline areas. help control pests. The pharmaceutical, fishing, pastoral and forestry industries also rely on Of the 61 more common waterbird species biodiversity and ecosystem services to survive. in the south-west, only 16 prefer strongly Biodiversity also has an intrinsic value. saline (more than 20,000 mg/L) or hypersaline (more than 50,000 mg/L) Salinity is driving the rapid and catastrophic conditions. An average of five waterbird collapse of existing ecosystems. As root zones species use hypersaline wetlands, come under the influence of saline groundwater, compared with 20 in saline wetlands and vegetation and soil fauna decline, habitat is lost, 40 in fresh wetlands containing live trees plant and animal populations and species and shrubs. Death of trees and shrubs in decline, functionally important species are killed many Wheatbelt wetlands due to salinity and the maintenance of ecosystem processes is has caused a 50 per cent decrease in the compromised or destroyed. number of waterbird species using them. Section 2 - The impact of salinity Over 560 invertebrates have been identified in Wheatbelt wetlands during biological surveys to date, with 45 per cent restricted to fresh water (with salinity less than 3000 mg/L). If all wetlands in the Wheatbelt become saline (more than 10,000 mg/L), approximately 220 of these aquatic invertebrate species will disappear from the Wheatbelt.

A new species of Calandrina discovered in the northern Wheatbelt as a result of the biological survey begun under the 1996 Salinity Action Plan. Photo: Department of Conservation and Land Management The Salinity Strategy

18 These predictions of biodiversity loss are The following factors also need to based on the results to date of the first be considered: comprehensive biological survey of the south- • control measures such as drainage, unless west agricultural region, which began under properly designed, can increase surface the 1996 Salinity Action Plan. The results of the run-off; and survey, when completed, will be incorporated into the actions taken under this strategy. • significant additional recharge of groundwater can be caused by floods – Not only does salinity affect natural in naturally slow draining country biodiversity, but also physical diversity (flat, low permeability) any recession of of landscapes such as that represented by elevated groundwater levels can be further the loss of a variety of lowland forests, delayed, reinforcing the undesirable rising woodlands, shrublands and heaths. River of the watertable. pools and some estuaries are lost to sedimentation and natural discharge areas Rain on waterlogged areas causes almost are degraded by prolonged periods of immediate run-off because infiltration is inundation. These in turn, detrimentally affect reduced or no longer possible. Waterlogging other values, including aquatic biodiversity occurs when rising groundwaters reach the and environmental services such as nutrient surface, generally due to a recharge imbalance fixing, soil structure and function, and an following clearing of a catchment. Generally, ability to absorb waste and toxins. It has been the magnitude of the increase in surface run- estimated that, without remedial action, up off depends on the percentage of the to 80 per cent of small areas of bushland on catchment that has a waterlogged surface. farms and up to 50 per cent on public lands While in many parts of the Wheatbelt the (including nature reserves) in agricultural groundwater will not reach the surface in the areas would be lost over time. valley for many years, there are areas where it is happening now and there are catchments 2.2.3 Increased flood risk where it will happen relatively quickly.

A consequence of clearing of vegetation, Modelling carried out on the Blackwood rising groundwater levels and modification River catchment highlights this effect. of natural river and stream systems is an The modelling indicates that when the increased risk of flooding. The increase in groundwater levels reach the surface in the flood magnitudes and frequency in turn valleys and represent a significant area of the increases the risk of damage to buildings, catchment, there will be increases in flood roads, bridges, embankments, pipes, culverts discharges of between two-to-four times Section 2 - The impact of salinity and farmland. previously observed flood magnitude levels. The critical issue is controlling the extent of Replacing native vegetation with crops and waterlogging. If this is done with vegetation pastures has led to higher run-off rates for a then it is likely that salt-tolerant plants will be given rainfall due to: required because of the salinity associated • lower interception and transpiration with the waterlogging. of water by crops and pastures; and Direct groundwater contribution to the • waterlogging of the catchment due magnitude of the flood is generally not to rising watertables, which reduces significant compared to the surface run-off, rainfall infiltration rates. as groundwater is slower to discharge into the stream and will peak days or weeks after the surface water peak. The Salinity Strategy

19 In addition, backed up floodwaters can of cleared land. About 10 per cent of this land effectively sustain elevated groundwater is already affected by secondary salinity. levels as well. If effective management is not developed and Installing drainage to manage salinity and/or implemented, the agricultural area affected by reduce waterlogging also has the potential to salinity is likely to double in 15 to 25 years, increase flood risk as it modifies the natural and eventually affect 30 per cent of the total drainage system. Creating additional channel area. This will have large implications for networks and a more responsive river by agricultural production levels, with resulting straightening, cleaning or training leads to impacts on the social and economic structure increased velocities, reduced natural valley of the State’s rural industries. By 2050, annual storage, shorter times of concentration and losses from agricultural production alone will quicker flood response, higher flood be $300 to $400 million in present day terms. magnitudes, increased erosion and These production losses would be reflected in consequent sedimentation. Any drainage lost capital value of farmland, estimated at modification must be designed in such a way $3 to $4 billion. that it does not concentrate storm run-off and thereby increase the potential peak discharge However, not all saline land will become of the system. unproductive. Salinity will affect land to any degree from minor levels of salt in the root However, well designed surface water zone (causing reduced production) to management systems can slowly drain inundation (no production possible). saturated soils between storms and manage Production, particularly livestock grazing, surface water flows during storms by using will be possible on some saline land retarding basins and other techniques. (see section 5.1.3).

2.3 Economic impacts The increasing emphasis at the international 2.3.1 Agricultural productivity level for “clean and green” production will also affect agricultural profitability if the Western Australia’s south-west agricultural impacts of salinity on the environment are region produces agricultural goods worth not mitigated. Future export potential could more than $4 billion annually for local and hinge on how sustainably the natural resource export markets on about 18 million hectares base is managed. Section 2 - The impact of salinity

The Salinity Strategy Cereals and other agricultural products worth more than $4 billion are produced each year in Western Australia. Photo: Landcare Vision

20 2.3.1.1 Irrigation and high rainfall salinity 2.3.2 Infrastructure Although the focus of this strategy is on Rising groundwater levels are affecting regional dryland salinity, irrigation salinity is already a infrastructure and transport systems in over 30 problem in many irrigated areas, particularly rural towns. A percentage of the State road in those that are poorly drained, either network is either currently affected or at risk naturally or artificially. In Western Australia at in the future with sealed road life expectancy present, irrigation salinity is most advanced in being reduced by up to 75 per cent in areas the south-west irrigation area, where poorly- with rising saline groundwaters. The cost to drained soils are subject to summer flood the community of salinity is increasing with the irrigation, high salinity reservoir supplies and growing need for maintenance of public and winter waterlogging. These factors, when private town buildings, recreational facilities, combined with naturally saline and shallow water supplies, parks and gardens, townsite groundwaters, lead to a decline in remnant vegetation, roads, railways, drainage productivity. In one survey it was estimated systems, and waterways. Farm infrastructure that salinity caused a 50 per cent yield such as dwellings, fencing, farm roads and reduction in clover-dominant pastures on dams are also at risk. In addition, salinity may 25 per cent of the area. In another survey, have an adverse impact on the quality of rural up to 36 per cent of irrigated land had high life due to the effects on landscape and visual and increasing salt levels. amenity values. Irrigation salinity also poses a potential threat Run-off that causes flooding and seasonal to parts of the Ord River Irrigation Area. waterlogging increases recharge and can Some parts of the Swan Coastal Plain (south have a negative impact on townsites due to of Gingin) are recognised as having a high groundwater levels rising after such events. potential to develop dryland salinity Many townsites are subject to additional depending on land use. Salinity risk recharge due to the importation of water via assessment, using soil-landform maps, a water supply scheme. Watering of parks and indicates about 40 per cent of the land area gardens, septic systems and leaking storage in the southern portion of the Swan Coastal dams can add between 16 and 52 per cent on Plain has a moderate or high salinity risk, top of average annual rainfall that needs to be with production systems based on salt managed. In the case of Corrigin, the sensitive species at higher risk than those introduction of scheme water at the expense of lower sensitivity. of groundwater use contributed to a rise in the watertable of over 20 metres.

Overall approximately 20 per cent of the Section 2 - The impact of salinity southern Swan Coastal Plain is estimated to There are also significant impacts from run-off be affected by shallow watertables and from roads and houses. About 30 per cent of increased soil salinity to some degree and as a any housing block is covered by roofs, paths consequence, pasture growth may be reduced and roads. Roofs recharge groundwater throughout the year or at critical times. These through soak wells and road run-off goes into areas are also subject to severe waterlogging roadside verges or into absorption basins or and inundation during winter and it is creeks. Concentrated water recharges difficult to separate these related factors preferentially and it is common for without field measurement. groundwater mounds to form under towns, with the potential to cause significant problems. The Salinity Strategy

21 2.4 Social impacts Adapting to these changes or coping with the pressure of an uncertain situation can put stress 2.4.1 Individual and family impacts on individuals and families, which in turn can affect individual health and family stability. Declining water quality, loss of agricultural productivity, fewer facilities and 2.4.2 Community impacts infrastructure, and a loss of landscape and visual amenity as a result of salinity will have Strong, adaptive communities are those that profound social ramifications. Life in rural can count on the involvement of residents in areas, which for many has been the way of life civic, cultural, social and educational pursuits. for generations of the same family, may be As individual landholders feel the pressures forced to change. There is a financial and caused by salinity problems, they are likely to physical burden in taking remedial action to have less time for community pursuits. The address salinity problems. Maintaining the sense of community will begin to erode as family’s income can require increasing involvement declines. If the economic impacts production from existing land or purchasing on farming are extreme and people move off more land. Individuals and families will feel the land, the population of some towns may an extreme social impact if they are forced decline. In the past, this has led to withdrawal to move off the land. of services, closure of businesses and decline in the overall quality of life in a community.

The rural landscape is seen by many residents as an amenity that improves their quality of life, and any loss of this amenity would affect the community.

2.4.3 Recreation and tourism

Water attracts people and rivers and lakes in particular are important locations for leisure activities. Changes in fringing vegetation due to salinity have decreased the appeal of these wetlands as recreation and tourism destinations.

This decline has important social and

Section 2 - The impact of salinity cultural implications for rural communities, particularly given that many of these areas have been used by several generations of rural people. The visual quality of country life is a marketing tool used in a range of tourism products, particularly chalets and farm holidays. Land degradation also would affect the likelihood of tourists and residents using particular areas for bushwalking, birdwatching, camping or other nature Yachting on Lake Towerinning, south of Darkan. tourism pursuits. Photo: Babs and Bert Wells/Department of Conservation and Land Management The Salinity Strategy

Opposite: Belts of trees in an alley farming system. 22 Photo: Agriculture Western Australia Section 3 The strategy The Salinity Strategy Section 3 - The strategy 24 toprotect infrastructure affected bysalinity. • to provide communitieswiththecapacity • to protect andrestore highvaluewetlands • to protect andrestore keywaterresources • to reduce therateofdegradation • region ofWestern Australia. Ithasasitsgoals: of salinityinthesouth-westagricultural This strategyaimstoreduce theimpact 3 Thestrategy Priority hasbeengiventothefollowingactions: Catchmentplanningand • Revegetationwith • Revegetationwith • Protecting, improving • Changinglanduse • To managerecharge the changesbrought aboutbysalinity;and to address salinityissuesandtomanage within theregion; natural (biologicalandphysical)diversity and naturalvegetation,maintain perpetuity; that permitssafe,potablewatersuppliesin to ensure salinitylevelsare kepttoalevel salt-affected land; practical recover, rehabilitate ormanage agricultural andpublicland,where management surface water management, including native species tree crops perennials, especially commercial deep-rooted native vegetation and addingtoremnant practices To managedischarge Catchmentplanning • Subsurfacewater • Productive useof • Revegetationwith • Protecting, improving • and management management saline land tree crops perennials, especially commercial deep-rooted native vegetation and addingtoremnant Opposite: Revegetation inTin DogCreek catchment, Dowerin. the strategyneedstobeimplemented • developingpracticalandenvironmentally • salinityneedstobeaddressed bytreating • are basedonthree fundamentalprinciples: The proposed actionstoachievethesegoals help determinethesepriorities. catchments. Inputattheregional levelwill and privateassetsunderthreat inindividual the relative importanceoftherangepublic to whicheachgoalispursuedwilldependon west agriculturalregion. However, thedegree Each ofthesegoalsappliesacross thesouth- catchment scale. stakeholders attheregional and in apartnershipapproach betweenall salinity bymanagingthedischarge; and sound methodsthatmitigatetheimpactof managing recharge andrisingwatertables; the causesofproblem, focussingon Photo: Agriculture Western Australia partnership approach To ensure a Catchmentplanning • StateSalinityCouncil • Communitycapacity • Prioritycatchmentsto • and management networks) training andknowledge professional support, building (locally-based infrastructure productive landand water quality, protect biodiversity, Section 4 Strategic approach to addressing salinity 4 Strategic approach to addressing salinity

The magnitude of the challenge that dryland The key elements of the Salinity Council’s salinity poses in the south-west agricultural strategic approach are: region requires a strategic approach. • working in partnerships that involve all stakeholders; Many catchments in the south-west agricultural region of the State are already • analysing risk in different areas over time significantly affected by salinity. Within each to allow appropriate priorities to be set; catchment, it is the community’s capacity to • retaining native vegetation and protecting manage vegetation, soils and waters that the remaining biodiversity values; provides the potential for sustainable natural resource management. It is important that this • adopting an appropriate mix of the tools capacity is given the best opportunity to available to manage salinity; develop, which means that we must address • helping the farming community to make issues of equity, biophysical data and the transition to more sustainable information availability, decision support production systems and building their 2 systems and capacity building . We also need capacity to do so; to emphasise integration and partnerships. • addressing equity concerns that arise; Some lands and waters will need direct • encouraging research and development government support to protect high priority to improve salinity management; public assets. However, private landholders and • planning to address shortfalls in actions communities have the largest role in managing where priority biodiversity and other community and private lands and waters. To do public assets remain at an unacceptable this successfully, the sustainable management of risk, or are significantly affected; and large parts of catchments is essential. • developing continuous monitoring and evaluation of salinity management actions.

4.1 Evolving natural resource management in Western Australia

The Western Australian Government is developing a State natural resource management (NRM) framework policy that Section 4 - Strategic approach to addressing salinity to addressing Section 4 - Strategic approach will include as a key element the development and implementation of regional strategic plans. Salinity is one issue in the broader context of natural resource management. Through regional strategies linking into this strategy, regional natural resource management groups will contribute to the implementation of programs and projects that address salinity issues and ensure local relevance of State programs.

Monitoring rising water tables at Koolanooka. Photo: Agriculture Western Australia

2 The Salinity Strategy "Capacity" refers to the ability of a community or a group of people to pursue their own development. Capacity building is generally recognised as including knowledge building, access to information (and removal of barriers to adoption of that information), leadership development, network building and community involvement. 26 The importance of natural resource Land use planning is important in salinity management in regional development is management. The Western Australian recognised in the State’s Regional Planning Commission is involved in land Development Policy. The policy includes use planning, including natural resource strategies to strengthen the partnerships management, through the State Planning between government and community, Strategy, regional planning strategies and increase knowledge and understanding of regional schemes. Local governments are natural resource management options, and responsible for the preparation and help ensure community groups can build administration of local planning schemes their capacity to manage the natural resource. that regulate land use and development and address land use conflicts. This salinity strategy provides a blueprint for action through a partnership approach The protection, enhancement and repair of the between the State Government and its environment and sustainable use of resources agencies and landholder groups, landholders are critical to the State Planning Strategy. and the community. This partnership needs Regional planning strategies can ensure that to be based on a clear understanding of the salinity management is taken into account at respective roles, responsibilities and interests a formative stage in the planning process. of each party. This is particularly relevant in Regional strategies, for example, can identify the consideration of respective contributions existing and potential areas affected by in any shared investment in salinity salinity and recommend planning measures. management to reflect best the balance between private and public benefits. Local government planning schemes can also provide mechanisms to address salinity Regional groups are well placed to manage management through special control area salinity issues at the landscape level, and it provisions. These allow detailed land use is primarily at the regional, catchment and requirements to be prescribed for a particular farm scale where the impacts of management site or particular areas. Special control area practices are felt and the responses provisions for salinity management in best directed. schemes could, for example, identify areas subject to salinity, facilitate their stabilisation, The partnership framework also incorporates encourage revegetation and ensure industry and other sectors. The rural industry, development is undertaken in a way which including agri-business, must play a larger brings about a reduction in salinity recharge. role in addressing salinity and in developing new and innovative agricultural products. A framework for the effective management Sustainable management practices underpin of dryland salinity within the context of land Section 4 - Strategic approach to addressing salinity to addressing Section 4 - Strategic approach the productivity and profitability of these and water resources requires: industries. Industry can play a valuable • The involvement and ownership by the leadership role through developing codes of regional and local community in developing practice, developing environmentally-sound strategies and plans for land and water production systems and enhancing the resources within their region or locality. knowledge and skills of their members in managing natural resources better. • The integration and coordination of economic, social and environmental 4.2 Regional planning objectives on a regional and State basis. This allows for the management of land A key issue in the management of salinity and water resources within a catchment is effective and integrated planning at a establishing a set of management goals catchment level that addresses the broad and targets for dryland salinity. issues of land and water management, and economic, environmental and social concerns • Setting priorities for the management

(including equity considerations). of land and water resources. The Salinity Strategy

27 The Salinity Strategy Section 4 - Strategic approach to addressing salinity 28 strategic approach. consistent withanoverallregional different actionsandplansneedtobe salinity managementoutcome,these management plans.To achievethebest reflected bylandholdersintheirproperty specifically definedateachlevelandbe Strategies andtargets needtobe theeffectiveness Monitoring of • communitygroups Helping identify • responsibilities insalinitymanagement. community andregionalroles restructured toreflectthebroader The StateSalinityCouncilwillbe schemes. through regionalstrategiesandplanning promote measurestoaddresssalinity management inregionalstrategiesand Commission willaddresssalinity The Western AustralianPlanning natural resourcemanagementissues. actions toaddresssalinityandother regional goalsandstrategiestocoordinate develop theirroleandskillsinsetting assist regionalandcatchmentgroupsto The StateGovernmentwillworkwithand management strategies. towards theirshared goals. the actionsofgroups oflandmanagers management optionsandsupporting reducing theeconomicandfinanciallosses • conservingnaturaldiversity, protecting • sustainingthelandandwaterresources • individual catchments: developing objectivesandtarget outcomesfor Four keyaspectsshouldbeconsidered when to livewithandmanageit(adaptation). it from gettingworse(containment),orlearn we shouldtrytoreverse it(recovery), stop the stakeholdersshouldconsiderwhether in thelongerterm,andforanygivenarea possible and/or economictocontrol salinity We needtoconsiderwhere itwouldbe owned andsupportedbyallstakeholders. clear objectives,targetsandprioritiesthatare catchment scalerequiressoundinformation, An effective responsetosalinityatthe 4.3 Prioritysetting infrastructure; and resources, environmental values,and losses inagriculturalproduction, water State, reducing thecostsassociatedwith to theindividual,communityand regional scale; range ofnaturalenvironments ona and fauna,restoring arepresentative remaining naturalareas andtheirflora qualities; where possible,restoring landandwater base, reducing furtherdeterioration,and • equity of impacts on landholders across the assessed objectively throughout the south- catchment that may need some mechanisms west agricultural region. to redistribute the economic hardship as distinct from the physical actions. Once the risk has been assessed, advice will be required on treatments that might The relative importance of each of these be adopted and their impact. All farmers in aspects will vary depending on the public and agricultural catchments need some appraisal of private assets at risk and what is achievable in their risk, the generic treatments they might the individual catchments and districts, and adopt and the impact of these treatments on priorities agreed between the Government, groundwater levels. The most effective scale for catchment groups and the community. this to be undertaken is at the catchment scale.

Knowing the best possible prediction for It is both urgent and vital that landholders “what it is going to take” is vital for making have a better understanding of the salinity an informed choice of the strategic goal for risks of each catchment so that remedial each catchment. For example, what are the action can be implemented on a priority basis. environmental costs downstream for the It is already too late to save some areas but possible interventions, and the costs and we do not yet have a clear understanding of benefits expected, in choosing recovery, the high priority areas that must be dealt with containment or adaptation as the response? now to conserve high value resources.

The Department of Environmental At the same time as the environmental Protection will work with agencies and assessment is being conducted, a socio- communities to develop environmental economic assessment will also be carried out objectives and criteria for identifying to identify potential social impacts in the priority environmental assets when catchment, and help develop ways to manage planning salinity action at property, these impacts. catchment, regional and State level scales. A rapid assessment of catchments throughout The 1998 State of the Environment report the south-west agricultural region to provide identified priority environmental issues information to landholders will be undertaken for each region as well as environmental within five years, to: indicators. • provide a statewide assessment of salinity 4.3.1 Catchment assessment risk in terms of the areas, the environmental values and the Individual landholders and groups of

infrastructure likely to be affected, salinity to addressing Section 4 - Strategic approach landholders are receiving salinity and when they will be affected; management support within several • cover all agricultural catchments where categories of priority catchments. These farmers are involved in the determination priority catchments, designated under the of their risk and the strategies they might 1996 Salinity Action Plan, include focus adopt to either avert the risk, delay the catchments, mainly to protect agricultural onset of salinity (giving time for the land, and three types of recovery catchments development of new technologies) to protect water resources, natural diversity or adapt to increasing salinity; and and rural infrastructure. • identify social, economic and The risk of salinity to these values, both environmental impacts and develop geographically and over time, must be mitigation strategies. The Salinity Strategy Left: A water quality monitoring site established by the Gabby Quoi Quoi Catchment Group and the Water and Rivers Commission. Photo: Landcare Vision 29 Only three datasets remain to be collected; magnetics, radiometrics and electromagnetics, known collectively as airborne geophysics. Magnetics determines the nature of the bedrock and radiometrics the nature of the soils. Electromagnetics measures a combination of the thickness of the soil and weathered rock layer, its salt content, and groundwater salinity, but currently cannot separate these factors without additional drilling and sampling, Preparing for an airborne geophysical survey in the Wheatbelt. which reduces the cost-effectiveness of the Photo: Agriculture Western Australia technique. At this stage, airborne magnetics and radiometrics are considered more worthy This process would work in tandem of collecting for the agricultural area than with the focus and recovery catchment electromagnetics. activities and the Land Monitor project. The rapid assessment process will help to identify Many airborne geophysical surveys have been better the priority catchments in terms of both undertaken in Western Australia, reducing the total public and private asset value and need area still to be surveyed, and improving the for rapid intervention. It will provide early likely spin-off from data acquisition in new indications of appropriate remedial activity areas. Magnetics and radiometrics are that could be undertaken in partnership fundamental tools in mineral exploration and between all stakeholders. Catchments surveys for salinity risk assessment may completing the rapid catchment assessment provide other benefits. These datasets will will be provided with follow up support allow interpretation of salinity risk and soil ranging from entering the focus or recovery properties down to the farm level, significantly catchment process to mentoring, depending improving the scale and speed at which salinity on the prognosis for the catchment. advice can be provided.

A pilot study is currently being undertaken in However, complementary development work the upper Blackwood and western south coast will be required to link the wide range of as part of the National Land and Water datasets through targeted research. Resources Audit (funded through the Natural Water management plans will need to be Heritage Trust). Known as Salt Scenarios 2020, developed for each catchment to consider this project is determining the total costs of the best means to manage both surface and Section 4 - Strategic approach to addressing salinity to addressing Section 4 - Strategic approach salinity and the cost effectiveness of available groundwaters to prevent degradation and solutions up to 2020. use excess water in productive ways. These plans should include identification To undertake rapid assessments of catchments, and agreement from all stakeholders on the community and rapid assessment teams what are and are not acceptable receiving require data at scales that allow quick points for any proposed drainage. Trade offs, interpretation to a local level. Over the past where some environmental, social or decade, government agencies have been economic values may be reduced, will need building the 14 key datasets required and the to be considered. capacity to interpret each of them. With the completion of the Land Monitor project in Water management is best planned on a 2001, accurate elevation data and salinity maps catchment basis, having regard for will be added to the list. regional strategies. The Salinity Strategy

30 adviceontheoptionsavailablefor • modellingofearthworksanddetention • assessmentofriskwiththepredicted • assessmentofriskundercurrent landuse; • identification andagreement onacceptable • identificationoftheresource andits • discharge processes. Suchplanswillinclude: (eutrophication, sedimentation)andrecharge- inundation, in-stream processes as flooding,watererosion, waterlogging, wide rangeoflandandstream issuessuch Water managementplanswillconsidera better known. implementing themanagementplanare will beeasierwhentheimplicationsof of landandwatermanagement. Agreement agencies responsible forthevariousaspects land holdings)andbythegovernment authorities andgovernmentagencieswith catchment (includinglocalgovernment agreement bylandholderswithinthe strategic deliveryatthefarmscale.Itrequires Planning atthisscaleallowscoordinated and conservation priorities. to helpdeterminebiodiversity light oftheresultsSS2020project agricultural regionwillbeexaminedin biological surveyofthesouth-west Conservation andLandManagement’s The resultsoftheDepartment effectiveness ofoptions within fiveyears. salinity foreachcatchment,andthecost an estimationofsalinityriskandcost the south-westagriculturalregion,including cover theremaining15millionhectaresof The SS2020projectwillbeexpandedto of theintegratedplan. individuals tomanagetheirwateraspart risk; and basin designsinthecatchmenttoreduce expansion ofsalinityinthecatchment; and non-acceptablewaterreceival points; degradation hazards; continue andbesubjectto periodic review. The focuscatchmentsupport teamswill to theteams. and decisionsupporttoolsbecomeavailable continually refined, especially asnewdatasets The focuscatchmentprogram isbeing specific adviceforon-farmimplementation. help inadvancedplanningandprovide site- Western Australia’s BetterBusinessProgram to catchment supportteamsand Agriculture and businessadvicesupportthrough The Governmenthasprovided technical agreement withgovernmentagencies. voluntary basisthrough apartnership with catchmentsjoiningtheprocess ona Focus catchmentswere introduced in1996, ability tomanagechange. for catchmentobjectivesandimprove their year tohelpresidents adoptlandusepractices and capacitybuildingisprovided foruptoa a highlevelofplanningandtechnicalsupport groups maybecomeafocuscatchmentwhere Following arapidassessment,catchment 4.3.2 Focuscatchmentsupportteams over thenextfiveyears. in thesouth-westagriculturalregion designed andmodelledforcatchments Water managementplanswillbe undertaken onaprioritybasis. be completedwithinfiveyearsand west agriculturalregion.Thisworkwill assessment inallcatchmentsthesouth- set uptoundertakerapidcatchment analysts andextensionspecialistswillbe agronomists, economists,biologists,GIS consisting ofhydrologists,soilsspecialists, Eight catchmentassessmentteams five years. further ninemillionhectaresinthenext collection willbeundertakenovera Airborne magneticandradiometricdata 31 The Salinity Strategy Section 4 - Strategic approach to addressing salinity The Salinity Strategy Section 4 - Strategic approach to addressing salinity 32 greatest threat from increasing salinity. actions toconservebiodiversityvaluesat Salinity Strategyfocusesonselectedkey address biodiversityconservation.This strategies andprograms throughout theState integrated catchmentapproach. Various watercourses andwetlandsaspartofan management ofnativevegetation, number offronts, includingprotection and Conserving biodiversityrequires actionona 4.4 Biodiversityconservation Photo: Department ofConservation and LandManagement in Western Australia’s LakeMuirRecoveryCatchment. and SouthAustralia. Thelargest knownpopulationgrows Yellow eyebrightisalmostextinctinVictoria, Tasmania whether theyare threatened speciesornot. incomplete informationonmanytaxaasto potentially salineenvironments. There is effective managementofcurrent and threatened florapopulationsisessentialfor Accurate, up-to-dateinformationon was establishedforthispurposein1992. Management’s Threatened FloraSeedCentre Department ofConservationandLand translocation ofplantsintosafersites.The and toprovide seedfortheproduction and can beusedas“insurance”againstextinction is theprimaryobjective,exsituconservation While insituconservationofbiodiversity and databasing 4.4.1 Seedcollection,storage agriculture andsecondarysalinity. northern Wheatbeltdueto landclearingfor the salmongum,isnowquiterare inthe health. Thecockatoo’spreferred nestingsite, dependence ofnativefaunaonlandscape a “flagship”speciesthatillustratesthe The endangered Carnaby’s cockatoois to ensure theydonotbecome extinct. Many nativefaunaspeciesrequire action 4.4.2 Protecting faunafrom extinction be threatenedbyincreasingsalinity. south-west agriculturalregionthatmay analysed onpriorityflorataxaofthe Further datawillbecollectedand requirements. supply tosatisfylarge-scalerevegetation Australia (WA) toensureadequateseed Seed BanksprojectrunbyGreening mechanisms includingtheSustainable Work willcontinue throughanumberof located insalineenvironments. seeds ofrareandthreatenedplantspecies maintain along-termstoragefacilityfor Land Managementwillestablishand The DepartmentofConservationand The conservation of Carnaby’s cockatoo 4.4.4 Protecting other wetlands depends on the conservation of remnant eucalypt woodlands and the adjacent banksia In addition to the wetlands that will be heathlands in which it feeds, and the protected under the Natural Diversity corridors of native vegetation that link Recovery Program, the Water and Rivers the two types of habitat. Commission will coordinate the development and implementation of management plans for The protection of existing remnant vegetation other high priority wetlands at risk from and the encouragement of native revegetation salinity outside the conservation estate are essential for protecting endangered fauna, (for example wetlands on private land or on such as the Carnaby’s cockatoo, from extinction. land vested with local government). This will be done in partnership with the community The Department of Conservation and Land and where appropriate, the management Management will implement a program to plans will include wetland catchments. save threatened species such as Carnaby’s cockatoo in cooperation with landholders. Although biodiversity and the level of risk from salinity will be key considerations A database of threatened and priority in the selection of wetlands, other factors such fauna in saline areas of the south-west as physical uniqueness, cultural and agricultural region will be completed. recreational values will also be considered together with the capacity of the community 4.4.3 Natural diversity recovery to support the development and catchments implementation of the management plans.

Recovery catchments, a key measure for The Water and Rivers Commission, in biodiversity conservation under the 1996 partnership with the community, will Salinity Action Plan, are based on the develop and implement management plans identification of major, high priority public for high priority wetlands located outside assets that are at risk from salinity and warrant the conservation estate. significant, ongoing investment in their recovery and protection. 4.5 Water resource recovery catchments Recent modelling has shown that very high levels of intervention, which may include up We currently have adequate water resources in to 80 per cent of a catchment being covered or the south-west to meet water supply demands farmed in a rotation with perennial species into the middle of the 21st century. However, plus engineering options, may be required to as demands for water grow, there will be an salinity to addressing Section 4 - Strategic approach protect and conserve key areas of biodiversity. increasing requirement to manage water resources in such a way as to keep them within The Department of Conservation and Land salinity levels suitable for the region’s drinking Management will continue to implement a water supply needs. Extensive rehabilitation coordinated Natural Diversity Recovery work may be required to recover fresh water Program. This program already targets the resources in the future. Toolibin Lake, Lake Muir-Unicup system, Lake Warden system and Lake Bryde-East Action has already been taken to prevent Lake Bryde catchments. salinisation and restore water quality in five key water resource catchments of the The Natural Diversity Recovery Program Mundaring Weir (Helena River), Wellington will target at least six more catchments by Reservoir (Collie River), and the Warren, Kent 2005, based on biological survey findings. and Denmark rivers. The Salinity Strategy

33 Future management will concentrate on high water use farming systems based on integrated catchment plans including actions for ground and surface water management, waterway management, remnant vegetation protection, farm forestry, improved annual cropping and pasture and conservation plantings next to discharge areas.

The target for the Collie River inflow to the Wellington Dam is to have potable water by 2015. The targets for both the Kent and Warren rivers are for potable water at sites suitable for Buildings, roads, rail and water facilities are all at risk from salinity. future dams by 2030. Photo: Department of Conservation and Land Management

Water quality in the Helena and Denmark The Rural Towns Program includes: rivers will be regularly monitored and • a structured program in which local recommendations made on requirements councils can operate; for action on salinity control. • coordinated delivery of strategy outcomes The Water and Rivers Commission will: which are integrated with other recognised natural resource management projects; • arrange implementation of plans • salinity management services provided by based on a cost-sharing framework technical specialists; and that considers public benefit; and • up to 50 per cent funding subsidies for • encourage and facilitate the fencing works approved as part of a Salinity of remnant vegetation. Management Strategy prepared for the town.

The Rural Towns Program will service 4.6 Infrastructure protection 30 towns for the next three years with additional towns supported progressively The State Government established the over the following four to 10 years. Rural Towns Program under the 1996 Salinity Action Plan. 4.7 Flood risk assessment The aim of this program is to help local

Section 4 - Strategic approach to addressing salinity to addressing Section 4 - Strategic approach government authorities develop strategies Increased flood risk from the development that will guide the community to address of groundwater discharge areas has major rising watertables in the catchment, establish implications for infrastructure and communities. water use plans for the towns and put education programs in place to promote A flood risk study for the Blackwood River “water wise” programs to protect assets. assessed the potential increases in flood flows The program provides funding on a shared due to the full expression of waterlogging basis for detailed investigations, development within the catchment. The predicted increase of a salinity management strategy, planning in flood flows was two-to-four times higher and implementation of salinity and water than recorded flood magnitude levels, but control measures. the modelled situation need not be reached. The Salinity Strategy

34 An unfortunate aftermath of flooding is the There will also be situations where properly surcharging, or the boosting of groundwater designed drainage can be used, but it is levels by the floodwaters. After the surface important that any drainage option does water has receded the groundwater will also not add to the flood risk in itself. Any future tend to drain away, but the rate will be drainage proposals will be assessed with delayed by the generally flat terrain that this in mind. influences the hydraulic gradient. Undesirable processes are already operating Further work will be undertaken to look at in many catchments, sometimes with well- other catchments at risk, such as the Avon, intentioned but equally undesirable human Murray and Collie rivers. The main interventions. There needs to be a combined management approaches to reducing approach to control and reduce waterlogged flood risk are: areas and improve flood mitigation features of existing natural and artificial drainage • limiting the extent of waterlogging within systems. In addition, any new drainage a catchment by planting any vegetation endeavours must be appropriately designed. that will survive and use water, and/or by using drainage; and The informed approach to reducing • managing surface run-off to limit flooding, flood magnitudes involves slowing run-off recognising that the processes that increase wherever possible, using on-farm surface the risk of flooding are already operating water management, dispersed retarding in many catchments. basins that mimic the natural valley storage of mature natural rivers and limit training The intent is to convert the waterlogged natural river channels or developing drainage ground back to more natural ground to delay networks. There is a need for better run-off when rain falls. This could be explanations of the processes at work achieved by growing saltbush, for example, and advice on how to combat the in a previously waterlogged area. If the top undesirable effects. few hundred millimetres of soil can absorb rainfall it will offset the flood risk due to The Moore River in flood, 1999. waterlogging. Photo: Water and Rivers Commission Section 4 - Strategic approach to addressing salinity to addressing Section 4 - Strategic approach The Salinity Strategy

35 TheThe SalinitySalinity StrategyStrategy Section 4 - Strategic approach to addressing salinity 36 prove difficult forfarm-basedgroups. support whichstrainagencies’budgetsand often requires matchingfundsorinkind research sector. However, research activity provides aconduciveatmosphere forthe and understandingishigherhere and awareness of level the eastern Australia.Also, salinity atanearlierstagethanmuchof funding asweare experiencingtheeffects of Western Australia mayattractmuchofthis opportunity forthisState. funds forresearch inthisarea andprovides an ensured anever-increasing nationalsource of of mediaandpoliticalinterest insalinityhas into newareas ofopportunity. Thehighlevel existing activityandtohelpusmoveforward Further research isneededtohelprefine 4.8 Research anddevelopment provideadviceondrainagedesignto • provideadviceontheoptimumuseof • increaseawarenessofthesehydrologic • The Water andRiversCommissionwill: achieve floodmitigation. waterlogging; vegetation and/ordrainagetocontrol clearing andwaterlogging; use andthefullimpactofland southern riversfromcatchmentland Avon, Murray, Collieandother assess theincreaseinfloodriskfor risk andviceversa.Thisstudywill on theimpactofwaterloggingflood impacts byundertakingfurtherstudy Opposite: Morbinning CatchmentGroup memberscollect seedlingsforlandcare plantings. benefits forsalinitymanagementintheState. and privategroups inorder tooptimisethe coordinating applicationsbetweenagencies and encourageresearch activityand The SalinityCouncilwillcontinuetofacilitate Management mallees. Photo:DepartmentofConservationandLand Testing eucalyptusoilcontentindifferent speciesofoil activity tothisState. their capacitytohostandattractresearch Government agencieswillexpand Photo: Landcare Vision Section 5 Tools to manage salinity 5 Tools to manage salinity

There is a range of tools available to manage Financial incentives for investment in woody salinity. Each catchment will need to select revegetation are needed, such as through a a combination of these to suit their specific carbon offset scheme to provide carbon sinks for needs and to meet their objectives. No one purchase by industry to offset carbon emissions. tool is likely to work in isolation and the tools used will need to be appropriately Further emphasis must be put on the located in all parts of the landscape. significance of the profitability of farming In addition, land use will have to change systems as an important component in significantly across the whole agricultural finding and implementing solutions for area. Sources of further information about salinity. It will be important to ensure that these tools are listed in Salinity: A guide for landholders have available to them the land managers. information they need to understand the options they have for reducing recharge, Wherever possible, the tools described are the likely impact of those options on recharge economically beneficial to the landholder in and salinity, and the practicality and financial the longer term. However, there are transition implications of implementing them. costs in establishing these new systems and delays in cash flow. This aspect is addressed Developing integrated decision support in section 6.4, “Options for cost-sharing”. tools that deal with these issues will allow landholders to make decisions for their own 5.1 Land management practices situation, in contrast to the general solutions that are desirable for a region or catchment. Current annual farming practices require significant change so that they either use 5.1.1 Changing agricultural practices more water, or they help to use saline lands 5.1.1.1 Cropping options or water in a productive way. Change needs to be effected across the landscape. A highly effective way of reducing recharge is the widespread implementation of profitable, Deep-rooted perennials have a high water practical farming systems that use more water use potential, and are therefore the primary than current systems. This will not be tool to control salinity. Their extended growing achieved by manipulating existing farming season and deep root systems provide the systems, but by developing new systems that capacity to use more annual rainfall as well as include a considerable area of deep-rooted exploit water available at depth within the soil perennial species. Section 5 - Tools to manage salinity Section 5 - Tools profile. They provide an opportunity for income and diversification, while addressing salinity. Recent measurements and models have shown that there is generally only limited There is potential for the development of potential to decrease recharge by modifying new and more productive rural enterprises existing annual crop and pasture systems. providing funding is available to help with The effectiveness of high performance annual resource assessment, technical information, crops and pastures in reducing recharge research and market identification, as well as varies with soil type and climate and in the associated transition costs. Benefits will accrue at medium to low rainfall areas on finer textured both the regional and individual scale. While the soils a doubling of crop yield may only reduce primary target is salinity management, collateral recharge by five per cent (4mm out of an benefits should occur in the longer-term through average of 20mm). increased profitability and farm viability. The Salinity Strategy

38 However, it is important to maximise water season cropping and high attendances at their use of annual plants by aiming for: seminars indicates a strong interest by farmers in these new systems. The Natural Heritage • higher performance cropping and pasture Trust and the Salinity Council have supported systems such as those developed for the the work of the Association. Wheatbelt and South Coast (for example wheat, lupin and canola rotations); and Further research, development and extension • the selection of plants with a longer support will be given to optimise the potential growing season and increased rooting of new farming systems and will be actively depth (for example serradella cultivars). promoted by the Salinity Council.

Warm season cropping has the potential to The Western Australian No Tillage offer more than increased water using Farmers’ Association is targeting warm capacity. Early trials show variable results in season cropping over 15 per cent of the recharge reduction, but other benefits include potential cropping area within five years. the recycling of nutrients, breaking down of “hard pans”, extending the rooting depth of The Grains Research and Development following crops, assisting in future seasons’ Corporation and the Land and Water Resources weed control and helping slow the chemical Research and Development Corporation have resistance of weeds. These benefits have recognised the need to reduce recharge under attracted significant grower support. Warm productive farming systems and, through season crops are under early stages of investments in the National Dryland Salinity development in farming systems and need Program, are funding significant amounts of further extensive research, development and work in this area. field trials. At present these systems are most The development of more salt-tolerant crops suited to the southern agricultural area and to would delay the effects of salinity, providing waterlogged areas, but are being trialed extra time and income for implementation throughout the Wheatbelt. activity. However, the effects of waterlogging in The Western Australian No Tillage Farmers’ the root zone would still need to be managed. Association is providing leadership in warm Section 5 - Tools to manage salinity Section 5 - Tools

Tagasaste, a perennial fodder shrub. Photo: Agriculture Western Australia The Salinity Strategy

39 Lucerne pasture growing on a Borden property. Photo: Agriculture Western Australia

5.1.1.2 Pasture options 5.1.2 Commercial farm forestry Perennial pastures, particularly deep-rooted Broad-scale planting of perennials is lucerne, can also play a role in reducing required to control salinity. Woody recharge as a profitable farming system. perennials will only be effective if they The particular advantage of perennial pasture are strategically distributed across the plants is that grazing industries able to use agricultural landscape, and therefore them are already in place. They could also efficiently integrated into the agricultural form the basis of new products and provide system. The large area of revegetation the option of cattle production in areas required and the substantial cost involved previously considered as unsuitable. means that commercial returns from revegetation will be essential to achieve The development of new farming systems large-scale adoption. Initial transition based on perennial shrubs or trees and costs may require community support. perennial pasture will require an innovative, holistic approach to research and development Woody perennials range from shrubs to tall which relies on strong participation by farmers. trees. Their longevity is linked with deeper,

Section 5 - Tools to manage salinity Section 5 - Tools Groups such as the Western Australian more extensive root systems and taller Lucerne Growers and the Saltland Pastures canopies, which generate a higher water use Association are currently promoting more potential than perennial grasses, herbs and extensive use of perennial grasses and herbs. warm season growing crops. Farm forestry also offers the potential to incorporate sound The potential for perennial pastures and biodiversity principles (for example fodder shrubs is high in the medium rainfall preference for native species and more diverse “wool belt”, as is the potential for agroforestry mixtures of species in production systems). systems. This presents an opportunity for a new timber-based industry to develop Commercial tree crops have emerged, most alongside a more intensive grazing system notably bluegum in the higher rainfall areas, using a perennial pasture base. Such higher and others such as maritime pine and the water use systems, incorporating commercial fodder shrub tagasaste in intermediate tree crops, need not be at the expense of rainfall areas. traditional grazing, but as an addition to it. The Salinity Strategy

40 The Department of Conservation and Land The State Salinity Council will pursue a Management will continue to implement a target of more than three million hectares major maritime pine program in the 400 to of woody tree crops in the south-west 600 mm rainfall region. agricultural region, at an accelerated rate and will continue to review this target in Oil mallee is under development as a tree the light of new information. crop for the low rainfall areas. A joint project between the Department of Conservation and The Department of Conservation and Land Management and Agriculture Western Land Management and Agriculture Australia is examining the selection and Western Australia will undertake development of multiple purpose species for development of a range of new woody large-scale revegetation. perennial crops and industries, which will focus on the commercial use of Economic diversification requires the creation native species in low rainfall areas. of new industries that inevitably have The Oil Mallee Association is targeting extended development and adoption periods. one million hectares of commercial For example, the Oil Mallee Association and mallee plantings by 2015. the Oil Mallee Company are actively working to develop a eucalyptus oil industry with by- Opportunities for commercial public investment in large-scale projects will be products of charcoal and electricity supported through business planning and generation. Trials of other commercial options feasibility studies. include sandalwood, floriculture products, native foods, medicines and olives. Woody perennials such as bluegum, pines, Government and venture capital support tagasaste and oil mallees have each required is critical in establishing new industries, many millions of dollars of capital to develop particularly for research and seed capital. as commercial crops.

Commercial revegetation opportunities need There are major problems in funding the to be given priority consideration in the low development of new commercial woody to medium rainfall areas. Native foods, plant species, products and industries. floriculture and specialty timber commercial The investment required is large and opportunities exist and are being tested at inherently risky. This indicates a fundamental experimental levels by landholders and requirement for both government and private agencies. investment in the development phase of commercial woody perennial crops, especially Public investment in larger “commercial

in low rainfall agricultural regions. to manage salinity Section 5 - Tools speciality clean and green” revegetation projects needs to be encouraged.

The 1996 Salinity Action Plan set a target of an extra three million hectares of trees and shrubs planted across the agricultural region over 30 years. Subsequent scientific assessment has shown that greater levels of intervention are required and this target needs to be revisited after community consultation and debate.

Maritime pine planted as a commercial crop on already cleared farmland. The Salinity Strategy Photo: Department of Conservation and Land Management 41 Oil mallee species growing at CALM's Narrogin nursery. Photo: Department of Conservation and Land Management

Any interest in a promising prospect will be 5.1.3 Using saline lands productively based, at least partly, on the salinity control benefit, a return that is not readily available to While more land will be affected by salinity, help motivate private enterprise. New there are increasing opportunities to use some prospects will not have an established areas productively. The Saltland Pastures industry lobby, and will have to face the Association believes that about one million problem of building up a sufficient resource hectares, or 50 per cent, of land currently base before commercial development can affected by salinity could potentially be emerge. Furthermore, landcare and related revegetated using saltland pastures or salt- funding programs often explicitly exclude tolerant trees and shrubs over the next decade. commercial development projects, though it Additional work on the economics of the use of should be noted that the Natural Heritage saline land still remains to be done. However, Trust has contributed significant funds in land that has become saline needs to be fenced recent years. and separately managed for both production purposes and biodiversity value. The potential for carbon credits and greenhouse emission trading, to be coordinated at national and international Section 5 - Tools to manage salinity Section 5 - Tools levels, would also add extra returns to revegetation options. It should be noted that transaction costs would preclude small parcels of vegetation and favours cooperative or corporate entities, such as the Western Australian Landcare Trust and the Oil Mallee Association. An investment in greenhouse plantings in high priority catchments with valuable public assets may well give a double return, of saving those assets by using more water while attracting greenhouse credits. Saltbush growing successfully on salt-affected land. Photo: Landcare Vision The Salinity Strategy

42 Recent studies by The University of year 2000 and adoption of technology to Western Australia indicate that successful increase productivity from these pastures. development of profitable enterprises for saline land would bring significant returns The Saltland Pastures Association has given the extensive areas affected by salinity already demonstrated great potential for now and into the future. this resource and is targeting one million hectares of productively-managed saline There will be five outcomes from land over the next decade. productively managing saline lands: There are also a number of salt-tolerant trees • improved economic outcomes for and shrubs with potential for growth on landholders with large areas of saltland; marginally saline and waterlogged land • stabilisation of saltland, reduced erosion in Western Australia, including Eucalyptus of degraded watercourses; sargentii, E. occidentalis, E. spathulata, E. loxophleba, E. camaldulensis, Melaleuca uncinata, • limited local drawdown of saline M. thyoides, Acacia saligna and Casuarina obesa. watertables and reduced potential for In fact, E. camaldulensis is the world’s most flood risk; used hardwood for pulp production. • improved nature conservation; and This offers a timber-pulp opportunity for • improved visual and amenity aspects. saline lands in the 500 to 700mm rainfall zone.

Saltland in Western Australia presents a range Targeting different saline agricultural options to particular landscape niches is an important of landscape opportunities (niches) with wide issue that will require continuing research, variation in levels of salinity, waterlogging development and extension. In order to meet and inundation, and in soil texture. nature conservation outcomes, research and These different niches present diverse development should be focussed on native opportunities to develop new saline plants that grow locally on saline lands. agricultural industries (for example saltland These include a range of eucalypts, wattles, pastures, seed harvesting, wood for pulp, paperbarks, ti-trees, saltbushes and samphires. brushwood, essential oils and aquaculture). This is especially important in the south-west agricultural region given the high turnover of Many landholders in the low and medium native plant species across the landscape. rainfall regions have been revegetating Species from elsewhere will have a reduced saltland with salt-tolerant annuals and nature conservation benefit and a higher weed grasses, herbs and woody perennials. potential, although they may have significant The Saltland Pastures Association was roles for controlling watertables. to manage salinity Section 5 - Tools formed in 1997 to help promote and In deciding on the use of saline lands, advance this activity. account needs to be taken of the fact that These activities are receiving renewed naturally saline wetlands and their impetus thanks to the recognition that the floodplains are diverse ecosystems with inclusion of an annual understorey intrinsic value for nature conservation. substantially increases productivity when It will be important to ensure that farmers grown in conjunction with salt-tolerant and other land managers can access the woody perennials such as saltbush species. best possible advice on what can be done Saltland pasture adoption is expected to to manage salt-affected land and to examine increase dramatically with the release of new alternative, innovative uses that may have short-season balansa clover varieties in the a private and/or public benefit. The Salinity Strategy

43 All salt-affected land is not the same, The initial work is using rainbow trout and some areas will not respond at all to as a lead species. Trout has been farmed treatment. Reducing waterlogging, for in Western Australia for over 50 years and example, can significantly enhance production it is the only species which has established from slightly salt-affected land. Current commercial production in the State and knowledge needs to be assembled in the which can tolerate a wide range of salinities. context of the different classes of salt-affected However, recent research by Murdoch land and an information package developed. University on black bream suggests that this species could also be commercially Agriculture Western Australia will help viable in saline water sources such as dams. landholders with salt-affected land by: • developing a system for classification Care will be needed when introducing new of salt-affected land; species to ensure that they do not establish feral populations. • developing an information package for management of salt-affected land; Fisheries Western Australia and Agriculture • examining alternative uses for Western Australia will continue the Outback salt-affected land; and Ocean Project. • establishing eight salt-affected land demonstration sites.

5.1.3.1 Productive use of saline water A review of aquaculture operations interstate and overseas by Fisheries Western Australia and Agriculture Western Australia found a range of opportunities for commercial aquaculture in inland saline waters.

For example, in China, Chile and Taiwan minimal management techniques are used in the large-scale production of seaweed for food and chemicals.

In this industry a range of seaweed species is grown in near stagnant, low salinity ponds. Section 5 - Tools to manage salinity Section 5 - Tools At the other end of the spectrum, carefully managed greenhouse tank systems in Israel are used to farm fish in water too salty for agricultural irrigation.

There is little commercial aquaculture using inland saline water in Australia, and currently few initiatives in Western Australia. Several York gum and everlastings at Arthur River. research projects are in progress in New South Photo: Department of Conservation and Land Management Wales, Victoria and South Australia. The Salinity Strategy

44 5.1.4 Irrigated agriculture Native vegetation is vital for biodiversity conservation and particularly valued for South West Irrigation (SWI) has been salinity control where: developing sustainable irrigation farming • individual remnants are large enough systems to increase their sustainability and to reduce recharge at a catchment or alleviate irrigation salinity effects. A levy sub-catchment scale; and system has been implemented where irrigation farmer shareholders raise funds • smaller remnants occur on high recharge to undertake activities to reduce salinity. zones (for example deep sands and around rocky outcrops) or discharge zones (for South West Irrigation will undertake example drainage lines, swamps and lakes). work on sub-surface drainage as a means Native vegetation is not only important as an of reducing salinity effects and increasing ecosystem driver, it is also important in its farm productivity; monitoring the quality diversity of native plants as well as being a of water flowing through the south-west habitat for a whole suite of invertebrate and irrigation area and undertaking salinity vertebrate animals. Accordingly, the need to mapping to delineate and prioritise areas retain native vegetation in the agricultural of salinity risk. areas is essential not only because of the part 5.2 Native vegetation management it plays in the hydrological balance but also and revegetation because of its intrinsic importance as a habitat. Native vegetation also contributes to water An important component in any salinity and soil conservation and provides an management plan is to conserve the native important genetic resource for development vegetation that still exists in the landscape. of new plants for commercial production. This helps to save our natural heritage and It is important as the strategic building develop sustainable systems of perennial blocks of landscape revegetation and repair. agriculture. There is an urgent need for Remnant vegetation protection and natural biodiversity to be promoted, management, and its integration with other preserved and integrated into Western vegetation strategies, will be a significant Australian farming systems. component of salinity control systems. Revegetation in its many forms offers opportunities for all Western Australians to work together to help protect what remains of our natural heritage from the worst-case impacts of salinity. to manage salinity Section 5 - Tools

5.2.1 Native vegetation management

Retaining native vegetation in good health is a first step in recharge control as it is easier to look after the plants that are already in the ground and using water than it is to revegetate. Remnants have the added bonus of being existing wildlife habitat. The ability of remnants to maintain a range of plants and animals may be improved by increasing the Successful flooded gum regeneration in the Blackwood area of bushland or by improving its quality. catchment after fencing to exclude stock. Photo: Water and Rivers Commission The Salinity Strategy

45 The State Government has progressively 5.2.2 Native revegetation tightened clearing regulations, with additional measures implemented early in 1999. Clearing As well as protecting and managing native remnant vegetation under normal vegetation, revegetation with native species circumstances is no longer acceptable given is also vital for salinity management and the issues of salinity, biodiversity, native biodiversity conservation. habitat and global warming. However, it is Revegetation has significant benefits for recognised that there are equity issues wildlife if it is well planned. Using native associated with preventing further clearing species where possible and including a variety and these are being addressed. of flowering trees and shrubs increase the value of such areas for a range of native animals. The Native Vegetation Working Group was set up by the Minister for Primary Industry Many of the revegetation methods to develop mechanisms that minimise the implemented in recent years were developed economic burden carried by individual in the south-west agricultural region. Farmers, landholders in the protection and retention of their community groups, agencies and privately-owned bushland in agricultural areas. organisations have been active in laying solid foundations for the range of approaches and The long-term value of remnant vegetation for scales of implementation that we now know salinity control and biodiversity conservation are possible. depends on management of a range of threats apart from salinity. For example, management of feral animals, weeds and disturbance events such as fire, and protection from dieback disease (Phytophthora species) in many areas, are essential to maintain values in the long term. Protective fencing, rehabilitation of degraded remnants and improved management will maintain or enhance water use.

The State Government will continue to protect and manage native vegetation on land it controls as well as providing advisory and support services to landholders conserving native vegetation. These services will include Section 5 - Tools to manage salinity Section 5 - Tools the Land for Wildlife Scheme, Remnant Native fauna, such as the tammar wallaby, will be lost Vegetation Protection Scheme, voluntary from the agricultural region unless action is taken. conservation covenants and by working Photo: Babs and Bert Wells/Department of Conservation with Natural Heritage Trust programs such and Land Management as Bushcare. Revegetation and proper management of Additional measures to encourage native native revegetation have benefits in addition vegetation management and to address to biodiversity, including erosion control inequities associated with clearing (wind and water), stock shelter, buffer zones bans will be addressed through and recharge management. recommendations of the Native Vegetation The reintegration of native species into Working Group in conjunction with this agricultural systems on the required scale Salinity Strategy. will require access to robust direct seeding technologies. The Salinity Strategy

46 While some direct seeding technologies are A program for the establishment and available, further substantial research and management of seed nurseries of suitable development is required to develop these local revegetation species will be developed techniques. in cooperation with relevant community organisations such as Greening Australia Much of our native fauna will be lost from the (WA) and local community groups. agricultural region unless isolated remnants are buffered and joined by appropriate bush corridors. Revegetation in riparian areas such 5.3 Engineering options as creeks, rivers or wetlands should be undertaken with local native species, High water tables have developed over as an integral part of these bush corridors. much of the south-west and recharge In addition, native revegetation needs to continues to be significantly greater than include understorey plants to reconstruct discharge. For this reason, engineering natural habitats. options may be needed to complement agronomic and vegetation options. However, Imaginative approaches are required for the options must be implemented with full development of bush corridors. In some cases, knowledge of their on-site and off-site it may be possible to develop corridors by impacts and practicality, and within the widening and revegetating road reserves. framework of a catchment plan.

In other cases it may be possible to re-engineer Catchment hydrology has altered significantly saline agricultural farming systems so that since the land was cleared for agriculture. revegetation of saltland and river systems Some forms of drainage works have the conserves biodiversity and generates income. potential to alter catchment hydrological characteristics further in some types of Reintegrating native plants into farming catchment, for instance by reducing flood systems will require the availability of major detention capacity and increasing flood new seed resources. For many extensively frequency, particularly if those forms of cleared agricultural areas, it may not be drainage are adopted as common practice possible to provide enough seed for throughout the catchment. In other revegetation from existing bush remnants. catchments, drainage may have relatively insignificant off-site impact, or even reduce Revegetation technology research and flood risk by creating greater water retention development will be supported, and capability in the surface soils. delivered through partnerships between Section 5 - Tools to manage salinity Section 5 - Tools government, industry and community Under suitable hydrological conditions, organisations. engineering options can be useful in the protection or recovery of high value assets, The Salinity Council will investigate a such as areas of high agricultural productivity targeted program of research and (including irrigation areas), areas of biological development including those low rainfall significance, wetlands, town buildings or areas where direct seeding presently has other infrastructure. poorest results. Surface water control systems are already Further research and development will widely recommended, while deep drains, be undertaken to determine the corridor groundwater pumping, relief wells and requirements of different fauna species syphons provide enhanced discharge, and the opportunities that exist for the but need more care in their design and development of corridors with dual roles. implementation. The Salinity Strategy

47 For example, drains may become blocked with There is a need to develop a new sediment and iron-fouling bacteria and create authorisation process to ensure that: significant erosion risk and sedimentation if • engineering proposals are based on the not well designed and installed. Engineering processes and information package options need to be developed in the context of discussed in the technical note, so that they catchment plans and in association with other meet the Government’s aim of integrating farming systems. engineering options with other essential water management practices to increase A new approach to engineering options water use and to reduce accessions to includes a best practice environmental groundwater; management package to help landholder groups develop catchment-based drainage • all private and public stakeholders directly proposals. Improvements will also be made to affected by such proposals are consulted; the statutory assessment process to give priority and to proposals that are comprehensively and • the proposal improves the condition of carefully thought out on a catchment basis and relevant assets in the catchment with designed according to the following process: acceptable offsite impacts. • calculating the increase in catchment A process will be needed to refer proposals to discharge of salt and water required to relevant agencies for assessment where one maintain or improve production and protect area is sacrificed in order to save another area. environmental and infrastructure assets; • evaluating and selecting water management practices for the different areas in the catchment in order to meet both short and long-term objectives; • considering the cumulative impacts (for example regional flooding) of all engineering proposals on the catchment; • selecting the lowest risk engineering design; and • demonstrating that all impacts on the environment downstream (for example nature reserves, wetlands, remnant

Section 5 - Tools to manage salinity Section 5 - Tools vegetation, surface and groundwater) have been fully considered and will be minimised, monitored, and remediated if necessary.

This open deep drain is stable, with no slumping and erosion. Photo: Water and Rivers Commission The Salinity Strategy

48 5.3.1 Surface water management such as aquaculture, horticulture or summer irrigation, or will require careful disposal so Water is a resource that can become a problem that impacts on the environment or property without appropriate management. Water downstream are within acceptable limits. ponding on the soil surface and waterlogging The use of detention storages may help within the soil profile inhibit plant growth, and maintain catchment flow characteristics encourage groundwater recharge. Directing and aid in flood mitigation. water along grade lines using drains, banks or cultivation rows improves plant growth, reduces While management of surface water in erosion and potentially recharge, particularly in this way is recommended for widespread wet years when most recharge occurs. adoption, it should be complemented by other strategies that directly increase water use and These systems are characterised as being over reduce discharge of saline groundwater. the whole farm/catchment, having particular emphasis on landscape water management, 5.3.2 Groundwater management but can include discharge management in the lower parts of the landscape. Systems that Groundwater management in discharge harvest and manage water are critical. areas is distinguished from surface water Examples of this are shallow drains built management systems in that it targets along contour lines that channel water into a removal of the permanent groundwater series of dams and include several rows of systems. Methods include deep drains that trees or shrubs planted on the lower side of may be either open (constructed by an the drains. excavator) or closed (for example buried slotted pipe), pumping systems, relief wells These systems can lead to increases in and syphon wells. production on the land between the drains and tree belts, as well as providing shelter 5.3.2.1 Deep drains for stock and birds and can often be the most Deep drains are constructed at depths of cost-effective form of engineering works. about one to three metres depending on A well-designed system will ensure there site conditions. Deep open drains are most is no leakage due to low gradients, effective in permeable formations that resist or overtopping and erosion. slumping and erosion (for example limestone). Many agricultural soils have Farming systems based on permanent raised a low permeability (for example clays) or beds are being tested and can produce are unstable (for example loose sands) and significant yield increases on waterlogged therefore an evaluation of site responsiveness Section 5 - Tools to manage salinity Section 5 - Tools land. These systems have been successfully is very important before construction. applied to saline waterlogged land elsewhere but have not yet been used in this State. Sites with a low permeability have a very small zone of influence of the groundwater Excess water harvested from a catchment can but may improve surface water management either be used for drought-proofing water and salinity close to the drain. supplies or to support new farm enterprises The Salinity Strategy

49 Well-designed deep drains have a role in Any drainage proposal should incorporate salinity management. When deciding if a the cost of salt control. deep drain is suitable for a particular site, landholders should: A drainage review initiated by the Government will lead to the development of • Assess the potential cumulative impact of drainage design and assessment criteria by the drain, including careful and ongoing government agencies. monitoring and evaluation of the drain’s effectiveness; Deep drains must be considered within the • Ensure disposal of drainage water offsite context of an overall water management meets specific criteria, particularly with strategy, including flood risk management, the risk of increased flooding and to develop and implement longer-term sedimentation downstream, and with solutions, and that is agreed to by affected landholders and relevant agencies and impacts on ecosystems receiving water statutory authorities. that is different in quality and/or quantity;

• Assess the potential for damage to other 5.3.2.2 Groundwater pumping properties or reserves. Landholders have This form of engineering option refers to to accept a duty of care to ensure their bores drilled down to bedrock or into management actions do not degrade other permeable aquifers and situated in low parts private or public assets. Currently there are of the catchment with various forms of inadequate mechanisms to deal with the electric or compressed air pumps. cumulative impacts of drainage waters They are usually costly to install and maintain on adjacent landholders or on the and are therefore most often suited to environment. protecting high value assets. Their • Ensure the drainage forms part of a effectiveness is heavily dependent on soil comprehensive catchment water plan. permeability, which determines how many pumps and how much power is needed to • Ensure the drainage design adequately achieve the outcome. Bore field arrays and provides for managing surface run-off, collector systems can be quite extensive in so as not to accelerate erosion or increase some circumstances. flood risk. In some instances, water may be discharged The disposal of water from these systems and into natural streams and salt lake systems if the offsite impacts have the same constraints it can be demonstrated that the discharge will and requirements as discussed under deep drains. Groundwater pumping is usually used Section 5 - Tools to manage salinity Section 5 - Tools not affect current or future water supplies and will cause no significant environmental in conjunction with other tools, although like impacts, and that the discharge is acceptable other drainage systems it may be appropriate to all potentially affected landholders and to start with these options if the salinity risk is relevant agencies and statutory authorities. immediate.

Another option for disposal of drainage water Groundwater pumping is being evaluated may be storage on site in carefully sited, at Toolibin Lake and in some rural towns. designed, constructed and managed evaporation basins. Sometimes this stored water may be used for other purposes such as aquaculture if the water quality is suitable. The Salinity Strategy

50 A relief well installed on a Frankland farm. Photo: Water and Rivers Commission

5.3.2.3 Relief wells and syphons • Family and financial counselling should This form of engineering option involves continue and be linked to programs that groundwater under pressure being discharged provide training in farm business skills. naturally from bores drilled to bedrock. • Community planning processes should be Discharge through polythene pipes into conducted at a local scale so that residents waterways prevents erosion and these and landholders are able to identify future systems may be the most easily managed actions which need to be undertaken to of the engineering options, however offsite ensure their ongoing economic and impacts of saline water disposal still need community development. to be considered. • Information must be provided to people who are likely to be affected so that they Agriculture Western Australia and the are able to make the best possible Water and Rivers Commission are decisions. This information must be supporting the Gordon River Focus suitably presented for the audiences. salinity to addressing Section 4 - Strategic approach Catchment in an evaluation of this technique. • The level of service delivery in the regions across a range of agencies must be monitored and alternative service delivery 5.4 Social impact management methods should be investigated.

Various actions will ensure better The Salinity Council will commission management and mitigation of the social studies to determine the social impacts of impacts associated with salinity: salinity and provide support and • Structural adjustment should be instituted resources for existing social services to through a process of analysis and planning, deliver appropriate financial, personal and allocation of appropriate resources to and family counselling. carry out the changes required. The Salinity Strategy

51 5.5 The way forward

None of the tools summarised in this section offers the sole solution, rather they need to be used in an integrated manner.

Generally, it is most effective to plan and address salinity at the catchment scale. This is particularly important when actions in one area may have an impact elsewhere.

Where there may be impacts outside the catchment area, some decisions may need to be undertaken at the regional level. The regional natural resource management groups, through their regional strategies, will be in a position to help in decision- making at this level.

Revegetation under the Greening Challenge program, sponsored by Western Power. Photo: Agriculture Western Australia Section 4 - Strategic approach to addressing salinity to addressing Section 4 - Strategic approach The Salinity Strategy

Opposite: Morbinning field day, a chance to share knowledge. 52 Photo: Landcare Vision Section 6 Community action to address salinity 6 Community action to address salinity

The present organisation of communities and Through workshop consultation, a new governments means that economic, social, structure and management arrangement has industry development and natural resources been put into place. management issues are decided along sectoral lines, with responsibilities and decision- The State Salinity Council has a role in making at local and State levels based on leading and supporting the community in industry or interest. Salinity management addressing salinity. The Council is formed of requires an integrated cross-sectoral approach representatives from both community and on a catchment or landscape basis. government stakeholder groups and provides a forum for interaction between these groups. The regional and local communities’ capacity The Council is an advocate for action on to initiate and manage change needs to be behalf of the community in its dialogue with enhanced and regional communities need to government. be empowered to develop and implement natural resource management strategies in an Dealing with salinity forces new ways of integrated manner. doing business in terms of strategic development and planning. A cross-sectoral The successful implementation of this approach is needed if activities are to be strategy requires clear partnership between complementary. The works on the ground all stakeholders, including government, are mostly done by private landholders using industry and the community at all levels. their own resources, with some grant It is important that the efforts of individual assistance, and by government (local and landholder to manage salinity are part of State) on lands they control and through the larger strategy at catchment, regional programs they run. The new structure of the or State level. State Salinity Council has been developed to facilitate the involvement of all stakeholders 6.1 State Salinity Council in planning and prioritising activities.

The review process of the 1996 Salinity Action All stakeholders need to be involved in Plan identified strong community involvement the collection, assessment and sharing of as an essential component for future salinity information and experiences to build a and natural resource management in salinity management strategy. Each Western Australia. stakeholder then takes from the Council the information and commitment relevant to their Section 6 - Community action to address salinity Section 6 - Community action to address own responsibilities, having the assurance that it is compatible with other strategies. The structure and method of operation is indicative of the way in which salinity changes the way that society needs to deal with a landscape issue.

The role of the Council is to: • provide leadership; • provide strategic advice to the Cabinet Standing Committee on Salinity Management; • coordinate decisions and activities between stakeholder groups; and The Salinity Strategy • monitor and evaluate the success of the 54 Members of the Morbinning Catchment Group collect their bulk Salinity Strategy. order seedlings. Photo: Landcare Vision The Council consists of representatives The Council in turn elects an executive from from the following organisations, with the its membership, which is endorsed by the Chairperson appointed by the Government. Cabinet Standing Committee on Salinity However, the membership of the Council is Management. The executive comprises: not fixed and may be varied in the future: - Chairperson (same as Chair of Council) - Chairperson - One person with experience in primary - Avon Working Group production - Business in Western Australia, represented - One person with experience in regional by Alcoa World Alumina Australia natural resource management - Conservation Council of Western Australia - One person with experience in local - Environmental community group government - Environmental Protection Authority - One person with experience in - Greening Australia (WA) conservation issues - Indigenous representative - Three additional members (based on merit) - Irrigation representative (initially from The Chief Executive Officers of Agriculture the South West) Western Australia, Department of - Lands and Forest Commission Conservation and Land Management, - National Parks and Nature Conservation Department of Environmental Protection Authority and Water and Rivers Commission sit on - Northern Agriculture Integrated the Executive in an ex officio capacity as Management Strategy Group full members.

- Oil Mallee Association The Council and executive can co-opt people - Pastoralists and Graziers Association with expertise to help progress particular - Rural Adjustment and Finance issues. (The Western Australian Planning Corporation Commission would be a good case in point. An appropriate relationship between the - Saltland Pastures Association WAPC and the Council will be developed.) - Soil and Land Conservation Council The executive will be empowered to manage - South Coast Regional Initiative salinity within the context of this strategy. A Planning Team set of operating rules governs the operation of - South West Catchment Council the Council, executive and other committees.

- Swan Catchment Council The Council will receive government salinity Section 6 - Community action to address - Water and Rivers Commission Board funding support and will make - Western Australian No Tillage Farmers’ arrangements with the agencies for Association secretarial and executive support. - Western Australian Farmers’ Federation - Western Australian Municipal Association 6.2 Community and government partnerships - Agriculture Western Australia - Department of Environmental Protection The structure and function of rural and - Department of Conservation and Land regional community groups have been Management adapting to accommodate natural resource management and in particular salinity - Water and Rivers Commission management issues during the Decade of Landcare. The Salinity Strategy

55 They provide an umbrella network for the smaller landcare, environmental and catchment groups and open the possibility of regionally-developed and implemented strategies to address a variety of environmental issues. In the south-west agricultural region of Western Australia there are five regional natural resource management groups: The South Coast Regional Initiative Planning Team (SCRIPT), the South West Catchment Council (SWCC), the Swan Catchment Council (SCC), the Avon Working Group (AWG) and the South Yoting Catchment Group is one of more than 700 Northern Agriculture Integrated Management landcare groups in Western Australia. Photo: Landcare Vision Strategy Group (NAIMS). These groups provide the opportunity to develop effective Over the past 10 years groups of rural partnerships between the community, industry landholders have begun working together to and government at the regional level, achieve mutual salinity management and providing the best means to address salinity. environmental goals. Over 700 catchment and landcare-related groups operate throughout Natural resource management groups must Western Australia. They have been have increased access to information, skills in developing local strategies and plans and conflict resolution and group management in undertaking works in partnership with local order to be most effective in managing land. and State Government agencies, some with In particular, such groups need financial support from community landcare support to identify and implement their coordinators. strategies to protect natural heritage.

The activities of local landholders and groups Several production groups also focus on are important to the implementation of salinity management through their activities. salinity management plans on individual They include the Western Australian No farms and local catchments. Any State Tillage Farmers’ Association (WANTFA), the strategy will not succeed if action at the local Saltland Pastures Association (SPA), the Oil level is not supported. Mallee Association (OMA) and the Western Australian Lucerne Growers (WALG). The capacity of these individuals and groups The development and implementation of

Section 6 - Community action to address salinity Section 6 - Community action to address to achieve change is increasing through a learning process that occurs in the company actions to achieve this Salinity Strategy will be of their neighbours. There is less risk for undertaken through partnerships between all individual landholders in trying new stakeholders, including community groups approaches for salinity management if they and individuals from both the urban and have the involvement of their neighbours, rural areas, industry, and Commonwealth, readily available locally-based technical State and local government. support and the opportunity to learn from The Government will recognise regional other farmers’ successes and failures. natural resource management groups. Regional natural resource management Partnership agreements that clearly set groups have since evolved in recognition of out the roles and responsibilities of all the need for an integrated, coordinated and parties to the agreement will be ”systems” view of natural resource established between the regional groups management issues. and government agencies. The Salinity Strategy

56 6.3 Shared investments

The issue of equity needs to be addressed because some landholders will be more affected than others. The whole Western Australian community will be affected and will have to share the costs and the benefits of managing salinity.

The issue of social change and industry adjustment in relation to dryland salinity is complex and more work is required in this area. It is the subject of current research and development under the National Dryland Salinity Program (NDSP).

Gabby Quoi Quoi farmers growing their own trees and shrubs for Landholders have a duty of care to ensure that revegetation. Photo: Landcare Vision natural resource degradation does not occur as a result of their action or lack of action, and to Any or all of these parties may be undertake remedial works as required. As the contributors to activities at the catchment or greatest beneficiaries of any efforts to combat regional scale. The question is, how much salinity, they should have a large investment should each party contribute and how can in salinity activities. However, the issue of they be encouraged to make the investment? equity arises. Some landholders have already made significant investments and should not The following points provide a general be penalised by being expected to continue to overview of the principles that should be invest at the same level as those who have considered when developing an done little to date. implementation plan and considering contributions from relevant parties. These The equity issue also relates to the position of have been modified from a paper developed the landholder in the catchment, either from for the Standing Committee on Agricultural the perspective of having the greatest Resource Management (1998), Principles for potential benefit from any remedial activities, shared investment to achieve sustainable natural or from the perspective of having to lose the resource management practices. largest area of land to existing activities. All natural resource users and managers Two main resource issues need to be have a duty of care not to damage the natural salinity Section 6 - Community action to address addressed: the need to coordinate and resource base. However, the landholders who prioritise investment to ensure maximum first cleared the land were acting on best impact on salinity; and the need to ensure a practice advice at the time and cannot be continued investment in the long term. This in held accountable for these past actions. turn raises the issues of incentive and equity. This exemption should not apply to those who continue to clear or exacerbate salinity There are four key parties in any investment in the light of current knowledge. strategy for works on the ground: • landholders; The Government will generally contribute to activities to a level sufficient to trigger further • general public; investment towards self-correcting, self- • industry; and perpetuating natural resource management systems that operate effectively, providing • government (local government, the activities are technically sound, produce State and Commonwealth). The Salinity Strategy outcomes consistent with identified priorities and the benefits justify the costs. 57 In cases where the work being undertaken projects to benefit their own properties, does not financially benefit the landholder(s) catchments and public lands such as and there is no duty of care, it is appropriate waterways and remnant bush. However, some for beneficiaries to provide some funding. landholders have not contributed significantly Beneficiaries fall into two categories, and to date and, as this strategy has shown, a should pay according to the potential level considerable increase in investment is required. of benefit that the activities will provide: 6.4.1 Commonwealth funding - Direct beneficiaries are landholders (public or private) whose potential income and/or The Commonwealth Government has also capital value will be increased as a result contributed significantly to date through of the activity. earlier programs such as the National Landcare Program and the Federal Water - Indirect beneficiaries are those who will Resources Assistance Program, and now the enjoy qualified benefits, such as improved Natural Heritage Trust (NHT). The biodiversity, recreational benefits, off-site Commonwealth has helped raise awareness agricultural benefits, etc. and set new directions, and these funding Activities should generally be undertaken sources have significantly helped to develop in a partnership between all stakeholders. strategies and implement on-ground works aimed at addressing landcare and natural However, it is accepted that salinity may resource management issues. be only one of a number of issues to be addressed by any catchment or regional plan There is a compelling case for continued and that investment, particularly by the Commonwealth financial support for the landholders, may cover other issues as well. Salinity Strategy. Western Australian urban and rural communities are expected to Coordination of investment should be increase their commitment to help in natural undertaken at the regional and catchment resource management and salinity scale so that resources can be integrated and management and there is a good case for a focused on the priority issues. Regional post-NHT increase of strategic investment strategic plans will guide funding priorities at from the Commonwealth Government. There a broad level and catchment management is a need for assistance with wider community plans should be the primary framework to issues such as conservation of biodiversity as guide investment at the implementation stage. well as the public benefit component of regional implementation activities. Western The provision of structural adjustment funds Australia is further advanced than the Murray Section 6 - Community action to address salinity Section 6 - Community action to address through the State or the Federal Government Darling Basin in addressing dryland salinity should be recognised as an investment in issues and while catchment scale social equity for the whole of the State. demonstration may be appropriate in the Eastern States, our more mature strategy 6.4 Options for cost-sharing warrants assistance to regional natural resource management catchment groups. The Western Australian Government currently contributes about $40 million a year to combat There are increasing opportunities for salinity. However, the largest investment has research funding through the National come from and will continue to be funded by Dryland Salinity Program, the Land and private landholders. Many landholders have Water Resources Research and Development already spent large amounts of money and Corporation, the Grains Research and effort on farming practices and landcare Development Corporation and the Rural The Salinity Strategy

58 Industries Research and Development Thus, each farmer in the group “received” Corporation. In addition there is considerable around $2600 for priority catchment projects investment by organisations such as CSIRO, and contributed around $13,000 for each year universities and farm production groups into of the project. various aspects of salinity management. The likely development of carbon credit and 6.4.2 Corporate funding greenhouse emission trading will also provide new industry funds for revegetation activities In a recent survey by Landcare Australia that have the collateral benefit of helping to Limited, 78 per cent of Australians said they address salinity problems. Carbon farming would change products if they were linked to would form part of the future diversified landcare. In contrast, only 11 per cent would agricultural systems. However, it should be change products if it would provide funding noted that economies of scale will preclude for sport, and three per cent for the arts. most farmers trading in their own right and will favour cooperatives or corporate entities Corporate funding has been and will continue such as grower cooperatives or the Oil Mallee to be an important component of this strategy. Association, which in turn would pass on The Western Australian Landcare Trust offers the benefit. companies an opportunity for tax incentives with sponsorship of landcare and other There is already corporate investment in the natural resource management activities. bluegum industry through lease and share farming arrangements, following initial The Alcoa Landcare Vision model provides a investment by the Department of Conservation good example of shared investment between a and Land Management. There will need to be a company and landholders. Farmers, through concerted effort to extend these arrangements their catchment groups, are supported by into other industries, particularly in the agency technical advice and benefit from medium and lower rainfall areas. external financial assistance. This model demonstrates that properly targeted external 6.4.3 Public contributions funding can achieve results. In addition to significant professional support, the six The general public, particularly in urban catchments in this project received $40,000 per areas, has contributed considerable amounts year over five years, followed by $10,000 a indirectly through taxes, to combating year for a further five years. Members of each salinity. The threat to biodiversity, public catchment group, averaging 15 per catchment, amenities, water resources and infrastructure contributed approximately five times this means more direct input is essential. amount during the same period. This would form a shared effort between salinity Section 6 - Community action to address urban and rural Western Australia.

It is proposed that members of the public, and in particular the urban population, be encouraged to make voluntary contributions to aid in implementation activities. One option that will be explored is a small voluntary levy on a broad-based service.

Tammin’s Alcoa Landcare Education Centre is the result of sponsorship from Alcoa Australia. Photo: Landcare Vision The Salinity Strategy

59 Public funding for implementation activity It is expected that groups and individuals needs clear reporting and monitoring wanting to access public funds (as described mechanisms, so that there is confidence in the earlier in 6.4.1) will have to demonstrate a outcomes of the investment. It is proposed considerable local contribution as well as that the Western Australian Landcare Trust is having the proposed activities form part of a an ideal vehicle to provide this independent catchment or regional implementation plan. role, with the Salinity Council being responsible for determining priorities and best Two specific options are outlined below. use of these funds. Groups will be encouraged to consider raising levies as outlined. However, it is recognised that voluntary public contributions will not be sufficient by 6.4.4.1 Catchment levies themselves, and that an on-going structured An effective mechanism currently available to source of funds will also be required to help raise landholder contributions is through levies rural landholders with the public benefit aspect determined by Land Conservation District of their on-ground actions to combat salinity. Committees under the Soil and Land Public contributions to salinity through a Conservation Act and administered at local voluntary levy, to be held by the Western government level. Government should consider Australian Landcare Trust and developing a mechanism to allow such levies to administered jointly by the Trust and the be raised at a catchment or regional scale, on Salinity Council, will be investigated. the basis that the catchment or region would The allocation of all funds collected make the decision to raise the levy. through voluntary contributions would At present the Soil and Land Conservation be reported publicly on an annual basis. Act allows contributions to be based on a The State Government will establish a percentage of gross unimproved value of the significant ongoing funding source for land, or as a flat or variable rate on a per implementation activities aimed at property basis. In order to deal with the issue combating or adapting to salinity. of equity, particularly where some landholders have already undertaken A marketing strategy will be developed to considerable work, provision should be made raise the urban community’s awareness of for other mechanisms, to be determined by and participation in the Salinity Strategy. the catchment or regional group setting up the levy. 6.4.4 Landholder contributions Section 6 - Community action to address salinity Section 6 - Community action to address One possibility that needs further Most salinity management funding will development is to devise a system whereby inevitably continue to come from landholders. each landholder is levied an amount that However, new mechanisms are needed in reflects management practices and high water order to address equity issues. The Salinity use in that location. Landholder levies could Council has developed an options paper that complement a structured public contribution. outlines different mechanisms available to The Soil and Land Conservation Council catchment and regional groups to collect will investigate the option of differential local contributions to implement local and levies on landholders and will promote regional plans. and encourage their adoption. The Salinity Strategy

60 networks and information, to protect the A support scheme will be developed and State’s natural heritage. implemented by the State Government to help landholders in: 6.5.1 Solutions for managing the effects • developing innovative land/water on people use systems; The nature of communities and of people • community capacity building; and means that they are different, with different • planning and implementing catchment needs, varying perceptions and ideas of what management projects. will work. It is important that people who are affected by salinity are able to identify those impacts likely to affect them, and be involved 6.4.4.2 Land trading within a in developing solutions to them. The role of catchment group the catchment appraisal teams will be integral Land trading would enable catchment groups to achieving this objective. to discuss the natural turnover of farmers from their area, and see if it can also be organised to allow for: • specific land “niches” to attract new owners and land uses, including conservation buyers for bush but also possibly some more intensive industries; • aggregating the cleared and non-saline land into viable properties, the larger areas of uncleared land into viable reserves and salinised land into viable areas to allow for proper management options; • developing binding cross-boundary arrangements for managing and trading in the excess water; and The layout of this alley farming system is clearly seen from the air. • constructively addressing the future of Photo: Agriculture Western Australia properties becoming non-viable due to 6.5.2 Participation in decision-making salinity. processes

The Salinity Council will work with the salinity Section 6 - Community action to address The salinity strategy relies on rural people Western Australian Planning Commission embracing the need for change, whether it is and regional groups in order to optimise in the ways they manage their land, or the the potential of market-based land role they play in making decisions for the trading solutions. future of agriculture and rural areas. People’s willingness to take on additional 6.5 Capacity building responsibility or to try something new cannot be imposed from the outside. Participation in “Capacity” refers to the ability of a making the decisions – in deciding what community or a group of people to pursue needs to be done and how to do it – is integral their own development. The Salinity Strategy in solving the problems associated with targets capacity building activities to those salinity. Decision-making support systems, key areas to do with people that will research, or solutions for change must all be empower, motivate and enable them, through driven by input from people who will be the provision of skills, resources, affected by them. The Salinity Strategy

61 6.5.2.1 Participatory planning 6.5.3 Communication and information Farmers work in catchment groups, usually There are many communication and containing 15 to 25 properties. Participatory information services and processes already planning processes used by these catchment being used by some of the people affected by groups have led to a more common salinity. These processes include workshops, understanding by the group of landscape seminars, papers and videos. A great deal of degradation processes and potential land research has been done into the uptake of use options. information by farmers and rural people, and During the planning process the catchment the findings should be applied to ensure that group moves from developing greater all users have access to the information they technical understanding of their own and need, in a form they can use. their neighbours’ farms and together build 6.5.4 Adjusting to change in catchments catchment knowledge. This shared knowledge base at the catchment level is then used to In the extreme case of salinity impact or build individual farm plans that focus on where massive changes to land use over a cross-boundary actions to achieve salinity catchment are required to manage salinity, management outcomes at a catchment level. some people may need to move off the land or radically change the land use basis of their A sense of community is developed by the income. This will require a process to analyse, catchment group members through this plan and allocate appropriate resources for participatory planning process. The planning structural adjustment. Confidential rural process becomes ongoing with continual family support services need to be developed resetting of their visions and goals. and made available to each farming family. The individual risk of trying new treatments is also reduced as experience and knowledge 6.5.5 Knowledge building are shared. For people to be constructively involved in Participatory planning processes are the managing land resources, they must know fundamental basis of developing salinity about natural resource management and management plans on a catchment and related economic and social issues, and have farm basis. the skills to carry out the required work. Section 6 - Community action to address salinity Section 6 - Community action to address

Volunteers at a Wheatbelt river restoration workshop. Photo: Water and Rivers Commission The Salinity Strategy

62 Educational opportunities are already Several government agencies, educational available, but resources must be provided institutions and other organisations involved to enable more people to gain the necessary in natural resource management provide a skills. There is also a need to support and range of training courses relevant to salinity expand access to alternative forms of training management and better linkages will be delivery, such as use of the Internet and other established between them. The scope of telecommunications opportunities. There courses is wide and targets formal is a need for increased involvement of professional training through to very practical landholders in research and development requirements in the community. within the framework of setting priorities and catchment assessment identified earlier in the Formal training courses in the agricultural, Salinity Strategy. environmental and natural resource management areas exist to train professional Resources should be allocated through advisers. However, many advisers need further the use of new technology, for example, training as new techniques and methodologies or information sharing forums. emerge. There is also a growing demand from landholders for competent technical advice on 6.5.5.1 Knowledge networks implementing salinity control measures on a A great store of knowledge, experience and farm-by-farm basis. However, there are limited information on salinity management is held by agency and private industry resources agencies, landholders and catchment groups in available to help landholders address their regional areas. This information can be based specific issues on a one-to-one basis. For this on science, experience or landscape data. purpose, training of community landcare coordinators and technicians, bushcare Most regional natural resource management workers, advisory personnel from agricultural groups have supported the development of service firms and prospective consultants from knowledge networks linked to agency the farming community itself is essential. landscape data resources. Collecting, storing and managing salinity information for the use The State Government will continue to of landholders is important to accelerate the recognise and support important industry adoption of appropriate land management groups such as WANTFA, WALG, OMA, SPA practices. and regional plantation committees.

Community-based knowledge networks A concept gaining interest is the establishment provide easily-accessible information. In the of a network of experienced landholders or long term, landholders will use these groups who are backed with some formal Section 6 - Community action to address salinity Section 6 - Community action to address knowledge networks, for example the South training and are acknowledged as a credible Coast Regional Information Centre (RIC), Avon source of practical advice and support. Catchment Network and the Swan Catchment This peer advice would complement and Centre, to rebuild their own management integrate with other sources of support. plans. They will also store and update their own farm and catchment plans through these A customised local course should be types of facilities at the regional level. Salinity developed to equip practising farmers and management knowledge networks will be groups involved in catchment management supported at the regional level. with the knowledge and confidence to make informed decisions on their own land and Building capacity in the community to manage water management, and also the confidence salinity is a key strategy. To achieve this, and credibility to be consulted, and possibly improved training opportunities are required. employed, by other landholders. The Salinity Strategy

63 and advice on available management options and strategies. However, there are also barriers to adoption once information is available.

While much is known about the biophysical aspects of salinity, comparatively little is known about the impact of salinity on individuals and communities, and the barriers to adopting salinity control measures. The basic assumption is that landholders are motivated to do something about salinity and all they need is economic and locally relevant options for them to act.

Access to information is only one of the barriers Green manuring with sorghum, a warm season crop. to adoption of salinity management practices. Photo: Agriculture Western Australia Factors such as the economic state of the farm It is proposed that educational institutions business, changing market requirements and collaborate with the Salinity Council and specifications, family unit and landscape group agencies to develop the concept and establish decision-making processes, attitude to risk, the framework for such a course. The resistance to change and other pressures make Melbourne University’s Master TreeGrowers the decision more difficult. course has gained wide support from around A better understanding is required of how to Australia and it is anticipated that the proposed help farmers’ decision making on natural course could also attract national interest. resource management and sustainability at The Salinity Council will approach TAFE the farm and catchment scale, and how to coordinate, co-develop and implement associating with peers through membership of technical courses for community landcare production groups and catchment groups technicians. may affect these processes. The Land and Water Resources Research and Development Agriculture Western Australia will Corporation is funding national research in conduct courses on Salinity as a this area and the results will be taken into Landscape Problem throughout the consideration by Council and research groups. agricultural area. There is a need to look at what motivates the Section 6 - Community action to address salinity Section 6 - Community action to address The Salinity Council will initiate a farmers who are investing now, and how they feasibility study, and subsequent learn and make decisions. This has development if appropriate, of a Master implications for communications, teaching Land and Water Managers course. and extension methods. Organisations that provide financial and advisory services to 6.5.6 Information provision and barriers farmers also need to understand the to adoption implications of salinity for farm businesses and communities and the concepts of natural To be involved successfully in natural resource resource management and sustainability. management, landholders must have good Successful landcare works performed by information about the types of support and farmers will eventually be reflected in the government services available and how to value of their properties. access them, relevant details about their region, The Salinity Strategy

64 6.5.7 Leadership development salinisation of land, and greater community involvement in implementing the solutions is Leadership within a community is a key needed. Effective community participation in factor in developing salinity projects and natural resource management must continue networks, and in involving others. to be developed through financial support of Existing leadership programs have been identified endeavours, good technical support successful in building the pool of leaders in and expertise, and the involvement of a wide regional areas, but more resources need to be range of people, including young people. dedicated to identifying leaders, especially among young people in regional areas. The 6.5.8.1 Indigenous interests and participation concept of what constitutes a leader must also Aboriginal people have a strong connection to be expanded to include people outside the land and are concerned that issues such as established groups, and embrace different salinity must be effectively addressed. They leadership styles. must be given the opportunity to participate in remedial measures to achieve sustainable The Rural Leadership Programs initiated land use management. by the Minister for Primary Industry will continue to develop leadership skills in There has been Aboriginal representation on the community. the Salinity Council’s Reference Group and an Aboriginal representative will be a member of 6.5.8 Community involvement the restructured State Salinity Council.

Successful natural resource management 6.5.9 Support and advisory services relies on the participation of the landholders as well as the wider community. Communities 6.5.9.1 Community coordinators must become collectively motivated and Facilitators and advisors such as Community mobilised to act together to achieve aims and Landcare Coordinators (CLCs), Bushcare, objectives they have identified. The Rivercare, Land for Wildlife and revegetation involvement of communities in natural staff, are now a major resource in many resource management is essential if the communities. They offer many opportunities wishes and preferences of the community are to their communities to focus on resource to be respected in decision making. A great management strategically at the landscape deal of work is being done in this area at level. It is extremely important that all present, but wider community recognition of support staff work together to address the the challenges facing rural areas through issues of the Salinity Strategy. Section 6 - Community action to address salinity Section 6 - Community action to address The Salinity Strategy These trees have been strategically located to create a windbreak, as well as increase water use. Photo: Agriculture Western Australia 65 For example, the Natural Heritage Trust These positions have been important in Bushcare program has provided funds for the the development and implementation of appointment by Greening Australia (WA) and activities that address both salinity the Department of Conservation and Land remediation and broader natural resource Management of Bushcare officers to help management outcomes. community groups with the development, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of It is crucial that both Commonwealth and Bushcare projects. State Governments continue to fund These Bushcare officers are based throughout community support services. the south-west and provide advice to 6.5.9.2 Private consultants community groups and landholders on remnant vegetation protection and Western Australian farmers use the services of revegetation. private consultants more frequently and for a wider range of services than in any other Similarly, Rivercare officers are employed by State. While they access financial, agronomy, the Water and Rivers Commission under the chemical and animal husbandry services from Natural Heritage Trust Rivercare Program. the private sector, little use is made of These officers ensure that the Waterways WA resource management advice. There is an program is integrated with other natural increasing number of consultants either resource management programs such as specialising in this field or adding this service Bushcare and Landcare. as a component of wider advice and this trend needs to be encouraged. The opportunity for The Government provides support new diversified industries and the increased for CLCs, Bushcare, Rivercare, Land capital values of land saved from becoming for Wildlife and other workers and saline are powerful incentives. their management committees. Section 6 - Community action to address salinity Section 6 - Community action to address

Gabby Quoi Quoi farmers and the Land for Wildlife coordinator checking remnant vegetation. Photo: Landcare Vision Opposite: Monitoring water levels on a property planted with bluegums. Photo: Department of Conservation and Land Management The Salinity Strategy

66 Natural Resources Management in Western Australia

Section 7 Monitoring and evaluation 7 Monitoring and evaluation

A successful monitoring and evaluation Monitoring and evaluation should be carried scheme for salinity action must be objective, out at the property, catchment, region and widely understood, consistently applied State scale and will involve all stakeholders. and relevant to decision-making at all levels. The information and awareness it generates is At grass roots level, monitoring provides a fundamental on many levels. As a part of focus for broadening community involvement initial catchment assessment, adequate data in salinity action and the outcomes of plans on hydrological status and rates of change are and management responses. The process needed to develop accurate synoptic must be transparent and cost-effective, so information on salinity status across a that progress can be readily audited and particular catchment. Monitoring and evaluated and informed decisions made. evaluation will enable us to gauge the success of property, catchment and regional level The monitoring program will provide plans and activities, and their specific information to landholders, managers, environmental, social or economic targets the community and government on: and outcomes. • progress towards agreed goals for Experience to date shows that on-the-ground agricultural systems, water resources, monitoring provides many opportunities for natural diversity, infrastructure and broadening community involvement in capacity building; salinity action, through meaningful • longer-term biophysical trends and the contributions (through work effort or likely impact of changes in land use sponsorship) from young people, special management; and interest groups, schools and community • performance of landholders, community organisations as well as from the corporate groups and government agencies in and industrial sectors. meeting their responsibilities and the The Department of Environmental Protection objectives of their plans. is developing a list of indicators to monitor and evaluate the actions implemented under the Salinity Strategy. They include input and output measures and environmental outcomes for the strategy and for environmental management as a whole being undertaken against the background of salinity. Section 7 - Monitoring and evaluation The draft indicators are being examined by both Government and private enterprise and assessed for their ability to monitor and evaluate the needs of the strategy effectively and efficiently. The methodologies used and the costs involved with implementing a monitoring program for each indicator will also be defined.

Soil testing on a Wheatbelt property. Photo: Agriculture Western Australia The Salinity Strategy

68 incremental achievement. management, andtomonitortheir objectives andcriteriaforsalinity communities todetermineenvironmental will helpagencies,regions andcatchment The DepartmentofEnvironmental Protection the overallMonitoringandEvaluationPlan. Action Planandwillcontinueconsistentwith was putinplaceunderthe1996Salinity throughout thesouth-westagriculturalregion wetlands andtheirassociatedflorafauna specificprogram ofmonitoringasample A options fortheirfunding. monitoring required andtoexamineall activities toanticipatethefuture levelsof review ofcurrent resourcing formonitoring monitoring programs willbeextendedfrom a An inventoryofexistinggovernmentsalinity Management Society, willbemaintained. as thosedevelopedbytheLand support forfarmmonitoringtools,such Salinity Councilandgovernmentagency Saltwatch andRibbonsofBlue. support projectssuchasLandMonitor, The StateGovernmentwillcontinueto Work Plan. will produceaMonitoringandEvaluation sub-committee oftheSalinityCouncil The monitoringandevaluation Photo: Water andRiversCommission Testing salinitylevelsatCuballing. 69 The Salinity Strategy Section 7 - Monitoring and evaluation 8 Bibliography

Barrett-Lennard, E.G. and T. Griffin, and P. Goulding (1999). “Assessing areas of saltland suitable for productive use in the Wheatbelt of WA: A preliminary assessment for the State Salinity Council”, Perth.

Clarke, Christopher, Richard George, Paolo Reggiani and Tom Hatton (1999). “The effect of recharge management on the extent and timing of dryland salinity in the Wheatbelt of Western Australia: Preliminary computer modelling”. Results of a six-week modelling study carried out for the State Salinity Council, Perth.

George, Richard, Christopher Clarke, Tom Hatton, Paolo Reggiani, Alan Herbert, John Ruprecht, Sally Bowman and Greg Keighery (1999). “The effect of recharge management on the extent of dryland salinity, flood risk and biodiversity in Western Australia: Preliminary computer modelling, assessment and financial analysis”. Results of a two-week modelling contract carried out for the State Salinity Council, Perth.

Government of Western Australia (1998). Western Australian State of the Environment Report, Perth.

Government of Western Australia (1998). Western Australian Salinity Action Plan Draft Update, prepared by the State Salinity Council in association with community groups and government agencies.

Government of Western Australia (1996). Western Australian Salinity Action Plan, Perth.

Government of Western Australia (1996). Salinity: A situation statement for Western Australia, Perth.

National Dryland Salinity Program (1998). Management Plan 1998-2003, Canberra. Section 8 - Bibliography The Salinity Strategy

71