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ABSTRACT

THE EDUCATIONAL ASPIRATIONS OF IN THE : A QUALITATIVE STUDY OF BARRIERS TO HIGHER EDUCATION PARTICIPATION AND ATTAINMENT

For this study, the researcher sought to gain further insight into the higher education aspirations of the Salvadoran population living in the United States. Utilizing a qualitative, narrative inquiry research method, the researcher conducted semi-structured interviews with 14 participants who are native born from and have attended a two or four-year institutions in the United States, regardless of their legal status, and are located in urban regions of California. This study analyzed the Salvadoran population experienced and addressed the influence of these experiences on their pursuit of higher education degree. This study also addressed the research on Salvadoran higher education aspirations. The findings contained five pathways to higher education. The five pathways to higher education were (1) the influence of resettling in a new country on pursuing a higher education degree, (2) the financial impact on attending and pursuing a higher education degree, (3) effects of linguistic limitations in higher education, (4) the influence of support systems in higher education, and (5) discrimination in higher education. The findings were used to understand how to better support the pipeline of

Salvadorans in higher education. Based on the results, three recommendations were made. The three recommendations consist of: (1) mentoring programs, (2) diverse cultural programs, and (3) student alliances.

Oscar Alexander Guzman May 2019 i i

THE EDUCATIONAL ASPIRATIONS OF SALVADORANS IN THE UNITED STATES: A QUALITATIVE STUDY OF BARRIERS TO HIGHER EDUCATION PARTICIPATION AND ATTAINMENT

by Oscar Alexander Guzman

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Education in the Kremen School of Education and Human Development California State University, Fresno May 2019 ii

APPROVED

For the Department of Educational Leadership and Administration:

We, the undersigned, certify that the thesis of the following student meets the required standards of scholarship, format, and style of the university and the student's graduate degree program for the awarding of the master's degree.

Oscar Alexander Guzman Thesis Author

Juan Carlos González (Chair) Educational Leadership and Administration

Christina Luna Educational Leadership and Administration

Frank Lamas Educational Leadership and Administration

For the University Graduate Committee:

Dean, Division of Graduate Studies iii

AUTHORIZATION FOR REPRODUCTION OF MASTER’S THESIS

x I grant permission for the reproduction of this thesis in part or in its entirety without further authorization from me, on the condition that the person or agency requesting reproduction absorbs the cost and provides proper acknowledgment of authorship.

Permission to reproduce this thesis in part or in its entirety must be obtained from me.

Signature of thesis author:

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DEDICATION

I would like to dedicate my thesis to my parents. They were and still are my inspiration to shine a light on the Salvadoran population. Both of my parents are the definition of hard working people, who sacrificed their own livelihoods to give their children an opportunity for a better life. I am lucky to have been raised by two wonderful parents where each of them had a different style of raising me. I want to thank my mother for raising me to be patient and considerate. Being patient helped me take my time and not force anything, as well as, being considerate helped me to identify my privilege and opportunity to not only conduct research but to be able to help the Salvadoran population. I want to thank my father for raising me to be humble and resilient. Humbleness was vital to my research because it was a constant reminder that this is not only a culmination paper but an opportunity to help our people. I also thank my father for teaching me to be resilient and to continue to work hard regardless the challenge. Overall, thank you mom and dad, everything I do, everything I have accomplished, and everything I am is because of both of you. v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would first like to thank my thesis advisor, Dr. Juan Carlos Gonzalez for playing a crucial role in this research paper. I will be forever grateful for the long hours he worked with me and the invaluable resources he provided. He was not only my advisor but a great mentor of mine. Unequivocally, Dr. Gonzalez has become my role model. I would also like to thank the 14 participants for this study. It was an amazing and rewarding feeling connecting with every participant. It was great to know there are other Salvadorans in higher education. I hope by sharing their stories we cannot only shine a light on the Salvadoran population but better serve this specific population. I would like to also acknowledge the rest of my thesis committee: Dr. Christina Luna and Dr. Frank Lamas. Both Dr. Luna and Dr. Lamas provided exceptional guidance to continuously better myself throughout my research process. I am forever grateful to have their participation and their input on this research topic. I would like to acknowledge Randy Aoki as well. As I could not have done this research without Randy’s reinforcement of motivation to continue to work hard. An additional couple of people I would like to thank is Matthew Doyle. Matthew Doyle is a librarian at Fresno State. Without his help, I cannot be where I am now. Thank you to Matthew Doyle for the countless meetings and articles you helped me with for my research. Lastly, I would like to thank Elizabeth “Lizzy” Garcia. I want to thank Lizzy for the constant emotional and psychological support. Lizzy was the drive for me to continue when I wanted to give up. Thank you Lizzy for believing in me when I did not believe in myself. I will always cherish your support and friendship. It is an honor to have you as my best friend. vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

LIST OF TABLES ...... viii

LIST OF FIGURES ...... ix

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Background of the Problem ...... 1

Purpose of the Study ...... 7

Need for the Study ...... 7

Research Question ...... 9

Limitations ...... 10

Definition of Terms ...... 10

Summary ...... 11

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 13

Effects of Resettlement in a New Country on Higher Education Attainment ...... 13

The Lack of Higher Education Access Due to Poverty ...... 17

Linguistic Barriers in Higher Education ...... 23

The Lack of Inclusion in Higher Education Degree Attainment ...... 27

Discrimination in Higher Education ...... 31

Summary ...... 34

CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY ...... 37

Theoretical Framework ...... 37

Methods ...... 39

Sampling ...... 42

Instruments ...... 43

Data Analysis ...... 44

Validity ...... 45 vii

Summary ...... 45

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ...... 47

Participants’ Demographics ...... 47

Introduction of the Findings ...... 48

Pathways to Higher Education ...... 49

Findings ...... 51

Summary ...... 60 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ON LITERATURE AND FRAMEWORK, RECOMMENDATIONS, SUMMARY, AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS ...... 63

Contributions to the Literature ...... 63

Critique of Theoretical Framework ...... 63

Recommendations ...... 64

Summary ...... 66

Future Directions ...... 66

REFERENCES ...... 68

APPENDICES ...... 76

APPENDIX A: EMAIL TO PARTICIPANTS (ENGLISH AND SPANISH) ...... 77

APPENDIX B: ONLINE QUESTIONNAIRE (ENGLISH AND SPANISH) ...... 80 APPENDIX C: LETTER OF INTRODUCTION OF RESEARCH (ENGLISH AND SPANISH)...... 83

APPENDIX D: INFORMED CONSENT FORM (ENGLISH AND SPANISH) ...... 86

APPENDIX E: INTERVIEW PROTOCOLS (ENGLISH AND SPANISH)...... 93

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1 Educational Pathway of Central American Countries, by Total Population, High School Graduation, and Bachelor’s Degree Attainment ...... 9 Table 2 Population Across Three Major California Metro Areas, by City, Total Population, and Salvadoran Population ...... 42 Table 3 Participants’ Demographics, by Settlement Location, Year Residing in the United States, and Highest Degree Attainment ...... 48

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1. Overview of LatCrit Theory Tenets (Arreguin-Anderson & Kennedy, 2013) ...... 38

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Background of the Problem Spanish speaking individuals are consistently categorized as Hispanics, which is an umbrella name that generalize the different people and culture under the same identity label (Paredes, 2013). However, in each of these groups, there are subpopulations that differ on social class, educational attainment and geographical concentration, but as well as varying terms of linguistic background and longevity of living in the United States (Mow & Nettles, 1990). Therefore, highlighting the Hispanic population not being a homogenous population is essential to provide effective resources for each Hispanic group and specifically to initiate research on some of the smaller populations of Hispanics (e.g., Central Americans). The United States has had non-citizens refugees from since the early 1900s. What makes America a great country is its diverse population. The United States is a land where different cultures and different people come and become one, where it enhances the nation’s culture. The first refugees that arrived in the United States were from the Mexican Revolution beginning in 1910 (U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, 2018). Shortly after, refugees came from all over the world. Refugees came from Europe due to World War II (U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, 2018). Refugees also include those coming from Central America, such as from , , and El Salvador in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s (U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, 2018). Regardless of what country refugees came from, there seemed to be a pattern. Like any other migrating population, non-citizens from Central America tend to move to the United States for better lives, to improve their education, escape poverty, and flee violence. Pumariega, Rothe, and Pumariega (2005) stated the majority of immigrants 2 2 entering the United States seek to escape poverty from their own countries. Many adolescents who fled from Central American countries left their countries to escape war and the violence they were living upon (Fernandez-Kelly & Curran, 2001; M. Suarez- Orozco, 1989). Over half of the non-U.S. citizen parents left their country of origin (i.e., Temporary Protected Services, undocumented, and permanent residents) to move to the United States in order to avoid living in gang infested territory (Roche, Vaquera, , & Rivera, 2018). In addition, 40% of the non U.S. citizen parents left their countries of origin in order for their children to have an opportunity for a better education. Unfortunately, with all the incoming Central American civilians coming into the United States, Salvadorans are a marginalized group within a marginalized group that has minimal research conducted on them, even though they are a growing population in the United States. American society has not acknowledged the diversity of the population and continuously view Hispanics as a homogenous group (Paredes, 2013). Specifically, many people with little familiarity about Hispanics assume they are all Mexican considering that the Mexican population is the largest Hispanic population in the United States (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010c). Hispanics represent 21 Spanish speaking nationalities, where 90% of all Hispanics in the U.S. trace their origins from 10 countries: , El Salvador, Guatemala, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Puerto Rico and Equatorial Guinea (Paredes, 2013; Quin, 2018; Tienda & Mitchell, 2006). The remaining 10 % have origins in “, , Nicaragua, , Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay, Venezuela, and ” (Paredes, 2013). Although Mexicans and their descendants are the largest Hispanic group in the United States, they are not the only Hispanic group (Paredes, 2013). In 2015, approximately 3.4 million Central Americans resided in the United States (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015). This represents 8% of the 43.3 million U.S. 3 3 immigrants (Lesser & Batalova, 2017). Central America is represented by , Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama (U.S. Census Bureau,

2015). Lesser and Batalova (2017) stated Central Americans are a significant part of the Hispanic population in the United States because they are trying to escape civil wars, political instability, and economic hardship. Moreover, U.S. Central Americans continue to struggle to attain a higher education degree. Within Central America, the U.S. Panamanians are the highest population with at least a bachelor’s degree attainment at 30.8% (Ogunwole, Drewery, & Rios-Vargas, 2012). On the other hand, Salvadorans are the lowest U.S. Central American population attaining at least a bachelor’s degree at 7.2% (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010c). Furthermore, Central Americans migrated to the United States during the 1980s and early 1990s due to family unification and natural disasters (Lesser & Batalova, 2017). In search for a better life for themselves and their families in the United States, education is seen as the source to obtain a better life for themselves and their families

(Reily, 2016). However, Central Americans tend to have significantly lower educational attainment (Lesser & Batalova, 2017). Lesser and Batalova (2017) stated that in 2015, 29% of the overall immigrant population have a bachelor’s degree, compared to 31% of the native-born adult population. This is a sharp contrast with the Central American adult population whereas they have less than 10% (Lesser and Batalova, 2017). During the migration of Central Americans towards the United States in the 1980s and 1990s, some were granted Temporary Protected Status (TPS; Menjívar, 2017). The Central American population who received Temporary Protected Status were from El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua (Menjívar, 2017). The current presidential administration decided to end the protections for all the Central American population who received Temporary Protected Status (Jordan, 2018; Weiss, 2018). The end of the protections for this population in the United States and having the possibility of 4 4 deportation could lead to an experience of post-traumatic stress disorder (Roche et al., 2018). Central Americans in the United States are frequently worried about being separated from their families and try to avoid authorities as a safety precaution (Roche et al., 2018). As educators, there must be a safe environment, where Central Americans feel free to ask for help and to have no fear to approach someone with authority. Higher education professionals must avoid the idea of the Hispanic population being a homogenous group and strive to educate the Latino community about how to rebut rumors that can have an adverse impact on Latino families’ use of public services that may threaten their rights (Roche et al., 2018). As stated before, Salvadorans living in the U.S. are the Central American subgroup with the lowest percentage of a bachelor’s degree, yet Salvadoran natives are the largest Central American population living in the United States (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015; 2016). The U.S. Census Bureau (2015) estimated a total of 3,385,000 Central Americans residing in the United States, with 1,352,000 being Salvadorans. Salvadorans have had a history of leaving their native land to live in the United States. There have been three key events that have made Salvadorans leave their homeland in large quantities: (a) the (1979-1992), (b) a massive earthquake in 1986, and (c) the rise of gang violence post 1980 (Hume, 2007; Sattler et al., 2006) El Salvador is one of many Central American countries, with a rich history of culture and traditions. However, the country also has a history of violence. During the end of the 1970s, the country lurched toward civil war (Wood, 2003). The civil war began when workers went on strike for higher wages and were confronted by National Guard troops with brutality (Wood, 2003). The Salvadoran citizens were only protesting for better wages and treatment and the Salvadoran government made the vicious decision to silence the protestors with extreme prejudice. Brutalized corpses of activists, relatives of activists, and suspected activists would appear throughout the country (Wood, 2003). 5 5

Salvadoran citizens grew tired of the mistreatment and the vicious attacks from the government and military. They began their own revolution to fight back against the cruelty and formed the Farabundo Martí Front for National Liberation (FMLN; Wood, 2003). The FMLN rebelled against the Salvadoran military, which started the civil war and affected countless of civilian’s lives and homes. Unfortunately, the civil war was not the only challenge the Salvadoran people had to overcome. Natural disasters are inevitable and occur all throughout the world, they can be extremely destructive and life changing. El Salvador went through a horrific natural disaster in October 10, 1986 (Harlow, White, Rymer, & Alvarez G, 1993). The earthquake epicenter was in , the capital of El Salvador (Harlow et al., 1993). The San Salvador earthquake resulted in 1500 deaths, 7,000 to 10,000 injuries, and resulted in at least 100,000 people left without homes (Olsen, 1987). The earthquake destroyed the capital San Salvador and drastically changed the lives of the Salvadoran society. Many of them lost their businesses and jobs, which led to struggling even more with finding the financial capacity to fund their loved one’s wakes and burials (Harlow et al., 1993). Violence in El Salvador is a attributed to a well-known gang which is Mara Salvatrucha (known as MS-13). Ironically, the biggest and most dangerous gang of El Salvador did not begin in their native land. The gang was founded in Los Angeles, California during the 1980s by the Salvadoran immigrants (Wolf, 2012). Salvadorans joined the gang out of protection, however, while some were deported back to El Salvador, they took what they learned from their gang involvement back with them as well (Wolf, 2012). Many of them hoped to make a fresh start when returning to their native land, but due to weak family ties and continued marginalization it made some of them carry on with what they knew best, which was the gang life (Wolf, 2012). With the rise of MS-13 came gang violence. The gang engaged in a wide range of criminal activity 6 6 that include drug distribution, murder, rape, prostitution, robbery, home invasions, immigration offenses, kidnapping, carjackings/auto thefts, and vandalism (Federal

Bureau of Investigation, 2008). Furthermore, with the rise of the gang violence, it has affected and is still affecting the lives of Salvadoran citizens. Many lose their loved ones or are under the constant threat of MS-13 (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2008). Salvadoran citizens continuously live in constant fear due to the rise of MS-13, in the U.S. as well as in El Salvador. Each of these three events took a major toll on the Salvadoran people. All of the events have led to the Salvadoran people losing their lives, family, friends, and homes. Due to all of these life changing events, the Salvadoran people wanted to start a new life in the United States (Harlow et al., 1993; Wolf, 2012, Wood, 2003). With the civil war displacing hundred thousands of people, the innocent lives lost due to the crossfire of the Civil War, and the dangerous living conditions due to the rise of gang violence, made the Salvadoran people try to move up north and escape unsafe living environments. Since the

1980s, the Central America Immigrant population in the United States rose from 354,000 to 3,385,000 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015). Due to the major events the citizens of El Salvador had gone through since the 1980s, it demonstrates why they are currently the largest Central American population in the United States. Salvadorans wanted to escape from their tragedies and have an opportunity to a better life in the United States (Lesser & Batalova, 2017). The Salvadorans come into the United States in search for a more secure life. One matter in obtaining a better life was the pursuit of education. Education was seen by non- citizens, as the source to obtain a more sufficient lifestyle for themselves and their families (Reily, 2016). Refugees believe education to be a vital means of rebuilding their lives and identities which enhances the senses of independence and equality, providing sense of hope (El Jack, 2010). Although education is a powerful source to bettering lives, 7 7

Salvadorans are continuously marginalized within a marginalized group. There is limited research done on this population and Salvadorans have a low higher education degree attainment (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). Without education, the cycle of poverty will never end (Orfield & Yun, 1999). Schools have become “safe havens” for immigrant students, which means schools will not allow federal immigration agents on campus without a warrant (Jones, 2018). Education in the United States is not only a source for a better life but as well as a source for security to escape their horrific living conditions in their homeland. Salvadoran’s desire to pursue an education encourages them to leave their horrific living conditions for the opportunity of obtaining a better life for themselves and families.

Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to examine the higher education aspirations of Salvadorans living in the United States, to better understand the lack of higher education participation and degree attainment within this community. The method that was used to collect and analyze data will be narrative inquiry (R. B. Johnson & Christensen, 2017). The researcher conducted an online questionnaire and semi-structured interviews on Salvadorans who migrated, immigrated, or sought asylum in the United States. Specifically, in Los Angeles, Fresno, or San Francisco, California. The goal was to determine the challenges they encounter to attain a higher education degree and aspirations for higher education in the United States. A few topics that was addressed will be their reasoning to leave their native land, their reasoning to come to the United States, and their experiences that led them in pursuit of higher education in the United States.

Need for the Study The primary need for this study was to gain a better understanding the barriers of the Salvadoran population in the United States that they face on gaining access to higher 8 8 education and a higher education degree. There is a lack of research of Salvadorans and if higher education institutions want to better serve this growing population, research must be done in order to provide the most influential resources. As detailed above, Salvadorans are a growing population in the United States, yet they are the lowest population with at least a bachelor’s degree (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010c). There is a need to focus on this specific population to improve their opportunities on earning a higher education degree. Considering that Salvadoran’s are still a growing population in the United States, higher education institutions and educators must learn on how to best support them in reaching their higher education goals. An additional need for this study was to examine the educational pathway of the Salvadoran population. As mentioned before, Salvadorans are the lowest Central American population with at least a bachelor’s degree (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010c). There is a need to study the Salvadoran population educational pathway to comprehend why there is a low population participating in higher education, let alone attain a higher education degree. The importance of Table 1 will demonstrate the specific Central American countries and highlight their educational pathway to a higher education degree. Only 7.2% of Salvadoran have at least a bachelor’s degree and out of all the Central American countries in the United States, they are the lowest with a higher education degree (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010c). Table 1 demonstrates that although 5.5% of the 7.2% of Salvadorans with at least a bachelor’s degree, only have a bachelor’s degree. This also indicates the Salvadoran population is still by far the lowest Central American population with a bachelor’s degree. There is a need for this study to better serve and provide equitable access for the Salvadoran population to attain a bachelor’s degree.

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Table 1

Educational Pathway of Central American Countries, by Total Population, High School Graduation, and Bachelor’s Degree Attainment

Central America Total Population High School Bachelor’s Degree Countries in U.S. Graduate El Salvador 1,067,615 24.5% 5.5%

Guatemala 650,407 22% 5.8%

Honduras 426,789 26% 7.3%

Nicaragua 246,621 26.9% 12%

Panama 107,169 23.6% 21%

Costa Rica 80,195 22.2% 17.1%

Belize 52,049 26.6% 15% Note. Adapted from United States Hispanic or Latino by type: 2010, U.S. Census Bureau(2010c).

Research Question The research is guided by the following question: What are the education aspirations of Salvadorans living in the United States, and what barriers complicate their participation and success in higher education? As a researcher there is need to understand whether their pursuit of higher education in the United States was influenced by factors such as poverty, poor living conditions, gang activity, financial difficulties, and lack of education resources from El Salvador. The researcher needed to explore their reasoning to migrate to the United States and their pursuit of a higher education degree. By investigating a diverse sample of Salvadorans in southern, central, and northern California this study seeks to gain representative understanding of their higher education pursuit in the United States. 10 10 Limitations There are two primary limitations to this study. First, due to specificity, the research focused on the population from El Salvador and lived in only Los Angeles, Fresno, or San Francisco, California. The eligibility for participants is limited to just those three regions. The study excludes other locations in the United States. In addition, it excluded any participants who were not born in El Salvador. The requirements of being born in El Salvador, attended at least a college class, and live in Los Angeles, Fresno, or San Francisco, is a limitation due to how specific the criteria must be met. Given that only 7% of Salvadorans in the U.S. have at least a bachelor’s degree, the limitation of this study was the small pool of participants who have did not have at least one higher education course (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010c). The second limitation is limited to the population of Salvadorans who have or had higher education aspirations. Not every Salvadoran came to the United States for a pursuit to a higher education degree. There are many within this population who came for other reasons. Possibilities may include from pursuing a new start in their lives to a well- paying job compared to their homeland. By having higher education aspirations as a qualification, it makes participants qualifying to this research much more difficult.

Definition of Terms For the purpose of the study, it is important to define some key terms. Asylum Seeker(s) – a person or group of people who have escaped their country of origin and in search of protection from persecution and human rights violations, but who is waiting on their asylum claim to be decided upon because they have not yet been legally given status as a refugee (Amnesty International, n.d.). Immigrant(s) – a person or group of people who decide to leave their homeland and move to a foreign nation with the intent to resettle there (International Rescue Committee, 2018). 11 11

Migrant(s) – a person or group of people who leave their home country and are not seeking asylum or refugee status. (Amnesty International, n.d.).

Non-Citizen(s) – a person who lacks citizenship status (of a particular city or country) (Non-citizen, n.d.). Refugee(s) – a person or group of people who have left their own country due to high risk of serious human rights abuses and persecution (Amnesty International, n.d.). Resident(s) – a person who lives somewhere permanently or on a long-term basis (Resident, n.d.). Salvadoran(s) – a native of El Salvador (Salvadoran, n.d.) Salvadoran American(s) – Americans of full or partial Salvadoran decent (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016).

Summary Salvadorans are large population in the United States, yet there is minimal research on their higher education pursuit. Although they are the highest Central

American population in the United States, they still have the lowest higher education degree attainment (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010c). El Salvador and their people have gone through horrific tragedies since the 1980s with natural disasters, wars, and gang violence, and since the 1980s Salvadorans are searching for a better life in the United States. The purpose of this study is to examine the higher education aspirations of Salvadorans, living in the United States. This study will communicate to Salvadorans and those mentoring Salvadorans in higher education, best practices that promote successful navigation toward attaining a higher education degree. In addition, this study will investigate the challenges that Salvadorans whom live in the U.S. experience gaining access to higher education. There is a need to better understand this population to allow them to have the appropriate resources for them to succeed in higher education. The findings will describe 12 12 the experiences of Salvadorans, living in the U.S. encounter during their pursuit of higher education. Ultimately conducting research on Salvadorans in the three regions of

California will provide aspiring Salvadorans, and those mentoring aspiring Salvadorans, with the information they need to successfully navigate institutions that have been blindly treating Latinos/Hispanics as a homogenous group.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature presented below focuses on the refugee’s challenges after asylum was granted and their effort to escape from poverty through education. Five unique section compose this literature review. The sections will be on: (a) effects of resettlement in a new country on higher education attainment, (b) lack of higher education access due to poverty, (c) linguistic barriers in higher education, (d) lack of inclusion in higher education degree attainment, (e) discrimination in higher education. The first section on settlements will address the challenges of resettlement the refugees encounter. This section will discuss refugees resettling in high poverty and criminal action neighborhoods. The lack of income and poverty section will explain the challenges refugees have to overcome while living in poverty and making a living with a low income. The linguistic barriers section will determine the difficulties of learning a new language while trying to keep up with their peers in education. The lack of inclusivity section will address the impact of sense of belonging in a college or university, has on refugees. Lastly, the trauma and discrimination section will address the traumatic experiences from their respective countries and separation of their family. In addition, it will address the discrimination refugees face daily in their migrated country.

Effects of Resettlement in a New Country on Higher Education Attainment Being a refugee in a new country can be a difficult adjustment, especially when it involves settlement. Due to leaving their respective countries, livelihoods, and homes, refugees inhabit crime infested, low rent neighborhoods (Pumariega et al., 2005). Families survive in overcrowded living conditions with minimal opportunity for privacy (Pumariega et al., 2005). Refugees do not have a legitimate choice when it involves settlement and housing because of their lack of financial status. Refugees are only able to 14 carry what they can put in their pockets and on their backs. This may include a small amount of clothing, valuables, and money. As a result, to limited money, refugees have to settle in high poverty areas (McBrien, 2005). Refugees reject their own family and culture out of a desire to be accepted by their American peers (McBrien, 2005). Although refugees seek for a better life from their respective countries, they have a difficult time of escaping the cycle of poverty with low education attainment (Orfield & Yun, 1999). In other words, refugees without education, seem to continue the cycle of poverty, with the only difference being, in a different country. Refugees also report living overcrowded households where it made it difficult to study due to the noise and the family not understanding the importance of studying (Mangan & Winter, 2017). Especially, when settling into a new country, family members do not seem to understand the importance of education, because they would rather have their family members search for jobs in order to bring financial support. Sometimes the refugee family would rather work than pursue an education because they often experience a loss of self-esteem due to their previous level of education or former position from their respective countries, are not as valued in their new country (Vries & Van Heck, 1994). Due to their new settlement and no accreditation of their profession in their home country, refugees are in dire need for financial assistance. In order to gain financial assistance, the best and quickest opportunity is getting a job and not pursuing an education. Although they might be supported in their educational endeavors by their families, refugees can be overwhelmed by their family’s expectations. Students have a high pressure on succeeding in their education and most importantly not embarrass themselves or their families (Earnest, Joyce, De Mori, & Silvagni, 2010). Refugees find it difficult getting used to being expected to learn on their own in and outside the classroom (Mangan & Winter, 2017). Having to learn a completely different style in addition to the 15 pressures of their families to succeed in education, refugees may feel exceptionally stressed. Refugees constantly feel pressure which makes their resettlement much more difficult. Refugees have to begin a new life in a different country, with little to their name is a difficult adjustment. The unfortunate part is that sometimes refugees are not able to start a new life with their families or loved ones. Refugees sometimes have to make the tough decision to settle in a different country on their own. Refugees have to make this decision due to financial constrictions. There are times, they are not financially capable to move their entire family because they cannot afford to maintain their families in a new country without a job or any resources. Therefore, they make the tough decision to leave their families behind while trying to settle in their new homes. Refugees would try to establish a foundation, in order to be prepared and stable enough for their families to migrate after. However, not every refugee family reunite in the new country. Most have family members not living with each other and this constantly adds stress to the refugees because they miss their families and sometimes feel guilty for living in a safer community that their family members (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). Making the decision to move away from their families is disheartening and refugees are under a lot of stress when they are trying to reunite with their families; however, being reunited with their family is not a quick process (Earnest, Mansi, Bayati, Earnest, & Thompson, 2015). As a result of financial limitations, refugees need to start from the bottom with jobs that pay significantly low or are black market jobs, which takes them longer to set a foundation for their families to migrate (Korac, 2001). On the other hand, for those who do not reunite with each other, it is a long process to gain the financially stability to help their families back at home, because the refugee student is pursuing a higher education degree that takes years to complete and cannot provide remittance (Rousseau, Rufagari, Bagilishya, & Measham, 2004). 16

Higher education institutes and educators need to accommodate their refugee students and be intentional on helping them settle into their new environment.

Newcomers and their families need multiple services beyond the traditional resources provided by schools (Hones, 2007). Social services, psychological services, healthcare, housing, inexpensive clothing and household goods, employment training, and citizenship classes are all necessities for many immigrants, especially refugees, who arrive with few or no resources (Hones, 2007). Educators should be trained to adjust to their refugee students and allow them a fair chance to succeed in their academics as well as being inclusive in their schools. Students who are newcomers are in need to be encouraged to develop their reading and writing skills in order to help them develop and overcome barriers (Hones, 2007). Allowing refugee students to receive extra support with their language barriers and connecting them with someone who went through the same struggles they did can ease their settlement in their new country and higher education career. Refugees have shown education to be a necessary factor of rebuilding their lives and identities, while providing hopeful future (El Jack, 2010). As refugees’ experience their own personal growth, it creates a domino effect of inspiration where it leads to the refugees contributing back help and build communities around them (Crea, 2016). Refugees see education as the key opportunity to better themselves and in return provide resources to their community. Providing resources such as psychosocial support to community members, especially those who are most liable, assist the youth, disabled children, as well as family members (Crea, 2016). The opportunity for education provides a solution for the multiple oppression refugees go through when resettling into a new country (Crea, 2016). 17 The Lack of Higher Education Access Due to Poverty Research indicates that as part of the low income population, refugees are likely to misconstrue the disadvantages and benefits of pursuing a higher education degree and may ultimately be unmotivated to pursue the degree due to the high tuition cost (Ferede, 2012). It is no secret that higher education tuition has risen exponentially. Ferede (2012) stated low income individuals are less likely to attend a higher education institution than their wealthier peers due to their financial capabilities. They are less likely to attend a higher education institutions because they are not financially capable of paying such an enormous cost. Poverty and lack of income, is one of the major obstacle to have access on completing one’s education (Anselme & Hands, 2012). Refugees have the challenge to overcome poverty with education; however, they are not able to attain a decent education to overcome poverty. Refugees are given the task to build a house without the proper tools. When migrated to a new country, refugees leave everything in their home country except their native language. When they immigrate, many families experience an economy downturn because parents do not speak the dominant language of the new country they migrated to, fluently (Kanno & Varghese, 2010). If you cannot speak the dominant language of the host country, there is a high possibility you will not get a well- paying job because most of the jobs consists of speaking to customers, clients, business partners, employees, and employers the specific host country language. Most English as Second Language (ESL) parents cannot get a well-paid job because they do not speak the host country’s dominant language and because of that limitation the chances to get a well-paying position is slim compared to the natives of the country (Kanno & Varghese, 2010). There are cases where refugees seek work in order to gain some type of income, however, due to their linguistic limitations the work they are only capable of gaining are the jobs that pay without any paperwork. Refugees would try to find a job where they 18 would pay under the table and unfortunately, finding a job who is not only willing but capable of paying without paperwork is enormously more difficult than finding a general job (Kanno & Varghese, 2010). Refugees exhaust their options in order to earn some type of income because that is better than going back to their home country. Although refugees have to live in a low income neighborhood and settle into their new homes, they still believe that education is the key to escaping poverty. Earning a higher education degree represents an opportunity to be able to provide solution on structural challenges to employment, pay, and acknowledgement (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). Refugee students believe if they achieve a higher education degree, they have a better opportunity to earn a well-paid job which will allow them to have a decent income to survive in their new lives (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). Also, it allows the refugee students to be respected and admired for their accomplishment (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). It is almost as if their refugee identity fades away and they become accepted a little more by society.

A university degree symbolizes an opportunity to acknowledge the marginalization and disadvantages that are coupled with resettlement (Interagency Network for Education in Emergencies [INEE], 2004; Russell, 2005). A higher education degree is extremely valuable to refugee students. For that reason, they sometimes ensure themselves they will earn a higher degree that will provide sufficient income. Refugee students ensure their financial security by choosing a major they can pursue that will allow them to earn a well-paying job regardless of what emphasis of their major they decide to pursue. Some refugee students might want to become a multi-platinum artist and become a performer; however, they maintain a realistic mentality where they pursue a business degree instead (Kanno & Varghese, 2010.) By pursuing a business degree, the refugee student can pursue their artist career but in case it does not work out, they have 19 other options due to the degree being so broad and having the capability to earn another job under the same business umbrella.

Refugee students make this “safe” decision because they have to consider about their families. They have to consider that they came to refuge in a new country to start a new life and not live in poverty. Refugee students are in constant pressure because they feel an obligation to support their families financially, thus students are often working jobs to have enough finance to support themselves and their family members, while trying to continue to go to school and succeed in their studies (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). The refugee students are under significant amount of pressure because they are unwillingly identified as the “savior” of their families. They are viewed as the one person that will be able to pursue a higher education degree, earn the degree and “save their families” to bring them out of poverty. In the view of all the pressure they are under, refugee students are constantly stressed, not wanting to go home, and prefer to stay at their university because as soon as they go home, they are not able to work on their studies (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). These students would rather stay at the university and do their school work on campus than go home because they are able to be productive with their work, and they do not feel the pressure from their family of depending on them to help them escape poverty. In addition, the refugee students will avoid being frustrated with their family expectations of being “saved” by the student, when the family does not help and not allow the student to concentrate and do their school work at home. Migrants make great sacrifices by going dangerous pathways in search for a better life for their families (Davis, 2016). Migrants make the decision to leave their homes and their families to go and search for a better opportunity to escape from poverty. One way that many migrants use to help their families in escaping poverty is remittance (Davis, 2016). Migrants who left their homes and families to seek a better well-paying job, send money back to their families and to provide for them from a far. Families, that are located 20 in the country of origin, who do not receive remittances make the decision to have their children work in order to gain some type of financial support; however, those who receive remittances allow the children to attend schools and focus on their studies (Davis, 2016). Remittances is an external sources of capital that can create financial improvements for those who are receiving the resource (Davis, 2016). It allows access for the migrant’s children to have a better education and less likely to have their children work to be able to survive. Unfortunately, Davis (2016) explained the “brain waste” phenomenon, “where the most determined and strongest characters within a community, see education as a waste of time when the lure of remittances from abroad hold the key to their economic success” (p. 589). Instead of focusing on school, the focus is turning into the appropriate age to travel abroad and seek low-skilled jobs with high pay (Davis, 2016). Education seems to fade away when children determine the easier and quicker way of escaping poverty is strictly focusing on abroad low-skilled jobs. Unfortunately, due to their need to survive migrants make the desperation decision of settling for a low- skilled job, in order to have some type of income. Whereas, they should be focused on the long term solution of having the education in order to build a stronger foundation for their future. Unfortunately, those who are refugees and are pursuing higher education have difficult financial obstacles to overcome. Some refugees, especially in the United States, are under Temporary Protected Status (TPS). However, although refugees might have protection, that does not mean they have equitable access to resources. Although, TPS provides protection, it negatively affects those who would like to pursue a higher education degree (Reily, 2016). Those under the protection of TPS are not eligible for in- state tuition or able to obtain any form of financial aid such as loans, in order to afford to attend college (Reily, 2016). Refugee students often view education as a source of hope for a better future; a way to give back to their community once they are able to go back to 21 their homeland, resettle, or stay within their new adoptive community (Crea & McFarland, 2015). Refugees see education as an opportunity for not only escaping poverty but giving back to their community. Allowing them to escape from poverty demonstrates the importance of pursuing education. Once the refugees settle into their new host country, they have to adapt to the economy of their host country as well. Studies on migration and study-abroad motives often rate economic productivity, political stability, and safety as the most prominent factors that attract students to specific countries (Maringe, Ojo, & Chiramba, 2017). Refugee students would rather go to a well-established and flourished country than another country that was the complete opposite. There is no point moving to a new country with the same issues as the country they are trying to escape. Sadly, due to economic struggles, refugee students have difficulties to migrate to another country because they would not be able to survive (Maringe et al., 2017). Refugees report their experience of rampant discrimination and disinterest once their refugee status had been disclosed (Maringe et al., 2017). Once the refugees disclose their identity, especially with the work force, they are discriminated and either are offered low wage positions or sometimes they do not receive any offer whatsoever. When the economy in any country faces a downturn, migrants tend to be the hardest hit and they not only become discriminated against in the job market but also become victims of hate crime and xenophobic attacks (Maringe et al., 2017). Some xenophobic attacks on the refugees are physical and mental abuse just because they are from a different country. Along with, the xenophobic attacks and an economy facing downturn, the cost of attending a higher education institution is high, and in order to be able to attend a university refugee students usually must rely on limited financial support such as scholarship (Anselme & Hands, 2012). Unfortunately, due to the high cost to attend a higher education institution, even with some financial support from scholarships, 22 not all the expenses are covered (Anselme & Hands, 2012). Refugees go to great distances at times, to have the capability to pursue their higher education degree. There are times when refugee students have had to use spaces reserved for studying as bedrooms when funds for accommodation had run out (Maringe et al., 2017). The extent to which refugee students can maintain their focus on learning under these conditions is very limited (Maringe et al., 2017). It is rare to earn a full covered scholarships and stipends to be able to cover the essentials outside of the academic necessities. In order to attend higher education, there is no other way but to pay for tuition and any other fee included. Usually it is through some type of financial aid or paying it off on your own. Refugee students are not always treated in the same way as home students, particularly when it comes to financial support (Maringe et al., 2017). Lamentably, refugees are not able to apply for financial aid because of their status of being refuges from another country, in addition, refugees are not able to pay all the fees because of the exponential amount of money that they do not have. Refugees students see higher education as an ‘elite’ or ‘privileged’ resources where only the wealthy seem to benefit, and the high costs of attending a higher education establishment seem to overshadow the benefits of attaining a higher education degree (Dryden-Peterson & Giles, 2010). The pursuit of higher education can be seen where the ‘elite’ class are the only to have access, where the richer are only getting richer (Dryden- Peterson & Giles, 2010). Pursuing a higher education is seen as a privileged resource in some countries because of the need of other basic resources such as food and water. In order to survive, a human needs food and water. The countries of which refugees originally originate from do not typically view higher education as a priority (Crea, 2016). Some countries focus on providing essentials to survive rather than a luxury like pursuing a higher education degree. Humanitarian agencies focus is on prioritizing the essentials such as food, water, 23 and health expenditures over the focus of spending resources on education (Crea, 2016). Primary and secondary education do receive funding but when it comes to higher education, the funding is shifted to essential survival essential needs instead (Crea, 2016). For most refugees and TPS holders, the high cost of attending a college or university has made higher education participation and degree attainment unobtainable (Reily, 2016). However, refugees continue to pursue higher education in order to develop themselves and gain the necessary skills to contribute to their community’s recovery (Reily, 2016). Nevertheless, refugees continuously pursue their betterment through education, even with their lack of access to resources. Higher education for refugees and others, helps to provide a better future for themselves and their family (El Jack, 2010). Refugees consider U.S. higher education as the pathway to becoming a member of the elite class (Reily, 2016). This path is seen as an opportunity to leave behind low income and poverty. As Reily (2016) stated, “a U.S. degree is a necessary credential for leadership positions in their respective communities.” In order to help newcomers, instructors, administrators, and staff at schools need to be provided with background of their nation’s origins (Hones, 2007). This will help educators become better advocates for resources such as financial support to enhance transitional programs (Hones, 2007). In other words, helping the educators become better advocates for students, allows a continuous cycle of improvement through education.

Linguistic Barriers in Higher Education Linguistic barriers are another obstacle refugee need to overcome. Shakya et al. (2012) stated refugee youth identified linguistic barriers as a key challenge in pursuing educational goals. Refugee youth are expected to adjust with linguistic challenges on top of their adjustment with American society’s norms, values, and beliefs especially in education. One of the limitations that presents the greatest challenges for refugee 24 language learners is linguistic barriers (Hones, 2007). However, refugees who are able to adapt to the academic language of their host country and be accepted by their classmates and instructors progress the best in school (McBrien, 2005). Sadly, not everyone is capable of making the adjustment efficiently. Low fluency makes it difficult to understand what is being taught in class and creates hesitation in asking questions (Shakya et al., 2012). Also, low fluency makes it difficult to seek clarification from teachers and communication with peers (Shakya et al., 2012). By the virtue of linguistic barriers, it results in youth falling behind in classes and limiting their overall interactions in school (Shakya et al., 2012). Linguistic barriers also may lead the youth to feel a lack of sense of belonging. Linguistic barriers is inevitable for refugee students. Educators seem to struggle on how to educate refugee students. The phrase “setting them up to fail” is repeatedly mentioned within staff, implying that the university is not only accepting students who are not academically prepared in the English language, but also the university does not have the efficient resources to provide the necessary support for refugee’s student success (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). Educators are literally stating that a university is setting the refugee students to fail because educators are not trained on how to accommodate the students and their struggles. A couple of concerns that staff have expressed is the lack of refugee students who do not have the specific knowledge of the English language as well as the staff not having the time to address the refugee students’ issues pertaining the English writing comprehension (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). Refugees seek additional help but their educators do not have the time or make the time to help them outside of their classroom (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). If educators were to have the time, they do not have the proper resources to help the refugee students because they have no idea what is the most effective way for them to learn (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). The vast majority of the linguistic problems identified are reading and writing (Kanno & Varghese, 2010). 25

With the struggle of learning how to speak a new language, refugees also need to learn how to read and write a new language at a level where most of their peers are much more advanced than they are (Kanno & Varghese, 2010). Further, another challenge refugee students had to overcome was the additional time for them to complete any academic task assigned to them (Kanno & Varghese, 2010). The refugee students do not have the same education that their host country peers have, therefore, the refugee students are at a lower educated level. It is expected when settling into a new country, refugee students are not able to read, write, or speak at the same speed or effectiveness as their non-refugee peers. However, refugee students acknowledged their linguistic limitations were within their control (Kanno & Varghese, 2010). In other words, most refugee students recognized that their linguistic challenges were feasible and achievable by working three times harder than the non-refugee students (Kanno & Varghese, 2010). Having to work three times harder than the non-refugee students is possible, and quite usual, yet in order to accomplish their goal of attaining a degree, educators are significant part of the equation (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). There are staff who go to extraordinary lengths to assist struggling students (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). Educators go through extreme lengths because the lack of training they receive and the lack of resources refugee students have access to (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). Unfortunately, not every educator will go above and beyond for the students which lead refugee students continue to struggle and figure out the best way to succeed on their own (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). Refugee students with language and linguistic issues in higher education tend to be less active and involved in class in order to avoid the embarrassment that comes with not being able to express things clearly in English (Portes & Rumbaut, 2001). Many refugee students are intimidated to speak up or ask questions in a large class because of their linguistic barriers (Kanno & Varghese, 2010). Some refugees struggle to learn a 26 completely new language, especially when they have to learn a new language at an older age. Universities generally do not see it as their responsibility to teach students the language of teaching and learning (Maringe et al., 2017). Universities generally believe students, including students coming from a different country, already know how to speak the dominant language of their respective campus (Maringe et al., 2017). Therefore, prospective post graduate refugee students tend to spend the first and, in some cases, the second year of exile, learning the dominant language in some private or semipublic institution (Maringe et al., 2017). Consequently, refugees trying to learn a new language in order to keep up with the expectations, only leads them to feel a lack of sense of belonging. While refugees are trying to learn a new language, they are missing out on the opportunities of speaking to their instructors and peers. Unfortunately, missing out on the opportunities of speaking to their instructors and peers lead the refugees to feel that they are not really a part of the institution. On the other hand, Mezirow (1990, 2000) expressed how participants reported noteworthy personal and cultural transformation with the contribution of language learning. This included improvement in cultural awareness, and their transformation of their ideas and beliefs about cultures (Morrice, 2009). As refugees learn the new language, it allows them to gain a transformation cultural and personally, where they are more aware of the different cultures there are and how each one of them is different yet the same. Learning the new language allows the refugees, to not only learn the new language but the culture that comes with it. The refugee students learning a new language and culture created a positive self-esteem and a sense of empowerment. (Morrice, 2009). For this reason, learning a new language demonstrates that it is not just one learning experience but multiple. Learning a new language allows for the discovery of different cultures, ideas, and beliefs. 27

Although refugee students may have excellent cognitive and academic skills if they are limited with English language skillset, they will come across difficult challenges as they attempt to move forward through the higher education system (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). These refugee students are not unintelligent. There are some refugee students who are incredibly talented and were star pupils in their home country. The only difference between them in their home country and their host country, is the language barrier and the resettlement of their lives. Refugee students still have the knowledge they learned from their home country. All that is needed to be done is to teach them how to translate their knowledge to a different language. Instructors, administrators, and staff should create transitional resources that would provide unbiased learning outcomes (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). As an institution, to be more equitable would transmit to a fair learning opportunity for their refugee students rather than expect the same capability, with major disadvantages, as the non-refugee students (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). Educators are in dire need to be trained to support and ensure their students success. Distributing sufficient funding for programs such as ESL and bilingual education, professional training for all educators, and cultivating inclusive schools can lead to positive outcomes for the future (Hones, 2007). A positive outcome would be that a future generation with cross-cultural and linguistic skills can someday support the nation they adopted by providing needed resources (Hones, 2007). Having the trained staff and educators to support the refugee students can only benefit their students and their institution.

The Lack of Inclusion in Higher Education Degree Attainment Considering that refugee youth need to start from the beginning in a new country, in itself causes exclusion because everyone else already knows the language, history, culture, and norms. Taylor and Sidhu (2012) stated that rather than separating “students at risk” from the mainstream system, educational systems and schools should aspire to 28 promote student diversity through inclusive education. If schools do not deal with student diversity through inclusive education, refugees will continue to remain largely “invisible” with mainstream research (Shakya et al., 2012). On the other hand, promoting diversity can lead to avoiding exclusion of the refugee youth and include them to create diversity in the classroom. Creating diversity in the classroom can create a sense of belonging for the refugee youth and allow them to succeed. Refugee students tend to keep their identity hidden because of the negative stereotypes of refugees (Mangan & Winter, 2017). Refugee students would hide their identity in order to avoid inequality and to be able to have equitable resources. They had difficulty making friends, where refugees describe eating lunch alone or with other refugee students or international students (Mangan & Winter, 2017). Mangan and Winter (2017) stated that due to the having difficulties of relating to the host population, refugees seemed to have no choice but to hide their identity in order to be treated fairly and avoid being alone. Although there were opportunities to connect with the host population, there was still some limitations that did not allow refugee students to interact with the host population in a social aspect (Mangan & Winter, 2017). Refugee students did have opportunities to socialize with non-refugee classmates; however, refugee students felt unable to join in because of their religious beliefs or not being financial capable to spend their money (Mangan & Winter, 2017). Mangan and Winter (2017) explained that there are times refugees are able to socialize with the host population but as stated before, because of religious beliefs or financial difficulties, they are not able to go. Therefore, the opportunity vanishes and most of the time, it will not present itself again because it will seem as the refugee student will only reject the offer once more. The unfortunate part is the real reason why the refugee student rejects the offer will, possibly, never be known. Formal and informal communication is an integral aspect for university students, an aspect where refugee students have significant difficulty in learning and understanding 29 social cues (Kong et al., 2016). Sometimes it makes it hard for the refugee students when they feel shy to ask another student for help because they might try to ask a colleague and in response the refugees are mortified by their peers which leads to the refugees to block themselves from asking people for help (Kong et al., 2016). Refugees would rather not ask for help than actually asking for help and get embarrassed for asking because their peers might look at them as if they were unintelligent. Another issue refugee students face is participating is in group work, they feel unaccepted by their peers and do not relate to them easily (Kong et al., 2016). Refugee students generally suggest that they are viewed as burdens rather than as assets and because they are seen as such, they tend to retract into the background, where they become less visible and feel marginalized (Sidhu, Taylor, & Christie, 2011). Refugees try to figure out and solve their own issues instead of risking being called or feeling as burdens. In seminars, they refrain from making any contribution to avoid ridiculed for their poor language skills (Maringe et al., 2017). As it is well known, the refugees come from a different country usually do not speak the dominant language of the location where they settle. However, if the refugees are able to speak the dominant language of the respective country, sometimes the language is broken and possibly have a heavy accent. Refugees with a heavy accent leads to the refugees being marginalized and made fun of. Further marginalization comes from, not having the financial resources to watch sports game or go out and have a meal and drinks with other students (Maringe et al., 2017). Maringe et al. (2017) stated that an additional marginalization comes from not even having the appropriate clothing to wear according to the occasion. Refugees feel completely excluded and due to their shyness, refugees are afraid to speak to their peers because they are scared of being scolded by them. Refugees are being limited socially because they exclude themselves and live their academic lives in isolation. Moreover, their exclusion 30 does not allow the refugees to learn the culture through their peers. To be specific, they do not learn what is appropriate for someone at their same age (Maringe et al., 2017).

Moreover, Maringe et al. (2017) argued that the academic environment is built around notions of the survival of the fittest, where in such environments, refugees’ students generally operate below the radar of policymakers and academics. The academic environment should avoid having the ideology of refugees figuring out their new identity on their own and offer extra and intentional help to provide the best manner for their success. A recommendation Maringe et al. (2017) provided was broadening the lenses through which institutions view refugee students in order to capture rather than silence the full nature of their identities. Institutions being on alert and able to provide resources will help avoid the refugee’s student operate below the radar. Institutions can provide resources for students to be successful academically, where the refugee can gain confidence and begin to meet new people; therefore, their social aspect can be immensely improved as well.

If the refugee student’s education needs are not addressed, they are likely to demonstrate lower education participation rates, lower employment rates, and lower income (Macrine, 2010). If the proper resources are not provided and the refugee students find a way to barely get through their higher education career, it will not translate to a successful transition into the real world. There is a need for a greater acknowledgement within higher education environments to meet student needs, so that it does not become an unforeseen challenge added to already chaotic obligations (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). Once a refugee student graduates and they are no longer students, that means the refugee will need to seek for some type of employment. Being a student versus an employee is significantly different, where as a student you pursue the best possible grade. On the other hand, as an employee, there is a need to deliver to complete the work efficiently and effectively. Regardless of the status of the citizenship, if the work is not done efficiently 31 and effectively, there is a high possibility where it could lead to an employment contract termination. Due to refugee students needing to overcome multiple barriers, the conception of equity, social justice and democracy are even more salient in education because refugee students are in need for appropriate resources to better adapt to the norms and expectations of their host country (Kong et al., 2016). Educators must respond to this group’s needs in order to help refugee students succeed in higher education (Krause, Hartley, James, & Mcinnis, 2005).

Discrimination in Higher Education Exclusion can also be caused by discrimination and trauma. Experiences of discrimination in and out of school can have negative impacts on youths’ sense of identity and well-being (Shakya et al., 2012). Having those negative impacts by discrimination can cause trauma to refuge population, allowing the population to feel as if they do not belong. Studies that involve refugee youth have demonstrated that specific issues affecting their education achievements include discontinued education, experience of trauma, and uncertainty about their legal status and difficulties with the English language (Stevenson & Willott, 2007). Nonetheless, the evidence on the impact of their migration to another country indicated that premigration created trauma and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) which lead to negative effects on school outcomes (Graham, Minhas, & Paxton, 2016). Stevenson and Willot (2007) found that many refugee students believe higher education degree attainment is a pathway to escaping poverty and discrimination, despite the multiple disadvantages and trauma they have to overcome. Living in a different country as refugee is not an easy adjustment. Being a refugee trying to adapt to a new culture and livelihood, brings about stress and disadvantages in society (Ingleby, 2005). As a student, refugees not only face discrimination outside of the 32 education system but inside as well. There are times when refugee students speak their ideas, to only be “pushed aside’ by both their educators and their peers, as though their input are not valid or viewed as valued than their classmates (Mangan & Winter, 2017). Refugee feels as if their knowledge and input is worthless. Due to these types of discrimination it leads refugees to feel distracted, stressed and unmotivated to attend school, which only adds the multiple obstacles they already have to conquer (Mangan & Winter, 2017). Refugees would question why continue pursuing their higher education degree if their ideas will only be suppressed and rejected (Mangan & Winter, 2017). Refugee students felt that some teaching staff are unhelpful because of the constant fast paced speaking and the refusal of their requests for clarification; several of refugee students also feel as if the staff expect the refugee students to have nothing to contribute in a classroom discussion (Harris & Marlowe, 2011). There seems to be no reason to continue the pursuit for a higher education degree if their inputs are seen as useless information.

Cruz Salazar (2011) conducted a study where participants discussed that they took the proper measures to protect themselves, such as contraceptives, several months before their journeys began to migrate to another country. Participants took these measure based on the assumption of being raped or sexually assaulted by law enforcement or gangs while migrating through Mexico (Cruz Salazar, 2011). Cruz Salazar research demonstrated how migrants faced brutal discrimination within their own Hispanic population. Migrants make the decision to put themselves in danger to go through a different country in search for a better life. Additional migrants reported that they are not just assaulted, blackmailed, and robbed, by gang members, or smugglers, but also by law enforcement (Kron, 2016). Migrants not only face danger from gang members and smugglers but as well as those who were sworn to protect and serve their own people. 33

Unfortunately, migration officers take advantage of their power and the vulnerability of the migrants to abuse them.

According media communications, there has been reference to U.S. Latinx immigrants having heightened stress levels and threats to family stability since the new Commander and Chief of the United States took office in 2017 (Roche et al., 2018). Since President Trump has taken office, many Latinx immigrants have lived in fear of what the U.S. administrations will do to them and their families. Many Latinx immigrations live in fear because of the current U.S. administration’s policies, in which, it also causes them to live with trauma of being deported or separated from their families. Immigrants from Latino countries indicate experiences of “fear of deportation, exploitation by employer, trauma, distrust in public services, language barriers, racism, and financial stain” (Roche et al., 2018). Immigrants would rather not seek professional help such as Medicaid, in order to not risk being caught and deported (Roche et al., 2018). Immigrants strategize to avoid authorities or government officials and programs to minimize their risks of deportation and separation from their families. The United States’ stance on granting immediate access to refugee status individuals have failed on protecting individuals’ basic human rights which has resulted in increased rates of a variety mental health issues (Reily, 2016). Having to live in constant fear and looking over your shoulder on a constant basis is no way to live. Roche et al. (2018) stated that adolescents whose have parents who are going through depression or anxiety face heightened risk of poor social functioning, low academic success, and a variety of mental health issues (Roche et al., 2018). Adolescents are not able to focus in their academics, let alone their social skills because they are constantly thinking and fearing that their parents may not be with them the next day. The adolescents are constantly being traumatized that their families can be separated and having the possibility of not being reunited again. Parents worry that their children have 34 been negatively influenced at their school because of the news of deportation of immigrants (Roche et al., 2018). The Latinx population facing deportation and discrimination, severely hurts their mental health, where it can cause serious permanent damage. The issue of discrimination is apparent for much of the immigrant population (Lau & Gordon, 2015). Despite their motivation, school is often times discouraging due to the misunderstandings in the new settings (Lau & Gordon, 2015). Immigrants are expected to adjust rapidly in their new environments. Furthermore, immigrants are often discouraged to continue with their education because instead of receiving patience, they are often given unfair criticism (Lau & Gordon, 2015). Immigrants are expected to adjust rapidly in their new environments. Furthermore, immigrants C. Suarez-Orozco, M. Suarez-Orozco and Todorova (2008) conducted a study where results stated, every significant immigrant population, witnesses a sharp decrease in average GPA, except the Chinese population. Over the duration of American schooling among immigrant populations, Central American youth experience the greatest decline in GPA (C. Suarez- Orozco, M. Suarez-Orozco & Todorova, 2008). Immigrant students face discrimination every day in their life and when they face discrimination in their education, they tend to not see the importance to continue on pursuing their education. The vicious cycle continues when more newcomer students are discouraged and criticized by their “more- adjusted” immigrant peers (Lau & Gordon, 2015).

Summary Non-citizens from their respective countries face countless barriers on their pursuit of a higher education degree. Barriers such as resettlement and poverty, where the non-citizen have to resettle and start from scratch in their new country. For the reason of limited financial stability non-citizens have to resettle in high poverty areas where it is 35 difficult to adjust and having non-citizens focus on how to survive their resettlement instead of their education. As previously mentioned, non-citizens have limited financial stability when resettling. Having to resettle into a new country usually means the non- citizens bring only what they can carry. They resettle into a new country with limited financial support. Therefore, non-citizens do not see higher education attainable or accessible to them with their limited financial capability. Additional barriers such as linguistic limitations, lack of inclusivity, and discrimination have an influence for non-citizens on pursuing higher education. Non- citizens have to learn a new language at much older age and be able to keep up with their peers. Learning a new language is difficult and having the pressure to not only learn a new language but keep up with their peers, discourages non-citizens to pursue their education due to how much they need to overcome just to be at a fair advantage with their peers. Non-citizens feel overwhelmed and misunderstood, which may lead them to feel as if they do not belong. They feel as if they are burdens; therefore, they do not seek for help. However, if they do seek for help it can go two different ways. One way can be not having the appropriate training or resources to help them or the other way being brushed off to figure out their own issues. Lastly, non-citizens sometimes question the value of education due to discrimination. Non-citizens constantly ask themselves if it is worth going through the harsh derogatory actions and statements from others to attain a higher education. The literature review surrounding non-citizens from their respective countries points the challenges and obstacles they have to overcome to access higher education, maintain themselves in college, and graduate from college. Literature focusing specifically on diverse non-citizens points primarily to the unacceptance of non-citizens migrating to new countries by the native population. However, an overarching theme across each non-citizen group was the importance to learn from each group in order to 36 provide the best intentional resources for each non-citizen group. Learning from each non-citizen will allow educators to know what resources can be provided for the best outcome of success. It is important for all educators to realize non-citizen groups are not a homogenous group.

CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY

This section will describe the participants whom were selected for the research study. In addition, it will provide: (a) theoretical framework and (b) methods. The methods section will consist of (a) procedures, (b) sample and participants, (c) instruments, (d) data analysis, and (e) validity. In the final section of this chapter, the research study provided the potential validities of the results and how the researcher avoided the threats to the researcher validities in order to sustain credibility.

Theoretical Framework The theory used to frame this study is Latino Critical theory. LatCrit explains the “Latinas’/Latinos’ multidimensional identities and can address the intersectionality of racism, sexism, classism, and other forms of oppression” (Solorzano & Bernal, 2001). This theory was selected to improve our understanding of Salvadorans living in the United States, in higher education and their barriers in higher education participation and degree attainment. LatCrit theory offers insight into the challenges and the decision making process that Salvadorans face involving higher education in the United States. Understanding the challenges informed this study that the research question seeks to understand the decision making of Salvadorans make revolving higher education and how LatCrit theory can help improve the participation and degree attainment in higher education. LatCrit theory is shown in Figure 1. LatCrit theory attempts to link theory with practice, scholarship with educating, and schools with the community (Valdes, 2005). Arreguin-Anderson and Kennedy (2013) explained that a vital role in constructing racial power is played by the education system, LatCrit outlines five defining tenets that aid scholars in evaluating, identifying, and acknowledging these issues. Figure 1, is a graphic representation of the five tents of LatCrit which include (a) the centrality and 38 intersectionality of race and racism, (b) the challenge to dominant ideology, (c) the centrality of experiential knowledge, (d) the commitment to social justice and (e) the interdisciplinary perspective (Solorzano & Yosso, 2001). LatCrit theory is similar to Critical Race Theory; however, LatCrit is concerned with the perception of the Latinx point of view and addresses the issues that are constantly disregarded (Espinoza, 1990; Garcia, 1995; Hernandez-Truyol, 1997; K. Johnson, 1997; Martinez, 1994; Montoya, 1994; Valdes, 1996). In the case on Salvadorans living in the U.S., during their interviews, they were asked about their higher education aspirations and the barriers they faced to access higher education and degree attainment, to get a better understanding of how their social and academic history is related to their decisions to choose to pursue a higher education degree. LatCrit theory is critical and different from other resistance frameworks because it challenges the traditional model and perception “on race, class, gender, language, and immigration status” (Solorzano & Bernal, 2001, p. 313). This theory helps better understand reasons why Salvadorans who live in the United States are the lowest Central American population with a higher education degree. It helps by shinning a spotlight of the difficulties they have to adjust that involve traditions, languages, and reputations. Reputations are a key factor for Salvadorans due to the recent negative attention they have in the United States (Lesser & Batalova, 2017).

LatCrit Theory

Challenge to Centrality of Commitment to Interdisciplinary Race/Racism Dominant Experimental Social Justice Ideologies Knowledge

Figure 1. Overview of LatCrit Theory Tenets (Arreguin-Anderson & Kennedy, 2013) 39 Methods A narrative inquiry research (R. B. Johnson & Christensen, 2017) was conducted to focus and gain understanding from the population’s storied experiences. The qualitative study used narrative inquiry to allow the participants to share their stories of their respective countries. Furthermore, the narrative inquiry allowed participants to explain why they fled their respective countries and seek asylum in the United States. The participant’s stories of their experiences in their respective countries allowed the researcher understand why the participants left and migrated to the Los Angeles, Fresno, or San Francisco, California. Storytelling from the participants also allowed the researcher to understand the lifestyle of the participants’ respective countries and how it affected their reasoning to migrate to Los Angeles, Fresno, or San Francisco, California.

Procedures The qualitative study used narrative inquiry which was divided into an online questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. The online questionnaire provided a consent form that informed participants of all the features of the questionnaire. The online questionnaire was sent to adults who have attended or are attending a two or four year college, ranging 18 years old to 34 years old, who arrived to the United States, from El Salvador. This is considered purposive sampling. Purposive sampling is researchers specifying the traits of an interested population and then intentionally tries to locate those individuals who have those specific traits (R. B. Johnson & Christensen, 2017). The researcher used social media to find participants and would directly message participants if they were interested in participating in a research revolving Salvadorans in higher education. Participants received a bilingual email, consisting of the English and , with a link containing the online questionnaire (see Appendix A for email). The online questionnaire was provided to those who would like to participate (see Appendix B for online questionnaire). Once the participants completed the online 40 questionnaire, under the cover of anonymity, the participants were not asked about their names. Anonymity is keeping the identity of the participant from everyone, including the researcher (R. B. Johnson & Christensen, 2017). The researcher provided pseudonyms for each participant. Pseudonyms are new names given by the researcher to hide the identity of the participants (R. B. Johnson & Christensen, 2017). Participants were informed that everything they answer in the in-person interview, will be confidential. R. B. Johnson and Christensen (2017) defined confidentiality as an agreement between the research investigators and participants about what can be done with the obtained information. In order to keep the participants information and identity confidential and anonymous, they were given number passcodes. Researcher then select 14 participants to continue into the next stage, semi-structured interview, on the basis if they qualify being a Salvadorian native born, who are in the ages between 18 – 34, and attended or are attending a two or four year institution, regardless of their legal status in the United States. Gift cards were offered to the participants in exchange for participation in the semi-structured in-person interview. After the researcher selected 14 participants, the participants were given a letter introducing the interview (see Appendix C for letter). The participants needed to review the letter. Once the participant has reviewed the letter, the researcher provided the consent form, which was offered in both English and Spanish (see Appendix D for consent form). Every participant needed to sign the consent form to continue on to participate on the semi structured interview. The researcher then began the interview protocol, where the questions then transitioned to open-ended questions (see Appendix E for both English and Spanish interview protocol). After each open ended question, participants were able to share their stories of their respective countries, explaining why they traveled to the United States. They had the opportunity to explain what they are in search for in the United States. Participants also had the chance to explain why they left 41

El Salvador. In addition, participants were able discuss how their experiences led them to pursue higher education as a source for a better life.

In-person interview is a professionally trained interviewer going to an agreed location with participants and interview the participants face-to-face (R. B. Johnson & Christensen, 2017). The interview was half an hour and the location varied. The location varied because the participant will have the choice where they would wanted to be interviewed. Allowing the participants to choose the location allowed them to be more comfortable and authentic to speak during the interview. In addition, the interview served as follow up questions, in order for the participants to have an opportunity to explain more in detail of their experiences. Interviews were recorded using a recorder. The recorder’s purpose was to be a resource to help review the interview once the interview is over. The researcher was responsible to transcribe the In-Person interview. All the documents, questionnaires and In-Person interview, were in a passcode protected computer folder.

Populations and Participants As a whole, there are 573,956 Salvadorans in California (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010b; see Table 2). As shown in Table 2, the specific locations for this research Los Angeles is by far the city with the largest Salvadoran population. The importance of Table 2 demonstrates the existence of the Salvadoran population in each city. Although it is a small percentage of the overall city, there are thousands to hundred thousands of Salvadorans that the educational system need to take account to better serve this population. All participants met this criteria to participate in this study: (a) age must be 18 to 34, (b) arrived and reside in Los Angeles, Fresno, or San Francisco area from El Salvador, (c) taken at least a college class. California has a highly populated Salvadoran 42

Table 2

Population Across Three Major California Metro Areas, by City, Total Population, and Salvadoran Population City Population Salvadoran Population By Number (and Percent) Los Angeles 12,723,781 392,561 (3%)

San Francisco 4,244,889 72,106 (2%)

Fresno 908,830 6,037 (>1%)

Note. U.S. Census Bureau. (2010a). 2010 American Community Survey Selected by Population Tables. Retrieved from https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/ productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_SF4_B01003&prodType=table population and researcher chose these specific cities to represent the three regions of California, Southern, Central, and Northern California. Participants must be born from El Salvador, however, there are no restrictions on U.S. citizenships. Participants are limited to Salvadoran adults who have attended or are attending a two or four year college, to better understand the barriers they face achieving a higher education degree. Moreover, the participants must be from El Salvador to highlight the living conditions of an underrepresented Latino population. The researcher used social networking to gain participants in Los Angeles, Fresno, or San Francisco, California. Gift cards were offered to the participants in exchange for participation.

Sampling Three sampling techniques were used: (a) purposeful, (b) quota, and (c) snowball. The research used purposive sample to focus on the specific population. Purposive sampling focused on specific characteristics of a population (R. B. Johnson & Christensen, 2017). Researcher was looking for key words such as higher education, Salvadoran, and barriers. In addition to purposive sampling, quota sampling was used to select the participants. Quota sampling is selecting participants non-randomly on the 43 basis of their known amount of population (R. B. Johnson & Christensen, 2017). A nonrandom sampling technique that was used was Snowball sampling (R. B. Johnson &

Christensen, 2017). Snowball sampling is asking each research participant identify other potential research participants (R. B. Johnson & Christensen, 2017). This sampling technique was used to identify other potential participants with similar criteria that the researcher is looking for through the word of mouth from potential research participants. Researcher concealed the participants identity for safety and confidential reasons. This technique is pseudonyms where new names researchers construct to hide the identity of individual research participants (R. B. Johnson & Christensen, 2017).

Instruments An internet questionnaire, offered both in English and Spanish, was used to collect demographic data as well as choose 14 participants to continue to the in-person interviews (see Appendix B for online questionnaire). R. B. Johnson and Christensen (2017) defined internet questionnaire, as participants clicking on an Internet link that takes them to online questionnaire. The 14 participants were selected on the basis if they finish the online questionnaire and would like to participate in the in-person interview. In order to qualify to the in-person interview, participants were only able complete the online questionnaire if they are native born Salvadoran, regardless of their legal status in the United States. Furthermore, they needed to be located in Los Angeles, Fresno, or San Francisco area, whom have pursued or pursuing a two or four year higher education degree. In-person interviews were used to collect data from the 14 participants. Participants were able to share their stories, experiences, reasoning of searching asylum, migrating, immigrating in the United States. The researcher was looking for participants statements of their higher education aspirations and escaping poverty through education. 44

Based on their online questionnaire completion, participants were selected to best fit the study.

In-person interview were used to conduct interview face-to-face, as the interviewer was collecting data from the interviewee. Once the participants were selected, the 14 selected were interviewed to collect data from their experiences. Informed consent is described as participants agreeing to participate after being informed of its purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, alternative, procedures and limits of confidentiality (R. B. Johnson & Christensen, 2017). Participants needed to sign the consent forms to participate, and will be able to receive a copy if they would like one (see Appendix D for consent forms). Semi-structured interview were executed in the study. Semi-structured interviews are predetermined questions, but order can be modified based upon the interviewer’s perception of what seems most appropriate (Van Teijlingen, 2014). The semi-structured interview were conducted in order for the participants to possibly forget it is an interview and be as comfortable as possible to respond with genuine responses

(see Appendix E for interview protocols).

Data Analysis R. B. Johnson and Christensen (2017) defined memoing, recording reflective notes about what you are learning from the data. As each interview ends, the researcher wrote down notes, identifying patterns or similarities that came across during the interviews. By identifying possible patterns or similarities, it allowed the researcher to ask the interviewee follow up questions. It allowed the interviewees be more precise and detailed of their experiences. Transcription is used to transform audio recordings and interviews into text. Coding is marking segments of data with symbols, descriptive words or category names (R. B. Johnson & Christensen, 2017). Transcription was used in order to review the data collected during the interview and as a backup resource in case, 45 anything was missed while taking notes. Priori coding was used to find similarities in participants experiences within their interviews. Priori codes are codes developed before examining the current data (R. B. Johnson & Christensen, 2017).

Validity R. B. Johnson and Christensen, (2017) describe research validity as the truthfulness of the inferences that are made from the results of a study. One threat to research validity that occurred is researcher bias. Researcher bias is described as obtaining results consistent with what the researcher would want to find (R. B. Johnson & Christensen, 2017). Due to my personal identification and experiences as part of the Salvadoran population, my bias perspective can be a limitation, possibly losing focus on the purpose of the research. A threat to internal validity can be differential selection. Internal validity described as an approximate validity in which we can infer that a relationship between two variables is casual (R. B. Johnson & Christensen, 2017). Differential selection is described as participants forming comparison groups that have different characteristics (R. B. Johnson & Christensen, 2017). However, it was combatted by pattern matching. R. B. Johnson and Christensen (2017) described pattern matching as predicting a series of results that form a distinctive pattern and then determining the degree to which actual results fit the predicted pattern (R. B. Johnson & Christensen, 2017). Pattern matching helped by predicting possible similarities in the participants responses.

Summary This research consisted of a qualitative analysis using narrative inquiry. Narrative inquiry was used to allow participants speak about their experiences through storytelling. Participants needed to be 18 to 34 years old living in Los Angeles, Fresno, San Francisco, California, and have attended or attending a two or four year college. In order to 46 participate on the online questionnaire, participants were sent an email by the researcher (see Appendix A for email). Once participants received their email, they clicked on the link for the online questionnaire (see Appendix B for online questionnaire). 14 participants were chosen to move into the next step if they were able to finish the entire online questionnaire and if they wish to continue. A letter, containing an English and Spanish version, will be given to the participants regarding the research (see Appendix C for letter). The researcher offered the consent form to the participants if they wish to continue with the research (see Appendix D for consent form). If the participants read and signed the consent form, the researcher began with the interview questions (see Appendix E for interview protocol). The researcher used three sampling techniques. Purposeful, quota, and snowball sampling. Purposeful and quota sampling was used to focus on a specific population. This research also used snowball sampling in order to have participants identify other potential participants with similar characteristics. As the research was conducted, the researcher used a variety of instruments. Three instruments that were used in this research were online questionnaire, consent form, and interview protocol. In addition to using instruments, memoing and transcription were used to collect data. The researcher has Salvadoran roots and this relationship was utilized in building rapport with the participants of the study.

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS

This chapter focused on the results of the study. The chapter will begin with a section on (a) participants’ demographics, (b) an introduction of the findings, (c) pathway to higher education, and (d) findings. The findings will consist of the effect of: (a) the influence of resettling in a new country on pursuing a higher education degree, (b) the financial impact on attending and pursuing a higher education degree, (c) effects of linguistic limitations in higher education, (d) the influence of support systems in higher education, and (e) discrimination in higher education.

Participants’ Demographics A requirement to be able to participate in this study was to complete a survey. The survey consisted of 16 questions that focused on their place of birth, location of where participants settled in the United States, the year participants arrived to the United States, and highest degree attainment. Participants could not move on to the semi-structured interview unless they were born in El Salvador, were between the ages of 18-34, resettled in either in Los Angeles, Fresno, or San Francisco, and have attended or are still attending a college or university. The purpose of the demographic survey was to allow the researcher to know if the participants qualified to move to the next step. The survey was also used to collect data regarding the participants. Table 3 will identify the demographics of each participant. Each participant was given a pseudonym during the in-person interview. The table will identify where participants settled in the United States, years residing in the United States, and highest degree attainment. 48

Table 3

Participants’ Demographics, by Settlement Location, Year Residing in the United States, and Highest Degree Attainment Location of Settlement Year Residing Highest Degree Participants in the U.S. in the U.S. Attainment

Abel Los Angeles 27 Bachelor’s Bernardo Los Angeles 17 Bachelor’s Diego Los Angeles 28 Bachelor’s Elena Los Angeles 17 High School Fernando Los Angeles 5 High School Glenda Fresno 24 Bachelor’s Halmar Fresno 18 Master’s Irania Fresno 14 Bachelor’s Katya Fresno 5 Associate’s Lilian San Francisco 18 High School Magaly San Francisco 15 Bachelor’s Nathaly San Francisco 16 Bachelor’s Paola San Francisco 15 Bachelor’s Rosa San Francisco 18 Master’s Note. All participants were born in El Salvador.

Introduction of the Findings The researcher conducted semi-structured interviews with the participants. The interviews provided the insights of Salvadoran’s pathway and experiences in pursuit of their higher education participation and degree attainment. In analyzing the data there was a focus on the experiences, attributes, and approaches that facilitated the pathway to the participation and pursuit of the participants higher education degree. The pathway to higher education consisted of components that have assisted or complicated their participation and attainment of a higher education degree. There are five components that 49 contributed to the participants pursuit to attend and strive for a higher education degree. Each section will describe the influence of each competent in their participation in higher education and how it impacted them to attain a higher education degree. Participants explained in detail how each component either positively contributed or provided complications to their participation and pursuit of their higher education degree. For instance, a section they discussed was the financial impact on attending and pursuing a higher education degree and participants also explained the impact of their financial status and the cost of tuition and how it led to their decision making in participating and pursuing a higher education degree. Each participant had the ability to discuss their experiences in detail and how they believe it impacted their decision to attend a higher education institution and strive to be a college graduate.

Pathways to Higher Education This section described the impact of the five components designated as pathways to higher education. The pathway to higher education will involve the experiences, attributes, or approaches that have impacted the participants in their pursuit to getting a higher education. The first pathway is the effect of resettling in a new country. The first pathway will discuss the impact or resettling in a new country, and what it meant to pursuing a higher education degree. The effects of this component was common for most of the participants, common themes included finding it difficult to adjust due to learning a new culture, having to start a new life in a new country, and adjusting to understand and be part of the norm in the United States. The second pathway is the lack of income and the impact it had on the participants to have access to higher education. Finance influenced participants by being a dependent component on whether participants were capable of attending a higher education institution or not. Participants had to consider if they were capable of affording 50 to attend a higher education institution and if need be, make the decision if they were willing to take out loans. This financial decision not only impacted the participant but their family members as well. Their family members were impacted as well because if they needed extra financial support, the participant would need to ask their family members. Most participants did not want to depend on family for financial support due to the fact the participants felt they were putting financial burdens on their family members by attending college. The third pathway is the linguistic barriers participants had to face during their resettlement in the United States and the effect it had while pursuing their college degree. Participants acknowledged the difficulties of trying to learn a new language when coming to the United States. Most participants had low self-esteem because they felt as if they were not as intelligent as their peers and felt frustrated because they could not understand anything or anyone. In addition, participants discussed the difficulties in their English classes while attending a higher education institution because of their accent. They also acknowledged the confusion between their native language and the English language which made it difficult to understand the English language. The fourth pathway is the influence of their sense of belonging during their college career. This section focused on the support of their educators and peers and how it affected their college experience. A common thread for this component was participants not feeling, as often, excluded from their educators. However, participants sometimes felt excluded from their peers. Participants felt excluded from their peers because their peers stereotyped them as unintelligent students and made the presumption that participants were not capable of understanding the information instead of trying to understand the drastic changes and challenges the participants had to overcome. The final pathway is how discrimination impacts the college experience. Most participants recognized that they were discriminated and noticed that it caused them to 51 doubt to continue their education. However, participants saw a higher education degree was worth going through the discrimination. Some participants mentioned that they did not allow discrimination to affect them immensely because they have gone through worse challenges such as crossing the border or living in dangerous neighborhoods where it was predominantly operated by gangs. These five pathways to higher education had varying levels of impact within the participants, however, every participant displayed some influence of each pathway.

Findings

Pathway #1: The Influence of Resettling in a New Country on Pursuing a Higher Education Degree The idea of having to start a new life, in a new location, with limited resources can be one of the most difficult decisions one can make. Yet, many non-citizens make this decision to start a new life in the United States. The participants stated that they had a difficult time settling into the United States. “I became depressed because at that time I was already 16 and had idea who I was going to be and then all of sudden I had to leave and start a new life in a different place”, stated Rosa. Glenda mentioned that when she arrived to the United States, she did not believe that college was an option for someone like herself. “I believed that I would attend high school but did not think college was an option” she further explained. One participant mentioned how it was difficult to settle in the United States because he was stereotyped as unintelligent and incapable of pursuing a higher education degree: As a high school student, I was told by my counselor, who was Latino, that I would not survive at a four-year college. He told me that it would be better if I 52

just attended a community college instead of a four year college. (Halmar, Fresno, 34 years old)

The participant was frustrated and upset with what the counselor had told him. He questioned the sacrifices he made that involved leaving his country, friends, and family and in return it was all for nothing? Participants had a difficult adjustment to settling in a new country by placing doubts in their minds, wondering if they were even capable of pursuing a higher education degree, and facing challenges such as educators discouraging them and making assumptions of their capabilities instead of supporting and providing resources to help the students reach their goals. For one participant, the effect of resettlement to the United States was not being able to express her own culture and identity: I was told by my mother to never mention where I was from because she was afraid that if I did mention that I was from El Salvador, I would be deported. It felt as if being Salvadoran was a bad thing to be because my mother consistently

told me to avoid saying where I was from but never explained why. (Elena, Los Angeles, 21 years old) The participant demonstrates the challenge of resettling into a new country and not being able to correlate to their own culture because there was a fear that if they were to actually identify as a Salvadoran then the participant would be in danger of deportation. The participant had to literally find a new identity for herself in order to stay in the United States and pursue a higher education degree. Cultural shock was an additional result from the impact of resettling into the United States. Participants acknowledged how difficult it was when leaving El Salvador to the United States because of how modern the United States was compared to El Salvador: 53

Once arriving to the United States, I went to the grocery store with my mom and I had a panic attack because I was not able to understand the multiple options there

was in the grocery to store. I was used to having the same options all the time and wanted to keep the little things I had in my possession. I did not want buy new things. I wanted to keep what I had. (Nathaly, San Francisco, 25 years old) It was a major cultural shock for the participant because she was used to her routine and it involved what she was only capable to buy. However, once the participant moved to the United States and observed of all the options presented to her, she felt overwhelmed because it was an unexpected and drastic change. This participant had to readjust and adapt to the new culture of the United States in order to survive in her new world.

Pathway #2: The Financial Impact on Attending and Pursuing a Higher Education Degree The second pathway to higher education focuses on the importance of finance when participating and pursuing a college degree. Participants emphasized the importance of finance and how their pursuit for a higher education degree was influenced due to their financial status. Lilian explained, “Finance was a factor to attending a college because I needed to apply for scholarships just to attend a college.” Each participant focused the specific financial support that helped them pursue a college degree. For instance, some participants depended on the financial support given by deferred action for childhood arrivals (DACA), loans, grants, scholarships, or personal savings. One participant explained that due to his legal status as a non-citizen of the United States, at the time that he was graduating from high school, he was not able to directly attend a four year university. The participant was not able to afford to attend a four year institution so his alternative option was to attend a community college because it cost less to attend: 54

I was not a citizen so I was not able to receive any financial aid. DACA (Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals) did not exist at the time. I was accepted to

multiple schools but could not afford them without any financial aid so I attended a community college. (Bernardo, Los Angeles, 25 years old) Not having the financial support is a major limitation to attend a higher education institution. Although finance paid a role into Bernardo’s decision to attend a higher education institution, he was not discouraged and believed that he would find alternative ways to be able to cover the financial aspects. In addition, one other participant had similar limitations due to her financial status. The participant had to make some sacrifices in order to cover herself financially to still be able to attend a higher education institute: I had to choose a different school than the school I preferred to attend because the school I preferred to attend was only offering loans, while the institute I eventually chose, offered more financial aid that did not include loans and almost

covered every fee. I was discouraged to attend the school I preferred to attend because it only offered loans and I avoided asking my parents to take out those loans because I did not want to put a burden on my parents. (Elena, Los Angeles, 21 years old) Participant Elena explained her decision to attend a higher education institution instead of another. She made her decision based on which school will not only help her financially but which institution will cause less debt for her once she attained a higher education degree. A third participant acknowledged that the decision based on their attendance of an institution involved which college offered the most financial help. The participant knew the importance of having all his fees covered as much as possible. By having fees covered as much as possible it would avoid the participant taking out loans: 55

I chose one school over another because the school I chose offered more financial aid. It was important to choose a school that offered the most money to be able to

cover all the fees as compared to paying out of pocket. I did not want to involve my parents and give them a financial burden. (Fernando, Los Angeles, 18 years old) Each of these participants understood the importance of setting themselves in a position where they could not only pursue a higher education degree but also with a limited financial burden as possible. Furthermore, these participants stated that their pursuit for a college degree was an investment and would pay off in the future.

Pathway #3: Effects of Linguistic Limitations in Higher Education The third pathway to higher education focal point is linguistic challenges. Each of the participants struggled to learn a new language. There were times when they felt unintelligent because they did not understand the English language as well as their peers or educators: I would cry a lot because of the language barrier. It was really difficult to come to the United States and to learn a new language. I hated going to my elementary school because I did not understand anything. However, the thought of college was always shared in elementary and high school and I understood because I was undocumented, my pathway was going to be different from others. I joined a non- profit to find resources and support for myself to attend college. (Magaly, San Francisco, 24 years old) The participant became frustrated that she was not able to understand the new language she had to learn and was emotional because of how difficult it was. It went as far as her hating to go to school. On the other hand, although the participant was struggling to learn a new language, she always had in her mind of attending a higher education institution to 56 pursue her degree. The participant went in search for outside resources in order to set herself up for the best position to have access to pursue a college degree.

Another participant, also felt as if they were less intelligent than their peers because of the multiple English classes the participants had to take. The participant mentioned taking multiple English classes because they had to catch up to their peers who already knew the English language: I felt as if I was behind and felt that I was “dumber” than the others because I did not understand English. While the other students were learning science, I was learning more English. I felt behind compared to my classmates. Right up to graduating college I still felt behind. (Paola, San Francisco, 23 years old) Learning a new language has led to the participant feeling as they were not as intelligent as their peers. The participant continued to struggle while attending college and still felt behind her classmates. Yet, the participant was able to adapt enough to be able to graduate from a higher education institution.

Not being able to speak the native language where one is located can literally make someone speechless. A participant mentioned in order to not demonstrate their accent, they would try to avoid speaking English with others: I always tried to hide my accent. I tried to speak English more correctly and tried my best to not use my Salvadoran accent. Although by the time I attended college I was able to write better than the other students, I still had the accent. (Diego, Los Angeles, 32 years old) The thought process of the participant to try and hide their accent in order to learn English is startling because of the measures someone will go to be able to learn a new language. By excluding their native language and accent, he believed that he would learn English more efficient and quicker. The participant was able to improve his English language but still had his accent while attending college. This demonstrates the 57 difficulties of learning a new language because regardless of how many educational years the participant completed, they still had an accent. Having the accent can cause limitations where those who know only the English language may not have. For example, it can cause cognitive confusion because the participant may be trying to say or write an English word but can only think about it in Spanish. These participants all added that although their English language has improved, to this day they struggle with speaking and writing in English.

Pathway #4: The Influence of Support Systems in Higher Education The fourth pathway involved a combination of sense of belonging and having a support system while pursuing a higher education degree. Being able to relate to someone can go a long way. For instance, Katya mentioned, “People would assume I was Mexican most of the time and I did not feel normal because in reality I am not Mexican, I am Salvadoran.” Participant Katya stated that she did feel normal when people would assume she was Mexican. It can be tough where one cannot relate to others even when they are the same ethnicity. Although Mexican and Salvadoran are under the classification of Hispanics/Latinos, there can be difficulties amongst one another when you are not from the same country. Moreover, an additional participant mentioned their experience in their college in regards to being supported or feeling the sense of belonging: I felt as I was excluded by my peers. There were times where my peers did not think I should be in college. It made it tough for myself as a first generation student because I felt as if I did not belong which made my undergraduate years more difficult. (Abel, Los Angeles, 34 years old) As a first generation student, it can be difficult to settle and figure out higher education. Being the first person to go to college, it is kind of difficult to know what to expect which means it is much more challenging to be prepared or successful. 58

A support system can definitely be beneficial for students, especially for those who are the first generation to go to college. One participant stated that while he searched for peers that looked like him to be able to relate and feel with, he was still excluded and did not feel that he belong: I felt as if I was a minority within a minority. I knew that once coming to the United States I was going to be made fun of my accent. Latinos actually made fun of me as well. Mexicans would make me feel as minority within a minority because they did not like how I spoke Spanish. (Halmar, Fresno, 34 years old) It can be difficult knowing that one is a minority but it is more challenging when one feels as if they are a minority within a minority group. The participant felt alone because he was not able to relate to the Latino population in college. Participant Halmar could not relate to the Latino population because the dominant group that represented the Latino population were Mexicans. Although the participant was considered a Latino, the difference of culture, traditions, and language made them different and the Mexican population did not welcome them and instead separated themselves from the participant. Not being able to relate to others can make one feel completely alone, especially when pursuing a higher education. Knowing that one is Latino and yet they are not accepted due to not being part of the dominant Latino population can be devastating: I was really excited to go to college but then noticed that 90% of the student population were white. I tried to join a club named “MECHA” [Movimiento Estudiantil Chicano de Aztlan/ Chicano Student Movement of Aztlan] in my school since they were the only brown skin students on campus but it did not work out because they were Mexican originated and did not care about anyone outside of Mexico. I felt as if I was a minority within a minority group. (Nathaly, San Francisco, 25 years old) 59

The participant not only felt that they were not able to relate to her fellow Latino peers but was also purposely excluded because her peers did not want to bother to learn the culture of the participant. There was a common thread where the participants felt they were excluded by their own peers but what was surprising was that her own ethnicity population, in this case the Latino population, excluded her too because she did not identify as part of the dominant group which were Mexicans.

Pathway #5: Discrimination in Higher Education The final pathway to higher education is discrimination. This pathway will describe the influence discrimination had on participants while pursuing a higher education degree. It will highlight the personal experiences the participants have gone through that involved discrimination. One participant explained that they overheard that because of their ethnicity, they were attending college: There were times my fraternity brothers and I were playing soccer and the Public

Safety workers would ask if we attended the college just because of our skin color. The worst part was the Public Safety workers who discriminated us were Latinos. There were other times where I would hear from other students say, “blacks are only here because they are athletes” and “Latinos are only here because the college needs to meet the diversity requirements.” (Bernardo, Los Angeles, 25 years old) The discrimination the participant faced was difficult to accept because it was by fellow Latinos. Furthermore, the statements of the college trying to meet the diversity requirements and that some students were there because they are athletes, did not affect the participant. Participant Bernardo stated, “I have overcome bigger obstacles to let discrimination affect my education.” 60

As our participants pursue their higher education degree they find themselves discriminated by others on the basis of their skin tone. Participant Bernardo was not the only one who was discriminated on the basis of their skin color: I have always felt like I was a minority amongst minorities and I still do. I have been stereotyped as a Mexican just because of my dark skin tone. Just because I am brown does not mean I am a Mexican. (Glenda, Fresno, 32 years old) Participants have had challenges because they are misunderstood and labelled. The participants feel marginalized because they cannot seem to connect with their own culture due to the misinterpretation that all Latinos are Mexicans. Discrimination can be brutal and cause those who are believers into doubters. A participant spoke how facing discrimination made them doubt themselves and hesitant to socialize with others: I have faced discrimination and it affected my self-esteem and I lost my confidence. To this day I am still currently trying to gain my confidence back. It

has made me doubt and to not socialize and I started to isolate myself in order to avoid discrimination. (Irania, Fresno, 23 years old) There comes a point where participants such as Irania isolate themselves to avoid discrimination. They are traumatized to socialize with others because they believe that they will be discriminated the moment they interact. Participants have been discriminated against whether it has been indirectly or directly, however, they saw a higher education degree worth going through all the negativity.

Summary As discussed in this chapter, the data consisted of (a) participants’ demographics, (b) an introduction of the findings, (c) pathway to higher education, and (d) findings. The findings consisted of the effect of: (a) the influence of resettling in a new country on 61 pursuing a higher education degree, (b) the financial impact on attending and pursuing a higher education degree, (c) effects of linguistic limitations in higher education, (d) the influence of support systems in higher education, and (e) discrimination in higher education. Each participant explained the effects of each section and what influence it had in their participation and pursuit for a higher education degree. A common thread of each participant was how they had to overcome limitations from each pathway to higher education. Whether it was having difficulties of adjusting to a new country and trying to understand a different culture, trouble finding financial support to attend a four year college, the challenge to learn and understand a new language, the lack of having the support from others to overcome challenges, or being discriminated by others. Although they had to overcome limitations, they had an additional common thread where they believed education was the great equalizer and worth all the challenges they faced. The first pathway addressed the effect of resettling in a new country. This pathway discussed the impact of resettling in a new country and how it contributed to the participants pursuit for a higher education degree. Participants had a common difficulty of adjusting to a new country. They found it challenging to adjust to the new culture in the United States. It was also challenging for them to start a new life in a new country due to the adjustment needed to be part of the norm in the Unites States. The second pathway was the lack of income and how it impacted the participants having access to higher education. The financial aspect was crucial for participants because due to their financial status, it determined if they were able to attend a higher education institution. Participants would try to apply for financial aid as much as possible such as scholarships and grants. A common thread of their financial aspect was their unwillingness to involve their family. Participants did not want to involve their families when it came to the financial aspect because they did not want to give their families financial burdens. 62

Linguistic barriers were the third pathway. This pathway focused on the challenges that participants had to face in regards to learning and understanding a new language. Participants found it difficult to learn a new language when resettling in the United States. Learning a new language was difficult for participants and it caused participants to have low confidence amongst themselves. To this day, participants struggle with the English language due to the fact that their native language is Spanish and their minds first reaction is to speak or write in Spanish. The fourth pathway was the influence of the participant’s sense of belonging during their college career. A common thread for this section was participants feeling excluded from their peers and not from their educators. During their college careers, they felt as they did not belong because their peers were dominantly Mexicans. Participants felt as they are a minority within minorities because they are Salvadorans and most of the Latino population they were around were Mexicans. They also felt as if they were misunderstood and excluded from their peers because their peers stereotyped them as unintelligent students. The final pathway discusses the impact of discrimination when participants were attending a higher education institution. Participants felt doubt of pursuing a higher education degree because they were discriminated. Discrimination made them question if it was worth pursuing a higher education. However, they believed that it was worth pursuing a higher education even if they had to face discrimination. Participants felt it was worth going through discrimination because they have overcome more difficult challenges and they believe a higher education degree can open doors to success.

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ON LITERATURE AND FRAMEWORK, RECOMMENDATIONS, SUMMARY, AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

This chapter will discuss the conclusion and the researcher’s recommendations moving forward. The first section will focus on what this study contributes to the literature. The second section will provide recommendations based on the results of the study. The third section will provide the significance of the study. The final section will summarize the study and discuss potential future directions of this field.

Contributions to the Literature This research is the beginning of literature concerning Salvadorans participating and pursuing a higher education degree. The research is unique due to the fact there is little to no literature in regards to Salvadorans and higher education. The findings of this study can potentially serve as a roadmap to success for Salvadorans. In addition, considering the findings are seemingly applicable to non-Mexican Latino groups as well, this could contribute to literature for all aspiring Latino subgroups. This research’s contribution to a little to non-existence literature, where it focuses specifically on the Salvadoran population, is vital to support, provide resources, and acknowledge that all Latinos are not from the same origin. This study also serves as the final chapter of the experience of the Salvadoran population in higher education and to create literature that focuses on this specific population.

Critique of Theoretical Framework The Latino Critical theory served as the theoretical framework for this research on the personal and academic perspective of Salvadorans in higher education. This theory was beneficial and offered insight of the specific challenges the Salvadoran population had to overcome. LatCrit allowed an understanding of the different forms of limitations that the Salvadoran population have to face. This theory allowed the researcher to 64 identify the dominant ideology as a Latino and exposed the lack of recognition of the Salvadoran population in higher education. By using LatCrit theory it can bring awareness to the Salvadoran population and how their experiences as a group that is not part of the dominant Latino population developed and who they are now.

Recommendations Based on the results of this study, there are three recommendations to those invested in increasing the support and resources for the Salvadoran population in higher education: (a) Mentoring Programs, (b) Diverse Cultural Programs, and (c) Student Alliances. These recommendations can be implemented by institutions; however, they must realize that they may not gather the expected production in the beginning. The expected production will take some time but ultimately the investment will pay off and help the Salvadoran population increase their participation in higher education as well as in attaining a higher education degree. The first important recommendation based on the results of this study is providing mentoring programs for Salvadorans. Mentorship can provide guidance, experiences, and resources for the participants. These assets can help participants go through their higher education experience with the support needed in order to be successful in achieving their higher education goals. By investing in mentorship programs, it allows a continuous learning chain to be passed on to the participant where they can use the knowledge given to them in order to overcome challenges and have an easier access to their pathway of attaining a college degree. The program should focus on the relationship between the mentor and mentee as well as the resources the mentor can provide the mentee. In addition, it would be a great contribution to students if the mentoring program consisted in not only in higher education but begin in the K-12 pipeline to help students prepare with the appropriate resources at a younger age. Regardless if the mentor is Salvadoran or 65 not, the mentor should be informed of the Salvadoran culture to better understand and most importantly connect with their mentee. The intentionality of understanding and connecting with the mentees will provide quality relationship that is needed for the Salvadoran population. The second recommendation is creating diverse cultural programs. Two primary complications based on the results were the assumption that all Latinos are Mexican and the exclusion of some because the participants were Salvadoran. Participants were excluded amongst their own Latino groups because they were not part of the dominant Latino population which usually were Mexican. Participants stated how they were excluded from being able to interact with them and felt as a minority within a minority group. For this reason, having diverse cultural programs can provide the diversity amongst the Latino population. A service that a diverse cultural program can provide is creating events that not only revolve around the Mexican culture but for other Latino cultures as well. For instance, celebrating the Central American independence day can be a great example of celebrating other Latino groups that attend the institution. Honoring other Latino’s celebrations will allow those who are not categorized as Mexicans to feel a sense of belonging as well as create relationships and networking connections to those that have similar backgrounds as themselves. The final recommendation is student alliances. On different campuses, there are different clubs and organizations. A recommendation would be creating an alliance for the Salvadoran population. An alliance of having access to the Salvadoran culture and to Salvadoran people who can understand instead of going to a broader Latino group. Based on the results, having a Salvadoran Alliance would not only increase the knowledge of other Latinos groups that are on campus but the acceptance and relationships that can be created due to similar backgrounds that revolve around being Salvadoran. The student alliances will a need a combination of faculty, staff, and student support in order to be 66 effectively operative. A few possible services within the student alliance can be outside resources such as internships and scholarships for Salvadorans. Providing these resources will allow Salvadorans to not only apply for these resources but be a part of the alliance to have faculty, staff, and peer support. The difference of this support would be the focus on the Salvadoran culture and minimize the feeling of being a minority within a minority group due to being involved of a Salvadoran alliance.

Summary The recommendations of this chapter is to help the Salvadoran population. With the recent migration of Salvadorans seeking to enter the United States, it is imperative to not only learn about the population but also to know how to serve them. The recommendations consist of: (a) mentoring programs, (b) diverse cultural programs, and (c) student alliances. Mentoring programs can provide a guidance that can be helpful for Salvadoran populations because not many Salvadorans pursue a higher education and having a mentor who understand the Salvadoran culture can be essential because the student can feel a sense of belonging in higher education. Diverse cultural programs can provide an area where the Salvadoran population can unite and be with those who relate to them. These programs can promote the Salvadoran culture where it will no longer focus on the Latino population as being a homogenous group. Lastly, student alliances can provide resources where faculty, staff and peers support can provide resources for the Salvadoran population. Salvadoran students will no longer need to feel as if they are a minority within a minority if they are with other Salvadorans.

Future Directions The Salvadoran population does exist within the higher education spectrum. This study is meant to begin the analysis of the Salvadoran population in higher education. As stated before, there are little to no literatures in regards to Salvadorans in higher 67 education. Although, there is little to no literature on this specific population within higher education, it is a great opportunity to begin a thorough analysis on this population due to recent large groups of Salvadorans seeking asylum in the United States. This study can be the beginning of much needed research on the Salvadoran population. It expresses the stories of Salvadorans who overcame and currently are overcoming challenges to attain a higher education degree. This research is beneficial for educators and scholars to help the Salvadoran population especially with the recent migration Salvadorans trying to come into the United States.

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Taylor, S., & Sidhu, R. K. (2012). Supporting refugee students in schools: What constitutes inclusive education? International Journal of Inclusive Education, 16(1), 39-56.

Tienda, M., & Mitchell, F. (2006). Multiple origins, uncertain destinies: Hispanics and the American future. Washington DC: The National Academies Press.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2010a). 2010 American community survey selected by population table. Retrieved from https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/ productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_SF4_B01003&prodType=table

U.S. Census Bureau. (2010b). California Hispanic or Latino by type: 2010. Retrieved from https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/product view.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF1_QTP10&prodType=table

U.S. Census Bureau. (2010c). United States Hispanic or Latino by type: 2010. Retrieved from https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview. xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF1_QTP10&prodType=table

U.S. Census Bureau. (2015). 2015 American community survey 1-year estimates. Retrieved from https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages /productview.xhtml?src=CF

U.S. Census Bureau. (2016). 2016 American community survey 1-year estimates. Retrieved from https://factfinder.census.gov

U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. (2018). Refugee timeline. Retrieved from https://www.uscis.gov/history-and-genealogy/our-history/refugee-timeline 75

Valdes, F. (1996). Forward: Latina/o ethnicities, critical race theory and post-identity politics in postmodern legal culture: From practices to possibilities. La Raza Law Journal, 9, 1-31.

Valdes, F. (2005). Legal reform and social justice: An introduction to Latcrit theory, praxis and community. Griffith Law Review, 14(2), 148-173. Retrieved from http://latcrit.org/media/medialibrary/2014/02/142_3_valdes.pdf

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Vries, J.D., Van Heck, G. L., 1994. Quality of life and refugees. International Journal of Mental Health 23(2), 57–75.

Weiss, B. (2018). The Trump administration has ended protections for immigrants from 4 countries-here’s when they will have to leave the US. Business Insider. Retrieved from http://www.businessinsider.com/trump-has-ended-temporary-protection- status-for-4-countries-2018-1?scrlybrkr=

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: EMAIL TO PARTICIPANTS (ENGLISH AND SPANISH) 78

Good Morning,

My name is Oscar Guzman, I am currently a Masters student at California State University, Fresno. I am conducting a research study on Salvadorans higher education aspirations and the barriers this population face to attain a higher education. There is limited research on this population. With your help, the Salvadoran population can be given a voice within higher education. You have been selected to participate on this online questionnaire on the basis of: a. being born in El Salvador, living in the United States, specifically Los Angeles, Fresno, San Francisco b. have pursued or currently pursuing a higher education degree c. are between the ages of 18 – 34 In this email, I have attached a link that will take you to an online questionnaire. It is not mandatory for you to take the online questionnaire but if you do, it will help this research exponentially. Thank you for taking the time to read this email.

Best,

Oscar Guzman Graduate Research Assistant California State University, Fresno

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Buenos días,

Mi nombre es Oscar Guzmán, actualmente soy un estudiante de maestría en la Universidad Estatal de California en Fresno. Estoy llevando a cabo un estudio de investigación sobre las aspiraciones de educación superior de los salvadoreños y las barreras que enfrenta esta población para obtener una educación superior. Hay una investigación limitada sobre esta población. Con su ayuda, se puede dar voz a la población salvadoreña dentro de la educación superior. Usted ha sido seleccionado para participar en este cuestionario en línea sobre la base de: a. haber nacido en El Salvador, vivir en los Estados Unidos, específicamente en Los Ángeles, Fresno, San Francisco b. haber cursado o estar cursando un título de educación superior c. entre las edades de 18 - 34 En este correo electrónico, he adjuntado un enlace que lo llevará a un cuestionario en línea. No es obligatorio que tome el cuestionario en línea, pero si lo hace, ayudará a esta investigación exponencialmente. Gracias por tomarse el tiempo para leer este correo electrónico.

Saludos,

Oscar Guzman Ayudante de investigación graduado Universidad Estatal de California, Fresno

APPENDIX B: ONLINE QUESTIONNAIRE (ENGLISH AND SPANISH) 81

1. Were you born in El Salvador? 2. How old are you? 3. How old were you when you moved to the United States? 4. What is the highest education you have completed? 5. Have you completed at least 1 class at a community college or university?

Education 1. Are you currently enrolled in school? 2. How long have you been enrolled in school in the United States?

Participation 1. Are you willing to participate in an interview? 2. Name 3. Phone Number 4. Email

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1. ¿Nacistes en El Salvador? 2. ¿Cuantos años tienes? 3. ¿Qué edad tenía cuando se mudó a los Estados Unidos? 4. ¿Cuál es la educación más alta que has completado? 5. ¿Has completado al menos 1 clase en un colegio comunitario o universidad?

Educación 1. ¿Está actualmente inscrito en la escuela? 2. ¿Cuánto tiempo hace que está inscrito en la escuela en los Estados Unidos?

Participación 1. ¿Estás dispuesto a participar en una entrevista? 2. Nombre 3. Número de teléfono 4. Email

APPENDIX C: LETTER OF INTRODUCTION OF RESEARCH (ENGLISH AND SPANISH) 84

Dear ______,

My name is Oscar Guzman and I am currently a graduate student in the Department Educational Leadership at California State University, Fresno. For the past year I have been working with Dr. Juan Carlos Gonzalez on issues of limited information of Salvadoran higher education aspirations and the barriers they face in pursuit of a higher education degree. We are currently working on research regarding the pathways of Salvadorans to a higher education degree. We would like to request a few minutes of your time to learn of your experiences. Our visit will consist of in-person interview. The interview will be semi-structed in format and will run from 30 to 60 minutes. Our questioning will focus on your experiences in El Salvador, reasoning to move to the United States, and your higher education aspirations. Being a Salvadoran myself, I understand firsthand the marginalization one faces, within a marginalized group. However, we would be extremely humbled and appreciative of the opportunity to include you in this research. We hope for this research to ultimately serve as a pathway for Salvadorans living in the United States that aspire to earn a higher education degree.

Best,

Oscar Guzman Graduate Research Assistant California State University, Fresno

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Querido ______,

Mi nombre es Oscar Guzmán y actualmente soy un estudiante graduado en el Departamento de Liderazgo Educativo de la Universidad Estatal de California en Fresno. Durante el año pasado, he estado trabajando con el Dr. Juan Carlos González en temas de información limitada sobre aspiraciones de educación superior salvadoreñas y las barreras que enfrentan para obtener un título de educación superior. Actualmente estamos trabajando en investigaciones sobre los caminos de los salvadoreños hacia un título de educación superior. Nos gustaría solicitar unos minutos de su tiempo para conocer sus experiencias. Nuestra visita consistirá en una entrevista en persona. La entrevista será semi- estructurada en formato y se ejecutará de 30 a 60 minutos. Nuestro cuestionamiento se enfocará en sus experiencias en El Salvador, el razonamiento para mudarse a los Estados Unidos y sus aspiraciones de educación superior. Al ser un salvadoreño, entiendo de primera mano la marginación que uno enfrenta, dentro de un grupo marginado. Sin embargo, nos sentiríamos extremadamente honrados y agradecidos por la oportunidad de incluirte en esta investigación. Esperamos que esta investigación finalmente sirva como un camino para los salvadoreños que viven en los Estados Unidos que aspiran a obtener un título de educación superior.

Mejor,

Oscar Guzman Ayudante de investigación graduado Universidad Estatal de California, Fresno

APPENDIX D: INFORMED CONSENT FORM (ENGLISH AND SPANISH) 87

CONSENT FOR RESEARCH California State University, Fresno

Title of Project: Educational Aspirations of Salvadorans in the United States: A Qualitative Study of Barriers to Higher Education Participation and Attainment Principal Investigator: J.C. Gonzalez Student Investigator: O. Guzman Address: 5241 N Maple Ave, Fresno, CA 93740

You have been invited to participate in a research project on Higher Education Aspirations of Salvadorans. This consent document explains the purpose of this research project, the procedures used in the study, and the risks and benefits of participating in this research project. This consent form should be read carefully and completely. Questions and concerns may be addressed to the researchers identified at the end of the consent form.

1. Why is this research study being done? You are asked to participate in this interview to help understand the experiences of your respective country, the reasoning why you chose to go to the United States of America, and what higher education aspirations you have. Through your responses to these questions, the researcher will be able to assess how the Salvadoran population can be supported and acknowledge the Latino population is not a homogenous group.

2. What will happen in this research study? This research will consist of an in-person interview. The in-person interview will be a semi-structured interview. You are free to skip any questions that you do not wish to answer, and you can end the interview at any time.

3. What are the risks and possible discomforts from being in this research study? A possible discomfort from being in this research study, is the discomfort of sharing personal information or experiences. If the content of the interview makes you feel uncomfortable, you are welcomed to stop the interview at any time.

4. What are the possible benefits from being in this research study? There are no direct benefits for study participants. However, by participating in this interview, you are helping the investigators understand how Salvadorans are marginalized within a marginalized group and acknowledging Latinos are not a homogenous group. This research will help identify areas of strength and weakness and plan instruction and programming to improve these areas.

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5. What other option are available instead of being in this research study? You may decide not to participate in this research.

6. How long will you take part in this research study? If you agree to take part, this interview will take approximately 30 minutes to 1 hour to complete.

7. How will your privacy and confidentiality be protected if you decide to take part in this research study? No identifying data on subjects is requested or recorded by the interview, and any identifying data collected through the consent forms can only be viewed by the researcher. In order to conceal your identity, you will be given fictitious names to protect your privacy and confidentiality. Data will be collected through the in-person interview and will be kept in locked, secure offices. The results of this interview may be used in presentations or publications but will remain anonymous.

8. Who is paying for this research study? This study is funded by the researcher.

9. What are your rights if you take part in this research study? Taking part in this research study is voluntary. You do not have to take part in this research. If you choose to take part in this research, you have the right to stop at any time. If you decide not to be in this research there will be no penalty or loss of benefits to which you are entitled.

10. If you have questions or concerns about this research study, whom should you contact? Please contact Oscar Guzman at [email protected] if you:  Have questions, complaints or concerns about the research.  Believe you may have been harmed by being in the research study. Questions regarding the rights of research subjects may be directed to Dr. Kris Clarke, Chair, CSU Fresno Committee on the Protection of Human Subjects, (559) 278-2985.

INFORMED CONSENT TO TAKE PART IN RESEARCH Your participation implies your voluntary consent to participate in the research.

If you are 18 years of age or older, understand the statements above, and will consent to participate in the study, sign on the line at the bottom of this page. If not, please do not sign on the bottom line of this page 89

Consent I have read this form and the research study has been explained to me. I have been given the opportunity to ask questions and my questions have been answered. If I have additional questions, I have been told whom to contact. I agree to participate in the research study described above and will receive a copy of this consent form.

Participant’s Name (Printed)

Participant’s Signature or Initials Date

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CONSENTIMIENTO PARA LA INVESTIGACIÓN California State University, Fresno

Título del proyecto: Aspiraciones educativas de los salvadoreños en los Estados Unidos: un estudio cualitativo de las barreras para la participación y el logro de la educación superior Investigador principal: J.C. Gonzalez Investigador estudiante: O. Guzman Dirección: 5241 N Maple Ave, Fresno, CA 93740

Usted ha sido invitado a participar en un proyecto de investigación sobre Aspiraciones de salvadoreños de educación superior. Este documento de consentimiento explica el propósito de este proyecto de investigación, los procedimientos utilizados en el estudio y los riesgos y beneficios de participar en este proyecto de investigación. Este formulario de consentimiento debe leerse cuidadosamente y completamente. Las preguntas y preocupaciones pueden dirigirse a los investigadores identificados al final del formulario de consentimiento.

1. ¿Por qué se está realizando este estudio de investigación? Se le pide que participe de esta entrevista para ayudar a comprender las experiencias de su país respectivo, el razonamiento por el que eligió ir a los Estados Unidos de América y las aspiraciones de educación superior que tiene. A través de sus respuestas a estas preguntas, el investigador podrá evaluar cómo se puede apoyar a la población salvadoreña y reconocer que la población latina no es un grupo homogéneo.

2. ¿Qué sucederá en este estudio de investigación? Esta investigación consistirá en una entrevista en persona. La entrevista en persona será una entrevista semiestructurada. Puede omitir cualquier pregunta que no desee contestar y puede finalizar la entrevista en cualquier momento.

3. ¿Cuáles son los riesgos y las posibles molestias de estar en este estudio de investigación? Una posible incomodidad de estar en este estudio de investigación es la incomodidad de compartir información o experiencias personales. Si el contenido de la entrevista lo hace sentir incómodo, puede detener la entrevista en cualquier momento.

4. ¿Cuáles son los posibles beneficios de estar en este estudio de investigación? No hay beneficios directos para los participantes del estudio. Sin embargo, al participar en esta entrevista, usted está ayudando a los investigadores a entender cómo los salvadoreños son marginados dentro de un grupo marginado y reconoce que los latinos 91 no son un grupo homogéneo. Esta investigación ayudará a identificar áreas de fortaleza y debilidad, y planeará instrucción y programación para mejorar estas áreas.

5. ¿Qué otra opción hay disponible en lugar de estar en este estudio de investigación? Puede decidir no participar en esta investigación.

6. ¿Cuánto tiempo tomará parte en este estudio de investigación? Si acepta participar, esta entrevista tardará entre 30 minutos y 1 hora en completarse.

7. ¿Cómo se protegerá su privacidad y confidencialidad si decide participar en este estudio de investigación? La entrevista no solicita ni registra datos de identificación de los sujetos, y el investigador solo puede ver los datos de identificación recopilados a través de los formularios de consentimiento. Para ocultar su identidad, se le proporcionarán nombres ficticios para proteger su privacidad y confidencialidad. Los datos se recopilarán a través de la entrevista en persona y se guardarán en oficinas cerradas y seguras. Los resultados de esta entrevista pueden usarse en presentaciones o publicaciones, pero permanecerán anónimos.

8. ¿Quién está pagando por este estudio de investigación? Este estudio es financiado por el investigador.

9. ¿Cuáles son sus derechos si participa en este estudio de investigación? Tomar parte en este estudio de investigación es voluntario. No tiene que participar en esta investigación. Si elige participar en esta investigación, tiene derecho a detenerse en cualquier momento. Si decide no participar en esta investigación, no habrá penalización o pérdida de los beneficios a los que tiene derecho.

10. Si tiene preguntas o inquietudes sobre este estudio de investigación, ¿con quién debe contactar? Por favor, póngase en contacto con Oscar Guzmán en [email protected] si usted: • Tiene preguntas, quejas o inquietudes sobre la investigación. • Cree que puede haber sido perjudicado por estar en el estudio de investigación. Las preguntas sobre los derechos de los sujetos de investigación pueden dirigirse al Dr. Kris Clarke, Presidente del Comité de la CSU Fresno sobre la protección de los sujetos humanos, (559) 278-2985. CONSENTIMIENTO INFORMADO PARA PARTICIPAR EN LA INVESTIGACIÓN Su participación implica su consentimiento voluntario para participar en la investigación.

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Si tiene 18 años de edad o más, entienda las declaraciones anteriores y consienta en participar en el estudio, firme en la línea al pie de esta página. De lo contrario, no firme en la línea inferior de esta página

Consentimiento He leído este formulario y el estudio de investigación me ha sido explicado. Se me ha dado la oportunidad de hacer preguntas y mis preguntas han sido respondidas. Si tengo más preguntas, me han dicho a quién contactar. Acepto participar en el estudio de investigación descrito anteriormente y recibiré una copia de este formulario de consentimiento.

Nombre del participante (Impreso)

Firma o Iniciales del participante Fecha

APPENDIX E: INTERVIEW PROTOCOLS (ENGLISH AND SPANISH) 94

Why the United States? 1. Why did you come to the United States? 2. Where did you want to go when coming to the United States? 3. What did or do you want to accomplish in the United States?

Higher Education 1. Do you believe pursuing a higher education degree is important? a. If so, why? b. If not, why 2. What are your higher education aspirations? 3. How can a higher education degree help achieve what you want to achieve and overcome challenges?

Resettlement 1. How was your adjustment on resettling in a new country? 2. How did your resettlement affect your pursuit for a higher education degree?

Lack of Income and Poverty 1. Did finance impact your decision making in regards your education a. If so, why? b. If not, why not? 2. Were you discouraged to pursue a higher education degree because of the cost of attendance at an institution? a. If so, why? b. If not, why not?

Linguistic Barriers 1. How did it make you feel to learn a new language at much older age compared to your peers? 2. How did your linguistics limitations affect you while you were in college/university? a. Please provide examples

Lack of Support 1. While attending your college/university did you ever feel as if instructors or educators made you feel as if you did not belong? a. If so, why? b. If not, why not? 2. While attending your college/university did you ever feel as if your peers made you feel as if you did not belong? a. If so, why? b. If not, why not?

Discrimination 1. Did you ever face discrimination while pursuing a higher education degree? 95

a. If so, why? i. If so, who discriminated you? ii. If so, how did affect you on pursuing a higher education degree? b. If not, why not? 2. How often did you face discrimination while pursuing your higher education degree?

Conclusion 1. Is there anything you’d like to share about your higher education experience as a Salvadoran that I have not asked?

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¿Por qué los Estados Unidos? 1. ¿Por qué viniste a los Estados Unidos? 2. ¿A dónde quisiste ir cuando viniste a los Estados Unidos? 3. ¿Qué es lo que quiere o quiere lograr en los Estados Unidos?

Educación Superior 1. ¿Crees que buscar un título de educación superior es importante? a. Si es así, ¿por qué? b. Si no, ¿por qué? 2. ¿Cuáles son tus aspiraciones de educación superior? 3. ¿Cómo puede un título de educación superior ayudar a lograr lo que desea lograr y ayudarte a superar los desafíos?

Restablecimiento 1. ¿Cómo fue su ajuste en el reasentamiento en un nuevo país? 2. ¿Cómo afectó su reasentamiento a su búsqueda de un título de educación superior?

Falta de ingresos y pobreza 1. ¿Las finanzas afectaron su toma de decisiones con respecto a su educación? a. Si es así, ¿por qué? b. ¿Si no, porque no? 2. ¿Se desalentó a buscar un título de educación superior debido al costo de asistencia a una institución? a. Si es así, ¿por qué? b. ¿Si no, porque no?

Barreras lingüísticas

1. ¿Cómo te hizo sentir aprender un nuevo idioma a una edad mucho mayor en comparación con tus compañeros? 2. ¿Cómo le afectaron sus limitaciones lingüísticas mientras estuvo en la universidad? a. Por favor de dar ejemplos

Falta de apoyo 1. ¿Mientras asiste a su colegio/universidad alguna vez sentiste que los instructores o educadores te hicieron sentir como si no pertenecieras? a. Si es así, ¿por qué? b. ¿Si no, porque no? 2. ¿Mientras asiste a su colegio/universidad sintió alguna vez como si sus compañeros lo hicieran sentir como si no perteneciera? a. Si es así, ¿por qué? b. ¿Si no, porque no?

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Discriminación 1. ¿Alguna vez enfrentaste discriminación mientras buscabas un título de educación superior? a. Si es así, ¿por qué? i. Si es así, ¿quién te discriminó? ii. Si es así, ¿cómo te afectó en la búsqueda de un título de educación superior? b. ¿Si no, porque no? 2. ¿Con qué frecuencia enfrentaste discriminación mientras buscas tu título de educación superior?

Conclusión 1. ¿Hay algo que quiera compartir sobre su experiencia de educación superior como salvadoreño que no le haya preguntado?