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Rejection Sensitivity and the Defensive Motivational System PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Research Article Rejection Sensitivity and the Defensive Motivational System Insights From the Startle Response to Rejection Cues Geraldine Downey,1 Vivian Mougios,2 Ozlem Ayduk,3 Bonita E. London,1 and Yuichi Shoda4 1Columbia University; 2Long Island University; 3University of California, Berkeley; and 4University of Washington ABSTRACT––Rejection sensitivity (RS) is the disposition to anx- Why do people who anxiously expect rejection behave in ways that iously expect, readily perceive, and intensely react to rejection. lead to the realization of their worst fears? Our view is that the RS This study used the startle probe paradigm to test whether the dynamic functions to defend the self against rejection by significant affect-based defensive motivational system is automatically ac- others and social groups. To the extent that the individual has expe- tivated by rejection cues in people who are high in RS. Stimuli rienced the pain of rejection, protecting the self from rejection while were representational paintings depicting rejection (by Hopper) maintaining close relationships will become an important goal, and a and acceptance (by Renoir), as well as nonrepresentational self-defensive system such as RS will develop to serve it. However, paintings of either negative or positive valence (by Rothko and this system becomes dysfunctional to the extent that it gets elicited Miro, respectively). Eyeblink startle magnitude was potentiated automatically with minimal rejection cues and sets in motion the in people high in RS when they viewed rejection themes, com- precise actions that ultimately lead to the fulfillment of expectations of pared with when they viewed nonrepresentational negative rejection (Downey, Freitas, Michaelis, & Khouri, 1998). themes. Startle magnitude was not attenuated during viewing of The present study tested our guiding assumption that RS is a de- acceptance themes in comparison with nonrepresentational fensively motivated system that gets elicited by rejection-relevant positive themes. Overall, the results provide evidence that for stimuli and that this elicitation occurs automatically, at an early, people high in RS, rejection cues automatically activate the nonverbal stage in the activation of the RS dynamic. We tested these defensive motivational system, but acceptance cues do not au- hypotheses by assessing whether in the face of rejection-relevant cues, tomatically activate the appetitive motivational system. individuals high in RS show heightened potentiation of the startle response, a robust autonomic nervous system indicator of activation in the defensive motivational system (DMS; Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, Everyone experiences rejection. Whereas some people respond with 1990; see Dawson, Schell, & Boehmelt, 1999). equanimity, others respond in ways that profoundly compromise their well-being and relationships. To help explain such maladaptive re- actions to rejection, we have proposed a specific cognitive-affective DEFENSIVE MOTIVATIONAL SYSTEM processing disposition, rejection sensitivity (RS; Downey & Feldman, 1996). At the core of this disposition is the anxious expectation of The understanding of how organisms defend themselves against being rejected by people who are important to the self, an expectation threats has increased tremendously as researchers have brought de- developed through exposure to severe and prolonged rejection. Our velopments in cognitive, behavioral, and affective neuroscience to research has shown that individuals who anxiously expect rejection bear on the issue. Converging evidence from neurological and be- have a tendency to readily perceive it in other people’s behavior and havioral research suggests that two primary affective-motivational then react to it in ways that undermine their relationships; their be- systems organize behavior––an appetitive system that responds to havior thus leads to the feared outcome (see Levy, Ayduk, & Downey, positive stimuli (i.e., rewards), motivating approach and consumma- 2001). We have applied the term high-rejection-sensitive (HRS) to tory behavior, and a defensive system that responds to negative, describe people who show a heightened tendency to anxiously expect, aversive stimuli (i.e., punishments, threat), disposing the individual readily perceive, and intensely react to rejection (Downey & Feldman, toward active avoidance, and fight-or-flight (Gray, 1987; Lang, Davis, ¨ 1996). &Ohman, 2000; Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999). Lang et al. (1990) proposed a model of human emotions that is consistent with this literature. In this model, human emotions are Address correspondence to Geraldine Downey, Department of Psy- viewed as action dispositions that organize behavior along an appe- chology, Columbia University, 1190 Amsterdam Ave., Mail Code titive-aversive dimension. Valence determines which system is acti- 5501, New York, NY 10027; e-mail: [email protected]. vated (i.e., defensive vs. appetitive), but arousal determines the r 668 DownloadedCopyright from pss.sagepub.com2004 Americanat COLUMBIA Psychological UNIV on November Society 1, 2016 Volume 15—Number 10 G. Downey et al. intensity with which the system is activated. According to this model, stimulus (see Lang et al., 2000, for review). The electromyographic when negatively valenced and highly arousing stimuli are encoun- (EMG) response accompanying sudden closure of the eyelids (the tered, the DMS becomes activated to prepare for rapid execution of a eyeblink) is the first, fastest, and most stable component of the startle set of automatic behaviors aimed at self-protection. What constitutes a reflex (Lang et al., 1990). Although this reflex habituates over trials, it threat can be biologically based (e.g., an instinctive threat reaction to can nevertheless be repeatedly evoked within relatively short time seeing a snake) or socially learned (e.g., an expectation of rejection in periods over dozens of trials (Putnam & Roth, 1990). certain social situations). The rationale underlying this paradigm is that when an organism is Research on both animals and humans suggests that when the DMS already in a high-arousal, negatively valenced state, independently is activated by the potential of danger, physiological responses to evoked defensive responses such as the eyeblink response to an un- newly encountered threat-congruent cues are amplified, and physio- expected loud noise are augmented (Lang et al., 1990, 2000). For logical responses to threat-incongruent cues are attenuated. That is, example, when individuals are viewing a picture depicting a gun the organism is oriented to detect cues that are congruent with a state pointing toward them, they show exaggerated startle (indexed by the of threat and to act when confirmatory cues are detected (see Lang et magnitude of their eyeblink response) when disturbed by an unex- al., 2000). The model also indicates that when the appetitive system is pected loud noise. The eyeblink is a reflexive defensive response that activated, there should be a relative dampening of physiological follows unexpected and averse stimuli. Both the picture and the noise responses to threatening cues. are unpleasant, and both evoke defensive responses. The magnitude of the startle response to the loud noise is potentiated, however, because CONCEPTUALIZING RS AS A DEFENSIVE MOTIVATIONAL the individual is already in a defensive state due to viewing the un- SYSTEM pleasant, arousing picture. Conversely, when individuals are viewing a positively arousing pictorial stimulus, they are in an appetitive state and Our phenomenological description of the operation of the RS system therefore their independently evoked defensive responses are attenu- closely parallels the operation of the DMS. According to our con- ated. Thus, the magnitude of the startle reflex changes systematically ceptualization of RS, in situations in which rejection is a possibility with the valence of the psychological context (Lang et al., 1990). (e.g., meeting a prospective dating partner, asking one’s friend to do a Previous studies have used the startle probe paradigm to infer in- favor), people who are high in RS are uncertain about whether they dividual differences in the extent to which the DMS is activated in a will be accepted or rejected, but the outcome is critical. Thus, for HRS particular psychological context. For example, people with a specific individuals, such situations incorporate cognitive appraisals of threat phobia are more responsive than nonphobics to a startle probe, such under conditions of uncertainty––the specific conditions known to as a noise burst, that is presented in the presence of a phobia-relevant activate the DMS (Fanselow, 1994; Lang et al., 2000; Lazarus, 1999; stimulus, but are not more responsive to the same probe when it is LeDoux, 1996; Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999). Low-RS (LRS) individuals presented in the presence of a phobia-irrelevant negative stimulus are less likely to experience heightened DMS activation in these same (e.g., Hamm, Cuthbert, Globisch, & Vaitl, 1999). situations because they typically deem rejection less probable and of less concern. THE PRESENT STUDY As we have described, when the DMS is activated, it facilitates monitoring and detection of threat-relevant cues and prepares the Capitalizing on this research, we used the startle probe paradigm to individual for swift response once cues of danger are detected. We examine individual differences in DMS activation in the presence of hypothesize that in rejection-relevant
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