CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY SAN MARCOS

PROJECT SIGNATURE PAGE

PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE

MASTER OF ARTS

IN

EDUCATION

THESIS TITLE THE EFFECTS OF ON STUDENTS' ON TASK BEHAVIOR

AUTHOR: LINDA A. CASTILE

DATE OF SUCCESSFUL DEFENSE: April 30, 2005

THE PROJECT HAS BEEN ACCEPTED BY THE PROJECT COMMITTEE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN EDUCATION

Jacqueline Thousand, Ph.D.

PROJECT COMMITTEE CHAIR

Antoinette Hood, Ed.D. ~~~ PROJECT COMMITTEE MEMBER SIGNATURE

The Effects of Music on Students'

On Task Behavior

Master's Thesis

by

Linda A. Castile

California State University, San Marcos Spring, 2005 Table of Contents

Abstract Page 1

Chapter 1 Introduction Page2

Chapter 2 Literature Review Page6

Chapter 3 Methodology Page20

Chapter 4 Results Page 27

Chapter 5 Discussion Page 35

References Page 39

Figures Page43 1 Abstract

Middle School math students performed their typical daily math classwork with and auditory environment of either teacher chosen music, student chosen music played through individual headphones, or silence. One day each week during a six week summer session was dedicated to each of the three listening options. On the additional two days, students were free to work with headphones or in the normal classroom noise level, according to school and classroom rules. The students were attending a segregated school for students with learning differences. Their on task behavior was observed and recorded three times during each class period. Teacher selected music consisted of a mix of and world music genres. Students were found to be more focused on their work when music was being played as compared to a silent environment.

Key words: music, focus, special education, attention, distraction 2 Chapter 1

Introduction

In the early 1940s, Elizabeth Vollenweider (E. Robertson, personal communication, December 25, 2004), a young student nurse, was doing her rotation on the psychiatric ward of Good Samaritan Hospital in Los Angeles. At the time, when doing their charting or writing their reports, nurses were separated from the patients in a chain-link wire cage . As Elizabeth did her paper work, she played the local classical music station on a small radio she brought from her dormitory room. Soon, she saw that some of the patients were gathering around the small cage. Eventually, she and the other nurses noticed that many, if not most, of the ambulatory patients were surrounding the nurses station, sitting on the concrete floor, listening to the music. Patients that were boisterous and disruptive were sitting, relaxed and quiet, listening to the radio. The various classical music selections were as calming, or in some cases more calming, than the psychiatric drugs of the day.

What is it about listening to music that can relax the most tense among us? What music can be most relaxing? Are there other benefits oflistening to music? How can music be used to enhance our lives, particularly the learning of students in the special education setting? When we consider the psychiatric patients and their response to the classical music, it intrigues us. How else can music be used, besides in lessons, marching and church choir? The teacher down the hall may exclaim about the relaxation tape that he or she plays for students during creative writing assignments. Why is the time spent more productively when music is played? We may be impressed by anecdotal information. But the intrigue should lead us to 3 further investigation. We should experiment, look at the research of others, and consider multiple possibilities. We should go further than accepting anecdotal information and then buying a relaxation tape of background music and ocean sounds. We should wonder why music accomplishes this relaxation and increase in awareness that increases productivity, particularly schoolwork, as well as our improving our general well-being.

Almost universally, adults have been concerned about the musical preferences of their children (Lacourse, Claes, & Villeneuve, 2001). Classical may feel that their music is the epitome ofmusicianship. musicians may feel that they are the most creative. People enjoying the latest often assume that other music is dull and old fashioned. With this diversity of opinion, it is sometimes difficult to convince people that other styles of music may be worth trying.

Research has shown that particular styles of music are more effective in raising sensory levels. Is there a type of music that is more or less beneficial, or is the sound alone enough to raise our level of alertness? What styles are most beneficial?

At the site of this research, The Winston School, multiple services are available, both in and out of the classroom. An occupational therapist works with student to increase and maintain a state of alertness. A speech pathologist helps student to enhance their understanding of receptive language, process information accurately and express it appropriately. Counselors help students with feelings they may have that are not conducive to academic and personal success. The author wonders if music can be used to enhance all of these services? Can it provide additional assistance to students struggling with the issues of attention and processing?

The Winston School includes students with varying learning styles that are

------~ -- - - 4 influenced by genetic problems, behavioral issues and mental illness. Would it possible that the addition of music on a regular basis might assist many of these students in becoming more successful?

The author's position is that the addition of music to the middle school math class at the special education school site would make the students more successful in their work. The music would contribute to their ability to maintain focus for the necessary amount of time to hear and understand individual instruction, practice the work independently, and seek additional help and support as needed, before moving on to the next step or topic.

Although most adolescent students are somewhat familiar with today's popular music, very, very few are familiar with any music in the classical genre. General is almost nonexistent. To most middle and high school students, there is no difference between the classic era, or jazz. There is either the music played on the radio or their own CDs, or the music that their parents enJoy. Because I know that outstanding music has been produced by more than

Europeans, I was anxious to expand my own classical background by including music of the "World Music" category. World music is equally unfamiliar to almost all middle school students, although interestingly, there is currently a student at the school who has professionally recorded on the digeredoo, an indigenous Aboriginal instrument. He was not in the math class, but the students have seen him playing at school.

This study examines something the author feels intuitively - that music of a positive nature would be beneficial to students in my classrooms. I have played music in classes for years. The investigation of the differences between productive 5 days or students and the auditory enviromnent of the classroom has not been done, as it does not appear in the research literature. The hypothesis of this study is that music in the classroom could have as positive an impact on the students I teach as it did on the patients whom my mother nursed 60 years ago. 6 Chapter 2

Literature Review

As the sciences involving music expand dramatically from Music Education,

Music History, Performance and , and the study of the construction of mus1c to include such topics as Biomusicology, and

Neuromusicology, so does the research and literature regarding its impact and value.

Neurologists, anthropologists and cognitive scientists are now performing fascinating research, and providing their peers, students and the lay public with information never considered.

Adults in a authoritarian position - parents, teachers, and loud spoken public officials have long been concerned about inappropriate "rock" music being the cause of many of adolescents' problems (Lacourse et al. , 2001 ). Involvement with drugs or crimes and the trouble in which young people find themselves is often blamed on the current popular music, whether it is Elvis, the Rolling Stones, Heavy Metal or Rap.

Many people find reasonable complaints about the subject matter or language of Rap music. Assuming it to have a bad effect on young people is, however, shortsighted.

Scientifically, one must study the music and its impact without bias to come to a reasonable conclusion about the cause and effect of any type of music. While science in this area is in short supply, researchers at the University of Alabama reported that exposure to radical rap music had a positive impact on racial perceptions in

Caucasian high school students (Zillman, 1995). Rap is not a cure for racial intolerance, but this is an example of the expansion of research in music.

More important to this study than the study of rap music is the ongoing research into the positive effects of music on our lives, particularly on education. Does music 7 make us happier and/or smarter? The most famous research in this area is that which is known as the "Mozart Effect." However, it is important to consider many aspects of this research. What is the impact of music on the mood of the listener?

How would/does the "Mozart Effect" occur? Is the "Mozart Effect" even valid research? Finally, what can be the impact of these studies on the topic of Music and

Special Education?

Listening to music has positive benefits that have been measured scientifically in numerous fields. In addition to education, there is research into the effects of music combined with exercise on patients with coronary artery disease (Emery, Hsiao, Hill

& Frid, 2003). While studies had been done measuring cognitive impairment following cardiac surgery, the effect of music on mood while an inpatient, and the positive benefits of exercise, the effect of music and exercise together on cognitive performance had not been performed. This study found that patients increased their cognitive abilities in executive function area, which includes assessments of problem- solving tasks that require purposive behavior, self-control and the ability to shift attention. Exercise alone has been shown to elevate the mood in cardiac patients. In this study, thirty-three adults with heart disease participated in this study. They were tested following two exercise sessions. During one of the sessions, the participants listened to The Four Seasons, by Antonio Vivaldi. During the second session the participants did not hear music, and in fact, wore earphones with a blank tape being played, producing virtual silence. Before and after each session, the participants completed an assessment of mood and cognitive ability, using a verbal fluency test. The results of the study indicated that the participants had an elevation of their mood following exercise, with or without music. However, the 8 addition of mus1c seems to have provided the increase in cognitive function.

Although classical music was used in this study, the authors were not advocating its use alone.

Although the Mozart Effect ' research caught the public eye, most researchers in music are quick to point out what the consumer press did not: This research

(Rauscher, Shaw, & Ky, 1993) was not intended to, nor did it, prove that listening to a short piece of music by Mozart would increase intelligence. As will be discussed later, subjects had a brief increase in temporal-spatial ability, as assessed by one test: paper cutting/folding. Did music make the subjects smarter? That is the perception of many. It is, in effect, a cognitive "sound bite." What is missing, in the media reports of this research, is accurate reporting. As Weinberger (1998) observed, "It is imperative to be accurate. Accuracy is needed in the media. Accuracy is needed in science. Accuracy is needed in popular books" (p. 11 ).

Not unexpectedly, different people respond differently to the same mus1c.

Furnham and Bradley, at the University College, London, studied the different impact of listening to music on extroverts and introverts. Extroverts are described as highly outgoing individuals. Introverts are those who prefer a quieter existence. In their study, they were careful to assure that each group included subjects with similar

I.Q. scores. The subjects read text while in silence, or while listening to a radio segment, which included the voice of a disc jockey. After six minutes of silence, the subjects were asked questions about the material. The more extroverted subjects remembered significantly more. In his analysis of this study, Weinberger (1998) points out that investigations of the effects of music need to take into account individual difference; the hope for a fixed link between certain sounds and emotional 9 reactions will probably not be realized

Studying the effects of more specific music was undertaken by Husain,

Thompson and Schellenberg. They theorized that both the tempo (speed) and mode

(major or minor) of the music being heard would affect the response of the listeners with respect to mood, arousal and spatial ability. The researchers had a pianist play a Mozart Piano Sonata. It was recorded, and then altered with regard to tempo and mode. The prediction was specifically that manipulating the mode would affect the listeners' mood and the changes in tempo would alter their arousal level. In general, most people feel that a piece of music in a major mode has a "happy" or "upbeat" sound, while music in a minor mode is more "sad," or "somber." Finally, the predictions included the feeling that cognitive performance would be higher if both mood and state of arousal were higher.

These researchers felt that increased cognitive performance is due to the elevation of mood and arousal, in both their proposed studies and the more famous "Mozart

Studies." Thirty-six subjects were placed in four groups, with similar male-female ratios. The subjects had an average of just less than three years of musical training.

None tested as clinically depressed beforehand. The groups were fast/major, fast/minor, slow/major and slow/minor. The music was manipulated in several ways. It was originally recorded at a slow normal tempo. For the slow groups, the music was electronically slowed to the slowest speed that still sounded like an actual performance. Equally, the fast groups heard the piece speeded up to a fast, but still normal tempo. The excerpts were stopped at close to ten minutes, at a normal phrase closing. The mode was originally D major, manipulated to d minor.

Additional accidentals (sharps and flats) were added as needed to make the music 10 sound authentic.

The results of the study confirmed their predictions. Their feeling that the effects of listening to music on cognitive tasks are mediated by changes in arousal and mood was accurate according to their results. This viewpoint is consistent with "previous findings that any moderately arousing stimulus that induces positive moods should affect performance on a variety of cognitive tasks, similar to the effect on spatial abilities that occurs as a consequence of listening music composed by Mozart,"

(Husain, Thompson, & Schellenberg, 2002).

A study of the impact of listening to music on the mood of college students was completed by Stratton and Zalanowski (2003). Two groups of college students, music majors and non-music majors kept music-listening diaries for two weeks. The diary included information on the music itself, how long they listened, what the student was doing at the time of listening, and mood assessments before and after listening to the music. The importance of this study is the inclusion of daily living.

Much of the research investigated (Husain et al., 2002; Rauscher, 1993; Steele, 1999) was conducted in a laboratory setting. Stratton and colleagues (2003) were interested in the quantity of music listened to, the type of music preferred, the activities being performed while listening to music, how music listening affects mood, and how the mood affects the music being listened to. Participants measured their mood before and after listening to the music. A circular scale was provided, with various adjectives that covered a wide spectrum of emotions . These emotions included but were not limited to optimistic, joyful, relaxed, sad, grouchy, disgusted, or angry. In addition to marking the emotion, participants were asked to measure the intensity of their feelings. Students were asked to record the type of music

-~- · ------11 listened, the title, the length of the listening episode, why they were listening to music, and activity that they were doing in addition to listening to the music.

Results of the study are not surprising in most respects. Unexpectedly, the music majors report listening to less music. Perhaps this is because it is a requirement for some of their classes, and therefore is not as frequently a leisure/relaxing part of their daily activities. However, the music majors listened to a wider variety of musical styles. Moods were almost always more positive following listing to music. "The great importance of music to people may lie in its unique quality of enhancing whatever activity one is engaging in" (Stratton et al.., 2003, p 14). This is important research as it relates to the study of on task behavior in the classroom, via music.

Music, in most of its forms, in this study, enhanced the mood of the participants.

Educators who assume only the distractibility of music via headphones may be doing their students and themselves a disservice.

Ongoing interest in the enhancement of mood by music is strong. Researchers at the University of Miami School of Medicine theorized about the possibility of music reducing depression and stress hormones in adolescent females. Field (1998) showed that the participants reported no change in their perceived level of depression.

However, compared to a control group who relaxed rather than listened to music, their production of cortisol, a stress hormone, was reduced, towards normal values.

Perhaps, with further therapy, and assistance in recognizing stress as it contributes to depression, music will be found to have a more significant impact. This is a critically important area for further research.

In 1993, the most famous research into the impact ofmusic on intelligence was conducted. Rauscher, Shaw and Ky (1993) wondered whether listening to a short 12 example of music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart would have an impact on cognitive ability. The subjects were thirty six college students who were divided into three groups: one listened to ten minutes of a Mozart Piano Sonata, one listened to a relaxation tape for ten minutes and the third sat in silence for ten minutes. The participants were then tested on Spatial-Temporal tasks - imagining that a piece of paper had been folded and cut, and determining the resulting shapes. The subjects that had listened to Mozart had significantly higher spatial IQ scores (8-9 points).

The results were very short lived - lasting only 10-15 minutes. The authors did not assume that these results would transfer to verbal tasks or memory. However, that never made the nightly newscasts. Instead, the media immediately claimed that

Mozart would make you smarter. A new industry of Mozart tapes for infants, the

Baby Einstein series and more resulted from this (Baby Einstein Company, 1998).

Parents were somehow led to believe that playing music briefly for their children would replace years of learning and practicing that generally comprise a music education. Hearing that our brightest high school students often have a musical background strengthened the assumption that all one needed was brief but critical listening.

In 1995, the same scientists repeated their experiment, with a larger study group, seventy-nine college students. Again, their results showed that there was a temporary increase in Spatial-Temporal Ability, lasting for a short time (Rauscher et al., 1995). The greatest increase was noted in students who were lowest in Spatial

Temporal Ability before the listening portion of the study.

Other scientists have failed to find similar results. Steele (1999) has been particularly adamant about the flaws in the original and follow up Rauscher studies. 13 He has followed others' attempts at repeating the original experiment (Carstens,

Huskins & Hounsshell, 1995; Newman, Rosenbach, Burns, Latimer, Matocha, &

Vogt, 1995). Still feeling that he would be able to achieve Rauscher's results, he completed his own study. In 1999, Steele, Bass and Crook used the same Mozart

Sonata, the same control conditions, the same Spatial Temporal testing task and the same experimental design. The pretest was completed. Two days later subjects listened or waited in silence. They were immediately tested. Again, Rauscher's results were contradicted (Steele et al.., 1999).

Rauscher(1998) has also tested the relationship between performance and listening to Mozart with rats. Rauscher's test bred rats in the presence of either music written by Mozart, music by the 21st century Philip Glass, or by a white noise tape. The music continued throughout gestation, and for another sixty days, twelve hours a day. The rats were tested on t-mazes, both with the music of their gestational period and with different music. The Mozart rats tested higher the first day, and continued to do better on subsequent days. Changing the music during the tests did not help or hinder the rats.

Steele(2003) disagrees with the conclusions reached in the Rauscher rat experiments. Rauscher felt that the performance of the rats enhanced the theories of the Mozart Effect - and that the rats showed that there was no cultural bias in the original studies. Steele began with information about rats being born deaf, and staying deaf, for 7 to 10 days, because the bones of the middle ear have not ossified, so there is no way to conduct sound. In addition, Steele mentioned sensorineural deafness, as a lack of brainstem auditory response does not occur until one week after birth. He then explained that rats do not hear in the same ranges as humans. He

-~-~~------14 estimated that the rats in Rauscher's:experiment would not have heard 1913 (69%) of the 2790 notes in the first movement. There were other problems with the rat research. The rats were not truly in random groups. All of the rats in a litter group would have been in the same music group. There could have been familial/genetic reasons for the various results. Also, Rauscher did not notice a change in result when the music was changed during the testing. It would seem, if the rats had heard the earlier music, that the change would have been disruptive. Animal research may have an important place in some science. But it would seem that rats might be too dissimilar to use to investigate the impact of music on successful task completion.

Although the Mozart results are interesting, there is much more to study. They attracted public interest to the importance of music, even if the public perception was somewhat incorrect. What is probably true of the Mozart Studies is that mood and arousal were enhanced. Enhanced mood, and a more active state of mind allowed some subjects to do better at the Spatial Temporal tasks. It may be true that those who are lower in Spatial Temporal skills would benefit even more from an increased dose of music. However, the idea of minimal listening producing a long lasting,

Mozart-induced increase in intelligence ignores the hard work of those who have studied and practiced for years in achieving their musical goals. There is no

"something for nothing" in this case.

Sharlene Habermeyer (1999), the author of Good Music. Brighter Children, has written a valuable book, for parents, in particular. She covers the evidence that music can enhance a child's education, and supports her writing with thorough references.

Her chapter on arts in the schools, "A Dynamic Movement: Music's Power to

Educate," includes a section on "How Music and the Arts Help Children with 15 Learning Disabilities." Habermeyer quickly explains that she prefers the terminology

"Learning Differences," as she believes children labeled with learning disabilities are not disabled at all, but simply learning in different and sometimes unique ways. Full of anecdotal information, Habermayer's book also mentions numerous studies and school district programs that have shown the success and necessity of music programs through the entire spectrum of curricula.

Perhaps because Autism has been in the news frequently as of late, there are more studies being done with children with autism. Children who are autistic have difficulty noticing and/or responding to social cues of other people, Heaton (1999) at the Psychiatric Institute in London proposed that perhaps these children may respond to the major/minor mode description of human emotion. He wondered whether children hearing a piece of music in a minor mode would connect that music with a drawing of a sad face, and similarly music in a major mode with a happy face.

The children with Autism scored as well as other children who were the same age and intelligence.

Music can have negative effects as well as positive. A small study measuring the relationship between music listening tendencies and sex-role perception showed that there was a positive correlation between rap and heavy metal music listening and adversarial sex beliefs (Cobb, 2000). There were thirty-four college freshman psychology majors between the ages of eighteen and twenty participating in this study. Two evaluations were used to determine the students' perception of sex roles and a survey of frequency with which the students listened to five popular musical genres, ranging from never to always. The surveys used were the Bern Sex Role

Inventory (Bern, 1978) and the Sexual Attitudes Scale (Burt, 1988). The study took 16 place in a classroom. The students entered, signed consent forms, filled out the three surveys and were debriefed. The authors felt that the study was valid in that it surveyed music that was listened to independently, rather than playing music for the students, and then testing them on their response. In past studies, (Johnson, 1995;

Lawrence, 1991) heavy metal and rap listening has been linked to sexual violence and stereotypical sex roles. Cobb (2000) showed the same results. However, the study is quite small. In addition, it is impossible to tell if the music is a cause,for the violence or if people with specific sex roles gravitate to heavy metal or rap music.

This is certainly problematic, as musicians are quick to assert their independence as people outside the majority of society.

As teachers, we hope to encourage those who perform and learn "outside the box." At the same time, a level of responsibility on the part of those who have such a significant impact on young people would be tremendously appreciated. At some point, it would be interesting to see a long-term study, investigating if younger adolescents gravitate towards the music, causing a rise in violence or v1ce versa.

Also, a larger, more cross-cultural study should be attempted.

Even more troubling than the impact Heavy Metal/Rap music can have is the possible connection between Heavy Metal Music and the risk of Adolescent Suicide.

Parents have always worried that the music that young people listen to is having a detrimental effect on their children. Each of the recent decades has included a counterculture style music, and associated subcultures which have concerned parents.

Lacourse, Claes, and Villaneuve (200 1) conducted a study to determine differentiating characteristics (family relationships, social-psychological attitudes, drug use and suicide risk) of young people who prefer heavy metal music, worship 17 music and use music for vicarious release. Their subjects were 275 adolescents between the ages of fourteen and eighteen. There were 154 male students and 121 female students. Approximately 50% of parents were college graduates.

Questionnaires were distributed during a regular class period at their high school in

Montreal. The students were measured according to family relationships, alienation, suicide risk, drug use and music preferences and related behavior. The music related behavior (music worship) included hanging posters, seeking information about the musicians and hanging out with other fans. Vicarious response to music was measured by responses to listening to music when angry and feeling aggressive when listening to music.

The authors found that there is some correlation between suicide risk and this type of music. However, the other risk factors for suicide were also found in the study. Adolescents who choose heavy metal music also tend use more drugs, worship music, and use music to deal with aggressive emotions. Girls who listen to heavy metal music feel a stronger sense of alienation. The authors felt that it is perhaps more socially acceptable for boys to favor this type of music, thus leading to the alienation for girls alone. Boys who listen to heavy metal were neither different in their feelings of alienation nor in their risk for suicide. Music worshiping was most strongly influenced by the age of the adolescent. Younger participants are more influenced by their need for identity. As they become older, their identity seems to be established, worshiping loses its appeal and music becomes more of a leisure activity, rather than a focus. Overall, the researchers found that the preference for one style of music did not increase the suicide risk. Characteristics of some adolescents may lead to an increase, but the effect does not travel from music in

------· ------18 the direction of suicide risk. Rather, the authors suggest, "listening to music may offer a certain protection against suicidal risk. Further research should focus on listening to music as a coping mechanism. These studies could eventually lead to the use of music in psychological treatments for suicidal; or troubled youth" (Lacourse,et al, 2001).

Research in the field of music is dramatic and often newsworthy. Norman

Weinberger (1999) warns us that most people respond to new claims or information frequently without what he calls a healthy skepticism:

"We believe it, perhaps because it sounds interesting, or agrees with our

prior beliefs and biases. 'Great, I always thought beer was terrific, so I'm

glad to hear that it also prevents heart attacks.'

We become confused. The new information seems to be contradictory to

something we have been told previously. 'Now let's see, am I supposed

to stuff myself with oat bran or not?'

We reject it out of hand. 'Oh, that's bunk... salt makes the food taste good

and it never hurt anyone."'

The fourth reaction is the one we should have, a healthy skepticism. 'That

certainly sounds interesting, but what's the basis for the claim that frogs

cause warts?"' (Weinberger, p. 10)

The fourth response suggests further research. But it is the only way to determine whether reports are accurate information or quack research. Weinberger

( 1999) goes on to list three sources of claims: anecdotes, clinical case reports, involving one, or a few, individual(s), or experiments involving groups of individuals.

Experiments must include both a control group and a studied group. Finally 19 information that results from such experiments must be examined by other, independent , scientists and published in a reputable journal, to be made available to further scrutiny. The dialog resulting from such experimentation and publication is critical to the acceptance of the new information as valid.

A frightening example of what can happen to us when claims are blindly accepted is expressed in the following quote: Weinberger (1999):

"One way of approaching this general problem of credibility, and the

promise of fast and easy answers to complex questions of music and

behavior, is to realize that when we readily accept dubious claims, we

are allocating part of our brain to the claimant. Brain territory being

precious, we are well advised to surrender it with caution. There is

also a positive side to the stance of healthy skepticism. Every time

we attempt to penetrate the thicket of claims, we are exercising our

mental faculties, developing out intellects, and probably making it

easier next time to ask, "Now tell me again, how do we know that

frogs cause warts?" (p. 11) 20 Chapter 3

Methodology

This research took place at the Winston School, in Del Mar, California. The

Winston School is a Non-Public School for students with different styles ofleaming.

The school ranges from fourth to twelfth grade. A non-public school has students who are funded by their home school district, because the district has been found to be unable to meet a specific student's educational needs. In addition, a non-public school admits students who are privately supported. Winston also offer scholarships. There is no differentiation between these students. Services offered at the school include psychological counseling, speech therapy and occupational therapy. Those services can be prescribed during the Individual Education Program

(I.E.P.) process or requested and paid for by the parents. A majority of students at

Winston receive these services. Counseling is offered on both a group and individual basis, outside the classroom setting. Speech and occupational therapy typically take place both in and out of the classroom. There is no food service, so there is not a free lunch program available.

Because district funding generally covers transportation costs, the school has students attending from a large geographical area. Students come from several districts in Orange County, including Fullerton and Newport Mesa. Although a large number of the San Diego County students come from San Diego City Schools, there are also students from Oceanside, San Dieguito, Grossmont, Coronado and -- ---~------~· - ~ ~ - - Sweetwater. 21 Subjects

Ten students participated in this project. Six of the students were publicly funded and four were privately supported. There were eight boys and two girls...... • -0'• ~ ...... ~~~- ....- '~ --· ...... ,~- ...... ·- ... . ---.. -·- There are typically fewer girls than boys at Winston. This sample was lower than the usual ratio. All ten of the students were Caucasian.

The students participating in the study were in a summer school math class.

Math classes at Winston are individually instructed and paced. The students work independently after instruction. Help is available from the teacher and one or more

Instructional Aid. The independent nature of the class allowed the research project to be particularly valid.

Of the ten students participating in this research, there were four students (F, G,

H, and J) who were funded by their families and six who were funded by their school district. The students are identified by letter:

A. Student A has severe auditory processing disorders. The student is

seen regularly by the Speech and Language Therapist. The student

works- very slowly, but is making good progress in math.

B. This student is diagnosed with Asperger's syndrome. The student is _ __,.._ ...... ----- very competent, but has numerous social issues. This student suffers _ ____ ,.__,_---· ---- from depression and has been hospitalized recently for a combination

of depression and drug use.

C. This student struggles with auditory and visual sequencing, short-

term auditory and visual memory, and deficits in attention span and

concentration. The student also has difficulties with visual and motor

coordination, nonverbal analogical reasoning, spatial visualization and 22 perceptual organizational tasks. The student is eligible for Special

Education as a result of multiple disabilities, including mental ----·-- .... retardation /significantly below average intellectual functioning.

D. This student is diagnosed with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity

Disorder, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder and anxiety, all of which

severely affect the student's academic performance and social and

emotional well-being.

E. This student has inconsistent and erratic processing disorders and

receives frequent Speech and Language Services.

F. This student is diagnosed with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity

Disorder.

G. This student has Asperger's Syndrome. - "·--· ~--..--.·.:..:r.t. H. This student has DiGeorge Syndrome.

I. This student is diagnosed as having Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity

Disorder.

The students participating in this study knew me well. They were anxiOus to

"cooperate." They wanted to do a good job, even though I explained that I wanted them to respond naturally. In a small study, at a small school, this is not unexpected

Each student, when arriving at class, began their daily work. If the material is new- a new section, chapter or concept- the student would b~ individually taught at his or her desk, by one of three adults. When the concept seems clear, the student worked independently on reinforcing the lesson. Adults checked back frequently, or provided help if a student was stuck, or asked for help. 23 Intervention

The daily routine in math class was that students came into the class, got their personal math folder and began work. Individual explanations are offered, questions are answered and independent work is accomplished. On Mondays, as students entered, music of my choice was played on the classroom CD player. I wrote the selection on the board. Observations were made for 30 minutes, in 10 minute increments. Therefore, three observations were made of each student during the 50 minute math period. With two assistants, I was able to stop three times during the class period to observe and quickly notate who was engaged in their work and who was not engaged. Those were the two possibilities I allowed myself.

On :fo~-~d~~'Jtudents used their own CD players, or used those that I had ~ --· -.., - · ....._ • <" " ' ' ' ., ,...o,·- u••·'."r' • •.-- • . ,., -. •'• ·-. ·. • .,..._ •,• ,, ' ."'• '-• •";" ' • . ••·:· _ ,, ; ,\ ·::o•,o,-,:•-. .:;.;-;.';;,~.f- available. Those who borrowed CD players were able to also borrow CDs from their classmates. Operating the unfamiliar CD players was somewhat distracting for some of the students. However, the privilege of using a CD player enhanced the cooperation, and possibly the engagement during the period.

On ~rs da ys , tudents entered the classroom and worked with only the low conversation of the teacher and assistants. Headphones and CD players were not ~,.,,.,-, •• ~ .. - ~ -· ~' ...... - ..: : .· · - ~· ··- :" •• • •• • •• > · .• allowed.

Music selections. The music selections to be used in the interventions were

Brandenburg Concerto, by Johann Sebastian Bach, Eine Kleine Nachtmusik, by

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Peer Gynt Suite, by Edvard Grieg_, The Toure Kunda

Collection from Senegal, Islands of Ghosts, by Rossy_, from and

Lisandro 's Cumbia, by Lisandro Meza from Colombia. The music was chosen to 24 provide a diverse selection of styles and cultures. Most of it was not familiar to the students. There was only one student who has studied music extensively, and that was specifically vocal music.

The music was primarily in the major modes - what most people consider to be happy music. The music that was minor was not particularly somber music. A variety of instruments were heard. The World music had some vocal music. The

Classical, European music was instrumental.

On the days I provided music, it was played at a relatively low volume. It was

.o.a;.;.&'~ ...... -~----"':...-"""" -" " '~'-...:..J.._:...-. ... -· • .:..._., .... -· ...... -.--.. , , ·: -- • .-.:..:.-~-·- ·· - -_· -~- ', . .. ..,,. -. : .. ~- ...... easy to talk and be heard while working with a student. At the same time, students could hear the music throughout the classroom. On headphone days, the students left the headphones off while working with an adult. Headphones were used during the independent portion of the class. Volume had to be kept low enough so that no one else in the room could hear the individual headphones. Most of the students had their own disc players. I was able to borrow disc players for the others. Two students shared, using an adapter. When there was no music playing, students worked without talking to classmates.

The students were told what I was doing, and how the class would be conducted.

They were not unfamiliar with music being played in various classes. Most of the teachers at Winston allow headphone use with some restrictions. They are treated as a privilege, but one that each student is allowed unless he or she abuses that privilege.

Weekly music interventions. The ft~ my chosen music was the ---Brandenburg Concerto #I in F major, b _ Bach. Written in 1721, these concerti of Bach's are written in a fast-slow-fast movement pa~ern. The music has a solo group of instruments and an ensemble section. It is very contrapuntal music, with melody 25 lines appearing in numerous variations.

Eine Kleine Nachtmusik, written in 1787 by Mozart was played the 'second week. .. ,.· ..... , .... ~ .. -:--.·~·· ~-.. -- It is a composition resembling a serenade or sometimes (by Mozart) a divertimento.

Not his most serious music, this is an informal, charming piece, performed frequently by various groupings. The recording that the students heard was a small chamber orchestra. Several of the students thought that they might have heard the music before.

The first of the Global Music was played the '-,third w~~k:) Island of Ghosts is ~-- - - ~ .- -.. ·...... •. - -~ · ' · written and performed by , a from Madagascar. The tempo of his music varies, but it is primarily a moderate to fas.t ~peed. His music is popular,m nationalistic music. He -sings about the island of Madagascar and its culture, geography and proverbs. Instruments are traditional, with African percussion instruments.

...... ,- ~-~ Lisandro Meza, performing Lisandro 's Cumbia, was played thE{fourth week.) "" Cumbia style music is the traditional big band dance music of Colombia. It has a very Latin sound, combining Dominican merengue, Louisiana zydeco and Tex-Mex norteno. The music is sung in Spanish and is very upbeat.

---~~"--..., The (ifth weeR, the students listened to the music of the Toure Kunda Collection ' ' ( ~ - . ..:...... ~-. ·.· "• .. :; __ from Senegal. This music has a quick tempo: The group sings of national legends, :.;;r;;:: ,• ,, tributes to people and provinces, prayers and stories. It is a group of brothers, who blend African, Latin, Brazilian and pop music to create a very individual - -- · sound. They use both African instruments and Western instruments, including the electric bass and .

Grieg is a Norwegian composer. His music is very nationalistic, celebrating 26 the flocculates and music of his native Norway. Written during the 1870s, the Peer

Gynt Suite includes the familiar In the Hall ofthe Mountain King and Morning, which several of the students had heard before. While Morning is relatively slow, and In the

Hall of the Mountain King is written in a minor key, the two pieces were very attractive to the students. 27 Chapter 4

Results

The hypothesis of this thesis is that music being played in the classroom will have a positive impact on the focus, or on-task behavior of the students; that is, that students will be more engaged in their work when listening to music than they are when the room is silent. The results of this research appear to verify the hypothesis of the researcher. Playing a selection of music for middle school students in a special education setting seemed to enhance the work accomplished more than either the use of headphones, with student chosen music being played, or silence in the classroom.

While the results varied weekly, when either classical or world music was played, students were more engaged in their work (at an average ratio of 6.13 engaged: 1 not • _,...... ,.__.-_-- -,.:.,- _~-. ·· ..,.. ~"- ~ <:.' '··· ·· ·' -...,;1 ....., ...... r .: ' ' • engaged) than on the days that the students chose music to be played through their headphones (3.74 engaged :1 not engaged). More students were also engaged when •C - · - -- " - · - -~ --· ~-- ·-- -- . -- • ~:~ : - •• music was played either throughout the classroom or through their headphones than were when the classroom was silent (2 engaged: 1 not engaged). See Figure 1 for comparison of student response to teacher chosen music.

Engagement Analysis by Students

With a small group of 10 students, a very few students can have a major impact on the results of a study like this. •. Student D, ''With multiple disabilities, including difficulty focusing, was often more interested in the functioning of the CD player being used than in the math work being presented.

If,student F were asked why slhe attends The Winston School, that student would probably respond "The headphone policy." Certainly it would be one of the student's main reasons, although the parents would strongly disagree. The student is 28 extremely attached to the CD player ar:t

. ~:...... -~.;"--· . ~- .1 ------extensive vocal training, opera parts, spirituals, and patriotic . The student feels that s/he is an expert on most music, and often wanted more information on what was being played, who were the musicians, what were the instruments, where it had been performed, and so on. Certainly, this may have been

; ~ -- at least partially an avoidance technique - talking about music being preferable to math for this student.

Analysis of Dimensions of Music

The author is intrigued by the comparison of student engagement when classical music is played versus world music. Previous research (Rauscher, 1993) suggests that the music of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, the 18th century European composer, enhances student performance on specific spatial testing. Although the effect is short-lived, many have translated the "Mozart Effect" into a suggestion that the listening to music by Mozart may enhance intelligence. Although the current study was short, it was interesting to see if classical, traditional, European, music would be more beneficial than the more unfamiliar music of Senegal, Colombia and

Madagascar.

Surprisingly, the highest ratio of engaged:not engaged students was in response to the music of Madagascar (8:1) and Senegal (27:0). Again, Figure 1 compares student . . response to the various styles of music played by the teacher. The music ofSenegal was the only music that was universally engaging to all students present on that day ...... -'"~ .. _...... ~... , ...... __ , ___ ..... ·'' ... "- ...... , -·---· ., _, . .. ··-.,· 29 The music of Senegal, the Toure Kunda Collection, is lively music in a major key. It is moderately fast-paced.

The highest ratio of engagement among the three selections of classical music was

... ~· ~ -... -~--- .,__, - ~~ . during the selection by Edvard Grieg, the Norwegian composer 21:1 ). This was also the music that was the most familiar classical music. Students were familiar with the

"Morning" and "In the Hall of the Mountain King" selections. The Bach (3.66:1) and Mozart (3.2:1) were lower than the lowest world music selection, Colombia

(4:1).

This study suggests the positive impact of music, whether classical, world or student chosen, on the middle school students' engagement with their math class work when compared to their engagement in a silent classroom. Figure 3 compares the response of students listening to music as compared to the same students working in silence Looking at research done in the area of music's impact on cognitive function, and combining it with the results of this research shows the importance that music can play in the classroom. While the original thought of the author was that classical/world music would prove to be the most beneficial, results suggest that as the success of the students' use of CD players increased over the six weeks, student chosen music could approach the benefits of the teacher chosen music. The final two weeks' results for student chosen music through headphone was 5.75:1 and 7:1. Figure 4 shows the increasing success of the headphones, as students became more comfortable using them. This is a significant increase for a class of ten students, worthy of further study. 30 Tonality and Tempo

Music played in a major tonality has been linked to the most positive responses in previous research (Husain et al., 2002). In addition, the same study showed a positive relationship between a moderate - fast tempo and mood enhancement.

Music, in this earlier study, has been shown to raise the level of alertness in subjects . ..~~~-,~!.;;;-.:.,.:. ·:--:-- ··-:-: .... ·.·. ~ ·'!"¢· -. ·-: ·-... ~: ~ =- ~ --: ...·:-..-. --·"" .. It is this result, the elevated level of alertness, that many feel is responsible for the increased test scores in the famous "Mozart Effect" studies (Rauscher, 1993). The elevated level of alertness, evidenced by the increase in engagement, appears to be a result of the playing of classroom or individual music.

A rise in level of alertness is clearly a benefit in the classroom. Although not appropriate with whole-class instruction or classroom discussion periods, when a

class room of students is working independently, it is clear that a certain level of alertness is desired if not mandatory. With an appropriate level of volume, a teacher can check work, reinforce concepts, allow independent practice and provide review.

World Music

The world music was being played on the most successful day (27:0). The world music with the lowest ratio was Colombian ( 4:1 )which was higher than the low classical selections. All three selection of world music were played at brisk tempos.

They were in major keys. They were lively, interesting music. Although they were different than the students had heard before, the styles were not distracting or atonal.

I had considered the possibility that vocal music would be more distracting to the students. However all of the world music was vocal. Vocals were sung in the original languages, so students could not understand the words. Perhaps this enabled 31 the students to maintain focus better than when trying to decipher on faster songs sung in English.

Classical Music

Students were less engaged during the playing of music b both Bach and

Mozart. The music of Johann Sebastian Bach, a Baroque composer, is often

------~ - ··· contrapuntal, with many instruments playing what might seem to be differing melodies. The music is actually tightly structured and the melodies closely related.

However, the motion of the music, in seemingly different directions may have been too distracting to this group of students. There is a lot going on in Bach's music. A strong melody with rich harmonies seemed to be more conducive to students being engaged and work being accomplished.

The Mozart selection, Eine Kleine Nachtmusik, is a serenade or divertimento styled composition. It is not Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's most complex music.

The definition of a "serenade" or "diversion" is good. The music is easier to hear and process, perhaps, for a non-music student. It may raise the alertness level of the students, without requiring further analysis about what is happening in the music.

--~--- This music proved to be more beneficial to the students than the Bach selection.

Because this is a very popular piece of music, and has been widely recorded, it is also possible that a few of the students had heard some version of it, although the students did not report that it sounded familiar.

The classical music that was most conducive to engagement was the music by

Grieg. Edvard Grieg's music, in this case, was familiar to most of the students. It was very melodic, beautifully harmonized and played by a familiar symphony-styled ensemble. Although it contradicts the major/minor and fast/slow theories, it was 32 clearly the most successful in contributing to the student work. It could be described as the most simple of the three classical selections. The simplicity may have enabled to students to raise and maintain an appropriate level of alertness without further distraction by the music)_complexity.

Individual Student Music via Headphones

The use of headphone in the classroom is controversial at many schools.

Teachers and administrators are not always able to control the music being heard, with the result of inappropriate lyrics being shared with and played for students who may not understand what is being said/sung, may not approve of what is being said, or who may have parents who do not allow specific music to be played for their student at home or elsewhere. The question becomes something of a censorship issue. However, it is clear from this study that the use of headphones increases most students' alertness and enhances the work period. If the teacher and school are going to allow the use of headphones, and parents agree with this policy, all of the participants, students, parents, teachers and administrators, are going to have to compromise on guidelines for their use. In addition, the use of headphones may be routine, but that use must be contingent upon the continuation of work and lack of distractibility to the student and those around him or her. As with every school rule, common sense and flexibility must prevail.

In this study, the overall ratio of engagement when listening to headphone was

3.74:1. This is significantly below the level ofteacher-selected music, 6.13:1 and above the level for silence, 2:1. The confusion over the use of an unfamiliar CD player must be considered. That was something of a distraction for some students.

Two of the students had not worked with headphones. The headphones can be

------~ -- 33 cumbersome. It can take time to adjust the headphones. Time can be spent trading

CDs. However, for many students they are very helpful in blocking extraneous noise from the classroom, certainly including the instruction being given to nearby students and disruptions of all kinds. Headphone effectiveness was clearly higher by the end of the six-week period@~~-~i-~~~~~ Week by week, the rate was 3:1, 2:1, 2.75:1, 6.5:1, 5.75:1, and 7:1. Teachers who feel strongly about banning the use of headphones should consider these findings. It is surprising to many students, when they start at Winston, that we allow headphone use in class. It is surprising to me that they are often universally banned.

Silence

Although twice as many students were engaged compared to disengaged during the silent periods overall, this rate is still significantly below either the teacher- chosen music's overall rate of6.13:1 or the student-chosen music's rate of3.74. The ratio on the silent days ranged from 1.63:1 to 4.4:1. On two of the silent days the students were engaged at a higher rate than the overall average of engagement while listening through headphones. Those same highest silent days of engagement were higher than the two lowest days for teacher chosen music, 3.66:1 and 3.2:1.

Interestingly, the two low days for teacher-chosen music were the first two times the music was played for the class. This may have had an important effect, as the students were still becoming accustomed to the music/math combination in the classroom. It is my opinion that silence is overrated as necessary in a classroom. I prefer a colleague's description of optimal room noise being a "hum." 34 Classroom Guidelines

The choice between teacher-selected music and student-selected music is difficult for students. A teacher must be able to explain his or her preference for the use of classroom music. Citing research is not always the most convincing for middle or high school students. Allowing for individual differences will be most appropriate.

Music can be played and headphones allowed. If work is not being produced, or students do not appear to be engaged, the music can be changed. If students are aware of the rules, and the justification for those rules, they are like to be followed.

Most effective will be student generated classroom music guidelines. 35 Chapter 5

Discussion

Literature on the inclusion of music in our lives is increasing rapidly Cardiac patients have more successful rehabilitation, students may abandon their racial stereotypes more rapidly. Music enhances the mood of college students, and psychiatric patients. I.Q. Scores on specific tests have been raised by the listening to Mozart. Its raising of the level of awareness suggests an enhancement of success in various areas of our lives.

The hypothesis of this study was that the addition of music is as positive in addition to a special education classroom, as it is to other areas of our lives. Results suggest that more is accomplished when students are listening either to music played in the classroom or music played individually on personal CD players and heard through headphones. It was surprising to this author that the music from the classical repertoire was not the most conducive to work being accomplished. In fact, the "world" music seemed most helpful to students. Overall, listening to music of any kind seems to help students to maintain the necessary focus and on task behavior necessary for successful classwork. That is important news that can be used by all educators.

The author suggests that teachers in most classrooms would find music to benefit students in several ways; namely, the achievement and maintenance of a state of calmness and relaxation most appropriate to the accomplishment of classwork, the blocking of outside stimulation and distraction, and the introduction of new and wonderful musical genres. 36 Optimum Mood for Accomplishment

When students are calm, they are able to accomplish more during the class period.

Most of our students listen to music when working at home. The volume may be higher at home, and the student will probably make all the selections. But, as shown by the study of attitudes towards music (Stratton et al .. , 2003), college students tend to listen to music to accomplish relaxation during most of their daily activities. As a result of this earlier study, "the great importance of music to people may lie in its unique quality of enhancing whatever activity one is engaging in," (Stratton et al.,

2003, p. 14). This habit is certainly started during the middle school and high school years. These same students listen to music while accomplishing many tasks. Music is part of their daily life. It is a mistake for us to try and remove music from a part of students' lives that is so large and so important - school.

Blocking Outside Stimulation

If a student is accustomed to listening to music when working independently

(on homework), the student may have trouble focusing on his or her work in a classroom that is silent. The background sound that classroom or headphone music provides may act as a barrier to distractions that may be occurring around the student. If the teacher is able to play music, the volume and content can be controlled. The concept of controlling music, by only allowing classroom music, is unappealing. But classroom music, as opposed to student chosen music via headphones, avoids the problem of inappropriate lyrics that disturb parents, teachers and administrators. There is plenty of opportunity for students to listen to music that includes lyrics which are objectionable to so many, relating to sex, drugs 37 and violence.

Introduction of New Musical Genres

A separate, very important advantage of classroom music over individual music is that it introduces students to an enormous range of new and unfamiliar music. It is sad and true that the majority of our students are never introduced to the classics.

Music History is rarely a part of the middle school or high school curriculum. What a shame to never hear the music of Bach, Verdi, Beethoven, Grieg and so on. Of course, hearing it the first time is unfamiliar and distracting perhaps. But listened to regularly, this music can add a wonderful new facet to anyone's music appreciation.

Similarly, the addition of world music accomplishes the same thing. How ethnocentric to feel that the music is written by any one segment of the global population is most valuable. Additionally, it is shortsighted to think that only music of certain historical periods is worthwhile. Given an entire year, the classroom teacher can incorporate a large variety of music styles to classroom music, including

American jazz, classic rock, musical, theater and so on. Students can be encouraged to--- introduce the class, including the te~cher, to new and different music. Students asking to play their music for the classroom should be urged to find music that will not be objectionable to anyone, including, but not limited to parents, teachers and administrators.

If a teacher found himself or herself with students who could not concentrate with any sound, and we must admit that those students exist also, headphones might be the only option in that particular classroom. The use of headphones can be in two ways. Students that are helped by listening to music can play their own music via headphones. If that is not the best solution, teachers might want to consider the 38 use of headphones as a silencer for students who cannot tolerate classroom music being played.

Teachers, and others, should investigate the use of music in the classroom and/or workplace, as a means to enhance performance, maintain appropriate mood and increase productivity. If headphones are going to be used, rules for their use should be developed by the class, in order to have the most successful classroom environment, making constant rule enforcement by the teacher unnecessary. The author looks forward to the continuing inclusion of music of all types in the classroom. 39 References

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Figure 2. Percent of Students Engaged when Listening to Teacher Chosen Music, Student Chosen Music or Silence

90 ~------

85 ~ 80 +----.

75 -t------t 70 +----t

65 +------1 60 +------1

55 -+-----~ 50 +------1

45 -1------j

40 +------1

35 -t------r 30 -+------1 2 5 -+------1 20 -+------1

15 --t------j

10 --t------1

5 -+------1 0 t Teacher Chosen Music Student Chosen Music Silence

Figure 3. Percent of Students Engaged when Listening to Music or Working in Silence

85 ~------so -~------~ 75 +-----1 70 -1------r 65 -1------1 60 -1------1 55 +-----1

50 -~-----~ 45 -1------1 40 -1------1 35 +-----1 30 -t------1 25 -1--- - -1 20 -1------1 15 +-----1 10 -1-----1 5 -1------1 0 . -·' . }. Music being played in the classroom or Silence through Headphones ~

Figure 4. Increasing Engagement of Students using Headphones

90 !- 85 I '

80 I' ' 1- , - 75 I ,. I 70 - , : '\ - I 65 f-- ' I ~ - I I I 60 I-' ,. - I I 1- , - 55 I 1-' I : - 50 I' ' I 45 1- i ' - : I I 40 - · 1------I ' I I '- 35 - I : I ! ' 30 - ' ' I ' ·- I '

25 - I - I 20 - ' I - I I ' ( I I 15 - i I ·- 10 - I l - I - I f ·· - 5 I I 'I i 0 . - Week 1 Week2 Week3 Week4 Week 5 Week6 .j:>.. 0\