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AUTHOR Oliver, Wendy, Ed. TITLE Dance in Higher Education. Focus on Dance XII. INSTITUTION American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, Reston, VA. National Dance Association. REPORT NO ISBN-0-88314-521-9 PUB DATE 92 NOTE 126p. AVAILABLE FROM AAHPERD Publication Sales, 1900 Association Drive, Reston, VA 22091. PUB TYFE Information Analyses (070) -- Collectod Works General (020)

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS Adult Learning; *College Faculty; *College Students; *Curriculum Development; *Dance Education; Higher Education; *Program Improvement; *Teacher Education Programs; Teaching Methods IDENTIFIERS *Choreography; Historical Background

ABSTRACT This monograph opens with an historical overview of dance in higher education from 1887-1991 and then focuses on issues for the 1990s. The publication is divided into five sections: (1) "Current Perspectives: Over7iews of the Field" discusses what constitutes an appropriate dance education at the college level; (2, "Teacher Education" calls for program improvement, consistency among technical, conceptual and pedagogical knowledge, Ow need for a discipline-based approach to teaching dance, incorporation of African-American dance history into the curriculum, and integration among the arts in order to promote better understanding of dance competition;(3) "College/Adult Beginners" addresses strategies for studio classes based on 1.,rinciples of learning, introduces self-teaching into technique classes, describes the challenges in working with adult-beginner ballet students, and talks about an experience in which a university community became involved in dance; (4) "Teaching Choreography" takes an historical view of the dichotomy between process and craft; and (5) "Faculty Issues" focuses on the problems of tenure and promotion, presents a survey on dance administrators, and discusses mentoring among dance faculty. The document contains 18 papers. (LL)

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Points of view or opinions slated in this docu ment 00 not necessarily represent official TO THE EDUCATIONALRESOURCES 0E141 POSItiOn or pOlity IIFORMATION CENTER(ERIC)"

2 BEST COPY AVAILABLE FOCUS ON DANCE XII

Dance in Higher Education

Wendy Oliver Editor

A Project of the National Dance Association

An Association of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance EDIMIt's NOTE ON FOCUS ON DANCE XII This monograph, Dance in Higher E(/14CU(imE, was compiled during 1991. A Call for Papers was made public over a simonth period, and the deadline for subnUssions was January 31, 199 I. Papers submitted were then blind-reviewed by a panel of four highly qualified readers from the field of dance in higher education. I wish t.o thank these readers for their time, dedication, and insight. This volume would not have been possible without them. Wendy Oliver Editor

('OVER CREDIT: Mark Wheeler teaches a dance class in the Department of Health, Physical Education, Recreation iind Dance, ljniversity of Georgia, Athens.

Copyright1 992, American Alliance for Ilealt h, Physical Educat ion, Recreat ion and Dance 1 900 Association Drive Reston, Virginia 22091

ISBN Contents Introduction, by Wendy Oliver

Current Perspectives: Overviews of the Field Dance in Higher Education: Out of the Picture or Into the Fray, by Edrie Ferdun 7 A Prismatic Approach to Analysis of Style in Dance as a Paradigm for Dance Education, by Betsey Gibbons 1 2 Dance Education at the Selective Liberal Arts College, by Lynn Malluck Brooks 19 University Dance: Some Questions, by Jan Van Dyke 27

Teacher Education 3:3 Content Knowledge in Dance Education, by Sy trie Fortin 35 Dance Education Degree Programs in Colleges and Universities, by Karen Cleniente 41 Prospects for Planned Change in Dance Education, by Francine Lee Morin 47 Afrocentric Forms in 20th Century American Dance History. Transforming Course Content and the Curriculum, by Julie A. Kerr 5:3 Dance MATERIAL (Dance, Mu:,ic, and Art Training and Education Resulting In Aesthetic Literacy), by John R. Cranfi)rd 64

College/Adult Beginners 73 Developing Skills in Dance: Considerations for Teaching Adult BeginncnI. by Ca r91 A. Wood and Susan Gillis-Krununt 75 Student as Teacher, Teacher as Student, by Gail Lee Abrams 80 Ballet I Curricular Design in Higher Education, by Carol J. Soleau 84 Serving a Broad Dance Community in Higher Education, by Elea in» Wtisman 89

Teaching Choreography 93 The Integration of Process and Craft in the Teaching of Modern Choreography: A Historical Overview, by Carol M. Press 95 Observation and Criticism in the Choreography Class. by La rry Lla,ender 101

Faculty Issues 107 Tenure and Promotion of Dance Rwulty, by Jessica Wood 109 Management Competencies for Dance Administrators in Higher Education, by Erlyne E Whiteman 114 Benign Neglect: Issues in Mentoring, by Kellry Pierce-Byrd 118

tii Introduction Wendy Oliver Brief Historical Overview of Dance in appeared in the physical education lit erat ure. Higher Education Henry Taylor. in his article "The Dancing Foot." said:

It has been a little over a century since the earli- . .the new dancing must be hygienic; it est dance programs were established in higher edu- must be gymnastic; it must be recreative; it cation in the United States. Since that. time, dance must be expressive and it !mist illust rate t he p. 218) in higher education has seen tremendous growth highest stan(lards of beauty. (in O'Brien, and change. Each era of university dance education Educator Luther Gulick was leading the reform since 1887 had a dominant issue, or issues, around of physical education for children, advocating which educators rallied. The record of these con- dance as a beneficial and necessary activity cerns has been kept in the publications of Own. (Chapman, 1974) and was the first educator to respective times. write a book about dance (O'Brien. 19.. 6). During t he years between 1905 and 1917. folk dance 1887-1900 became popular in higher education, co-existing with aesthetic dancing. This was a change toward Most dance educators associate the year 1926 social rather than personal expression, Meanwhile, ith Margaret H'Doubler's great accomplishment Isadora Duncan was performing in Europe, but. her of establishing the first dance major in higher edu- work did not appear to directly affect dance educa- cation at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. tion at that time (O'Brien). In 1915, Jacques However, fewer or us are aware that in 1887, Dalcroze's eurythmics, or music interpretation.

Dudley Sargent established the . arvard Sumnwr came to the fore in dance education. The impor- School, a normal school which included dance tance of expressiveness in dance eclipsed the within its physical education program. This school notion of physical fitness or grace. and others like it were established for the sole pur- During the years 1918-1932, dance expanded pose of physical education preparationfor female significantly through the "new.' physical education, teachers; although men taught the courses, only which valued what was natural. expressive, and women took them. The rationale for including educational. The center of activity was Teachers dance (called dancing caaist hen ics or aesthetic College, Columbia University, where Gertrude dancing) in the curriculum stressed grace man- Colby created and taught "natural dance.- based on ners, and physical fitness (O'Brien, 1966). her synthesis of ideas from Duncan and Dalcroze However, grace and fitness were not tlw only (Chapman, ! )71). It was at Teachers College that qualities valued during this time. The influence of Margaret If Doubler was trained. Francois Delsarte's ideas o; expressiveness II'Doubler's dance major, established under the through movement were strongly feltat the auspices of the Physical Education Department at larvard program. and this notion was "at the lead- the I.Tniversity of Wisconsin, stressed creativity and ing edge of ideas about dance- (O'Brien, P. 216). personal growth, founded on a biological under standing of the body. Although she called her styl,. 1900-1930 "interpretive dance," it was actually a part of the emergence of what became modern dance. which 1905 wasthe first year dance was the main sub- rejected both ballet and aest het ic dance (Chapman, jectof discussion atthe conference of the 1971). American Physical Education Association.It was Also during the late twenties,dance educators also t he year when seven articles about dance attended the performances of Martha Graham.

6 Doris Humphrey, and other artists, and enrolled in 1950-1980 their courses. The teachings of these great dancers then began to permeate I he schools. In the fifties and early sixties, a nukjor focus was ('ommunication through dance became the the location of dance programs within the univer- byword. However, not all educators agreed that an sity setting. Many programs initially considered artist-based approach was appropriate in an educa- becoming departments on their own, later deciding tional setting ',O'Brien, 1966). that such action would be impractical. Soon after, dance educators expressed conflict over nmving 1930-1950 into fine arts areas versus remainirg in physical education. The resolution of this issue was that The National Section on Dance was established . . . dance was an autonommis discipline in1932, as a part of the American Physical and must stand on its own feet, hopefUlly Education Association, and signaled an effort by maintaining good relations %with all its asso- dance educators to determine what dance in educa- ciated areas. This did not mean that most tion should be. The purpose of the Dance Section, dance prog-ams went out of physical edu- cation, but that the position had been as stated by Chair Mary O'Donnell, was finally accepted intellectually, and the trend . toromote the constructive develop- was in the direction of autonomy wherever ment of all types of dance in education, and dance was located. (Griffith, 1975, p. 3 I) to provide the leadership essential to the Merce Cunningham and Alwin Nikolais empha- success of such a program. It aims to serve all school levels and all non-school groups sized nonliteral dance, and as they toured college as well. (in O'Brien. 19fi(i, p, 208) campuses with their conlpanies, their ideas began to be reflected in the curriculum. Creativity was The thirties brought about a period of consolida- st ressed. tion and strengthening of the ties between profes- In 1905, the Nation Se,.tion on Dance in AMIPER sional artists and dance educators. Modern dance became the Dance Division, mirroring t he trend WaS seen as a vehicle for the physical. mental, emo- toward autonomy in higher education. Dance pro- tional, and social development of the student , thus grams continued to migrate out of physical educa- legit imizing its place in an educational setting. tion, and by 1973, only 50 percent of all dance pro- Although modern dance was dominant in higher grams in higher education renlained in physical education, tap, folk, square, and ballroom were education departments (Stanich, 1981). also taught: there was disagreement as to the value Many publications on modern and recreational of ballet (Griffith, 1975). dance appeared in t.he 1960s, including Alma During the forties, WWII slowed but did not stop Hawkins' Creating Tbrough Dance (1961). the development of dance in higher education. However, older texts continued to be popular. After the war, the Bennington program founded by According to a survey by Fannie Melcer (1970), Martha Ilill moved to Connecticut College, whew three of t he most used dance texts at that time were artists such as Martha Graham, Doris Humphrey, Curt Sachs's 14'orld History of the Donee (1937), Hanya Hohn, Erick Hawkins, and Jose Limon were Margaret II'Doubler's Donee: Creat ire Art on the faculty. II'Doubler's views on dance contin Viperience (19-10), and Doris Humphrey's The tied to be taught .,tcross the country. and Rudolph Art (4. Mak ina Dances (195) ). The academic Laban and Aileen Lockhart each published influen- aspect of dance began to be recognized when phi- tial books. Dance p,'ogranis were almost always losopher Suzanne Langer wrote abian dance as an housed in pliy,.al ,',I.ncation departments, which art form in the late 1960s. varied in their million nent to dance. There was great concern about the lack of Walter Terry, dance editor for the Neu' York research in dance. Educators became aware that Herald-Tribune, pub ished a report on dance ill witInnit a body of research and publications. their higher education in 1918. While modern dance, held would not be highly regarded by the rest t no folk, and square dance were On the upswing, tap academic community. In addition to voicing its con- and ballroom declined somewhat (Griffith, 1975). cern about research, the Dance Division also The need for a st.rong dance pedagogy generated pointed to three other problems of the time: "train- efforts to create a framework that wimld prove use- ing quality teachers. getting men into the field. and ful to all educators, whether in dance, physical edu- establishing dance as a discipline on all campuses- cation, or general education (Evan, in ( 'hapman. (Griffith. 1975). 197,1).

.) An issue of concern during the sixties and seven- must prepare for a "second career" (Collins-Head, ties was the disagreenwnt over what styles of mod- 1987). ern dance technique should be taught incolleges. "Multiculturalism" becaine an important issue, There were factions who espoused the "old- the thrust of which is that dance education must fashioned" techniques of Graham and Humphrey, begin to seriously incorporate dance concepts and and others who preferred the approach of styles from many cultures if it is to remain relevant Cunningham or Nikolais. During this time, accord- to future student bodies. As it stands now, most ing to researcher Diana Stanich, dance programs are centered around modern dance, generally a white, middle-or-upper-middle the literature indicated that an effective dance mitjor should include a variety of dance forms. class art form that does not necessarily reflect the The pro em lies in dance faculty being trained values of other cultures. Since minorities in the in onl iw specialty of dance, or trained in only United States will become more and more preva- theor tical or historical aspects of dance. The lent, dance educators have noted that it is impor- findings from this study suggest training teach- tant to create dance education that takes into ers of dance to teach at lemt three types of dance. Some dance programs solved this prob- account different frames of reference. lem by having professional dancers to teach Hiring, tenure and promotion, and gaining legiti- workshops in specific dance forms. (1981, p. macy and recognition in academe have continued 157) to be viewed as problematic. As "degree inflation" Anot her issue was that of academic degree has taken hold, colleges and universities have requirements. Many professional dancers were upped their hiring requirements, some as high as teaching within higher education without. the the doctorate, for jobs that are primarily teaching "proper credentials." This continued to be prob- service classes. The struggle to equate creative lematic in the eighties and was linked to the notion work with publications continues in faculty bids for t hat dancers should be taught the academic side of tenure and proimaion. Even at universitieswhere dance, as well as technique and composition. The creative work is accepted in rank and tenure deci- issue of research continued to be debated, with sions, the standards by which this work is judged s(une educators feeling that all creative efforts are ma always clearly defined. shomld be directed toward performance and chore- ogra)hy and others feeling the need or desire to Issues for the 1990s legitimize the field through publications (Stanich, 1981). The subjects chosen for this issue of Focus on For students aspiring to perform. it was gener- Dunce reflect the current concerns of its authors. ally accepted that professional studios, not col- and by inference of higher educators across the leges, were the best places to train. Most dance country. It is interesting to note that many contem- programs up through the early 1970s believed that porary coiwerns in the field actually have precur- t he main focus of dance in higher education was to sors in earlier times. t rain teachers, not performers. although there we, e The discussion of what constitutes an appropri- some exceptions to this rule (Stanich, 1981). ate education in dance at the college level (cer- Ethnic and jazz dance became more visible on tahdy an ongoing theme thr(iugh the decades) is campuses during the seventies, and ballet gained the f()cus of foer papers. Edrie Ferdun writes about reacceptance as the decades-long feud between t he current roles and future directions of dance ill ballet and modern dance died down. Dance anthro- higher education, explaining her vision of a disci- pology, dance therapy. and dance exercise became pline that would recommit to social mncerns as a part of college educat U in. part of its overall mission. Betsey Gibbons advo- cates moving away from mmpart mentalizat ion and 1980-1991 t echnical training to embrace a nuire pluralistic framework. Lynn Matluck Brooks discusses the sit- Since the early eighties. ballroom, folk. and tap uation particular to dance in the small, liberal arts dance have cont limed to thrive. and jazz dance has college. Jan Van Dyke reacts against the "conserva- zmaned to in pularit y: however, nualern dance and tory approach- in dance training that effectively ballet have (lint inued to form t he (.ore ()I dance cuts dancers off from many of their intellectual prograins. More dance programs have !wen geared capacities. All of these aut hors are suggesting that toward training professnmal dancers than ever a holistic approach be consideredonethat before: however, there is an awareness t hat dancers exposes students tmore t han "dance training." Quality teacher education was mentioned as a four papers. Susan Gillis-Kruman discusses her strong concern for ..he National Section on Dance strategies for studio classes based on principles of in the 1960s. Here, it is discussed by three authors learning. Gail Lee Abrams has introduced "self- who still see room for improvement. Sy lvie Fortin teaching" into her technique classes with excellent calls for consistency among technical, conceptual, re:,ult.s. Carol Solea i describes the particular chal- and pedagogical knowledge in teaching dance. lenges in working with adult-beginner ballet stu- Karen Clemente writes that dance education dents, sharing with the reader her own personal degree programs have actuallydeclinedin number design for teaching. Eleanor Weisman talks of her in the recent past, and speculates on the possible experience at the University of North Dakota and causes behind this trend. Francine Lee Morin how she wa.s able to involve the university commu- stresses the need for a discipline-based approach nity in dance. to teacher education carried out through inservice In the area of teaching choreography, Carol teachers. Press takes a historical view of the dichotomy that Tied to the theme of multiculturalism is Julie has occurred between process and craft, and urles Kerr's paper on Afrocentric dance. Kerr points out composition teachers to examnine the philosophies the strong influence that African-American dance underlying their curricula. Larry Lavender sug- has had on the history of dance in this country and gests that "Did you like it?" is an inappropriate suggests ways for incorporating this information question for composition class and carefully out- into the curriculum. John Crawford asserts that lines an alternate way of proceeding. integration among the arts promotes a better Finally, faculty issues were the focus of three understanding of dance composition. lie has authors. Jessica Wood writes about the problems of designed an approach for improving aesthetic liter- tenure and promotion. Erlyne \Whiteman presents acy through the combined study of art., nmsic, and her survey on dance administrators, and Kelley dance. Pierce-Byrd discusses mentoring among dance fac- College and adult beginners are the subject of ulty members.

References chapman, S. (1974).Morement education in the Melcer, li!II. (1970). Three surveys of dance resource United States.Philadelphia: Movement Education material.Journal of Health. Physical Education. Publications. Recreation,41(2), 87-88. Collins-Head, S. (1987).Theoretical ,foundations O'Brien, D. A. (1966).Theoretical fimmlat ionsaf dance in higher education from197.5- / 985. dance in American higher education;1885-19:Q. Master's thesis, California State ITniversity at Long Doctoraldissertation,UniversityofSouthern Beach. California. Griffith, B. It (1975).Theoretical foundat ions of dance Stanich, D. (1981),Theoretical .foumlat Unis af dance inhigher educationinthe United States: in higher rducation ;n the United States from 1933-1965.Doctoral dissertation, I`niversity of 1965-19:4. Master'sthesis,CaliforniaState Southern California. I Iniversity atLong Beach.

Wendy Oliver served as editor for this issue of 119Cus onDance. She is a professor at Providence College, Providence, Rhode Island C2918. Current Perspectives: Overviews of the Field

:) 10 Dance in Higher Education: Out of the Pictureor Intothe Fray? Edrie Ferdun

The status of dance in Ow colleges and universi- dance is VieWed as a legitimate art and a viable ave- ties cannot really be separated from Ow status of nue to the milimunity In litany parts of the (I)tuit ry higher education, the society, and the world in college dance productions represent the only Which WC live. ln fact,itis in t he chill climate of opportunities for experiencing live dance perform- war, economic recession. and suspect values that ance. Inside the academic institution dance has questions about the relative importance and posi- developed research, service, and programmatic tion of (lance in higher education now present relationships and affiliations with a variety of themse'ves. As a means of participating in t he departments. Core requirements in the arts and stock taking t hat is going on across t he country, t he humanities that include dance have tended to move following questions are posed. Ilow rooted and dance a little closer to the mainstream of educa- sturdy is the inszitutionalizat ion of dance in higher tional consideration. Dance faculty and their work ethication? Whose needs are being served? What in teaching, research, creative production, or ser- functions and affiliations now characterize dance vice appear to have achieved full standing in most in higher education? Ilow satisfactory are they in inst it ut ions. relation to higher education and tlw society as we Alt lunigh One must certainly conclude that dance attempt to understand t hem today? All of us inside is present,t he question of its relative vulnerability the field of dance must surely spend some time is unanswered. The recency of its establishment reading our situations and looking for what might may make it easiest to root out. There are alimited be III(' handwriting 011 the wall or t he crack that sig- nuinber of tenured faculty commitments. and it has nals new hope. Alt hough each of us faces a unique not been tested philosophically and practically dur- setting, perhaps we sense t he times together. The ing various kinds of social stress. As well as being ohservations I share can be tested against yours. young, dance is marginal in its lack of traditional process may help in finding the next steps support and affiliation with higher status depart- toward t he future of (lance in higher education. ments in the university. Outside higher educati(m, and sometimes within, dance still carries contro- versy and suspicion in its association with the body. Institutionalization sexuality, and nondominant cultural groups, Its pri- mary clientele is female. On the other hand. itis 'rhe1 990s see dance institutionalized more fully these groups Who have animated the culture in than at any time in the history of higher educat recent years, including higher ed,:ation and int his c(nintry. Itis represented in courses, pro- scholarship. grams, 811(1 maj)rs leading to undergraduate and A conservative climate would seem to speak f(n- gratluate degrees, including the doctoral degree. either maintaining what has already been built or

This fact, however, is still noteworthy. Dance, somehow reducing itin keeping with earlier and unlike mathematics or philosophy, is not a subject presumably more essential definitions of the uni- automatically assumed to be a necessary constitu- versity. A more proactive position might see dance ent in academe. Dance performance has found as a source of vitality and seek to redefineand per- expression and a degree of public attention and haps redeploy it toward purposes it IlOW °Illy sug- support in many colleges and universities. The gests but has great capacity to address, such as othei arts and athletics are more prominent. but

7 Populations Served Alt lumgh the dance profession may understand that it continues to have a role as a change agent One of the themes of scholars in the !Wills had to and symbol for women's opportunities, achieve- do with the political nature of knowledge, met Innis. Went ti, and dreams of cultural transformation, and goals. Throughout all processes of perception, tItere is little momentum front wItich to build. It is language and action locations awl implications in the context of Afriran-American studies where related to tuiwer are relevant. How this works in the surge toward dance seems now to have deep our everyday lives can sometimes be obscure. but and social reasons. Beyond 11111liicultural concerns.

someone in dance does not need much prodding to there is a dance, art, communication imperctivc in talk about the role of essentially political factors in African-American culture that speaks for itself, and the status of dance its a field. One of tlw facts that needs to be heard and appreeMted. Dance in higher has been critical to t he birth and growth of dance in education is just beginning I() address those wh;) higher education has been that women make up the see and experience dance in its cultural roles and primary, some!intes exclusive, population served who seek to make visible and powerful the lemacies by dance classes, programs, and professional and visions of t heir communities. The dance Nardin enterprises. ln ()tad:. The DaHre awl supported in 1925 was not only assumed to be for Its Place in Ethwat ion (1.925), itis interesting to women, Ian was associated with "higher qualities," find a foreword written by K. Louise Nardin, dean of "good music," and the absence of "individual s('lf- women at the l'niversity of Wisconsin al Madison, striving" p. xiii, xiv). How lingering is Presumably her support played a role in the :wcom- this elite concept in the institutional setting? plishment of the first dance major in that p(Tiod. Modern dance has worked its way toward multiple Nardin spoke exclusively of WOIllell'S education in definitions. Various kinds of democratization have her rationale for dance. "I'he alliance among taken place. but the whole field of dance as a .sub- women, ot ten in women's colleges Or in sex sepa- ject matter, method. and cultural practice needs to rated departments of physical education, gener- alert itself to factors t !tat may bear on its definition, ated the power to propel dance through its first access, and appreciation. Race, social class. eth- st ages. nic. political, and sexual orient at ions may be classi-

InI 95). unlikeI 99 I, the force of women was fications that need special study not only to fill out clearly circumscribed; unique opportunities for the picture of who is being served in dance in collective expression came together m the sym- higher education but also to ensure against the pre- bolic worlds ()I' sport and dance. As women have clusion or promotion of particular groups or ideas become more integrated into the assumptions and simply hy %irtue of the unexamined traditions of activities of higher education. the role of dean of the history ()I' dance in higher education. women luts faded and most colleges and depart- ments are not explicitly identified as male or female. The current affirmative action officers and Functions and Affiliations special services designed for women and women's studies departments appear not to have agendas Alt hough there are issues ()I power, social con- I hat include dance or dancers. There has been text, and historical moments and figures. these remarkable silence fnum women's studies in the need to be seen in their translation int.) the func- realm of dance. Conferences and workshops, even tions, programs. and working units that make up in the arts, are repeatedly held with little or no cov- our current enterprise. Dance in connection with erage of dance. Like dance. which had to work very physical education ltas a long history ()I' concern hard to define itself as a discipline and professional 11' the well-being ()I' students in colleges and mil- huid distintfroln the populations most involved in % ersit ies. The need for activity, as such. and the it, sowomen's st tidies seems to need to define itself basis for valued accoeolishment have mach.' stutho in terms of the nuist recognized. potent, and explic- work the most fundamental ground for thinking itly ilseful departments and functions in higher about dance in higher educat ion. Professional education. Unless dance academics strive ltard to dance artists, leading choreographers. and dancers construe dance into frameworks understandable (nit side higher education ltave been an integral and and appreciated by t he articulate and energetic inspirat ional part ()I' shaping the dance activities to leaders affiliated with women's studies, there is lit- the art()I' the times. It was Alma Hawkins who tle to expect in the way of automatic support for acknowledged the diverse and sometimes divisive dance from org.nized bodies of Women On campus. energies of artists and teachers in the colleges and

8 1 2 44"

Ballet students in the dance program at Kent State University's School of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. Developing dance artists

and dance art in relation to _+11111111... other arts has become a primary function of dance programs in higher education. Photo by University Photographers.

responded by placing dance clearly in the middle of exclusive ground with which to articulate needs to the important educational thinking of the time in be questioned. MEN programs dream and work for her book, Modern Dance in Higher Education a world where artists are valued andrewarded in (1954). Dance as a comprehensive subject was not some adequate measure for theircontributions. assumed; college programs meant (lancing experi- Federal, state, charitable, and upiversity support is ences and creative experiencesfor a range of very basic to this assumption; the current eco- learners. nontic situation inspires little confidence. Continuing development toward the performing While dance was Dooming as a performing art in arts, however, is readily apparent today in ourBFA recent decades, the institution of educationand and WA programs. Developing dance artists and other more service oriented fields have undergone dance art in relation to other aas has become a pri- various kinds of decline. Colleges of education and mary function. Ilannah Wiley, in anarticle in the professional preparation programs have often Chronicle of Maher Education (1989), sees this found themselves having to retreat and defend. function as having been our dominant agenda and Karen Clemente (1990) found in a national survey, makes a case for further development and integra- which included 134 college and university depart- tion of dance programs wit ht he professional ments, that many had discontinued their dance world. Bringing professional dance into greater educitt ion degree programs because of limited job relation to university programs seems laudible, opportunities in public schools. The philosophy seeing thc arts establishment as the primary or and practice of dance education, however, was still considered important and 77 percent of the From another direction, the human potential responding schools offered courses. The majority movement, holistic health concerns, and the accu- also danced for the public schools while interacting mulating theory and practice from East and West in only minor ways related to more fundamental that dancers often refer to as the body therapies, programmatic exchange. Dance preparation in the give another hilosophic framework and career context of physical education persists in some vision to socially and personally concerned danc- form, even though the connection to dance depart- ers. In an earlier period dance therapy successfully ments cannot be assumed. The Clemente survey institutionalized itself in relation to various medi- corroborates the impression that the physical edu- cally oriented contexts, as well as individual prac- cation curriculum in the public schools is the larg- tice. Somatic educators and dance scientists may est purveyor of dance. well seek to define special programs that may or There has, of course, been significant movement may not stay intimately associated with dance as toward dance specialists and dance certification we know it. Dance departments have not been par- across the country, hut progressive institutionaliza- ticularly necessary for many of the developments tion remains t.o be seen. Positive development that are surrounding dance. It remains to be seen along this line has profound implications for dance how the dynamics of dominance at the institutional in higher education. Despite the significant leader- level will shape t he framework and role of dance. ship from many dance educators in colleges and universities, it is not :dear to what extent dance in Possible Directions higher education seeks to affiliate itself with educa- tion or with the social agenda that seeks to reno- These times can certainly be read in a variety ot vate and revitalize the nation's schools and chil- ways anti can lead us to an array of strategies to dren. Is dance strong enough as a subject matter meet the potentials we ascribe to ourselves. The old and performing art in higher education to allow the needs that arise out of looking at the health and kind of participation, commitment, and contribu- vitality of the peol 'e not only remain but shout tion that it might want to provide'? Who will pay the their claims on our attention. Fantasy and play, hills for investing in the future of education'? Are touch and physicality, live interaction, discipline the affiliations with other arts educators, physical and creativity, group work and appreciation of dif- educators, and mainstream education sufficiently ference all seem even more necessary than in previ- developed to predict a way for dance to work? ous periods. ''he needs for sound somatic orienta- The commercialization of much of what in the tions and personal and social stability in the face of past had been associated with public institutions persistent stress suggest ritualized dance activities has created for dance a wider marketplace within be valued. Needs for self-help and growth suggest which to understand itself. Although I am not aware creative, integrative approaches informed by an of dance programs shifting markedly toward prepa- expanded base in psychology. ration for exercise, aerobics, and fitness centers or The virtuosity expected of the professional toward media, advertising, and other businesses dancer suggosts that long and systematic pathways using dance as a matter of course, it is apparent be provided for dancers to follow. Yet the multiplic- that dance majors have a variety of new part-time ity .4 approaches characteristic of today's dance jobs anti interests. The exercise science industry, suggests breadth, creative flexibility, and princi- the focus on performance enhancement, and the ples that can be applied across the various worlds role of technology in creating shoes and devices of of body, movement, art, and culture. The latter ori- economic consequence has changed the context of entation may find particular compatibility to uni- dance in society. Affiliation with the sciences, pro- versity purposes because of the resolve of cogni- fessionally in the form of dance science, begins tive dissonances and perspective it presents. again to take dance in the direction of its original Performance anti production, however. demand relationships in the colleges, that is, with the health that preparation be somewhat stabilized at kast for and medically oriented field of physical education. individuals or groups participating in the same This time, however, it is with changed social values kinds of choreography. The situation can be read as and experiences. The foothold physical education a call toward greater specialization along various used to have in the public schools seems to have lines or among t he various roles of choreographer. loosened in some ways. making it more open to pe r fo nue r,atm d iencet ear her, and scholar or successful dance, while also subjecting it again to toward a more unified approach centered on the exclusive preoccupation with exercise. individual or cult tire. In any case, to provide alter-

I° 14 native pathways and to represent different As I see it, dance does have special tignificance approaches means dance departments must have a iil higher education at this time. Part of that signifi- full complement of faculty. Choices must be made. cance is based on the historic refusalof dance to Numbers of students, the relative importance of abandon immeriion in dance experience as a vital various functions of the dance in higher education, form of education. Academe is on the brink of new the potentials for alternative avenues for darwe in rii.'alizations relative to alternative nlodes and the society, and the situational realities and .ds meanings. Dance offers a background of informa- all must play a part in the choices. What will the tion and a new frontier in scientific, cultural, and values be? clinical studies. What dance seems to have forgot- Dance as a performing art, professionally con- ten is the dynamism of commitment to social ceived, seems to excite great numbers of aspiring change and personal integrity that was so vital to students. Concern is sometimes expressed as to the its early years. The present period would seem to advisability of thinking and planning programs in call for movement into the central currents of relation to a star path dream set in view of limita- social concern. By this I mean to confront poverty, tions on fuaire opportunities and remuneration. racism, sexism, holuophobia, agism, fascism, and Audiences for dance have certainly grown, but who the general abuse of life and legacy. The full devel- and how many are involved in a satisfying, econom- opment of dance as a discipline and comprehensive ically sustaining cycle? Placement of dance in the undertaking involving goals in dance as art, real fabric of society and educating for its humanity. and vehicle for education and other enhanced functioning seems to be an emerging human social needs seems to be the most poten- goal. The same could be said for the discipline of tially enduring and ret.ponsible framework for dance within the context of the university. Should it dance in higher education. There is a room for a serve an arts function, beservice vehicle for great deal of variety in emphasis among the various selected populations and functions, or be a subject aspects of dance and dance programming, but.the with the usual assumptions for participation in the full house of consciousness seems to provide the full range of education and research missions? Is it necessary perspective and thechecks and balances time for dance to better fulfill its subject matter to support and direct growth. role in relation to the humanities and to assume Higher education, like the society, is looking more confidently its importance as a socially rele- around for ways to resolve economic dilemmas, not . vant phenomenon? There are many dance depart- always with wisdom or foresight. My sense is that ments fielding courses for the general education staying in the picture of higher education is very curricula of their colleges and universities. Often, important to the development of an enlightened facing a broader range of students encourages sense of culture and is imperative notonly for the fresh definition of dance. Much of the recent devel- growth of dance as a field, but for the success of opment and controversy in the humanities and gen- higher education. I have no doubt that this is a time eral education has changed the ground and the for entering fully and directly into the fray. Our his- appreciation of the knowledges and practices rep- tory has rea(lied us to speak if we can connect pur- resented by the field of dance. posefully to our visions and values.

References

Clemente. K. (1990). Daiwo inpublic education. Hawkins. A. (195.1).Modern dom.(' io higher calico- Spotlight on Dance. I7 ion.NewYork:TeachersCollege.Columbia ll'Houbler, NI. (1925).Tile dom.(' and its place in criti- cal ion.New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. VViley, H. (1989, August. It)), College dance programs must become more fully integrated with theprofes- sional world.Chronicle of Higher Education,B 2-3.

Edrie Ferdun is a professor in the Dance Department atTemple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19121.

5 A Prismatic Approach to Analysis of Style in Danceas a Paradigm for Dance Education Betsey Gibbons

Dance depends on the artistic processes of per- dictable, controlled, and well-defined incremental formers and choreographers to bring its incandes- changes.Transformativechange occuring in an cent phenomenon to life. More and more, these art- open system is exemplified by quantum physics ists are being educated in dance major programs in with its nonpredictable, spontaneous leap; it has colleges and universities. Dance educators must three assumptions:internality, spontaneity,and examine the educative process and seek to answer indefiniteness. Internalityrefers to internal reor- questions such as: What constitutes an education ganizat ion by an active, rather than passive, in dance? What is considered knowledge? How are learner.Spontaiwityis a strong element in this we educating dancers in institutions of higher edu- transformative process; when a transformation cation today? What are the guiding concepts for occurs that allows new perspectives, it .. may occur education in dance? What are the underlying suddenly, spontaneously.Indefinitenessrefers to supposit ions? the concept of ends perceived as ends-in-view rather than predetermined goals. The course must develop its. own path along which students, teacher, Dance and a Postmodern Curriculum and course material undergo transformation, with inquiry and creativity guiding the direction and In a discussion of postmodern curriculum, process of development. William Doll (1989) described three facets of post- An education should be a thoughtfully organized, modern thought that have implications for rethink- cohesive, interconnecting web of experiences ing dance curriculum. These are the nature of rather t.han a omection of narrowly defined and closed es. opensystems, the structure ofsimplic- discrete areas of :;.udy. Penelope Hanstein (198(i) ity is. complexity,andaccumulatice vs. trans- describes a postmodern curriculum for dance as formatorychange. The closed system, exemplified on:7 "which attends to, in explicit ways, the perce)- by the "teacherproof" curricular materials of the tion, exploration, transformation. and discrimina- 1960s, attempts to "protect itself" from fluxes of tion of artistic conceptions while cultivat.ing histor- nature. An open system, on the other hand, uses ical and cultural perspectives, developing the fluxes, pert urbat ions, and anomalies as triggers discerning skills of the critic, and guiding out stu- thatsetoff the individual's internal trans- dents as they seek answers to questions about the formations and reorgan izat ions.Simplicity nature of dance as an art form" (p. 5ti). Dance cur- attemptsto ignore anomalies and other "bumps" on riculum is often, however, polarized into "tech- a smooth, linearly ordered path, whereascomplex- nique" (also called "studio" or "activity") classes it yassumes a web-like reality with multiple inter- and "theory" (history. criticism, aesthetics, etc.) acting forces and views individuals as participants classes, which often seem to have little in common inside the web, rather than as external observers. and even appear to be at odds with each of her. How In complex situations, interactions among inter- do we as educat ors create a sense of education twined elements can produce sudden spontaneous rather than simply administer a series of courses? reorganizations into newer and higher orders of The duality inherent in the concept of "training complexity. ..1ccum141at11 c change assumes pre- the body as instrument" does a great disservice to

1 6 ourselves and our students. Dissecting the person STYLE OF TRF PERFORMER into the three parts of body (which is trained in te(hnique classes), niind (which is taught in theory STYLE Ct.THE VI HECTOR classes), and spirit (which is generally not dealt STY I+ CH A1V. HAPHEN with at all in the e(tucative process) leaves three rtiF PANCE FNENT parts in search of a whole. Technique classes often TY F 6ttNi,E fail to promote the imaginative thinking, inquiry, .4 Wt44 and discovery that lead to the ability to creatively order and make flexible worlds from experiences. t !, Theory classes such as aesthetics and criticism C 1,01 t/ Hut t. F 11 ,a!,et often employ a polarized approach to choreo- Figure 1, Pietorialization of the prismatic approach to graphing and performing, elevating to a superior the analysis of style in dance . position the role of the choreographer and neglect- ing t'a, concept of the performer as a creative indi- integrated person whose creative artistic processes vidual who also employs artistic process strategies. stir a constant change in an ephemeral art form. Students enjoy the immediacy, the "do-ingness" The global model that the author developed from of technique class. Within the total student experi- the prismatic approach is in the form of three-di- (11(T in a college dance major program, a student mensional globe (Figure 2), which represents three will probably spend frmn two to four times the interactive aspects of style (Gibbons, 1989). The number of hours in technique, repertor-and first dimension concerns the artistic processes of rehearsing with dance faculty as in theory classes. the choreographer and the performer; the second Such experiences are most often approached with concerns the qualitative features of the dance work the least openness as closed systems with preset and the genre with whic h it. is associated; and the and tightly controlled outconws. I lowever, tech- Ilnrd concerns changes that occur in these aspects nique, repertory, and rehearsal can pil be opportu- over time. The interaction of these three will pro- nities for educating students in perception, explo- duce, at any time, a dance event that is a unique ration, transformation, and discrimination of gestalt. The first aspect, artistic process, holds the art istic concept ions. most fruitful information concerning dance The globalistic, pluralistic approach of the post- education. modern paradigm for curriculum should form the ARTISTIC basis for the approach to teaching and curriculum. PROCESS :NTKPA-T The total curriculum and individual approaches to CHANGES THROUGH PF1WEEN teachMg must be harmonious and interactive; fac- TIME ART 1 t=, ANt- ulty and students in t he dance program should ct,A1.1 1 AT I %T. strive to approach the educative process by F I ATt'bFt-: attending to t.he perception, expkgation, transfor- mation, and discrimination of artistic conceptions. while cultivating discovery-oriented approaches to the study of dance as an art form. Thus curriculum QUALITATIVE becomes a process of development, a becoming, FEATURES rather than a concrete body of knowledge to be covered; learning becomes "a by-product. of inquiry, not a direct and exclusive goal in itself" (Doll, 1989. 252).

The Prismatic Approach The prismatic approach (Figure 1), originally developed by the author :is a model for the analysis of style in danc, is also appropriate as a post- modern approach to curriculum for dance. The Figure 2. The interaction between the three prismatic approach luis. as its central core and dimensions of the global model: artistic processes, guiding tenet. the unique individual: a complex and qualitative features, and changes through time.

1 3 The Nature of Artistic Process pei former to single out the qualitative aspect which is most intriguing. Four aspects contribute to style in ai -cistic pro- cess (Figure 3). Disposition to act refers to the ini- Disposit km to Act tiative to discover and solve artistic problems; schema refers to how the artist conceptualizes the The disposit ion to act involves formulatinga art form; strategies refer to choices made con- problem. Jacob Getzels and Mihaly Czikszentmihal- cerning the available possibilities; and training yi (1976), in a longitudinal study of creativity in the and temperament refer to the dancer's training in visual arts, differentiate between presented prob- aformthatiscongruentwithpersonal lem situations, in which the problem has a known t emperament. formulation, and discovered problem situations, in Artistic creation is more than a matter of the art- which the artist must first identify or discover the ist skillfully manipulating the medium and is a problem itself: the task is given but the specific much more involved process than simply reproduc- problem must oe found. From an origina! vague ing or "expressMg" an idea. The process of creation idea, previously experienced only as diffuse ten- in art is a conversation or encounter between the sions, the artist must create the concrete statement artist and the medium, a discovery-oriented activ- of a problem. The problem is discovered from ity in which the artist seeks solutions within the within the situation itself, and each artist willper- medium. "Gradually the work 'tells' the artist what ceive and resolve the problem in a unique fashion, is needed. . The process itself yields ideas that This ability to formulate problems is the essential were not a part of the initiating conception" difference between the artist and the craftsmanor (Eisner, 1982, p. 51). Through experimentation, technician. investigation, and discovery, the artist learns about Central to this process is the concept of thinking the work being created. The creative transactions in the medium, what dance theorist Maxine Sheets- that help to shape the idea are the result of the Johnstone (1981) refers to in dance as "thinking in interactions among the idea, the medium, the cho- movement." The painter may think in terms of line, reographer, and the dancer. It is this process of cre- hue, saturation of color; the dancer, in terms of the ative transaction that is interpretation. The inter- organic or geometric shapes of the body, the ineffa- pretation of ideas leads the choreographer and the ble connotations of gestures, or the flow of move-

I T I ON T.D ACT The al-i i i,t e, rs1ve prohlemehr,-enlh'Ili., I 1 Vt! neitot tat ion

H ' a 1 1 e f rn. May ;Ty.ye 7,1 i

W11 t

A N N Tt MP TRAM:- N I: l'T

Figure 3. Ring model of elements that comprise artistic process in dance.

1 S ment, The mental processes of a dancer are not discoveries, will, creativity, and imagination. merely a symbolic way of designating thought but Ballet, on the other hand, has often been referred are the very presence of thought, providing individ- to as a "system" characterized by a sense of tradi- ually ordered information. "In such thinking, move- tion; its relatively long and strong collective his- ment is not a medium by which thoughts emerge tory; and a movement vocabulary, pedagogical sys- but rather, the thoughts themselves" (F. wets- tem, and rules for choreography developed over Johnstone, p. 400). The act of dancing is an infor- cent uries. During the early development of t he mation gathering event for the dancer. Intelligence modern dance "a real dichotomy existed: the ballet in dance includes kinesthetic and spatial intelli- dancers felt themselves disciplined instruments of gence; an awareness of abstract relations of space precision; their counterparts considered them- and tinw; concrete awareness of the movement selves freely creative and self-expressive in(lividu- phrases and body shapes in One part of the dance als. They moved differently, felt differently" connecting with those in another part; the ability to (Cohen, 1983, p. 350). Jazz has often been charac- discover new relationships between movements in terized as highly skillful popular entertainment to various parts of the body while performing; and a be appreciated but not studied (Friesen, 1975; sense of style to harmonize rhythmic spatial quali- (;iordano, 1975), dealing with the )urely physical ties of movement with expressive qualities and and sensual aspect of dance. abstract ideas to create a sense of unity and order These genres exemplify but are not exclusively in a performance (Carter, 198:3). bound to such schemata. Performers or choreogra- phers trained in any genre may conceptualize Schenut dance primarily as an individual point of view developed through individual discoveries, as a Selwma refers to how an artist conceptualizes movement system embodying established ideals tlw art form. This is revealed as a constelkition of subject to stylistic interpretation, or as purely qualitative features emerging through works and physical entertainment using highly skilled per- performances as reflections of personal schemata. formers. This may not necessarily be a result of In dance, each artist has a particular vision of art training in a particular genre; it is more likely that and the art form that helps to sculpt the develop- dancers seek training that closely resembles a per- mental process. Each choreographer explores a sonal schema. unique conception of dance movement, of the dancer, and of the purpose of art , which will be con- St111teflies sistent throughout the choreographer's ()enure: 'that is, the form the dances take is consonant with St rategies involve choices for acting upon tlw each choreographer's creative process, with each aspects of the medium the artist has selected.Tlw one's philosophy of the training and rehearsing particular nature of these strategies and how they required for dance performance, and with each are applied involves slightly different elementsfor One's expectations concerning viewers' responses" each of the interpretive processes of the chorogra- (Foster, 1986, pp. 1-2). In reference to the per- pher, director, and performer. The nature of the former. Selma Jeanne Cohen (198:3) stated that "for choices made during creation in the artsis the dancer to execute the visible dimensions of the extremely c(nnplex. The constraints or rules sug- prescribed steps is not emnigh; that is only part of gested by society and history still leave an enor- the style. The style hes also in the attitude toward nmus number of choices open to the artist,who the movement, which is also an attitude toward would find it impossible to accept all such possibil- life" (p. :350). ities. However, what is chosen can also be seen as One way of ktoking at schema in dance is to rec- the result of what is not chosen. If each dance uti- ognize the genres of moclern dance, ballet, and jazz lized the entire vocabulary of movenwnts or range as general schemata. General schemata arisefront of qualities available, there would be little except the personal schemata of tlw individuals WhO work syntactic arrangement to distinguish one work with and devekp them; individuals develop per- from another. Each dance and each performance is sonal schemata from the general schemata of the made unique by the artist's paring away those qual- genres with which they clumsy to work. ities that do not contribute to the work. During tlw Modern dance has been referred to as "a point of interaction between artist, idea, and medium as the view" (Fraleigh, 1987; Martin, 19(6) and is charac- heuristic process of creation, the artist learns to terized by its individualistic spirit and individual discard what is not essential to clarify the develop-

15 1 9 ing idea. Each choreographer or performer Training and Temperament chooses to eliminate from her or his particular style that which does not contribute to a particular artis- Training and temperament are interactive and tic vision. indivisible in dance. Training in technique is more Strategies may be utilized on two levels: 1) as a than simply increasing speed, flexibility, and endur- genre imposing a tacit set of rules On choreogra- ance. Addressing only the "body" aspect of the per- phers and performers that define what is accept- former clouds an understanding of performance as able in that particular genre, or 2) as personally an active artistic process and strips the performer imposed delimitations, the self-imposed bounda- of the role of artist. More than mere physical bodies ries of the artist's choosing. The first strategical trained in the motional habits of a particular choice for an artist is whether to "follow the rules" school, dancers do not improve technique by sheer of a particular genre or to stretch or break them. "physical" means, by mindlessly repeating the Originality or creativity may thus be of two differ- movement over and over. Itis only when the ent soils. The first sort of originality is the inven- dancer, working in the medium of motion, experi- tion of new rules; the second sort develops new ences a conflict, formulates a problem, and suc- strategies for realizing existing rules. ceeds in resolving the conflict (usuit; ly on a wholly Most style changes have involved the use of kinesthetic level) that technique is improved. novel strategies rather than novel rules, making Training also helps to shape how the dancer con- possible subtle strategic plays. While some artists ceives the act of moving and initiates or motivates have invented new rules, some of the great chore- movement. For example, a port de bras may be ographers have been incomparable strategists, seen as a geometric shape, a relationship between developing new strategies for realizing existing body parts,orasaspatialinvestigation. rules. In general the ballet genre, with its strong Furthermore, training develops a dancer's view of rules, encourages strategists, while the modern or the relationship between the studio educative pro- contemporary genres have been characterized by cess and the dance performance. According to iconoclasts who sought to break the established Susan Foster (1986), "in (Deborah] Hay's class one rules. performs dances, while in Balanchine's class one However, certain modern choreographers such enhances skills; in Graham's class one trains the as Martha Graham, Erick Hawkins, and Merce body, and in Cunningham's class one does the Cunningham achieved longevity by successitilly movement" (p. establishnig a consistent, stable style and develop- The interaction of training and temperament ing new rules, and then becoming strategists. enables each dancer to develop a unique movement. Cverall, successful choreographers in any genre style. For the dancer, the link between self and style are those who have explored and employed, in new is individual temperament. If the dancer's move- ways, forms and procedures established by them- ment propensities are not in accord with or not ful- selves or others. filled by the general movement, style studied, the Performers employ a similar process in the use dancer will often leave that style for another and of strategies; the difference lies in the nature of the will choose a general style which "fits" personal material. For the performer, conveying the dance temperament. Sondra Fraleigh stated that "it is sig- image is a more complex process than simply nificant that movement is the medium of dance and "expressing" oneself or "reacting" to the music. the intentive human body its immanent. source" Conveying the work necessitates developing an (1987, p. 19). Here "intentive" is a key word to understanding of it, then making choices about understanding the artistic process aspect of the how to best convey that understanding. Each performing dancer. dancer approaches the art of performing differ- ently and will find unique qualitative problems of interpretation and realization. Like the choreogra- Summary pher, the performer must find a way to express. through movement, a particular idea. Rehearsals Dance education is often approached in a com- represent a series of successive transformations part mentalized manner. Both the craft-oriented during whkh the dancer transforms the subject approach to choreography and the-wpoint of matter, which may arrive as a movement vocabu- training the dancer's body as instrum, often per- lary or "steps," into the very substance of the work meate a curricular approach to the dance disci- of art. pline, from technique to philosophy courses. In his-

1 6 tory, criticism, and aesthetics courses, theroles of cover and understand the qualitativeinformation the choreographer and the performer are of' inherent in dance, and avenues to creative prob- given different weights or levels of importaii lem-solving can be opened. technique classes often focus on training the danc- Concepts of artistic process must be applied to er's body as an instrument; choreography classes all classes in a dance curriculum. Artistic process often focus primarily on the structural aspects should be applied and used as a basis for teaching composition. choreography as opposed to traditional craft.- Recognizing artistic process and performance as oriented courses in composition (Blom & Chaplin, heuristic processes is essential for a postmodern 1982; Hanstein, 1986). The concept of artistic pro- dance curriculum. In order for critics, aestheti- cess as applied to performance as well aschoreog- cians, educators, artists, and students to make raphy must form the approach to courses in criti- cohesive whole from what are seen as many dispar- cism, aesthetics, and philosophy. ate parts, a cohesive, holistic franwwork isneeded Recognition of the multiplicity of schemata for to provide a way of approaching the studyof dance. dance may enable less "competition" between The prismatic approach, which has artistic process dance styles. Why should a college student. be com- as its core, can illuminate thevital roles that chore- pelled to choose a major in either ballet or modern ographers, performers, and reconstructors play in dance, and why is jazz dance rarely given the legit- creating dance, enable analysis of each part in rela- imacy of its other two sisters? These schemata are tion to the whole, and create a sense of wholeness not mutually incompatible. Each style offers a dif- in the production of this phenomenon. Such an ferent "worldview" of dance, of the interaction of approach also provides a framework for historians, the roles of the performer and the choreographer theorists, and educators for the study of the various and their relationship to the whole of dance. aspects of the disciplMe of dance (see Figure4). Dance educators must seek to recognize and Whereas typically the academic system recog- diminish compartmen:alization within the disci- nizes discursive thought, qualitative thinking as a pline, and replace it with a sense of the intercon- form of knowledge in dance must also be recog- nectedness of the art form as a whole. Dance cur- nized, cultivated, and explored in all parts of dance ricula should be guided by the key characteristics education. Disposition to act, schema, and strate- of postmodern thought that include inquiry ori- gies must be recognized along with training and ented toward discovery, a sense of the interaction temperanwnt so that the students can learn to dis- of aspects of the dance discipline, and an under- standing of process and transformation. It should be envisioned "not as a linear trajectory nor as a Chorographic course (with hurdles) to be run,but as a Process multifaceted matrix to be explored" (Doll, p. 251). Ns,hema Referring to the concept of complex reality as a nt. rat egies ! ernret amen! Porformance web of multiple, interacting forces, we .see that Process t a ining dance can be a means by which the individual .1:14p,.9 II r. moves in a variety of directionssimultaneously: forward to the future, backward to synthesize and ,11a.eqiel t emp, seek to understand former experiences, forward TRI into a deeper understanding of the past; outward to DANCI EVILNT connect and reconnect bonds between the self and others, inward to knit new internal connections Reconstruction Process among the selves of the self; upward todiscover new depths of spirituality andintellectuality, down- .!,ffr. s',Ile., ward to elevate the knowledge of the body. Learning can occur at any time. Life is a fundamen- , 1 ; tally heuristic process. Dance can be a way of accessing that deliciously interactive spiral of experiencing, learning from, and teaching the world. Figure 4. Aspects of style concerned withartistic processes and how they contributeto the unique dance event.

17 References Blom, L.A.. & Chaplin, L.T (1989). The intimate act qf Friesen, (1975). Pereeivirg dance. The Journal qf chorcography. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Aesthetic Education, 9, 97-108. Press. Getzei, & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1976). The creative Carter, C. (1983). Arts and cognition: Performance, criti- vision: A longitudinal .study of problem ,finding in cism, and aesthetics. Art Ethical ion,36(2). 61-67. art. New York: John Wiley and Sons. ohen, S.J. (1983), Problems of definition. In Copeland, Gibbons, R.E.G. (1989). A prismatic approach to the R. & Cohen, M. (Eds.). What is dance (pp. 339-354). a MilySiS of style in dam.e. Eugene, OR: Microform New York: Oxford Iiniversity Press. Publications. W (1989). Foundations for a post-modern curricu- Giordano, G. (1975). Anthology of American jazz lum. Journal of Curriculum Studies,21(3), dance. Evanston, IL: Orion Publishing House. 943-953. Ilanstein, P (1986). On the minim of art making in Eisner, E. (1982). Cognition and curriculum: A basis dance: An art ist lc pmcess skills model hr the teach- JOr deciding what to teach. New York: Longman. ing (11 chWrography. iinpublished doctoral disserta- Foster, S. (1986). Reading dancing: Bodies and sub- tion, Ohio State University. jects in cmitempwary American dance. Berkeley: MartinI. (1966). Modern dance. New York: Dance IJniversity of California Press. Horizons.

Fraleigh, Sit (1987). Dance and the lived body. Sheets-Johnstone. NI. ( I 981). Thinking in movement. Pittsburgh: Irniversity of Pittsburgh Press, Tlw Journal of Aesthetics and ..irt Celt icism, .19, 399-4(17.

Betsey Gibbons is in the Department of Health, Physical Education, and Dance at Washburn University, Topeka, Kansas 66621.

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Students in the dance program at Washburn University. Photo by Paul Goebe! for Washburn 41W,Vrita- University.

1 8 Dance Education at the Selective Liberal Arts College Lynn Matluck Brooks

Education in dance at the small, highly selective and the study of great texts and classical sources liberal arts college can, and should, have goals and (Kimball, 1986, pp. 107, 111, 237-2:38; Bennett, methods distinct from dance in other higher educa- 1984, pp. 4-5). Devised and nurtured as training tion settings. These liberal arts collegeswith for the gentility in the Renaissance and later peri- their small student bodies, high faculty-student ods, a Iles liberates studies themselves were non- ratios, selective admissions standards, limited yet technical, nonmarketable, indeed wholly nonpro- student-accessible resources, and historically fessional (Kimball, 1986, pp. 182-18:3; Winter (t determined curricular focuses (Carnes, 1978; al., 1981, pp. 2-4). But they led to the formaticm of Carnegie Foundation, 1987, p. 22)have a special a type of good citizen-statesman who could both mission in the preparation of students of dance. lead and serve the government. While these colleges may not be the most appropri- On the other hand, the liberal-free ideal is con- ate institutions for training the theatre dance pro- cerned with speculative investigations, free from "a fessional, they can play a special role in the train- priori" standards; it places stress "upon the volition ing of the crucial nondance population that of the individual rather than upon the obligations of supports the presentation and evolution of dance in citizenship found in the artes liberates ideal America. Indeed, liberal arts graduates can serve as (Kimball, 1986, p. 119). This self-expressive and the main body from which educated board mem- intently innovative search for truth, as character- bers, fundraisers, grants officers, publicists, and ized by the liberal-free ideal, is most evident in most importantlyaudience can be drawn. These large research universities where departments roles might not be spotlighted in theatrical posters prize experimentation and new findings. In the or in critical reviews, yet the dance artist cannot arts, this would translate as the creation of new function in today's complex business world (and works and the exploration of new aesthetic and art is business, we have all learne(l) without an edu- technical frontiers. In dance programs at the cated and articulate support structure. higher education level, then, we see that training for the practice of the art and craft of dance can best be accomplished at conservatories or in large The Liberal Arts Context: university departments with the resources and the Goals for Dance philosophical tradition to support innovation and creative explorations. The history of higher education reveals several Within the artes liberates tradition, however distinct philosophies that have, historically, deter- characterized by the humanist concern for classical mined goals, curriculum, and pedagogy. Bruce texts, language, and valuesthe student was and is Kimball has lucidly analyzed these in terms of the traditionally prepared for a broad understanding of "(rites libemles" ideal, the "liberal-free" ideal. and cult tire, aesthetics, history, and ethics and also for the accommodations these two Opposing ideals the articulation of values culled from this cumula- have made throughout the history of higher educa- tive study. The study of the liberal arts, then. pre- tion in Europe and the United States. The liberal pares the leading citizen for a role as statesmanand arts ideal concentrates on the handing down of orator, shaper and articulator of public policy,by knowledge, tlw appreciation of received wisdom, establishing a hist orically justifiable basis for anal- ysis, evaluation, and integration of information. This base need not be forever backward-looking; it serves, rather, as a springboard for application, decision, and actionin the presentThe develop- ment in the student of taste, values, and mental acuity, which has been the ideal of liberal arts edu- cation, surely speaks directly to those in educa- tional circles today who call for the nourishment of "critical thinking" and "values education" among students of all levels. These sorts of buzz words are not new in educational parlance. The ability of the liberal arts curriculum to meet these sorts of needs has been a longstanding argument of the defenders of thea des liberatesideal (Kimball, 1986, p. 151; Mayhew, 1962, p. 6; Winter et al., 1981, p. 27). It cannot but be clear to any who are employed within the American higher education system that these two educational "ideals" are ,just thatideals that are rarely achieved in reality. As Kimball stresses throughout his book, accommodations on both sides of the higher education divide have been made. For example, many faculty members and administrators within the institution of the liberal arts college now believe strongly in new research as a support for the good teaching and student preparation that they continue to prize. Similarly, many large universities continue to champion some model of liberal arts education and to establish separate colleges of liberal arts or of humanities within the larger structure of the uni- versity I do not intend here to argue for the superi- ority of any one modelbe it an ideal or an accom- modation. Rather, I would like to point out that returning to a traditional &flint ion of thea rtes lib- eratescan well serve our thinking in planning dance curricula and in devising goals for dance education at the selective liberal arts college. The studies embraced by the liberal arts curricu- lum are the humanities, which include the history. criticism, and theory of art (Bennett, 1984, P. :3). This places the liberal arts curriculum in a sphere separate from the training of specialists, profes- sionals. and techniciansI hose who actually make or produce the art. The liberally educated person, t hen, is skilled at "the analysis and discrimination of values"including aesthetic quality (Kimball, 1986, p. 197), and is capable of asking penetrating questions about life, art, and ethics. William J. Bennett has articulated some of these questions: What is justice? What should be loved? The liberal arts college provides a broad base of What deserves to be defended? What is cultural knowledge and helps students develop c(airage? What is in ible? What is base? Why skills in evaluation and discernment of quality. do civilizations flourish? Why do they Photos from Providence College by Alan W. Bean. decline? ( 1 )84,

2() These are the questions the educated person ance. This training is, in fact, generally best accom- must be able to ask and ponder if he or she is to have plished elsewhere and does not necessarily need to any appreciation of art as a sphere oflegitimate be gained within the realm of higher educational inquiry and expositkm. Performer-choreographer institutions at all. Meredith Monk, one of te great synthesizers of While liberal arts collegeslike many other insti- contemporary art in America, has wondered why art tutions of higher educationare busy trying to pre- in our society has degenerated to the status of pare their students for some sort of job proficiency another "commodity," a "diversion rather than an or for graduate school in fields that draw theelite essential need" (Monk, 1990, p. 30). Monk points and financially ambitious studentfields such as out that, unwilling to make the effort to wrench law, medicine, business government, and research themselves from their television sets, many (Astin, Korn, & Berg, 1990, pp. 48-49, 80-81) Americans seem to find art too arduous a pleasure they must also adhere to their historical mission. for their impatient, fragmented, tired lives. Monk This mission includes providing a broad base of concludes, "As artists, presenters, audiences, and cultural knowledge and developing skills in evalua- lovers of art, we have a significant role in our soci- tion of new material and discernment of quality. ety. We are responsible human beings" (p. 31). The fulfillment of this mission within the dance cur- Monk rightly recognizes the crucial roles played not riculum will allow graduates of these colleges only by dance artists, but by those who must under- now professionals in their various fieldsto serve stand, appreciate, and support those artists' on dance company boards of trustees, make arts achievements. It is in this sphere that the liberally policy, and be avid dance-goers. Itis indeed the educated individual can be a vital presence. duty of these colleges to guide their now-educated Of course, liberal arts colleges face a tension in alumni toward the effective and socially responsi- their own systems of values. Broad and lofty educa- ble exercise of their nonprofessional time (Mayhew, tional goals, which seek to provide a general and 1962, p. 6). Let us harness these resources for the fundamental learning base, are in direct conflict support of the dance field. with the concern expressed by parents, students, There are certainly examples of small, liberal arts and college administrators for vocational prepara- colleges such as Cberlin or Connecticut College tion and placement (Astin, Korn, & Berg, 1990, pp. that have effective!, established conservatories 54, 86; Mayhew, 1962, pp. 12-13). In this conflict, within their educational structures. These schools however, the field of dance can actually benefit have chosen to redefine themselvesor at least a within the context of the liberal arts college. Unlike portion of themselvesin pursuit of highly devel- the dance conservatory or the university dance oped performance programs. Even liberal arts col- department, which emulates a model of specializa- leges that lack a focus on training for dance per- tion established in such fields as the sciences, the formance occasionally graduate individuals who liberal arts dance progi am need not be concerned choose to pursue dance as a profession. But liberal with training for the profession of dance perform- arts colleges, in general, are chosen by those stu-

2 1 25 dents whose professional goals lie elsewhere. These grasp meanings in works not studied before. Thus individuals, however, if provided with a sound lib- the teacher must be able to set aside a personal eral training and an appropriately designed dance agenda regarding his/her own tastes and must offer curriculum, can prove Nita! to t he sustenance of t he- a well-balanced, yet critically defensible program of at re dance. st udy. What are some criteria whici. such a daiwe-based liberal arts curriculum must meet? William Bennett has outlined sonic of t he feat ores that he finds can Designing a Liberal Arts "mark t he points of significance" in a field and Dance Curriculum ensure that a student "does not wander aimlessly over the terrain, dependent solely on chance to dis- In establishing arts policyand t hus support for covert he landmarks of human achievement' t he artseducation that moves beyond technical (Bennett, 1981 p. 6). Ile urges care in balancing specialties is essential. With the diverse cultural "breadth and depth" in the approach to tilts subiect forces affecting the arts at all times, hut perhaps studied and urges the use of primary texts in a pro- never more stridently or numerously than today. gram that continues beyond one introductory-level education in the liberal arts can help to establish a ctiurse. Ot her requirements of good liberal arts forum for "public discourse and the means to arrive teaching, states Bennettinclude strong faculty. at decisions that can be agreed upon" (Kinnan. institutional conviction that the humanities are 1989, p. 33). Richard Lyman points out that the truly central to education, and the belief that they establishment of a "shared knowledge base" is can be taught with rigor as "a means of inquiry that essential so t hat people have a body of learning can convey serious truths, defensible arguments. from which to draw values, for it is indeed impossi- and significant ideas" (p. 8), Course cont e'..t and the ble to "expect people to learn to read in a vacuum of quality of teaching, t hen, are the major const it uents information" (Lyman, 1989, p. 57). Thus, t he cull- of a successful curriculum. In choosing course con- ing of classical sources and the analysis of great tent, it is evident that any field of knowledge is far textsthe very stuff and met hod of t he liberal arts larger t han even a full four years of st tidy can idealis well suited to t he formation of policy- encompass. Thus the choice of certain "blocks" of makers and arts supporters who can apply the infoonat ion must be made (Mayhew, 1962, p. 50), appreciat ion developed by their training to the eval- in order to balance demands of breadth and depth uation of new works. and to offer stepping stones toward emit inued inde- Recently, much academic discussion has cen- pendent involvement in the field. t erN1 on the failure of American schools to provide st udents with a foundation in either critical, evalua- tive thinking or rudimentary cultural knowledge. buTcased Attention to History result ing in an undiscerning and "culturaily illiter- ate" population (see Bh)om, 1987; Hirsch. 1987: With careful thought, the features listed above also Bennett )8,1, p. 2). Dance educators can take can be applied to dance curricula with lit t diffi- responsibility for offering courses which do. culty. Dance is a field whose history can be easily indeed, provide students with a basis for knowl- hist, hut in recent years increased attention has edgeable evaluat ion in one portion of human behav- lwen given both to salvaging thus past and to the ior: dancea behavior which manifests itself in art preservation of current repertoire and related works as well as in ritual and social expression. To material for fut tire generat ions. Such developments provide guidance in t he choice of works or dance as the establishment of the Society of Dance I list ory forms viewed and st tidieditis t he obligat ion, and Scholars, t he creation of a graduate program specif- the pleasure, of the dance educator at the liberal icallyin(lane(history atthe University of arts college to cull from t he great body of dance his- Calif( wnia-Riverside and the increased publication tiny and et linoloKy those works t hat give t he stu- and quality of books and art icles about subjects and dent a view of !he ex olut ion and role of dance as art methods in dance history and et hnology all attest to and as vital human behavior. These works. sup- t his concern among dancers and scholars for recap- ported by appropriate and accessible readings in t tiring and sustaining t lie historical viability of I he aesthetics, analysis. and context. (anprovide he dance event and t he life devoted to dance. student Wit h a foundation from which to apply judg. The materials are indeed becoming available for meats, to per('eive evolut ionary t vends, and to the founding of a curriculum in dance t hat follows

0 tile liberal arts ideal; great textsdances and dance niques in modern dance, students could look at. literature in our easeserve as a field for investiga- Doris Humphrey's style in her dances performed tion, questioning, and the formation of critical judg- live in reconstruction or as recorded in the recently ment and aesthetic sensitivity. Also, access to released video recording of With My Red hies and filmed and recorded versions of dance works and to New Da ?we; supportive written material might. be other audiovisual media now allows us to gain some chosen from Humphrey's autobiography, Doris experience of dances either lost to the repertoire or Humphiry: An Artist First, as well as from Marcia simply beyond the range of class field trips. While I Siegel's Days (m Earth and Ernestine Stodelle's certainly exhort st udents to see dance live and try to The Dance Technique of Doris Humphrey. A study make live professional performance available to of national contributions in modern dance might them--or to bring them to itrecorded dance is an lo9k at current American postmodernism, German important and relatively affordable way to intro- thmce-theat re, and ,lapanese Wank duce a large body of choreography and material for analysis in the classroom. The current commercial videotape market is dominated by ballet works, Functions and PUrposes which allows some good covertwe of great works in hat genre, but leaves other masterpieces (e.g., in The teacher might also choose to view dances by jazz and modern dance) unavailable. Distributors of funct ions or purposes. so that "theatre dance" itself educational and experimental films and videos must becomes a general category contrasted with ritual be investigat.ed for coverage of areas not met by dances, folk dances, social dances, and so on. commercial distributors. The efflorescence and ris- Choosing one culture or nation, such as Spain, ing quality of regional dance groups is another might offer t he teacher ample material with which means of bringing the experience of dance perform- to make such comparisons, with, for example, ance and viewing to colleges that may be far from dances of the Escuela Bolera serving as theatre-. such dance centers as New York or San Francisco. dance works, the dance of los Seises used as a sub- Ma.ny of these companies present works by masters ject of rit ual dancing, and the Andalusian Sevillanas of choreography, recreated through notated scores studied as examples of folk dance. The interact ions or set by designated artists; many regional troupes and common features of these dances and their also commission work by renowned art ists, as well functions can and should be articulated. as presenting their own material. Thus, it is truly I believe it important to open students' minds possible today to create a dance curriculum that fits about the range of dance that geographical, cul- well int o the liberal arts tradition. tural, and historical considerat ions permit. Thus, I Foundat ion courses in dance, then, can address a often place "classical dance" forms of different range of dance styles, funct ions, and criteria. using nat ions close together on a syllabus. St udents might examples of fine performances and thoughtful ana- study classical ballet and then the classical dances lytical writing as the "great text:for study. For of India. I ask them to reflect on what makes bot h example. under "styles" (or "forms" or "genres"), forms "classical" despite their obvious differences one might art iculate such western theatre forms as in t echnique and performance. This leads to investi- ,jazz, ballet, and modern dance. These can serve as gation of choreographic foiin, training, profession- general cat egories for comparison, but also as alism in dance, aesthetics. and social values in each umbrellas under which to group ot her subdivisions. cult ure. Modern dance, thus, might be further studied in At the same time, the very complex interplay of terms of historical periods, of individual tech- national styles that has influenced art ists for centu- niques, or of national contributions. In terms of his- ries can be discussed within the context of any one torical styles, the period of the forerunners, for daml. form st udied. For example, in a recent review example. might lw discussed with film aed video- of the work of Seattle-born modern dancer ainl recorded works of Ruth St. Denis used as visual reographer Mark Morris, Arlene Cr(We points out texts (for example. T.ailblazers gilloderti Dam(' t hat "nudt iculturalism exist s and has always existed includes such excerpts. as does the 1958 film 1?nth in Ainerican dance: there is scarcely an American St. Den is a rid Te(I Shawn). excerpts of St. Dents's cluireographer of note who has m)t been influenced own writings could be used as written texts, and both by t he pluralism of Our society and by the way Suzanne Shelton's Divine Dancer would be imiaff- dance .1 naturally soaks itup'' (Croce, 1990, p. t ant for critical and contextual informat ion and as a nuxis, of c(nase, draws on his background in modelordance research. To study individual tech- flamenco, Balkan and Israeli folk dance, Hindu

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Providence College Dance Co. photo by Alan W. Bean. dance, modern and ballet, and others. He is hardly The crux of the design, however, must be the qual- akme in this array of s(uirces: Isadora Duncan drew ity and influence of the works (both visual and writ- from the ancient Greeks. St. Denis from the ten) the teacher chooses, so that the most compel- Cilentals. Erick Hawkins from the American ling themes, demonstrated by the finest examples Indians, and so on. up to today's avant-gardists of dance performance, choreographic styles, and such as Molissa Fenky, whose upbringing in Spain aesthetic trends are presented to the students. and Africa has proi'oundly shape(1 her work (Dixon, Criteria for evaluation can be introduced through 1989). Nor is this use of crosscultural material lim- introductory writings on aesthetics as a philosophi- ited to Americans. Students should know that, for cal field, and on dance aesthetics specifically. For example. Diaghilev's Ballets Russes displayed example, Betty Redfern'sDance, Art, and national influences from old Russia, chic new Aesthet icsmight serve as a text in this area, provid- France, exotic Spain, and the mysterious East. ing a basis for aesthetics in general and for dance Similarly. the influence of popular dance forms aesthetics particularly (Carter, 1990, pp. 33-34). on "art- dance needs to be pointed out to students The writings of the best of dance critics through who may feel that they lack intellectual or aesthetic time--from Gautier to Edwin Denby to Deborah access to refined theatre dance. The evoluti in of Jowittcan serve as additional texts and examples ballet from European folk forms is only one exam- of careful evaluation and articulate dance writing. ple of this: Twyla Tharp's melange of boogying, Earlier mention has been made of the need to baton-twirling, modern dance. and highly sophisti- choose "blocks" of material for presentation, rather cated ballet comnwntary is another such example. than attempting total coverage of dance history, Thus there is literally a world and a wealth of sub- ethnology. and aesthetics. An example of such bl(ick ject matter for the shaping of a foundatkm course design can be drawn from my syllabus. I try to dis- in dance at the liberal arts college. I advocate no cuss some examples of the great western theatre one fixed syllabus here: there is great room for tiw forms that I believe will be most available to our stu- individual teacher's creativity in course design. Oents-cum-datwe supporters: ,jazz, ballet, and mod-

Br ST COPY AVAILABLE 2 b ern dance. I focus on certain great works or on cer- This foundation course can, and should, be fol- tain great masters of the form; then, in close lowed by courses that study in greater depth spe- proximity, I introduce related forms, drawing on cific subjects or questions raised in the earlier international folk dance, ritual forms from a variety course. But now the students have developed both a of religious perspectives, current or historical bigger picture of the variety of dance ar i,. its func- social dances, and classical theatre forms with inde- tions and some language for the articulation of what pendent and powerful traditions. These subjects are they are seeing. Lest my curriculum seem unduly to supported by introduction to various methods of slight craft in favor of context (flobgood, 1990, pp. analysis, from effort-shape, to Adshead's "four 22-23), I want to make it clear that among the sub- stages" (Adshead, 1988, pp. 111-122), Allegra jects that might be studied beyond the foundation Fuller Snyder's "dance symbol" (Snyder, 1972, pp. course, or together with it, I include technique. The 213-224), and others. Students learn that all of foundation course should help students to develop these analytical methods can serve as a "way" to a awareness of the kinesthetic component of dance work that might be initially unfamiliar and puzzling. viewing as well as dance' I always bring stu- In order to know whVh one(s) of these avenues of dents in my foundation course out of the lecture hall approach will be most fruitful, I encourage students and into the dance studio for movement explora- to start, with the most immediately available mate- tions, so that the technical terms they must learn rial: the movement that they are seeing. They must are understood from within their own bodies. Thus, learn, then, first of all to engage actively in what for example, they explore, feel, and express the var- they view, so that they do see it, rather than letting ious poles of time, space, weight, and flow and work it wash superficially over them, as if they were out combinations of full efforts. This is ev.ellent watching a television sit-com. They must attempt to preparation for any dance technique course, and describe what they are seeing, both in terms of spe- also perhaps, these first forays into the studio will cific movements done and of larger group or tempo- encourage hesitant students to venture back for a ral developments. Any assertions they make movenwnt course. aesthetic, analytical, or sociologicalmust be Curriculum in such areas of dance study as com- supported by evidence based on the dance itself. If position, criticism, anthropology, and history can students describe certain movements they see as all spring from the foundation cot irse, If the teacher "gripping" or "ugly" or "romantic" or "expressive," has carefully designed the choice of materials intro- for example, I ask them to articulate why the move- duced initiallythe dance works, the dance artists, ment appears that way to them. Which dancers the forms, the geographical coverage, and the sup- moved in the low level primarily, and why was this portive readings assigned to each day's topic choice made? Were the dances led only by students not only learn much information about womenor only by menand why or why not? those particular dances studied, but more impor- Many other sorts of questions of this nature can be tantly, they learn a number of widely applicable asked regarding any viewed material. skills.

1.I iow to view works in a continuum of creativ- ity and innovation. Learning to "Rewl" How to analyze and evaluate new material pre- sented,includingthatofthecut rent The students, thus, must learn to "read" tlw avant-garde. dancesto make of them texts of which specific 3.llow to find information about forms itot pre- questions can be asked in order to glean particular viously encountered. information and to make sound personal judg- 4. How to articulate both what they see and their ments. supported by evidence. The need for the cur- response to it. rent generation ef students to learn perceptive rewling in the convent ional sense of that word has These skills will well serve the mature individual been stressed by education authorities (Bennett, who leaves college, becomes a professional in a 1984, p.1 1), and I believe that we must extend that field other than dance. but maintains an interest in demand and training to the "reading" of dances. It is dance as a supporter. Such support t ranslates into all too easy for our students to regard all dancing as dance :iudiences. informed boards of trustees for entertainment, relaxation, a pretty gloss on tlw dance companies, and voters who understand human body: I hope to jolt them out of that position issues of arts policy. These people can become t he forever. "good citizens" for dance t.hat t he lilwral art s educa- 95 2 9 tion attempts to develop ill a more general sense. dance technique and composition. Surely, their Those graduates who enter such fields as govern- foundation in dance as a broad field of study, their ment or business may have direct influeiwe on arts familiarity with great works and a range of tradi- policy, funding. and representation. Lawyers and tions, and their understanding of how to analyze doctors, too-and tlmse in many other fields-can and articulate the movement they view can only apply their special expertise to areas of concern to serve them well in that study. dancers, if they are liberally educated about dance. For the dance field, this is a curriculum that can And ( ertainly there will always be those individuals lead us all to become the "responsible human who graduate from such a liberal education and find beings" whom Meredit h Monk called for in her t hat t hey are somehow "hooked" on dance: they may statement above. This is a curriculum in dance for choose to pursue independent or graduate studyof which the liberal arts college is ideally suited.

References

Adshead..1. (Ed). (1988).Dup., Acorn and lowitt,D. (195-1). The dance in mind. New York: David mart ler. London: Dance Rooks. I. (iodine. Astin, A..Korn. W.. & Berz, E. (990).The Aineviran Kimball, B. A. (198(' ).Oratars and philam(phers:..1 1e8h111on: Nat lona/norms .1(a 19S9. No.?, of the idea edncalinn. NewYork: Washington, 11C and Los Angeles: American Council on Teachers College Press, Educatnin and I'CLA. Kmnan. E. T (1989). Liberal education int post-modern B(nnett W.1. (1984). TUri'da lewi(n.Washington. world. InNen. Pervert it I's an Liberal Edu('ation DC: National Endowment for the Humanities. (pp. 25-10). Seattle: I'niversity of Washington Press. Bloom. A. (1987).The closing al. the American mind. Lyman. R. W. (1989). Defining our future: The liberal ams NovY(irk: Simon and Schuster. in contemporary society. In Noir Perspectives on 'arnegie Fmindat ion's Cla.ssificat kills of MO/ than 3.:I00 Lilnral Edlicalinn (pp. .1I-60).Seattle: riliversilv of Institutions of Higher Education. (198:. July 7). Wasliingt On Press. Chrnnicle ()f Iligher Edneatinn, p. Mayhew, L. B. (1962). Thesmallev colhve. Carnes. B. M. (1978)..4 profileyl private liberal arts Washington, DC: Center for Applied Resear('h in colleaes.NA'ashington. DC: U.S. Depiirtment of Health. Education, Inc. Education, and Welfare. N1onk. M. (1990, September). Some thoughts about art. Carter, ('. (199), Kill). Review of Dnm:r. out,and Ihwre .41(niaziiie.pi). 30-31. filet thinee Research Jaiirn(C. 22(2).33-31. Redfern. B. (1988). Donee,art. and acslhel leN.London: Croce, A. (19)0. July 23). Dancing. Multicultural theatre. Dance Books Limited. The New Yarker.pp. 81-87. Shelton. S. (1981).MI ine. dancer: Abiagraphi/ Ibilh Denby. E. (1)08). al the dance. NewYork: St. Denis.Garden City. NY: Doubleday & ('o.. Inc. Ilorizon Press. Siegel. M. B. (1987).Dan.% (m earth: The (lance at Davis Dixon. B. (198) ). The Afro.centric aesthetic. Guest !ec- liii inithICY .New Haven, ( and London: Yale ture at Franklin and Marshall College. April .1. l'niversity Press. Guest. I.(E(l.). (1980).Ga an (lance. London: Stodelle. E. (1978).The da two' technigne 0 Doris Dance Books. veil and its (TeatI' patent nil.Princeton. N.1: Hirsch. E. D...1r. (1)87). ma/ !driller,:Who/ l'11111 Princeton Book l'o, ResC(i rch .A111CriC(IlilICOLSfoA-11nif.NeW Yiirk: Houghton !Mifflin. Snyder, A. F. (1972). The dance symbol. (Ma) Holigood, B. M. (1990. Summer). The state of theatre in Ann mil 213-221 American education.The Phi Koplin Phi .Inurnal, Winter, D. (-1..('tal. (1981). ca,se far the liberal

:I_ a yrs: Assessina it lit ianafpnits and .51101ent Humphrey, D. & Cohen. 5.1. (197.2).nw.i.s fievelalatlent. San Francisci:Jossey-Bass Publishers. art i.st first.Middletown. CT: Wesleyan Vniversity Press.

Lynn Matluck Brooks is director of dance at Franklin and Marshall College. Lancaster, Pennsylvania 17604-3003. iimsJaAlua :aatrua alms UMW suoilsanb uur uvA IU

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IC dancer/IA.:tell:4s or dancer/scholars of the field, with only a small percentage making a career of and guidelines are described as having evolved performing. This lack of emphasis on technique in from a synthesis of thought about professional the academic curriculum allowed universities and training in dance and are to be used as part of the colleges to graduate students in four years, though peer review process of accreditation, rather than as many were, at that point, not employable as profes- a set, of rules and regulations. According to NASD sional dancers. Thus, in spite of apparent common literature, standards for admission to the organiza- interests, a schism developed between the aca- tion are meant to provide the basis for dialogue on demic dance world and the professional field, three levels: within an institution as the self-study reflecting a deep divergence of values centering on (which is necessary for application) is being devel- the question of whether one is trying to train the oped, between an institution and the Association dancer or educate the person, to teach skills or (during the period of evaluation), and between the build inner resources (Kraus & Chapman, 1981, p. Association and the general public. 158). Rona Sande, former director of the dance divi- Since the mid-1960s, the number of American sion at, the University of California at Santa colleges and universities offering dance has grown Barbara, wiLS one of the dance educators who for- steadily. At the same time, an evolution within the mulated these standards. Sande says that the NASD academic dance setting has been occurring with has, in a real sense, given university dance depart- longterm implications for the field: the point of ments permission to do what many now want t,o do view has shifted. In an effort to integrate profes- anyway: to require an intensive studio component sional with educational viewpoints, the trend has within their programs. Additionally, she says, been to move away from an administrative base in accreditation has helped legitimize dance pro- physical education, becomiA either an independ- grams within the university community, particu- ent dance department orYprogram, or part of a larly among administrators with budgetary and dis- department or school concerned wit h other per- cretionary powers (Sande, 1989). forming arts, such as music or theatre (Kraus & Chapman, p. 292). In addition, dance faculties have "Professional" and "Liberal Arts" adopted professional equivalencies to academic degrees, allowing for the increased hiring of per- Today, the Association has three categories of fornnng artists as teachers. Some have encouraged accredited membership. Division Iis for dance older dancers to return to school by permitting the schools and studios seeking legitimation in the transformation of professional career experiences eyes of tlw profession and the public. Divisions II into academic credit. and III are for college and university departments Moreover, there has been a move to in.stitutional- looking for professional credibility. The separation ize professional training standards. In 1981. repre- between Divisions II and III marks the difference sentatives from academic dance programs met in between a "pnifessional" degree and a "liberal arts" Washington, D.C. to consider the establishment of degree. The associate of fine arts and the bachelor an accreditation association for educational pro- of fine arts degrees are both included in Division II grams in dance. As a result of that meeting, the and both "require that at least 65% of the course National Associat Mn of Schools of Dance was credit be in stu(lio work and related areas" (NASD, formed. Forty-eight institutions became charter 1987, p. .10). This describes a strongly focused nwmbers: ten professional dance training organi- course of study, narrowed to the development of zations and thirty-eight colleges and universities. technical skills and do aCe artistry, in essence. a NASD describes its function as one of finding vocat ional degree. The liberal arts degrees are ways of clarfting and maimaMing standards in called associate of arts or science and bachelor of dance through the responsible education of arts or science with a major in dance. These dancers. By means Of accreditation, it can degrees usually require that one-third to one-half encourage those inst itut ions t hat consistent ly the total course credit be in dance. NASD describes give students a sound basis for significant future Division III as including "schools and departments accomplislunents in dance. (NASI), 1987. p. whose pred( minant purpi)se and enrollment are in Membership is based on criteria such as curricu- quality education in dance" (NASD. 1985, p. :3). a lum, admission policies. sequencing of classes, telling (listinction from BFA (Division II). which length of nine in operation, faculty qualifications. has as -its primaly emphasis . .the development facilities and equipment advert king, financial nucl- of skills, concepts and sensibilities essential to the ides. and student access to libraries Standards dance prof('ssional" (NASD, 1987, p. .11). The difference between Division II and Division interested in doing. With man:: dancers, there is a III points to the dissimilarity in emphasis between notable lack of relationship with the world outside educating dancers as people and training dancers the dance studio. In fact, in my experience, many fordance. Initslistinginthe88/89 dancers willingly exchange a lack of general power Dancemtgazitu, College Guide (Lawson, 1988), within society for the very personal sense of power the University of California at Santa Barbara, a that comes from having strong physical skills. public, state-supported university, makes the dis- This is a trade-off with serious implications. The tiiwtion clear: precursors of modern dance, the two women who The BFA degree k oriented toward training the pioneered the field, were not technicians and did dance student for a professional career in per- not grow up in dance studios. Isadora Duncan and foi mance and/or choreography and the curricu- Ruth St. Denis were largely self-taught (Page, 1984, lum is centered around studio courses and p. vii). Both trained sporadically in assorted styles related theatrical experiences. The BA degree is ranging from Delsartian interpretations to ball- a less structured program and allows time for stu&nts to pursue course work that could lead room dance, acrobatic tricks, and a brief introduc- to alternate careers (p. 87) tion to ballet (Ruyter, 1979). Since their time, many of the artists considered leaders in modern dance, This distinction affects dancers throughout their the innovators, the more creative minds, also have lives, bearing on both the transition they must not been people who trained intensively in tech- make at the end of a performing career and on their nique. Doris Humphrey did start dancing at the age ability to survive in a field where a "job" as a dancer of eight (Humphrey, 1966, p. 17), but Martha rarely provides a living wage. It also points up an Graham waited, because of parental opposition, issue that is becoming more important within the until she was 22 to begin her studies (McDonagh, dance world itself: Can educators reconcile the 1973, p. 52). Paul Taylor got "a flash, or whatever it demand from the field for excellence in technique is...telling me that I'm to become a dancernot. with the simultaneous demand for choreographers any old dancer, but one of the best" (Taylor, 1987, who have both skill and vision? What is the rela- p. 26), when he was a sophomore in college with no tionship between intensive technical training and previous dance experience. Merce Cunningham the development of choreographic ability? Most. has had a lifelong interest in theatre and began professionally trained dancers learn to think tech- intermittent dance study at the age of eight, but he nically, narrowing their concerns to rehearsing, came to the study of modern dance during his col- injuries, diet, physical mastery, and survival issues: lege years (Cunningham, 1985, p. 33). Erick how to get work, the critical response to current . Hawkins began studying dance after college gradu- and future work, and who is doing what. Would this ation (McDonagh, 1976, p. 297), and Jose Limon, be different with a stronger background in the who thought he would be a painter, came to his first humanities? With a broader education, might we dance classes at the age of 20 (Gadan & Maillard, not become more resonant artists with a stronger 1959, p. 214). Alwin Nikolais initiated his training sense of our connection to the society in which we at the Bennington College School of Dance as a work? Today's dance might then be less concerned young man (Gadan & Maillard, p. 242), and Alvin with itself, with technique and (lancing, and deal Ailey started studying with Lester Horton while in more with new way- of viewing the times. his teens (Mazo, 1984, p. 2:3). Yvonne Rainer says I first encountered the distinction between edu- she began studying dance in earnest in 1959, when cation and training when I began doctoral studies she was 25 (Rainer, 1974, P. 5). in 1936. It was no,-: to me and seemed to imply that by thinking in tTrms of training, the term we use to describe a concentration on technique and produc- tion, we in dance deny our students balance. How Do People Learn To Dance? Already. in my professional life, I had been aware of a lack of verbal confidence and my narrow range of These experiences raise a number of issues on abilities. I was also conscious of the passive accept- t he broad question of how people learn to dance. Is ance among dancers of professional situations t hat there a relationship between technical training and are sometimes inhumane and the lack of power creativity and leadership? As we train bodies to be ninny of us feel in response to press coveroge and disciplined and Obedient instruments, skilled at fol- the political dance establishnwnt, or in simply lowing directions. accustomed to taking correc- being able to speak intelligently about work we are tion, working silently to become a vehicle for another person's ideas, are we also training minds resources ... and also on an ongoing argument in the same way? Are serious, long-term dance stu- with, love of, and contempt for dancing" (Rainer, p. dents put at a disadvantage in today's society, sacri- 71), she said, and in this context, the extraordinary ficing language and sodal skills for movement and directions she pursued make clear sense. technical training? I suspected that I would never be "good enough" Speaking as one who spent much of her youth in to dance in an official company. Although I was the dance studio, I find that the very questions and becoming more proficient in conventional tech- their implications are uncomfortable. Discipline nical matters, the chunky construction of my aiid obedience are high on the list of values we body and my lack of natural litheness did not fit. the popular image of the female dancer. (Chin, instill in dance students. and they are, on tlw p. 5) whole, :tot the makings of creative leadership and innovation. What would Yvonne Rainer's work So she made work that defied that image. More have been like had she studied dance for ten years important, she was not. so identified with dance that before arriving in New York? As it was, she was 25 she could not defy it. Because she had a broad before she began serious work. Understandably, background to bring to it. her work was not about she had no tradition to uphold, and though she was trying to fit in. an earnest student, the realization that she would A point of view, necessary to the development of never fit the mold of "dancer" in this society gave one's own voice as an artist. needs cultivation and her an ambivalence that developed into a radical stimulation, exposure to ideas. and faith in one's response, an adversarial posture in regard to the own ability to know the truth. Richard Kraus and dance establishment (Chin. 1975). "The choices in Sarah Chapman (1981) state that most dance edu- my work are predicated on my own peculiar cators today believe their position in education is strengthened by a growing recognition of the need for educational experiences that will provide a sense of personal involvement, helping students become aware of their uniqueness and capable of making meaningful judgments within all areas of life. Perhaps these kinds of experiences occur in programs that include dance in a general curricu- lum, but are they reflected in the way profession- ally oriented dance students are being taught? In fact. the restricted focus of a professionally-orient- ed dance program cuts out the social and philo- sophical grounding needed to un de rst and t he world and form a response to it and, without doubt, affects both art and lives in the long run. Excellence in any field requires some narrowing of focus. As a dancer. I have valued my own techni- cal ability and worked hard to increase it. clijoying the power it gives me, the pride in myself, and the range of performing opportunities it has opened to me. The issue here is how to balance the concentra-

Broadening the education of dancers will transform the field of dance in unpredictable ways. Photos at left and opposite page from the dance program at Mankato State Unirersity, MankatoMinnesota.

:3 4 BEST COPY AVAILABLE t ion required for this kind of achievement with the Encouraging the development of a point of view breadth and scope necessary for an active partici- can only help to balance the discipline built in to pation in the culture around us. Our problemand longterm technical training. the problem of the university programs involved We must be sure that (lancers can separate the with meeting the demands of t.he dance profes- person from the function and that. we teach them to sionis that the technical requirements of a pro- strengthen both aspects. We do want to give stu- fesskmal career are so consuming that time taken dents the skills required for moving with imwer and out for other areas of study necessarily inhibits articulation. That sense of control is, I think, what energy, concentration, and momentum in a very draws many young women to the field, giving them competitive field. However, university programs a realm where they feel a certain empowerment. are uniquely placed to offer dame within a context But we do not want them to stop there. While teach- meaningful to both the person and the professional ing physical skills, we must. watch that. we do not in each student and could, with thought to curricu- also teach dependency, creating followers and giv- lum, begin to exert profound influence over the ing freedom only within the restrictions of t he stu- teaching of dance. dio) or the confines of a role. The unanswered question is: How much do we require dance to stay as it is? By broadening the Teaching About Choices education of dancers we will be transforming the field in ways that cannot be predicted. Certainly If long-term, rigorous technical training is the dancers will become less pliant, more questioning only way to produce versatile and skilled dancers, of how they are used, and more conscious of their should we not also from t.he heginning t each dame own power, as well as more aware of the context students to develop their minds and emotionid and history of t heir art. Perhaps the form will beings along wit h their bodies? Beginning training evolve to fit the dancers rather than the reverse after the age of ten, teaching nonjudgmentally process, to which we are so accust on yd. Today, while providing information on safety and style, both dancers and choreographers fiml themselves and allowing tinw for students to work out proh- swept up in the culture-wide worship of success, ler.ls with combinations individually and together spectacle, and mastery. Western dance has tradi- during class are all ways in which we might begin. tionally held these qualities to be important and has Allowing discussion of why things are done the way tailored its training programs to suit its vilues. For they are to he a regular part of learning technique a time. it seemed that with the work of Margaret is another. Providing a context for what is being Irfloubler and Anna Sokolow and the early work of taught will give students a clearer picture of a Martha Graham and others, individualism and dem- world in which they can make choices, as will link- ocratic thought. would have an influence on the art. ing a particular technique to a belief system. The old values have withstood t he intrusion, how-

3.) ever, and continue to exert a profound influence on aware of what we take for granted, and lead us to standards within the field, on methods of training, provocative questions about the way we live? What and on priorities in dancers' lives. we all want is the best possible situation for dance Serving dance students within the university sys- and dancers. In order to achieve this, we must con- tem remains a challenging issue. How best can we tinue to examine what we are doing, reflecting not join the demands of the field with the educational only on how to be excellent dancers, but on how to grounding necessary for the creation of an authori- be active and responsive members of our culture as tative art that can help us see ourselves, make us well.

References

Chin, D. (1975). Add some more cornstarch, or the plot National Association of Schools of Dance. (1985). Abro- thickens: Yvonne Rainer'sWork 1961-73. Dance chure describing the functions of the association. Scope, 9,60-64. Reston,VA: author. Cunningham, M. (1985).The dancer a' the dance. National Association of Schools of Dance.(1987). New York, London: Marion Boyars. Handbook 1988-1989. Reston,VA: author. Gadan, F., & Mail lard, R. (Eds.). (1959). A -1171of Page, R. (1984).Class: Notes on dance classes a rou tul modern ballet.New York: Tudor Publishing Company. the world 1915-1980.Princeton, NJ: Princeton 1300k Humphrey, D. (1966, spring). New dance: An unfinished Company, Publishers. autobiography.Dance Perspectives, 25,9-77. Rainer, Y. (1974).Work 1961-73.Halifax: The Press of Kraus, R.G., & Chapman, S.A. (1981).History of the the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design; New York: dance in art and educatima.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: New York University Press. Prentice-Hill. Ruyter. N.L.C. (1979).Reformers and e i.sionaries.New Lawson, WJ. (Ed.). (1981).88/89 College guide.New York: Dance Horizons. Thrk: Dance Magazine, Inc. Sande, R. (1989, February). Conversationwith Rona McDonagh, D.(1973). Martha Graham:Abiography. Sande. NewYork, Washington: Praeger Publishers. Taylor, P (1987). Private domain. New Yirk: Alfred A. McDonagh, D. (197(i). Thecomplete guide to modern Knopf. dance. Garden City,NY: Doubleday & Company, Inc.

Jan Van Dyke is in the Dance Department at the University of North Carolina, Greensboro, North Carolina 27412.

G Teacher Education

3:1 3 7 Content Knowledge in DanceEducation IN& Sylvie Fortin

In recent years, considerable attentionand exists a "knowledge base for teaching--a In codified or codifiable aggregation of knowl- debate have focused on educational reform. edge, skills. understanding, and I eclmokigy, higher education, many educational reformers of ethics and disposition, of collective have recommended legislation requiringteachers responsibilityas well as a means for rep- to complete more coursework in their own subject resenting and communicating it. (p..1) matter. This recommendation isbased OnI he assumption that content knowledge is a "logical According to Shulman, any organization of precondition for the activities of teaching" teacher knowledge should include thefollowing (Ruclunaori. I98:3). Parallel to that, many educa- categories: knowledge of learners and their charac- tion re.iearchyrs have started toinvest igate t he teristics, knowledge of educational con; ext s, nature. the sourci 5, io,d (he developmentof sub- knowledge of educational ends, curriculum km)wl- ject matter knowle.fg, in teacher preparation, as edge, general pedagogical knowledge, content well as the influerp. -bat teachers subject matter kmiwledge, and pedagogical content knowledge. kmiwledge has on stud( nt achievement. 'The result While much might be said about each of these cate- has been a dramatic change in the way in whichthe gories, I will direct my anent lint first to pedagogi- knowledge base for teaching is conceptualized, and cal content knowledge and then to content t he newly emerging paradigmreflecting that knowledge. change has begun to influence how expertsthink Pedagogical ciintent knowledge "represents the about teaching, how leacher education curricula blenchng of content and pedagogy into an under- are st ructured, and howresearch agendas on standing of how particular topic's,problems, or teaching are organized. Itis important that dance issues are organized, represented, andadapted to educators lwconw aware of the issues raised by this the diverse interests and abilities oflearners, and paradigm. The meaning of a knowledge-based presented for instruction" (Shulman, 1987, p.8). approach to dance in higher education merits Pedagogical content knowledge is a pedagog:cal invest igat i(m and critical examination. understanding of the subject matter, the key that Three texts, ANotion Prepared: Teochers ,for distinguishes a teacher from a nont caching peerin the 21st Century(Carnegie Commission Task the sante discipline. Shulman (1986)refers to it as Mirce. 198(; ). MI/mimic'sTeochers:ARoport a missing paradigmbecause he notices that Me Holmes Group(I lohnes Group, 198(i), and the research on teaching has established quite asharp Ham/bookof Reword, on Tem'hinfi(third edi- distinction between subject matter andpedagogy. tion. Witt rc)c.k, 198(1). are ('xamples of the effort to Indeed. mosf research on pedagogicalknowledge improve teaching. Educator PenelopePeterson in the 1980s refers to the broadprinciples and (1988) observes that although the three reports strategies of classnmun management andorganiza- reflect different perspectives. they converge on tion that appear to transcendsuWect matter. several common themes -,tch as the conception of Direct ing research toward the investigationof ped- teacherst)-: "thoughtful" professiomdswho define agogical content kmiwledge could serve to reverse their knowledge basesin systematic t(rms. this tendency of discussing the teachingprofession Educator Lee Shulman (1987) is explicit onthis mainly in generic piAagogical terms. point: Also implicit in the paradigm of pedagogical con- of the notion of con- The advocates of protessional rentral hase tent knowledge is an enriching their arguments tut the beliefhilt theUe tent knowledge. To the lay person,it Would seem

3S that content knowledge is just what the future teacher will have to teach. But in the framework of a knowledge base for teaching, content knowledge means more than expertise in the subject matter, more than the "stuff" that is to be learned by stu- dents. In this use, content knowledge is made man- ifest, not just in what the teachers teach but in the personal internalized understanding they have of why they teach what they teach. "To think properly about content knowledge," declares Shulman (1986), "requires going beyond knowledge of the facts or concepts of a domain." Ile continues: Teachers must not only la' capable of defining for students the accepted t rut h in a domain. t hey must also lw able to explain why a particular propositlint is deemed warranted, why it is worth kmiwing and luny it relates to other prop- ositions, both within the discipline and without,

both in theory and in practice... .Moreover. we expect the teacher to understand why a given topic is particularly central to a discipline whereas another may be peripheral. (p. Shulman stresses the importance of investigating Meal content knowledge may also be related to content knowledge because it is a necessary cmidi- Harry S. Broudy's (1977) concept of replicative tion to have pedagogical content knowledge. sclunding in which "the school input is recalled In the area of dance technique, if we accept pretty mueh as learned" (p. 9). Shulman's concept of content knowledge. then we On the other hand. conceptual content knowl- must assume that when dance teachers possess edge is the knowing why and the knowing about. A content knowledge, they have mastered to a high teacher with such kmiwledge is not only able to do degree the practical skills of their art, form and the physical skill but also able to provide, with have gained a broad and deep understanding of insight and understanding, a &script ive account of dance a.s a subject matter. Because of the physical how it is done and why it is worthwhile to execute component of dance, I believe that itis helpful to each movement in a particular way. A teacher with discriminate clearly t.wo aspects of content knowl- conceptual content louiwledge is also able to gen- edge: conceptual content knowledge and technical erate alternative explanat i ins. representations, or content knowledge. clarifications of the same principle. It is t his kind of Technical content knowledge is the knowing knowledge that enables a teacher to develop how. Itis the predominant kind of knowledge in abstract theories that can be applied to a large dance education programs. A look at the Colhwe number of different situations. For example, a Guide 1990-91: A DirectoryofDance in North dance teacher trained in Graham technique not Ainernyin Colleges and Universities reveals that only should knciw the Graham vocabulary and the dance teacher educat icin programs usually stress progression usually presented in this technique. the physical pursuits by an audition at the entry but should also be able to pinpoint the first princi- and the requirement of a long sequence of techni- ple of the technique. the Graham contraction. cal courses throughout the program. At the end of which is one important dance movement that their undergraduate program. most dance teachers strengthens the core muscles of the inidy. When the master, at quite a high level, the main skills of dif- core nmscles are strong, the entire spine and torso ferent dance styles such as the fall/recovery of the are supported. which improves t he execut ion of the Limon technique or the contraction/release of the movements of upper as well as lower limbs. In addi- Graham technique. According to Judit h( ; ray tion, the teacher should be able to relate the (1989), this kind of knowledge. compiled from Graham ccint Fact ion to the concepts of "centering" experience, "prepares the student to perform a that dancers of all styles have worked with in one specific technique or apply a certain knowledge. to way or another. Graham's controction. Bart enieff's a singular dance setting.' (p. 82). What Gray refers "hollowing."thenavelradiationof Bonnie to as heuristic kiumledge and what I call here tech- Bainbridge Cohen. the "chi" ol' Tae Kwon Do or

36 3 9 Aikido, to mune just a few, all appear similar in performances have coicinuously changed Over terms of physical characteristics despite their dif- time, the actual training of (lancers did not follow ferent labels. the same pattern. Accoroing to Gray 1989): Both kinds of c(mtent knowledge, conceptual In many cultures, one person was assigned and technical, are desirable in a dance education the role of conveying dance nmvements, program. Conceptual Pnowledge is useless unless usually without embellishment or innova- students know how to apply it concretely in a par- tion. Dance usually evolved over time and changed subtly rather than draniaticall). . . ticular setting, and technical knowledge is limited the dancers have handed down pedagogical when students have to work in a setting Gifferent strategies and acted as dance teachers ever from the one where they received their training. since leading and following became forms 1 tifort unately, 1 believe that dance teachers often of teaching and learning. Dance teachers rely strongly on their skills mastery or technical traditnmally have taught as they themselves were taught role modeling is still dominant knowledge when teaching and do not sufficiently in the training of dance teachers. to. :11 emphasize the comprehension, transformatioli, and reflection of their own training in order to The consequence of teaching as (me has been adapt to the characteristics of a particular setting. taught fails to answer the new and changing At least two reaSMIS may partially exphiin this demands of our western society. The last ten years strong eniphasis on technical knowledge. have seen an increasing demand for dance teachers One reason may he the historical developnwnt of in various settings such as public schools and rec- dance teaching. While in North America the dance reational or professional studios (McLaughlin,

-Spell," choreographed by Dana Levy and performed by Dana Levy and Eoin O'Brien, representing the Ohio State University at the 1991 Midwest Conference of the American College Dance Festival Association. Photos by Mark Teague.

:17

4 (IBEST COPY AVAILABLE (1988). According to Madeleine Lord (1984), a Myers (1989), t,he general picture of dance educa- dance educator, dance teachers have the tendency tion is beginning to change. For example, through- to reproduce the model of instruction adopted in out. the United States and Canada, more and more professional sottings while teaching in educational higher education programs are including some or recreational settings. I believe that dance teach- adjunctive training in their regular schedules. ers often reproduce the dominant model of teach- Known as body-therapy or somatic practices, these ing they have received in their training because idiosyncratic practices were developed by individu- t.hey do not have enough appropriate knowledge to ais such as F. M. Alexander, Irmgard Barteniefi, be able to make the necessary adjustments that a Bonnie Bainbridge Cohen, and Moshe Feldenkrais. different, context requires. If someone has learned Marginal to the mainstream of traditional technical dance as a certain repertoire of skills to !nasty!' and training, the priority of the somatic educators is does not have a broad competency in the subject. experient.ial knowledge. Although having different nritter of dance in general, his or her range of assumptions from the systematic researchers, effective teaching is limited at the outset. somatic educators challenge the tradition of dance Aside from the power of t raditioh in dance teach- training the same way systematic researchers do. ing, another reason for the predominance of tech- My point here is that the increasing attention nical content knc, wledge in dance programs in gen- given to scientific research as well as body thera- era! and in particular in higher education is the pies reveals an important change in the conception paucity of research. Data base6 research repre- of relevant knowledge in dance. This should help sents an import:tit contribution to the develop- foster the development of instruction of the highest ment of conceptual knowledge but research evi- quality while simultaneously encouraging varied dence in dance is relat.ively new and scarce. and experimental approaches to the teaching of Shulman (1979) wrote that there wa.s relatively lit- dance, which is one of the objectives of the t.le research conducted on teaching in the arts. National Associatim of Schools of Dance as stated Gray (1989) indicates that the situation has not in its Information Bulletin (NASD, 1989). changed, especially in dance teaching: "Research According to Tony Eichelberger (1989), knowl- in dance teaching has to date been restricted to iso- edge comes front t.hree different sources: tradition, lat ,d studies of teacher behavior and limited inves- systematic research, and personal experience. In tigations of students' attitudes and achievement" dance, tradition that emphasizes technical content (p. 9). The body of disciplinary knowledge based knowledge is the main guide for educators on systematic study is still quite new. This is not . (Clarkson, 1988). However, people from two differ- surpri3ing when one considers tl-at research is ent allegiances are beginning to challenge what mainly conducted in universities and that Margaret Clarkson refers to as the "dancer's close-minded 11'Doubler established the first dance major in approach to training" (p. 18). On the one hand, higher education at the University of Wisconsin in there are those scholars whose intent is to break 1926 and departments of dance did not gain auton- the dance teaching tradition by introducing new omy until the 1960s. conceptual knowledge based on systematic inquiry. And, on the other hand, there are somatic educa- tors who pursue the sante ultimat e goal but who Beliefs and Behaviors changing root their conceptualization in their personal observation of the moving body.Alt hough In recent years, the situation nas, however, Eichelberger notes that "in making decisions. or changed rapidly. Dance scholars are leveloping a drawing conclusions, one of the weakest logical positive attitude toward systematic inquiry and are foundations for doing anything is an appeal to more and more appropriately trained to do so. authority" (p. 1:3). I believe that any dance teaching From the !finned focus stated above, research in deciskins must be made on the basis of all three dance now encompasses the areas of kinesiology, sources of knowledge. "Dance education is (liang- psychology, computer motion analysis, etc. The ing," writes Sarah Chapman (1988); "a new vision recent Dance: Current Selected Research journal has begun to emerge, one which embraces the testifies to the growing interest of the dance com- truth and integrity of earlier decades of our disci- munity in syste,natic studies. pline while planning for and shaping an expanded New knowledge is emerging from a variety of dialogue to guide us toward a new century" (p. 57). sources, and it is prompting teachers to change So far, I have addressed the issues of sources and their beliefs and behaviors. According to Martha types of content knowledge, distinguishing t echni-

:18 cal content knowledge from conceptual content as the replication of steps, as a closed systemin knowledge. I would now like to turn to pedagogical which the ends are preset and the outcomes tightly knowledge. Itis important to reiterate that, controlled, we fail to promote the kind of inquiry, whereas the area of pedagogical knowledge may be imaginative thinking, and discovery necessary for well established in other educational settings, this ordering our experience and making sense out of is not the case in dance. Little attention has been our lived world" (p.56). devoted to the elements of the teaching process, In the attempt to provide rekvant, knowledge to and dance educators have thus far minimized train- dance educators, it is important to maintain a bal- ing in interaction skills and the managementof anced approach to conceptual content knowledge, time and students (Frances-Fisher, 1989). technical content knowledge. and pedagogical con- Here again I think that significant changes are tent knowledge. In the field of physical education, emerging in the dance community. For instance, for instance, the absence of such a balance has during the last two years, the school of Les Grands resulted in an alarming situation. Daryl Siedentop Ballets Canadiens in Montreal has been offering its (1989) explains that there was a turning point in instructors a course in the pedagogy of dance, a the mid-1960s when people started to wish for a change from its previous policy of depending more intellectual approach to physicaleducation. exclusively upon the mastery of a repertoire of This view has resulted in a proliferation of courses movements. However, it is important to point. out in undergraduate programs such as motor learn- that the addition of pedagogical knowledge will not ing, motor control, sport psychology, sport history, translate automatically into better teaching, just as sport philosophy, exercise physiology, kinesiology, content knowledge alone, whether it istechnical or and biomechanics, allowing less time for the actual conceptual, does not translate directly into better practice of physical education. The situation now is teaching in the classroom. There is much that that physical educators are demanding programs remains to be done in the area of dance pedagogy, less oriented toward the theoretical mastery of and this jc an important challenge facing dance physiological, historical, psychological, or peda- teachers today. Cne of the most important tasks we gogical components of physical education. They face is to determine future directions. want to restore technical content knowledge to a central place in the curriculum. The reason is shit- Inquiry-Oriented Dance Curriculum *: without a minimal technical content knowl- Age, it is reasonable to think that someone cannot teach effectively. The physical education teacher of Shulman's notion of pedagogical content knowl- youth sport teams, for instance, should be able to edge appears to be a worthwhile direction. Art edu- denionstrate t.he sport activities at a level beyond cation programs should have, according to Daniel that at which the students are performing. Reeves (1987), It is interesting to note that the broad concept of not only pedagogy and content hut also the pedagogical content knowledge meets the interest practice of integrating the two as their of academic di:wiplines as well as physical educa- undergraduate education matures Strong art education programs are ones tion or dance, hut each of them emphasizes differ- that suc(eed in integrating pn)fessamal ent aspects. The concept of pedagogical content studies and disciphne cont ent so t hat future knowledge has emerged from research on aca- arts teachers learn how to apply knowledge demic disciplines moving the study of teaching tial skills to instructional settings. (p. .11) from general fin''' ngs on pedagogy to particuiari- Reeves clearly concurs with Shulman's view. ties of the subj, matter. In physical education, Content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge this emphasis on the specific. knowledge of the sub- form each other and the blending of the two ject matter has driven scholars to call for programs ..es specific attention from scholars.A peda- wit h better consideration of the type of knowledge gog, .11 content knowledge i,.pproachresults in a that is relevant to physical education. I nlike physi- shift in the way we will ask questions. ''What will I cal education, dance has kept its focus ontechnical teach today?" would change to "Why and how will I content knowledge. This may havecontributed to teach that to this particular clientele today?" In the move away of dance from the field of physical other words, the knowledge base pafadigm calls for education '._!() years ago when the latter field began a dance curriculuni that isinquiry-oriented rather to overstress its conceptual cont entknowledge, than focused on replication. As Penelope Hanstein which was a different conceptual knowledge from 1990) states so appropriately, "when taught only the one appropriate to t he discipline of dance.

't1 0 In the dance community, where the metaphor as static. ks flanstein (1990) expresses so well, "the teacher as artist" is very popular, a commit- ment to the importance of consistency among tech- The increasing complexity of our society requires us, and the students who will shape tlw nical, conceptual, and pedagogical knowledge future, to function in tasks that demand imagi- should be welcomed by dance researcher and ethi- native thinking and the ability to suggest alter- cation community. Both must understand the cen- natives and formulate hypotheses. Education in trality of pedagogical content knowledge and the general, and dance education in particular, consequences of a lack of such knowledge. They should focus on developing the ability to see the connection between actions and their conse- must also understand that implicit in the concept of quences and between means and ends, to take a knowledge base is the premise that knowledge is cognitive risks, and to extend thinking beyond constantly in a state of evolution: it is not perceived the known in order to deal effectively with what might be rather than with what is. (p. 57)

References

Broudy, II. S. (1977). Types of knowledge and purposes Lord, M. (1984). Enseigner avec ..mplesse uti l'art de of education. In R,C. Anderson & R.J, Spiro (Eds., s'adapter a sa classe,Magazine Dans(' an Canada, Schooling and the acqu is ii Wm at knowledge. 39,26-97. Hillsdalt., NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. McLaughiin, J. (1988). A stepchild comes of age. Buchmann, NI. (1983). Thepriority qf knweledge aml Journal (d. Physical Education, Recreation and understanding in leaching.Occasional paper #61. Dance59(9),58-60. Michigan State University Institute for Research on Myers. M. (1989, Spring). Dancescience and smnatic Teaching. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. fl wiz!ion in dance training.Keynote address for the El) 237-503). Australian Association of Dance Education bieimial Carnegie ('ommission Task Force. (1986). AItalian pir- meeting. pared: Teachers Or :21st century(The Report of National Associath in of Schools of Dance. (1989, May). the Task For(e on Teaching as a Prefession). New Thrk: Infiwination Restln, VA: Author. Carnegie Corporation. Peterson, P L. (1988). Teachers and studerhs' cogni- Chapman S. A. (1988). Shaping a new vision-Muer/a/ qf tional knowledge for classroom teaching and teaching. Physical Education, Recwation aml Damw,59(9), Educal ional Research(r 17(5), 5-14. 57 Reeves. I). .1. (1987). Learning to teach art: An integra- Clarkson, P (1988). Science in dance. In P Clarkson & M. tive proce.ss.Design .for Arts in Educalbm, 89(1). Skrinar (Eds.), Scietrceof dance training (pp. 4 1-43. 17-21). Champaign. IL: Human Kinetics. Shulman, L. (1979). Research on teaching in the arts: College Guide 1990-91: A directory of dance in North Review, analysis, critique. In G.L. Kneiter & J. Stallings American colleges and universities. (1990). [Special (Eds.),The teaching prowess awl aesthetics: Tb d issue]Dance Magazine. yeadmok on research in arts aml aesthetic educa- Eielielberger,R.'I'.(1989).Disciplined inquiry: tion.St. Louis, MO: CEMEREL, Inc. Understanding awl doing ocial research.New Shulnian, L. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge York: Longman, growth in teaching.Educational Rewarchcr 15(2), Frances-Fisher. E. (1989). What student choret,.;ra- phers need to know.Dance Teacher Note,11(.1,1), Shulman. L. (1987).Knowledge andteaching: Foundationsof t he new reform.Harvard (ray. J. (198)). Danceihslrlicl inh--Seichre appliedla Educational Review, 57(1). 1-22. !he artalhhh.enh'hl.Cluunpaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Siedentop. I),( 989April).rontent knot( ledgejar II.:nstein, P (1)90). Educating for the future: A post- ph //sera! education.Keynote address to (' and 1 modern paradigm for dance education.Journal r4 Academy Conference on the Implications of the Physfral Education, Recreation and Dance, 61(5), Knowledge Base for Teaching for Teacher Education. 56-58. Boston. Holmes Group. Im. (1986). Tomorrow teachers: Witt rock, M. (Ed.). (1986).Handbook yi researchoh report oftlu, Holmes (iroup.East Lansing, MI: Author leach i (:Ird ed.) New York: Macmillan.

Sylvie Fortin is a doctoral candidate at Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43202.

The author wishes to thank Daryl Siedentop, Judith Koroselk, Dixie Durn and ,Nhda Moonen lot their suggestions on the numuscri pt.

10 Dance EducationDegree Programsin Colleges andUniversities Karen Clemente

This article is based upon a comprehensive openings in the field of public danceeducation. 1,()r five to six national research project eonducted duringthe instance, in Wisconsin, approximately had been years 1989 and 1990. It.included surveys to college dance specialist jobs existed and these dance departments, state departments of filled for a number of years. For this reason,at the education, and selected dance educators inthe 1.tniversity of Wisconsin in Stevens Point,college public schook. Though the article is primarily students were discouraged from pursuing adance based on the particular survey responsesby education major since, practically speaking, no college dance departments in the nation, jobs in public education were available(Gingrasso, references are made to individuals whoprovided personal communication, November :3,1989). information with regard to the larger research Mary Elliott., a dance educator inWisconsin stated that project via personal memos, letters, andphone (Orchard Ridge Elementary, Madison), in her school calls. there were only two dance educators system and that her physicaleducation certifica- tion was the reason for her jobassignment. She fur- State Dance education as an option for st.udy inhigher ther stated that even though the Wisconsin education loses a great deal of its appealif job Board of Education had approved thephasing in of opportunities in the field are nonexistent. Thedis- one dance teacher in eachelementary school, there continuation of college dance education programs was no funding for such anendeavor. Also, though in many states throughout the nation isbecoming the statewide curriculum guide hadbeen approved commonplace. Reasons for this trend are varied. by the State Board of Education,there was no First of all, in the states grantingcertification, forced compliance. The Wisconsin DanceCouncil almost all distinguish dance from other areasof was lobbying for such a statemandate, but this par- study by stating that dance should be thesecond ticular dance educator stated that the outlook was with regard to area of teacher certificationin addition to another not. encouraging. Without mandates recognked subject mei' ((ingrasso, 1987).Or, as dance education, the job prospects willremain in the case of Massachusetts, dancecertification is bleak. shifting to become a fine arts certificationthat will, The dance department of the Universityof by 1993, include dance, theatre, andcommunica- Southern Mississippi also reported via the survey tions. California, too, which once had dancecertifi- that there were few college graduates in the areaof cation, now requires thatiri"' School dance dance education and no job opportunities. teacher must hold certific.,, aot her subject Furthermore, (ertification, which had been in lost. area, such as physical ed liberal studies. effect for ten years in Mississippi, had been Similarly, in Minnesota, dance may only be com- Even in a certification state such as Georgia, as bined with elementary education ortheatre arts of 1989, no certified dance educators wereworking certification. Under such condit ions dance special- in the public schools (Mark Wheeler,University of ist positions are not viable. Georgia). Even though two universities in the state dance Second, in states which do hire dancespecialists. reported I he offering of degree programs in few new positions have been createdfor those education, the lack of jobs in the publicschoo' teachers; since dance is not mandated as asubject mld most definitely seem to threaten theexis- for all students in the schools, there arefew job tence of such programs.

4 4 At the University of Oregon in Eugene, dance Another reason for the discontinuation of college majors who desired jobs in public education were dance education degree programs in many states faced with the reality of having to relocate to states may be that dance has been viewed by state board with certification or to go on to get a master's of education policymakers as strict':' a form of degree and teach at a university according to Janet physical educat ion. In such st at es, dance was Descutner,Iiniversity ofOregonDance taught by teachers who may have possessed cert i fi- Department chair, as reported in the college news- cation in physical education but. who lacked the paper ((ilmore, 1989). This department was work- qualifications of a dance specialist. Particularly, in ing to promote dance in public education and to Utah and Virginia, dance was a component of the create a climate for the acceptance of dance certifi- physical educat ion program: however, in Utah cation in the state. It was currently providing work- dance certification was granted as well. shops and lecture-demonstrations to nondance In Virginia, though the dance programs generally specialists in public schools. These workshops were under physical education departments in the were sponsored by the Western Oregon Institute local schools, Susan Damron, of the Art s and for the Arts and Education and by the Oregon Humanities Center of Richmo id Public Schools, Dance Associat ion. Also int his st at.e, Sharon reported that the center budgeted momey for a vari-

Oberst, of Western Oregon State in Monmouth, ety of changing arts programs, which included reported ont he 1989-1990 Oregon Dance dance. Association Roundtable Discussion Panel, which Tlw exception to)t he rule nat ionwide was the focused on ways in which to enhance dance educa- state of North Carolina, which initiated the Basic tion in public schoads (Oberst, personal communi- Ethication Program in 1984. This program man- cation, November (i,1989). These examples indi- dated that dance, music, theatre arts, and visual cate the kind of networking that should be created arts become a part of the required curriculum, between teachers in higher education, state dance grades K-12. Unique as this situat ion was, as associations, and public education if certification recently as I 988, there was a shortage of qualified and job opportunities are to be created in noncer- dance educators to teach in the public schools of tification states. North Carolina. Of the four dance educators who) Many other co dlcge dance education programs pnivided information regarding their dance pro- suffered from the lack ot' job opportunities avail- grams in North Carolina public schools (Kris able in their respective states. Specifically, accord- Cross. Wake County Public Schools, Raleigh: ing to survt:y responses, atFort. Hays St ate Barbara O'Brien, Henderson County Schools, University in Kansas, dance education courses Hendersonville:ClaudetteSaleeby Miller, were om the boo)ks but not currently offered due to) Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools, Charlotte: and lack of student interest. Likewise, in New Jersey at Cindy Hoban, Apex Elementary [magnet school]. William Paterson College in Wayne, a course in the Apex), all based their programs on the Basic practice of teaching dance was dropped due to the Education Program and the Nort IiCarolina lack of enrollment. Reasow: for such situations Standard Course of Study (man(lated by the state). were obvious in states with no teacher certification All reported direct outreach by university dance in dance. departments to) their programs in such areas as stu- However, in New Jersey, a positive move in arts dent teaching, teacher renewal credits, and staff educat ion was reported in February 1990, by development. Theresa Purcell, a dance educator at Brunswick Changes in the way state departments of educa- Acres Elementary School. Purcell provided infor- tion view the certification issue will contrilmte to mation regarding the recent appointment of a 25 either the increase or the demise of dance educa- member advisory council on arts education in New tion programs in local school districts and subse- .Iersey, of which she is a member. A local newspaper quently in higher education. It' dance is interpreted reported that the council had been established to as a designated subjeyt area and is mandated to be strengthen arts education in tlw state and work taught, then the potential for jobs will hwrease, towardtheachievementofartsliteracy likewise. college dance education programs will ("( ooperman selects," 1990). Such an effort can he expand to meet such needs. The entire issue may seen as a way to) develop dance educat ion programs be likened to a tight ly wound and well-oiled in public schools and. subsequently, in college machine that needs the sticngth of every part for it dance departments. to achieve its designated work.

-12 .15 University Dance Department Survey teacher certification in dance On either the elemen- tary or secondary levels, or both. The.se were: Responses to 1989-1990 surveys mailed to Arizona, Georgia, Idaho,Illinois, Maryland, chairpersons of dance departments throughout the Massachusetts, Michigan, North Carolina, Ohio, nation indicated the degree to which dance educa- Rhode Island, Texas, lItah, and Wisconsin. At the tion was a current area of focus in college curric- time of the survey, sonw states also indicatedthat ula. Surveys were mailed to all four-year private dance certificationwas pending or being reviewed. and state colleges/universities with major and/or If the state in which the college was located minor dance programs that offered at least oil granted certification, the question was asked, dance education course in their curriculum. A total "Does your department offer a dance certification of 235 surveys were mailed; 134 comphiNI sur- track?" Answers included: 17.9% (n=21) offered veys were received, representing a 57.0% response an undergraduate emphasis indance education; rate. Questions were asked in the categories ()I': 22.1% (n=30) offerod an undergraduate major in (a) university acceptance requirements, (b) cer- dance education; 6.0% (n=8) offered a graduate tification, (c) course work, and (d) outreach. The emphasis in dance education; while 1.5% (n =0) fifflowing paragraphs represent the specific survey offered a graduate major in dance education. These results. percentages reflectNI that dance educationempha- sesand/or majors were not prevalent even in states UniveiNit y Acceptance 1?equirements that offered certification,suggesting that job opportunities in public education did not exist In the survey category on university acceptance within those states. requirements, in response to the question "Does Also, there seemed to be an apparent lack of your college/university require that all entering stu- interest onthe graduate level in the field of dance dents have completed a high school arts course," education. This may have been due to the lack of dance specialist jobs in public education as well as 20.2%(n=27)answered "yes" and 76.1%(n=102) answered "no." Approximately seven years ago, to the practice of hiring graduateswith master of since the College I3oard had reconunended the arts fine arts degreesas college teaching personnel. as a requirementfor highschool graduation, the Therefore, those who would be apt to pursue a policy had mit become widespread enough to be degree solely in the field of dance education may included in most (huice department college admis- have been redirected to other degrees or fields si)n requirements. because of the dearth in vocational demand. The second question in the category On admis- sion requirements addressed whether or not the Course Wmt dance department identified specifichigh school arts requirements to be completed prior to admis- The third section of the survey investigated sioninto the (lance major program.Only 2.2% dance education course work offered in the respec- =3) dance departments answered"yes." tive dance departments. Areas listed werecurricu- Examples listed for the required courses/areas of lum development, movement analysis.philosophy/ study were music appreciation, art appreciation. theory of teaching dance, and practice ofteaching and the humanities. Most wrote that previous dance. Course work in the practice of teaching dance trainingwas required, but that this training dance may have included One or all of the follow- was received in private dance school settings. Of all ing: workshop, practicum, apprenticeship. and stu- respondents. 91.0% 126) answered "no" to the dent teaching. Addit lonal courses that were above question. Six schools listed t hat there was no included in the category of dance education also dance major or at least no dance education empha- could have been listed at the department's discre- sis in their department. tion as an "other" option. Courses in curriculum development were offered by :35.1% (n=17) of the departments; courses in ( ificat ion movement analysis were offered by58.2% (H=78) philosophy/ In the survey category On ification. the ques- of the departments; courses in the 73.1% tion, "In your state, is dance a certifiable subject theory of teaching dance were offere(I by the arca," yielded a 37.3% ( n =50) "yes" response and a (n-=-98) of the departments; and courses ill 59.7'1,6 (n=80) "no" response. Of the 12 states practice of teaching dance were offered by79.9% included in the mailing. 13currently granted ( =107) of the departments. inchiding 17.2%

1:3 t; (n =23) in workshop, 37.3% (n=50) in practicum, In fact, all 66.4% (n=89) of those that indicated 28.4% (u =38) in apprenticeship, and 47.0% the practice of outreach included contact with the (n=63) in student teaching. Other courses that public school students themselves. Though such were cousidered by the departments as part of the outreach is important, trying to locate dance prac- dance education curriculum were listed as "other," titioners, in order to offer in-service workshops as 23.9% (n=32). Examples of these included intern- well as to create exchange opportunities between ships, choreography for public school students, dance educators in public education and higher field experience, general psychology, educat.ional education, becomes a top priority for creating an psychology, foundations in education, special edu- atmosphere for dance as part of a public school's cation, ideokinesis, perceptual motor, kinesioloW general curriculum. injury prevention, preschool creative dance, hio- In the 26.9% (n =36) of departments that did mechanics, aesthetics, dance history, rhythmic pr( wide outreach to local dance educators, exam- analysis, accompaniment for movement., teaching ples of type of support and/or instruction included: dance activities K-12 for dhysical education and networking to offer teacher workshops t.hrough the dance, and residencies. Overall, there was a high California Arts Project, working with an aesthetics percentage of theory and practice of teaching institute to train classroom teachers in the arts courses offered, an indication that there was (Colorado), giving workshops for dance educators enough interest to tarry such courses in the dance (Connecticut.. Massachusetts, Michigan, North depart ment curricula. Carolina, Oregon, Texas, and Utah), meeting with a Question number two in the area of course work secondary education advisory committee (Illinois), inquired into the number of credits a student must offering workshops for awareness of dance as an carry for either a dance education emphasis or art form and means of expression (Iowa), working major. For a dance education emphasis, numbers with the Kentucky Department of Educati(m on ranged from 16 to 106 quarter hours and from 8 to educating classroom teachers in creative dance 150 seme.iter hours. For a dance education major. (Kentucky),giving workshops throughthe t he range was from 32 to 130 quarter hours and Comprehensive Arts Education and other specially from U to 136 semester hours. Credits for minor funded arts programs (Minnesota), giving weekend programs ranged from 18 to 33 both quarter and workshops in creative movement (Montana), pro- semest er hours. One master's degree through a viding for curriculum development and supervision school of education required 36 quarter hours. The (New York and Texas), giving staff development wide ranges depicted the varied degree to which workshops (North Carolina), coordinating arts pro- dance education course work was approached in grams for phriical education teachers (Ohio), and each department. even in those that responded serving a-: consultant.s for school districts begin- they offered a dance education emphasis or major ning (lance programs, as well as serving on an Arts program. Also. some numbers reflected only dance as Basic Curriculum project steering committee course requirements: others included all require- (South Carolina). ments in general education courses. liberal arts Table 1 highlights percentages of the above find- courses, and dance courses. ings in regard to the areas of course work and out- reach to public education by college/university Outivach dance educators. The table indicates that though course offerings in dance education are common- The last category of survey questions addressed place, the existence of dance certification educa- the dance department policy in regard to outreach tion tracks is low. The lack of job prospects may be to public education. In 23.9% (n =32) of the seen as a deterrent to attaining dance certification. responses, no Outreach was reported. The question The table also shows the difference in the occa- asked specifically about outreach to dance practi- sion of (mtreach to public school students (66.4% tioners in the public schools. Though 66.4% of all respondents) as opposed to that for public tn =89) reported that outreach did occur, only in school educators (26.9% of all respondents). The 26.9% (n=36) of the cases did it occur for dance difference may indicate !hat there is not enough practitioners in local school districts. Many of the interest and/or time on the part of college/univ, Ni- respondents explained t hat no dance education t): dance educators or by public school dance edu- practitioners existed in their schools: therefore. cators to initiate sudi outreach. It may also indi- outreach was limited to lect ure-demonst rat ions catealackof supportbypublicschool and performances for students. administration. This especially may be the case Table 1. College/University Dance Department Percentageswith Regard to Course Work and Outreach to Public Education

Category Percentage (1 of respondents

Dance Certification track Undergraduate emphasis 17.9 24 Undergraduate major 22.4 30 Graduate emphasis 6.0 8 Graduate major 4.5 6 Course work Curriculum development 35.1 47 Movement analysis 58.2 78 Philosophy/Theory of teaching dance 73.1 98 Practice of teaching dance: 79.9 107 Workshop 17.2 23 Practicum 37.3 50 Apprenticeship 28.4 38 Student teaching 47.0 63 Other 23.9 32 Outreach To public school students 66.4 89 To public school educators 26.9 36 Total number ot respondents in the survey 134, n = number ot respondents per question. with regard to funding for outreach, including Wit h these survey results in mind, those who financial support. for dance educator workshops believe in the power of dance education should and staff (levelopment course work through col- begin to lobby with more determination at the state leges/universities in the particular states. board of education level for dance programs in the public schools as well as for dance certification. Summary and Recommendations Furthermore, greater networking between public school dance educators and professors in higher The survey results reveal that college dance edu- education is needed. Two specific projects that cation programs are declining throughout the would bring together dance educators for the goal nation. Reasons are varied, hut most likely these of increased dance education programs in the pub- include: I) the lack of job opportunities in a state lic schools are described here. upon the completion of danceeducation degrees; 2 ) the lack of state mandates for dance education State Dance Implementation Strategy in public schools; :3) the trend toward combining Project dance with other subject areas for the purposeof cert ificat ion; and I) a state board ofeducation Based upon the ident ificat ion of dance education practice that considers dance as a component of leaders from the areas of higher education and physical education rather than as a subjeM area in public education in each state provided by the its own right. research study, it %link! be possible to develop an Even though dance education degree emphases individual state dance education implementation are reduced in nuntlwr, inphilosophy, dance educa- project to bring together state arts representatives. tion continues to be viewed wit h importance by col- state education officials, state college/university lege dance faculty and students alike. This idea is dance department professors, intermediate unit reflected by the presence of course work in the personnel, and local school district eclucat ors with theory and practice of teaching dance in approxi- interests in dance. The project would involve the mately 77% of the survey respondents. Such find- development of dance education programs as part ings indicate tlw perceived significance of dance of the state's general curriculum. Issues such as t he education as a field of study even when lack of cer- integration of dance with other arts or other sub- tification andJor job opportunities are detrimental ject areas, the regu lar o fferi ng of dance as an artis- to its growth. tic experience within physical education programs,

4Li the dance curriculum, and scheduling and facilities state certification committee, would includeinter- for dance Would be addressed. ested dance educators suchascollege/university lii the first phase of the project, the above issues professors, local school district dance educators, would be discussed in terms of their appropriate- companion personnel in (lramaJtheatre education, ness for specific school districts in the state, which and college students inthefield of dance maild, in turn, become model programs for other education. districts. Further, procedures for Unplementation The plan would include the following steps: of dance education in each school district repre- 1) the development of a rationale for dance educa- sented would lw discussed. Second, aft.er having tion in the state's core curriculum; 2) a review of arrived at a suitable context for danc( education national and/or statewide field test studies of dance within identified school districts, the network of curriculum implementation followed by a revision individuals brought together would develop a strat- pr(Wess of state curriculum/curricular guidelines egy for the int egration of dance education pn)- for the arts/dance based on field studies; ;3) the grams in the state with the goal of instituting dance selection of a spokesperson( s) for dance education in as many school districts as possible wit Inn a certification in the state; ,1) the creation of a posi- t hree-year period. tion paper by the spokesperson(s) to be delivered These strategies could address all or some of the to st.ateducation officials; 5) the review and revi- following structural possibilities: state graduation sion of the position paper by the state certification requirements in the arts satisfied by a dance com- committee; and 6) the development of a strategy ponent (dance ati a (listinct subject area); dance for the presentation of the position paper at a certi- education implementation via physical education fication hearing with education officials at the state programs; and dance education implementation as level. onearea of study in afine arts curriculum. Fonlis As a result of this project, based on the commit- would also be placed (at policies for hiring dance tee's rati,%nale statement and the results of the education personnel where no state dance teacher national or statewide field studies in dance educa- certification exists and methodsfor training teach- tion implementation, dance would be more fully ing personnel currently in place. perceived as a necessary subject area in public edu- cation. Subsequently, the need for qualified teach- State TeacherCertification Project in ers potentially would facilitate the certification of Dance Education. teachers in dance. Similar projects have been initiated in many The purpose of t he state certification project states and are needed in all of the states so that the would be to develop a plan in order tolobhy t oward field of dance educationespecially with regard to separate/distinct teacher certification in dance. public schools. but likewise, higher educat km The potential participants. who would become a grows stronger in thefuture.

References

Cooperman selects 2r) to serve as arts educatnin advi- sors. (1990, February 2). Th( Times. p. Gilmore. 13. (198)). Dancing students not nipping over ,job outlook. The Emerald, I Inivvrsity of Oregon. Gingras:,o, S. 11. (1987). Dance education certification: Current status and significance. Orsigii for Arts it? [At/cot/op!, ). 11 3).

Karen Clemente teaches dance in the Department of Physical Education and Health Science at Eastern College, St. Davids, Pennsylvania 19087. Prospects for Planned Change in Dance Education Francine Lee Morhi

Over the past three decades, arts educators :WO The key entry point for educational change is scholars have used a variety of written and verbal teat-her preparation and the continuing education forums to express the need for change in 5(111 of teachers. Reports put forward by the Holmes ails programs. The prominent recurring theme Group (1986), Carnegie Thsk Force on Teaching as envisions a transformat ion from t he t raditional stu- a Profession (1986), and the National ('ommission dio emphasis in arts education to a sequential, for Excellence ill Teacher Educatnin (1985) con- comprehensive aesthetic education, more recently firm this point and hint that present mechanisms labeled discipline-based arts education. This move- for our professional work with teachers might be ment is founded upon the structures of arts disci- weak. Teacher educators in thc dance recognize plines and contemporary visions of aesthetics and this problem and call ftir a reexamination of cur- human cognition. Reformed curricula in the ails rent practice (Gray, 1989; Gingrasso,1987; alill at balancing perceptual and conceptualfunds Hilsendager, 1990; Mad. 1990). A representative of information, performance and technical skills, comment is made by James IJndercoller (1987): and creative and analytical facilities for all stu- "Colleges and universities need to make a ctnnplete dents. There are concerns for interdisciplinary arts revision of their arts education curricula. Only learning and approaching instruction in a more through the training of preservice ttachers and the serious and rigonnis manner. Current dance educa- ongoing training of inservice t tachers can real tion literature clearly demonstrates this shift away change be effected" (p. 30). from a product itm focus in curriculum thinking Aking with the initial devekipment of theoretical ( (' hap ma n-Il ilse ndage r.1989; Cote.-Laurence. and practical guidelines for aesthetic arts educa- 1989; George, 1989; Gray, 1989; llowe. 1989; tion, the realities of daily teaching and teacher. Morin. 1988; National Dance Association, 1988). needs would logically make it imperative t.hat high Education is continually in need of planned quality mechanisms for teacher education be change in order to improve curriculum and instruc- worked out. Bernard Rosenblatt and Rene Michel- tion and to respond to the reform initiatives that Trapaga (1975) point out, howevet, that several emerge within the professional community. years ago teacher education in aesthe!iceducation Current professional commentaries and profil"s of' was either completely ignored orattempted half- dance education (4ferings suggest that change is heartetfly. They state: "The responsibility of educat- highly desirable, Inn continues to be an overriding ing and informing teachers, administrators. and problem in the field. Sarah Ilifsendager (1990) the community ha s. been passed off from agency to describes present practices within American tdu- agency like the proverbial waifnoneclaiming cat ion: "There are thousands of teachers in public total stewardship, yet everyone expecting g.ceat and private education who continue to teach dance results at the end" (p. '11). Foremost in the litera- as they were taughtas an isolated act iv0limited ture is the chticism that teachers have not been to the mastery of discrete movement skills- (p. helped to change t iihnigh appropriate teacher edu- Although there are multiplfactors exerting influ- cation experiences (Cour(ney. 1979: Hamblen, ence on the change process in any social system. 1983: Karel, 1966; [ndercotler, 1987; Wilson, this article focuses on one key factor in school 1989). dance reform higher education. The importance that dance teachers themselv('s

51) be aesthetically sensitive products of discipline- tion it seems as though they do not. Our induction based dance education programs at the university programs produce novice teachers who enter the level must be stressed. To this end, Brent Wilson classroom with a fragmented knowledge of dance (1989) criticizes higher education by stating that as a discipline, a brief and theoretical introduction "the variation in quality and breadth of preparation to an aesthetic education or discipline-based arts of teachers in the arts approaches a national scan- education philosophy, and little comprehension of dal" (p.:33). Judith Gray (1989) and Susan how to integrate the two in practice. Gingrasso (1987) attest to the problem of dance Graduate students in arts education. particularly that is taught by educators drawn from distinct those who teach full-time, also express dissatisfac- groupings who possess different degrees of teacher tion wit.h the lack of practicality and usefulness of training, expertise, and interest in the subject. course work in their teaching (Stencel, 1988). A These indicators point to the actuality that univer- graduate degree program is often perceived as sities and colleges in North America have not kept "consisting of courses that. are theoretical and pace with the changes necessary to) instruct teach- abstract, or completely unrelated to individual ers how to use aesthetic theory to guide action in teaching needs and professional goals" (p. 11). schools (11ohnes, 1986; Reimer, 1989). This perception is due to two basic problems. First, like their undergraduate counterparts, graduate A Concept students rarely have the opportunity to see reform ideas discussed in a university seminar put into The typical undergraduate dance program still classroom practice. Second, the limitations of tends to emphasize technical skills and the com- many graduate department offerings result in the partment alizationof subjectmatters. Sarah need for arts teachers to select courses necessary Ililsendager (1990) describes the state of teacher to finish programs whether or not these courses are education in dance as philosophically barren and relevant to their individual teaching responsibili- performance-centered. She states that "within ties. It can be seen, then, that teacher educators in dance departnwnts the trend has shifted toward the arts espouse aesthetic or discipline-based phi- performance, choreography, criticism, history and losophies for arts educators, but either leave these ethnology as fields of study; teacher preparation ideas in a vague and unstructured form or contra- has not kept. pace" (p. 25). It follows then, that uni- dict them by adhering to traditionalism in their versities turn out graduates who might have had a practical work with future teachers. This has cursory introduction to aesthetics, so perhaps resulted in the continual dominance of the studio believe in the principles of an aesthetic, discipline- model in school arts programs, which has set in based education and can speak on superficial levels motion a perpetual inhibitor of necessary change. about the notion, but are unable to teach it effec- Immediate improvement and change can only be tively because their professors fall back into tradi- implemented by inservice arts teachers who are in tional modes of teaching in applied classes and so frequent contact with large numbers of students. It do not demonstrate the concept. It is not surpris- is for this reason that professional development is ing, since graduates are left t.o their Own devices, that level of teacher education that tends to take on that our whole concept of dance in schools is based the burden of sustaining and shaping new move- on performance. ments. It is considered by many authorities as the A national inquiry into arts education in Canada most crucial element in the reformation and con- provided evidence that even the certification year tinual Unprovement of arts education (('ourtney et that arts teachers typically take in a faculty of edu- al., 1985; Glidden. 1989; lIoad, 1990; Martin cationis problematic. According to Richard Ross, 1988; Rtimer, 1989). Courtney (1979), during this year the student has The continuing education of dance oNtchers is a little opportunity for methods training in dance. In crucial function of higher education and will always describing teacher preparation in American dance be needed as new philosophies and methods pert i- education Ililsendager ( 1990) reports t hat less nem to curriculum and instruction in the field are than 7 percent of those institutes of higher educa- bronight forth. Teachers require avenues of enlight- tion offering dance programs list pract ical teaching enment regarding such topics as new advances in experiences in public school settings. The methods dance, new areas of specialty in dance teaching, or course and st udent teaching practicum can and contemporary issues affecting dance, the arts, and should provide current reformed views for student education. Itis also important to ponder the fact teachers to emulate, but in the case of dance (Aiwa- that most dance teachers have a potential career

.18 life of more than forty years. It would be totally Professi(mal development expert Michael Milian unreasonable to expect that a preparation program (1987) establishes the point that regardless of the could possibly equip a dance educator for all the approach to our work with inservice teachers, new and changing situations that wouldundoubt- foundational knowledge about change is also nec- edly need to be confronted during that time span. essary. He said: "nntil we understand that st In addition, some writers have collected statistical development is change, and that everything we evidence suggesting that the average age of prac- know about what change is and how it occurs is ticing arts teachers is increasing (Guskey, 1986; critical to any approach, we will continue to waste McLaughlin, 1988; Rosenblatt & Michel-Trapaga, resources, to create false expectations, and to sus- 1975). This only compounds the need for profes- tain the confusion and frustration that surrounds sional development as the most appropriate means staff development" (p. 214). Rita Irwin's (1988) for renewing the expertise of dance educators and research findings also suggest that arts education potentially influencing change. consultants and supervisors need knowledge of The impotence of much of the professional curriculum change strategies in planning profes- development efforts used for teachers of the arts is sional development experiences for teachers in attributable not so much to teachers resistance to their school divisions. change as to the ineffectiveness of the models used. One-shot workshops, training without techni- A New Model for Professionals cal assistance or follow-up, top-down plans, courses unrelated to classroom experiences, diffu- Given that forces such as internal dissatisfaction, sion of products, isolationism, lack of attention to he socio-political mood, and climate of support for vac her perceived needs, and so on have little arts education are currently mot ivating positive impact because they are not designed to provide change in dance education, this writer speculates conditions for professional change and adult learn- that much of the problem of reform is due to weak ing to occur (Meyers, 1988; Morin, 1990). It is models of teacher education at all levels. Based on interesting to note that many of the scholars in arts the information gathered and considered by this education have been preoccupied with producing author in a study completed in 1990, it is believed major learning theories for children but have not that the success of planned change depends on pro- yet concentrated on producing a major statement viding dance teachers with opportunities to learn on how arts teachers might learn andchange under the guidance of higher education leaders (c(mrtney et al., ;185). Although we have a few who are able to provide optimal conditions for exploratory projects in place, there is no evidence facilitating and sustCning professional change. A of any mutually shared or supported foundation for potential solution to the problem of reform at the I he professional development of arts educators. school level in dance education is offered in Figure

The need for research and development into the I, a newmodel of professional development that . foundati(ms of professional development of arts integrates and applies knowledge of past practice, educators has been established by authorities such adult learning, and the process of change. as Kathryn Martin and Jerrold Ross(1988) and Although it is not within the scope of this paper to Michael Andrews (1983). Roy Edelfelt (1979), provide readers with the detailed discussions con- expert On professional development and arts teach- tained in the main report., a synoptic account of the ing. addresses the issue: findings can be given. Essentially, the model con- The teacher involved in any type of instruction, sists of a sequence of three main components, including staff development. should have some which incorporate features that were found to be foundatMn for teaching, in addition to having consistently associated with the potential for suc- competence in the content to tw taught. By cessful educational and teacher transformations. "foundation" I mean a Intsc on which instruc- Effective professional development programs t tonal behavior can bk` bUilt, Ideally a foundation decentralized consists of notions about psychology, tempered are the product of meticulous and by One's Own philosophy of education. Such a planning.Compmwnt 1: Caopciat ire Planning foundation should be defensible, reasonable. .far Chanw: Thc Conli,renrc Luperiencest resses consistent based On solid thinking. and flexible. that important inputs are the unique orientations It should provide direction in all teaching situa- that dance educators, both as a target group and as tions. It should be clear enough to provide posi- individuals, bring to the professi(mal development tive &feet ion and yet not be restricted by a nar- row interpretation that might dictate experience. Good programming depends on a well- stereotyped thinkipg Or teaching. fp. conceived plan of action emanating from the criti-

-19 rt 9 Figure 1. Composite illustration of a professional development model for pianned change in arts education.

COMPONENT 1 COMPONENT 2 COMPONENT 3 COOPERATIVE PLANNING FOR CHANGE PREPARING FOR PLANNEC CHANGE: OPERATIONALIZING AND MAINTAINING THE CONFERENCE EXPERIENCE THE SEMINAR-BASED EXPERIENCE PLANNED CHANGE: THE POST-SEMINAR EXPERIENCE

1. Analysis of 2. Individual Needs 1. Demystifying New Theory Group Orientations Assessment 1. Implementing Action Research Plans in Classrooms

2. Translating Theory to Practice 3. Mutual Exploration of Group Needs and Planned Changes 2. Monitoring and Assessing Planned Change

3. Transition to Skill Development

Development of 3. Reinforcing and Knowledge Base Improving Planned Change 4. Transferring to Individual Classroom Experience

1 5. Development of Group and Individual Objectives 51 cal reflection and self-direction of teacher partici- problem of sustenance common to reform efforts pants. Dance educators should be provided with in the arts. The promise of enduring change calls opportunities to plan cooperatively with leaders, for a professional development program that negotiate desired changes, articulate a concise encompasses a component essentially based in the base of essential knowledge, and establish clear school. A period of trial and experimentation with group and individual objectives. Motivation should change ideas will facilitate the reception of critical rely on the intrinsic rewards of progress toward feedback about student learning that is so neces- superior group achievements and individual career sary for teacher change. Continued on-site support goals. and technical assistance beyond the seminar train- The eventual generalization of desired reforms in ing will help dance teachers persist with change dance education demands a continuing education efforts and tolerate occasional disappointments. experience that goes beyond the traditional one- Practitioners attempting to internalize change need day workshop model. Dance teachers need inten- to be further nourished by relevant follow-up work- sive seminar training which recognizes the distinct shops, collaboration with peers, and appropriate gradations from learning new knowledge and skills forms of written ccituunication. to the independent application of these as dis- This paper sought to explore the critical connec- played in Componvnt 2: Preparing ,fiir Planned tion between higher education and planned change Change: The Seminar Experience. Strategies in dance education. It was argued that present should be designed to deal with the special chal- models of teacher education are falling short of lenges of illuminating change ideas via modeling meeting the challenges confronted by the reform methodologies, modifying the habitual practice initiatives of dance educators and their colleagues and belief systems of participants, and solving in other arts disciplines. problems related to the adult ego. Opportunities The writer has suggested that the most direct and should he offered for continuous evaluation, peer promising route to facilitating and sustaining support and dialogue, and exploring and develop- reform in dance education is through inservice ing materials that address context-specific needs. teachers. Since higher education is responsible for Dance tea( hers should work under sheltered condi- offering programs to both prospective and practic- tions on problems of individual concern connect- ing teachers, there is an obligation for leaders of ing the seminar in meaningful ways to the realities these institutions to explore alternate, more potent of the school. professional development opportunities that are Component .3: Opera( ng and designed in light of the conditions necessary to Maintaining Planned Change: The Post- help the present danc(' teaching force embrace Sem iiia r Experience addresses the overriding change.

References

Andrews. M. D. (1983). Designing an arts education Edelfelt, R. A. ( 197) ). Staff development and teaching in course for elementary teachers, Jou (1.Creut the arts. In G.L. Knieter & .1. Stallings (Eds.), The Beha r ha; 1 7(3),I 75-180. teach ing process and a rl s and aes1 het ics(pp. Carnegie Task Force on Teaching .a Profession (I 98(i). 129-117). St. Louis. MO: ('EMREL. nal ion !)?'ept ou ; That:hers .fia: the 2 st cent ot Fullan, M. (11)87). Impienienting the implementation lyattsville, MD: Carnegie Forum on Education and the plan. In M.F. Wideen & I. Andrews (Eds.);tulfderc/- Economy. opment .1(11SehMil ill1ProVelM'll : .10(11.5 (on the Chapniandlilsen(Iager, S. (198)).1 inder the hig hop: teacher(pp. 21:3-222). Philadelphia, PA: Fahner Dance Murat ion wows towards a nen: era . Heston, Press. \ A:National Dance Assuciation, American Alliance for George, L. NI. (Ed.). (1)89), [Special issue on dance]. leah fi, Physical Education, Recroation and Dance. CAIIPER Jon rn(ll, 550). COte.Latirence, E. (1989). In pursuit of dance literacy. Gingrasso, S. IL (1987). Dance ethication certification: C-1/IPER.10i4 rnal,5.5(-1), 2-3. Current status and significance. Desiqm.for Artsi Courtn(y, k (Ed.). ( 1979).The jaw of the Int 14 re: 7'he ucat S9(I), I 1.00 (of the mot halal inquiry int() 0 rt s a ont uca- Glidden, K. (1989). The K-I 2.arts agenda: Next chal- 1 ion in Canada.Ottawa, ON: ('anadian Conference of lenges for higher oducat am. Pt's/fp/ for Arts i 11 the Arts. ucat I),II-It Courtney. K., Booth. Emerson. J., & Kirmni('h, N. Gray, .1. A. (1989).Da tire i roctirm: Science applied (1)85)Teacher rd urat ion n theits.Sharon, ON: to t a rt of moo ewe tot .Champaign,IL: Human Bison Books Kinetics.

5 I Guskey, T, R. (1986). Staff developnwnt and t he process Morin, E L. (1988). Psychological and curricula ?limn- of teacher change. Edurationa/ Ixadership, 15(5), dations.for elemento ry dance education. Edina, MN: 5-12. Burgess. Hamblen, K. A. (1983). An update On aesthetic educa- Morin, E L. (1990)..4 professional development model tion: Implications for teacher education. Thu clu'r ,for planned change in arts education. Ilnpublished Education Quarterly, 1(2), 52-71. doctoral dissertation, University of North Dakota. Hilsendager, S. (199()). In transition-American dance (Available from University Microfilms International). education. CANPER Journ(,l, 561 I ), 24-27. National CommissionfotExcellenceinTeacher !load, S. (1990). Dance int he (iitext of Canadian Education. (1985). A call jar change in teacher ed schools. CAHPEI? Journal, 56(I ), 20-23. cat ion, Washington, DC: American Association of Holmes Group. (1986). Tomorrow's teachers: A report Colleges for Teacher Education. of the Holmes Group. East Lansing, MI :I folnws National Dance Association. (1988). Dance curricula Group. yodel in('s11;.-12 Reston,VA: National Dance Ilowe, D. S. (1989). Att he crossroads: The National Association. Dance Association in the 1990's, Design .fin. Arts in Reimer, B. (1989). Music education as aesthetic educa- Education, 90(5), 44-47. tion: Toward the future. Music Educators Journal, Irwin, R. L. (1988). The practical knowledge of a fine arts 75(7), 26-32. supervisor in educational change: A case study. Rosenblatt, B. S., & Michel-Trapaga, R. (1975). Through Dissertation abstract (I T.B.( '.) CSSE News. XV( 7&8), the teacher to the child: Aesthetic education for teach- 5, ers. Council for Research in Mnsic Education Karel, L. C. (1966). Teacher education 'n the related arts. Bulletin, 43, 36-49. Music Educators Journal, October, 38-41. Stencel, P L. (1988). The value a nd y (?/ one).- Martin, K. A., & Ross, J. (1988). Developing profession- inglichl-based eon I'M'S as components qf 11111,51CrS als for arts education. In J. T. McLaughlin (Ed.), degree program in music edurat ion jOr in-service Thward a new era in al.'s Mutation (pp. 30-421. /ca ch yrs:The developmentofI wo models. New York: Ainerican (')uncil for the Arts. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of McLaughlin, J. (1988). Art.; educatnm and school person- Rochester. (I1niversity Microfilms International Order nel: Renewal and retraining. Design .for Arts in No. 8814819). rducal am, 89(3), 31-34. I Tndercofler, J. G. (1987). An argument for a new college Meyers, 1). E. (1988). The role of higher education in life- arts education curriculum. Design .for Arts in long arts learning. Dosifitt for Arts in Education, Educat am, 88(3), 30-31. 89(6), :37-42. Wilson, B. (1989). Reformation an(I responsibilities: A menu) to members of the arts education establishment. Design jOr Arts EthleOtiOn, 90(5), 27-35,

Franc.ne Lee Morin is a member of the Paculty of Education at the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3T 2N2.

5') t)r Afrocentric Forms in 20th Century American Dance History: Transforming Com-se Content and the Curriculum Julie A. Kerr

Denial of the Afrocentric Presence Robert Farris Thompson, African art hist orian in Dance (1984), stated: Since the Atlantic slave trade, ancient Many approaches 10 teaching dance history and African organizing principles of song and related coursework in higher education reflect a dance have crossed the seas from the Old Eurocentric bias. Often, c(turse content and the World to the New. There they took on new momentum, intermingling with each ()tiler manner in which it is disseminated stiffer from the and with New World or European styles of omission, unconscious or otherwise, of certain fig- singing and dance. (p. xiii) ures, conditions, and events, denying the influence of West Africa on 20th century dance. According to In a recent article, Brenda Dixon (1990 [aka !Nolen Asante (1988), an advocate of multicultural Dixon-Stowell]) examined the magnitude of the literacy and educational reform, and chair of Afrocentric basis in Ante:an dance. She stated: African-American Studies at Temple University, the What is unacknowledged is da. gerous! curriculum and its designers arc "trapped in their Reclaiming the Afrocentric tradition in the American dancing body means identifying the monocult ural paradigms" (p. 20). Ile furt her Afrocentric heritage in American dance by stated: blacks AND whites, and acknowledging the denial and Omission are two of the most broad significance of this tradition in American potent forces in the arsenal of those who culture and Anwrican dance. WE NEED TO would re-write the historical record to suit MAKE MAINSTREAM WHAT HAS BEEN the ethnocentric conventions of the INVISIBIUZED BY THE MAINSTREAM EIJROCENTRIC HISMRICAL ERAMII?E time.. . . Too often Eurocentrism has become an authentic ethnocentric view in AFRICAN.PASED INFLUENCES IN 01 TR education. The result is that many people (171:11.fRE. (p. who declare that hey arc educated are shocked to find that what they have learned Dixon'.s point is well taken. The development of is only a part of the human reality and is 20th century dance history is a shared history e(ho:ply not synonymous with human between people of all colors. To deny the contribu- experict (. (1):?.1) tions of one people only diminishes and limns This is iii (I suggest t hat western European his- everyone's perspective and understanding of the tory is invalid. Rather. t his author argues that tillici global society we have become. world persp et ives, previously denied and/or omit- A Eurocentric bias also occurs on a more subtle ted. need to be incorporated into the curriculum.' and systemic level in overall curricular design by Similarly, teaching (lance hisiory suffers front the compartmentalizing content thatis non-Western sante denial and/or omission of African-American European into separate units. Conse-uently, such (lancers and choreographers whose vont ributnins content is isolated and fails to become integrated also have shaped the develoPment of 20t h century into :All interrelated and intercultural whole. This dance. Afrocentric forms have influenced Americiin procedure is referred to by James Banks, advocate dance since the time Africans were transplanted o of multiculturalcurriculum. reform, as the Anterican soil through I he transatlantic slave trade. "Cont ribut ions Approal IC an.; was a popular

5:1 Left: Harriette Ann Gray-1938, Humphrey Weidman. From Time and the Dancing Image, Deborah Jowitt (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1988), p. 173.

A.

Right: Dunham dancer Syvilla Ford. From Caribe, Vol. VII, No. 3, edited by Diane L. .lones. I. . method utilized in t he 19(iOs to incorporate ethnic rate unit on African-American concert dance art- content into curricul(Im (Hanks, 1988). ists. Rather. t hese figures and their works are inte- An approach that minimizes the limitations of the grated into coarse content and discussed relative to contribut ionmethodis1 he "Transformative t heir European-American counterparts. In this way. Approach.- Int h i s approach. flanks (1988) con- students perceive 1 he contribution of .African- tends the key issue is not the simple addition of eth- American artists to American concert dance as nic content. "but the infusion Of various perspec- being equivalent to t he corn mullions of Martha tives. frames of reference. and content from Graham, George Balanchine. and Paul Taylor. various groups that will extend students' under- 'Onsequent ly. hut It African-American and standings Of the nature. development and com- European-American concert dance art ists are plexity of U.S. society" (p. approached relative to their movement techniques Banks' approach can be ttpplied to the teaching and philosophy as well ts their social. polit ical. and of dance history. Vol example, by utilizing his per historical context. spect ivy, the work of Katherine Dunham. Arthur liiti recent art irk'. Joan I'iso5cli-Sclir6i1cr (1991) Mitchell. or Alvin Ailey does not comprise a stipa- deScrihedlic role dance educators and artistsxviII play in revitalizing traditional approaches to dance. tion, iniprovisatbni, call and response, and poly- The outcome will ultimately broaden students def- rhyt hmic arrangements that mark the African influ- inition of dance. She stated: ence in jazz (Thompson, 1984). These same A fresh self-examination will translai.e with elements have continued to inform American musi- power into our presence as dance artists cal forms such as gospel, rhythm and blues, rock and educators. By examiningthecontent of 'n' roll, and, most recently, rap. and ways in which we teach, we stand to Twentieth century American dance history has invigorate ourselves, broaden the kluiwl- been influenced by Afnicentric forms. These forms edge of our field and our world. and stimu- late fresh approaches to learning, and cre- can be identified by examining movement content, ating new scholarship. Dance educators dioreographictheme, and aest hetic principles. can address the challenges of the twenty- The folhming section attempts to document the first century with knowledge, experience, ev(ilut ion of 20th century dance history through and a heritage of diversity. We have within select ed examples of the Afro centric presence our discipline the opportunity to offer stu- dents a uniquely integrated perception of therein. (There are several recent publications that pluralism.(p. 62) address this in greater depth. See the selected bibli- ography Of s(nirces.) Clearly. 20th century dance is the product of a niultitude of cultural influencesincluding Asian, European, Native American, and West African. Plantation to Street Dances Ilowever, the Afrocentric presence has, to a great extent, been denied, particularly in concert dance. As a result of the transatlantic slave trade, This mindset or attitude is reflected in how we, as African-bas( ,1 movement patterns and iwrf(wm- dance educators, perceive and teach danceboth ance traditions were retained and diffused into in the classroom and studio. If we reexamine and American culture where they affected the deve;qp- subsequently rechart the development Of 20th cen- ment of American dance. Through a complicated tury dance history, what arises is the existence of process of cross-fertilization and secularization, Afrocentric forms thianighout its evolution. The plantation dances of the southern United States application of this perspective would transcend the evolved into America's popular dance. As African teaching of dance history exclusively; it also trans- and then African-American based dances, they per- fers to courses in dance appreciation. criticism, meated American culture and produced such social aesthetic's and philosophy, composition. and even forms as the Charleston, the jitterbug. the lindy, t echnique. and disco. Many of these dances form the basis of jazz dance (Stearns & Stearns, 1968). An example of how jazz has retained elements of African-based The Evolution of American Dance dance forms is through the isolation of body parts. History from an Afrocentric Perspective The isolation of body parts remained one of the defining features that links jazz to African dance. Througlunit the past century Afrocentric forms Through history, this (lenient has been retained in have been woven into American en Lure where they the "body- of American folk (African-American) produced new forms. Afrocentrisms are particu- and social/popular dance through various transfor- larly prevalent in both the visual and performing mations leading up to jazz dance. arts in varying degrees (Dixon. 1990). Today, street dancing,acontribution from our John Golding (.1968) credits the African influ- nation's inner cities. is an example of the fusion of ence in the work of such Cubist artists as Picasso, African culture with European. In the southern Braque, Derain, and Matisse. Ile stated that they United Stat es, buck dancing. a product of planta- were undoubtedly influenced by African masks and tion culture, emerged among African-Amoricans.' statues, particularly in the construction and use of Buck dancing was then transplanted to the indus- space and in the artists' treatments of formal ele- trial north when African-Americans left the rural ments of the body.' (It is worth noting that these south in search of better job opportunities. Once same properties, at t able to an African aes- on city streets.it merged with the Irish jig and t het ic.greatlyaffectedthe modern dance English clog to produce tap. Tap combined synco- aest het ie. ) pated t ime and subtle body isolat ions characterist lc When jazz music emerged, it represented the of African dance and music with qui('k l'()otwork fusion of European musical traditions with West characteristic of the Irish jig and English clog. The African. This occurred through the use of syncopa- street corner became a viable environment for the 55 5 :J fusionIf these forms and the continual develop- incorporated these into his ballets. Mitchell cited ment of tap. such Balanchine works as Four Temperaments Rap is another form that emerged from the (1946) and/Won (1957) to exemplify the jazz influ- streets. Because of the interrelationship between ence in his work (Pierangeli, 1989). African dance and vocal/rhythmic music, it is par- Another American ballet choreographer to incor- ticularly worth noting the similar interchange that porate jazz in his ballets was Jerome Robbins. occurs between rap vocalists and their dancers.' Evidence of this is in the work Fancy Free (1944) This interrelationship is apparent in the dancers in which he not only utilized the jazz dance idiom who often accompany many rappers. As popular but also musical forms such as the blues and Latin- forms, these dances are not only partially African- based rhythms (Siegel, 1979). The final solo sec- derived but also draw from a host of other dance tion of Fano Free was set to a Latin beat. While forms. Consequently, they are constantly redefin- the music is, in part, African-based, so is much of ing and reinterpreting themselves to produce new the movement Robbins incorporated. Many of the forms. In both of these examples, the dancers' Latin dances, such as the rumba or the mambo, are movement repertoire resembles a mixture of ba.sed on extensions of African rhythms and move- African dance. the Nicolais Brothers of the 1930s ment from the Caribbean. Marshall and Jean and 1940s. and concert dance idioms such as jazz Stearns (1968) noted: and ballet. The ballet vocabulary is often incorpo- rated into these dances through the use of pirou- Today the Latin-American dances such as the Rumba. Conga, Samba, Mambo, ('ha ettes (both en (ledans and en dehors) that are per- Cha. Pachanga, and so on. which have been formed fr(un a parallel position in plie. From this imported from areas where a merging of perspective, the street informs the concert stage as African and European styles has already the concert stage informs the street. taken place. show the greatest African influ- ence. both in quantity and twality. (p. 14) Concert awl Popular Stage Marcia Siegel (1979) described the final solo sec-

Considered by many to be a "purely- European tion of Fancy Free as follows: "The final solo...is art form, the world of classical ballet has also been Latin in beat. although the rhythms are again irreg- influenced by Afrocentric forms. Dixon (1990) ular.... He (the second sailor's dance) gives an noted that George Balanchine's early choreo- exaggeratedly sexy version of a rhumba hips sway- graphic career began on the Broadway stage where ingi glance tipping provocatively over his shouf he came in direct contact with African-American der" [underline added] (p.1:36). The use of the popular dances and African-American entertainers hips, displaced from the body's center axis in this and performers such as the Nicolais Brothers and fashion, is characteristic of African dance and was Katherine Dunham. simply nonexistent in European-based dance As a result of such experiences. Balanchine forms. incorporated jazz-based movement into his ballet In 20th century dance history. the Afrocentric vocabulary that manifested itself in the use of a presence is quite prevalent in American modern mobile spine and subsequently affected the place- dance. With a direct departure from the criteria ment of the hips. Particularly in his neoclassic bal- that had previously defined the European classical lets. Balanchine utilized jazz by allowing the hips to (lance vocabulary, the development of American go off-center, for example. in the form of a side nu )(tern dance represented a new way of perceiving lunge into a parallel seconde position initiated by the body as a medium of artistic expressior the hips. Because of the verticality of the classical Subsequently. this affected the body's potential f(. ballet spine. Balanchine's displacement of the hips movement. Tiw result was the invent hm of a new departed dramatically fr(un that tradition. Arthur movement vocabulary that included baring t he Mitchell, former principal dancer with the New feet.allowing the spine to curve and become more Yc irk City Ballet and current director of the Dance supple, and working closer to the ground. All tlwse Thwit "e of Harlem, stated that Balanchine was very characteristics can be linked to shnilar elements in int :igued with jazz-based movement (Pierangeli. African dance. 1989). Further, Balanchine often ventured into the Throughout history .Afrocentric forms lutve influ- New York City night club scene during the 1930s enced Anwrican dance. In specific refereace to t hrough the 1950s to extract jazz-based movement ,Nmerican modern dance. Peter Womd (1988) sup- mat erhd from the perforfliance5 he saw. Ile then ported this theory when he stated:

5() American modern dance, created largely in the thetic that emerged as a result of the modern urban North during the era of enormous social dancer's appreciation of primitive forms. movement, owes more than it realizes to roots Asymmetry, reflective of the naiveté of primitive which are black, and southern, and ultimately art, was favored over sophisticated symme-

African. During the first half of the 20th century, try.. . . Whereas the primitive dancer stamped pioneer American dancers found it both possi- on the ground with the whole foot, or in liftArgl ble and exciting to work closer to the ground, to the knee flexed the ankle angularity at the joint, plant their feet and bend their knees, to thrust the modern dancer, without actually reproduc- their hips and point their elbows. And when ing those steps per se, uses their rough textures troubled critics explained that these "new" and broken rhythms to express the vitality of movements had been "discovered" because feeling behind such movements. An inner mus- American dancers and audience are a step cular awareness of weight and energy is mani- removed from the balletic tradition of Europe, fest in every step, every lift of the leg, every turn they were half right. They could have mentioned of the body. Whereas tribal man moved in repeti- had they realized ...that black and white were tious patterns without being conscious of move- moving closer to the continent of Africa in body ment as pure movement form, modern dancers movement all the time (underline added]. (p. 8) use repetition knowingly, planting impressions like seeds so that their ideas will build cumula- Ernestine Stodelle's (1984) description of tively without recourse to overt or sequential Martha Graham's Primitit'e Mysteries (1931) and gesture. The sheer power of repetition drove Heretic (1929) is laden with references to African Heretics message of bigotry home. Repetition and purity of feeling also created the primitivis- influences. Her description of the Graham works is tic ardor of Primitive Mysteries [underline particularly relevant because Stodelle most likely added), (p. 74)4' unintentionally credits the movement and aesthetic inciples that became a signature of American The previous descriptions by Wood and Stodelle dance to sources outside the Western European represent evidences of African based movement classical dance tradition. Stodelle stated the contentinAmerican moderndance.The following: Afrocentric presence also manifested itself through choreographic theme in the works of both African- Then there was the movement itself: starkly sim- American and European-American modern danc- ple, blunt, unadorned. Using the body as a total instrument was the main characteristic of the ers. Examples of African-American choreographers new dance. Louis (Horst) called it a "back to and their works include: Katherine Dunham's primitive urge." But he clearly differentiated LAUM (1937), Rite de Passage (1942), and between a "truly primitive approach [which Shango(1945);PearlPrimus'sAfrican would be an affectation today" and the new aes- Ceremonial (1944) and The Negro Speaks of NMI

Kente cloth, Ashanti people of Ghana. From African Art in Motion, Robert Farris Thompson (University of California Press, Los Angeles), p. Rivers(1944); Alvin Alley'sRevelations (1960) Rhythm (1916),it is suggestive of an African- and Cry (1971); and Garth Pagan'sFrom Before based use of enera in Hohn's work.' Sorrell stated: (1978).Among European-American choreogra- phers. some examples include: 'red Shawn'sDanza The first program closed wit h two dances in which the entire group was involved in an aban- Afro-Cuba(1935);Lester Hort on's Voodoo don of motor movement, stamping, le8pil4,, and Ceirmonial(1912), X(rygo (1912), andDance whirling.Primit ire Rhythmwas a perfect wed- Congo(1934).HelenTamiris'sMorn i nil ding of primitive music and movement. The usu- Ceremonial (1931)and frontNegro Spirituals, ally rousing effect was obtained by the thumping "Go Down Moses" (1912) and "Swing Low Sweet of hands and feet on the floor in the excitement of the dance to supplement piano and percus- Chariot" (1929); Mary O'Connell'sRitual (1951); sive instruments The idea was one of per- and Twyla Tharp'sEight Jelly Rolls (1971)and iwt nummobile, with the whole tightly knit Sue's Leg (1975). group treading continuously, with arms thrust The Afrocentric presence in the above cited out like rhythmic accents, finally turning into a works manifested itself choreographically in two state of ecstatic exuberance.Mini( ire Rh ',thin led to)Fest i re Rh yth ill,with overtones of a joy- ways. The first was through a literal translation of ous celebration, a finale with the rich colors of a Afrocentric content, for example, in Dunham's ritual. (1969, pp. 76, 77) Sha Ilorton's VoodooCserelnon ial,and Ailey s Revelat ions.These works depicted an actual story Use of weight or responsiveness t.o the body's or narrative. In Sha w/o, for example, Dunham natural use of weight also characterizes modern based the work on the Thruba god, Shango, and a dance. The dancer is able to give into weight, into theatricalized interpretation of the ritual surround- gravity, and thus, direct motion into the earth. In ing this god. In works such as Fagan's FmmBefOrc African dance, R.E Thompson (1974) described or Tharp's Sur'sLeg,African and African-based this as a "get down" quality. Tlw use of weight in movement content was utilized in an abstract or this manner is distinctly different from classical less literal sense. Thus, such works didn't follow a ballet in which weight is directed away from the storyline. Pagan's work incorporated African and earth and into the air. AN a result, ill the modern African-Caribbean rhythms that were embodied by dance idiom, the body's center of weight shifted the dancers through a multitude of polyrhythinie from the chest, as in ballet, to the pelvis. This is isolations and contractions of the torso and pelvis. particularly evident in Graham technique through Tharp drew from vernacular dancers or what Smith the use of contraction and release of the pelvis (1987) t:Tined a "black vernacular wellspring" of' also characteristic of African dance. Hanya Holm material. For example, Thaw incorporat ed the (1966) made reference to this principle in her lindy and tapsoftened through the use of soft jazz description of the Bennington years as the freedom shoes and the dancers use of weight. to "Go down through the whole footgoing down into the areas of the bodythere is no taboo. .. ." Influences on Modern Dance An example of this principle occurs in the depth of the grand plies in seconde posit ion of the (lancers' African-based aesthetic. principles have also side lunge in the opening section of Ailey's influenced American modern (lance. They are less Revelations (1960).Another example is Graham's tangible and more abstract in definition and in their lo flu' World (IMO)in which she descends manifestation in the i(liom. Nonetheless, they have to) the ground in a deep contract ion. In both works, been woven into the modern dance aesthetic. Some the dancers must fully release into their weight and examples include: 1) how energy is utilized iii the into t he earth in order to achieve the depth of the body; 2) use of weiOt : an(l 3) improvisation.' grand plie or contraction to) the floor. The modern utilizcd energy in a Stearns and Stearns (1968) described the use of manner that Cr.)m a! dance by improvisation in African dance forms as follows: exploring ne s.. e body. This African dant(' also places great importance exploration ano .nt potentials Inprovisit,',,n, satirical and other- and resultant kinc orm of momen- wise, allowing free :Mu for individual tum are exemplified in ues and philoso- expression; this chi racteristic makes for flexibility and aids tia, evolution and diffu- _ Alt hough Walter pines of early modern dal._ sion of other African characterist its,p.1 5 ) Sorrell's (1969) choice of the word "primitive" is dated in his descriptioni of Hanya Holm's two works Improvisation. as described by Stearns and entitledPrimitive Rhythm (1916) andrestive Stearns, parallels many aspects of the modern

58 Left: "Letter to the World" 1940, by Martha Graham. From Deep Song: The Dance Story of Martha Graham, Ernestine Stodelle (Schirnwr Books, New York), p.70.

k- '111hik L

Alb S.

Its IL

Right: "Revelations" (1960), by Alvin Ailey. From "Modern Dance Is Getting Hot," Ellen Cohn, The New York Times Magazine, April 29, 1973, p. 20.

dance aesthetic. From its inception t o the pre.sent explored, invented, and choreographed during t he (formic, nu)dern dance can be characterized by the actual performance of t he work. constant creation and re-creation of movement phi- Judd hDunndescribe(lt hisasfollows: losophies. movement techniques, choreographic "Improvisation as I see it means composing and process. and choreographic content. Iniprovisation perfornnng simultaneously" (Brown, 197). p. 139). has I tine( loned as a primary vehicle in this process. In effect choreography took on a reflexive element The use of itnprovisat ion epitomizes t lw post- in that priperties of the medimu and its own con- modern dance aesthetic. During the Judson and ruct ion, or its seams, were allowed to show. Sally post-Judson years. improvisation was incorporated 'Janes (1987) described this when she stated that intot he actual choreographic structure in that a t he ti.sk of t he chiireographer was to acknowledge given set of movement t asks or nmterhils was he medium's materials iind reveal the dancer's

G3 essential qualities in the process. An example rep- function to personalize and maximize students' resentative of this improvisatory element is Yvonne learning experiences. Some possibilities include: Rainer's work "Some Dumghts an Improvisation" guest speakers/dancers who could teach students (196,1). In this work Rainer's taped voice posed short movement sequences to acquaint them with a questions about choreographic process an(1 the particular dance period or genre; attending a vari- nature of "spontaneous determination" of move- ety of dance performances by both Western and ment design while she improvised (Banes, 1987). non-Western dance companies; and have students research, choreograph, and teach a short move- ment sequence reflective of a particular period or Creating a Context for Change genre. As a result students will become more sensi- I've to the differences between the European dance What follows are some suggestions to assist vocabulary and those derived from West African or dance educators who wish to incorporate Afro- other world dance forms. cent ric content into existing dance history course- Include such sources as I3lack Dance by work. All sources cited appear at the end of this Lynne Fauley Emery, The Black Tradition in section. American Dance by Richard Long, and The 13Iack I. Reconstruct your course syllabus to include Tradition in American Modern Dance published the contributions of African-American dancers and by the American College Dance Festival. These artists. Develop this in such a way that is taught smirces will help provide the missing pages of simultaneously with European-American cont ribu- dance history. Create a context in your classroom iions. In this way students will not perceive that equitably ident ifies and discusses the contribu- Afrocentric content as a separate entity but rather tions of African-American (lancers and choreogra- as equal in magnitude and influence to European- phers.Equity doesnot mean diminishing Ameri,an (lancers and artists. European-American contributions. Equity asks 2. Define dance as human behavior and relative only that credit be given where credit is due; other- to its cultural context. This will break down catego- wise we run the risk of undermining what we have ries and fixed definitions of dance. When dance is set out to rectify. situated in its cultural context, students will be bet- 7. Discuss the interrelati(Inship between popu- ter enabled to see dance relative t.o its social, polit- lar and concert dance as a means to break down ical, CCOnomic, aesthetic, and religious dimen- preconceived, finite definitions of what constitutes sions. An excelknt source is To Dance Is liuman dance. An excellent source is the text -Jazz Dance by Judith Lynne Hanna. by Marshall and Jean Stearns. Another source is an 3. Include works that address African art and article in Katherine Dunham: Reflections on the aesthetics. Identify and define for your students I he Social and Political Contexts of Afro-Antericatt term "black aesthetic" and its impact on the devel- Dance entitled "Folk Art and 'IIigh' Art" by Joyce opment of American dance. Discuss with students Aschenbrenner (1980). Engage students in discus- the cultural basis of aesthetic standards and values sion that asks them to reexamine terms, or better. and how they shape and inform artistic process and labels, such as: product, forexample. African-American or a."ethnic dance" European-Anted( a.t. Identify the black aesthetic b."high as opposed to low art" and discuss how it has been woven into the fabric c. "fine" as opposed to "folk art- of American dance relative to a European dance d."social" as opposed to "art dance.- aesthetic. Sonw excellent sources include: Hash of 8. Identify those movement traits aim aesthetic the Spirit, African Art in Motion, and An principles that characterize West African and Aesthetic of the Cool: West .African Dance by African-American dance relative to the European Robert Farris Thompson. and European-American dance vocabulary. This .1 Include film and video tape materials that pro- will sensitize and help students identify how vide students with numerous examples of African Afrocentric forms have influenced the evolution of and African-American dance performance. This American dance history. What follows are some will facilitate awareness of the contributions of ident ifiable t raits characterizing t he manifest at ions AfricanandAfrican-Americandancers and of Afrocentric fouris in American dance." I!St't hem choreographers. ()illy as guidelines or as a "l('ns" through which to) 5. Incorporate an experiential component into recognize the presence of these forms in dance the course. This will enliven historical content and nmvement content. They are as follows:

60 a.lower center of weight accompimied by Szwed, & Marks, M. (1988, Summer). The Afro- movement directed toward the earth American transformation ofEuropean set dances and suites. Research Journal, 20 (I),29-36. b.knees that function as springs Thompson. U. F. (1984).Fla.sh of the spirit: African and U. improvisationas part of either the cluireo- Afro-American art and ph ilo.soph y.New York: graphic process or performance context Vintage Books. d.contraction and release of the pelvis Thompson, H. F. (1980).An aesthetic of the cool: West e.embodiment of polyrhythntie structures in African dance. In Errol IIill(Ed.),The theatre (!lblack the spine, torso, shoulders, and pelvis .4mericans(pp. 99-111).Englewood Cliffs.NJ: PrenticeHall. f. the bare, full surface of the foot.. Thompson. U. E (I 974). African art iii motion: Icon aml act. Los Angelo's,Berkeley, Lindon: Ilniversity of Selected Biblhvivphy qf'Sources California. Tucker, I. (1983).The role of Afro-.41ncricansin dance Listed below are sources that represent the in the United Statesfrom starer?, throlmh 1983: .A Afrocentric presence in American dance. They will slide presentation.PhD dissertation, New York be valuable additions to dance history courses and othe rt heory coursest hat ack nowledge the Afrocentric presence in American dance. Adanwzyk, A. (1989). Black dance: Anannwated bibli- Multicultural Literacy in 20th Century ography. Now York: Garland. American Dance History American Dance Festival. (1988, June).The bhwk t kWh.- t ion in American modern dance.Durham, NC: The enduring presence and richness of West American Dance Festival Publication. African cultural influences in American society Aschenbrenner. .1. (1980).KatherineDunham: Reflections On the social and political contexts of Afro- have significantly contributed to the evolution of American dance. CORD Dance Rewarch A n nnal, XII. American dance. African sources in America have Regho,F(1985).Mack dancecontinuum: ROlections provided a wellspring of material that has con- On the heritage connection between African dance stantly enriched dance forms in this count.ry rang- and Afro-American jazz &ince. PhD dissertation, New York University. ing from folk and vernacular to concert dance. Brooklyn Academy of Music and State Iiniversity of New Throughout history, because of the persistence and York (1983, April 21-24). Mockdance in America. strength of this source, West African influences Conference publication compiled in conjunction with have had a dramatic impact on the development of the Black Dance America concert. American dance. Dixon, B. (1990, February 13). Cultural identity and sociopolitical Oppression: Tlw Mrocentric basis In its early history the lJnited States was founded of American concertdance! The Facial .11 Herald. by a composite of peoples, most predominantly of po. African and European descent. Thus, Americans, of Dixon-Stowell. B. (1983. Spring). Between two eras: both African-American and European-American 'Nortonand Margot Afro-American entertainment descent, share a comimm history. This very ele- world. CHIM Dance RI,search n rnal, 15(2), II-20, ment makes this country unique, and t.he same fac- Emery. L. F (1988). Mack dance: Eroin 19 to today. tor has produced a remarkable dance hist ory. Princeton, N.1: Princeton, There are several possible reasons why this may Friedland, L. (1983, Spring). Disco: Afro-American ver- have occurred. One inny be becaust of t.he distinct naculariwrformance. CORD nce1?esea1c11 differences between African and European culture: Jolirmil,/5 (2), 27-35. Goines, M. B.(1971-72).African retentions in the dance another, because of the circumstances and condi- of the Americas. ( '(H?/)Dance Re.sca rch Monograph. tions. however unfortunate, that have fostered 1, 209-229. their initial union. Hanna. .1.L. (1979). 'L'o dotici, is hrouair .4 theory (1' Byapplyingsuchmet hodsasBanks's win-rovh(il Hmlitollii«ithm. Ansi in: University of "Transformative Approach," dance history can be Texas, Hazzard-Gordon, (1990). Atibos nu, ise transformed. The examples presented in this paper danue forimitions Flu llro-lmerican cul- represent only a small portion of the Afrocentric ture. Philiulelphia. PA: Temple Ifliver-oty, presence in 201.11 century dance. However. they set Long. I?. (1989). The black traditioil If American the tone for change to occur in our thinking. dance. New York: Ur/mill. Subsequently. itis hoped that this paper will help Nettleford,R.(198.1).Carib(' interview with Rex Nett leford.ABIBE, 7./ 2, 2.1-38. cause dance educators to reevaluate their curricu- A.(1989, June). Blacks enrich modern dance. lums and, asaresult, incorporate Afrocentric con- ;American Visions. pp. 21-29. tent where it has previously lwen omitted. The potential role dance educators will play in 3. Buck dancing was a product of plantathm culture this transformation processis tremendous. and was performed only by men. It was also performed in Previous definitions of dance need to be challenged hard soled shoes on wooden floors and represents the early beginning of what wimld later become tap dance. beyond those framed solely by a proscenium stage See131ack Danceby Lyntu' Pauley Emery andJazz and expanded to include other world views. If we Doneeby Marshall and Jean Stearns for additiimal infor- do not we run the risk of even further marginalizing mation about the origins and offshoots that enlerged dance and diminishing any hope of bringing new from buck dancing. 4. Akpabot (198(i) reinforces these parallels hetween information, vigor, and insight into our field, the two form.s even further in his following analysis of (Frosch-S(hröder, 1991). We, as dance educators, Mrican music: hold the key to this transformation process. Our The idea of viewing a percussive instrument impact will be felt through input and action on cur- as having high. low or medium time is bor- riculum committees and, more importantly per- rowed frenn African speech which is inflec- haps, through our daily interactions with students tionary in character: and African musical inthe studio. classroom, or on a campus instrumental music borrows much from streetcorner. vocal music which in turn is tied to speech The implications of expanding our definition of melody and speech rhythm . . . Speech. melody, rhythm, and dance are usually dance apply not only to dance educators but to interrelated in African music.... t his dance critics. scholars, and performers alike. interrelationship makes it possible for a Collectively we can no longer deny Lne impact of dancer to take his cue from the rhythmic African culture on American dance by attributing instruments and for a melody to be fash- the origins Of dance solely to EIJI' OpVall sources. ioned out of a sentence. (p. 1) Such a monocultural perspective is biased, reduc- Most notably this is identifiable in the subtle con- tive. and inconsistent with the nature of this coun- tractions that occur in the rib cage. shimIders, and upper try's composition and historical development. spine. Anothc,m identifiable trait is the use of weight that Continued efforts must be made to incorporate this is often directed into the earth as opposed to away from it perspective into dance curriculums and thus (3. A portion of Stodelle's previous st atement is untrue'. broaden tlw understanding and scope of the origins Non-Western and/or African dance forms incorporated of American dance. repetition on a very conscious level and were very aware of formal elements in choreography. African dance. like all dance forms, is governed by canons that determine Endnotes aesthetic' standards and values: included in these canons ist use of repetition.In addition. ironically. in Stodelle's analogy to modern dancers "planting impres- 1.It is worth noting the differences between the terms -denial" iind -omission." In this context, denial refers to a sions like' seeds.- she' was unknowingly perhaps referring conscious falsification Of history while omission refers to to an African basis to the movement because' much of the negligence or ignorance, perhaps unwitting. which is thematic content ot traditional African dance is based on agrarian motifs, which incorporatethe full, flat surface of reflect ed incert a ininst it ut ionalorst met ural preconcept ions. the foot in a stomping or planting action. Por example.in Picasso's painted work,Les T. For a complete listing and definition of these Demoiselles (1.4figiwn (1907),the influence of African African-based aesthetic principles see Julie A. Kerr of..41?icciti-hcised Moucmcnt Traits masks is apparent. Golding stated: (1 tl90). PoraUcts (Ind Acsthrt Principh,s in Selcuted am plcs The abrupt changes of style in the Drmoisc1/c,,, American Mnth't-i: Dancr.PhD dissert at ion, Temple are due to t he fact that while he was working on l'inversit y,

it Picasso came into contact with Negro art . . 8. Twai excelk'nt source's that discuss African-based the head at the left can be accounted for by a energy and its manifestation in art and dance are: characteristic ft nm of Negro mask, found on the ..1fricattAut in Motion: Iron mid Act . by RobertMaris Ivory Coast. ..It was only in the series of Thompson andWellspring: On thr Myth (slid rrciJ paintings I hat followedDenwiselles thathe (.11/011C,by Robert Plant Armstrong. began to grasp t he intellectual and aesthetic 9. These movement characteristics are derived from principle's of part icular types of masks and to Dance(1968) by Stearns and Stearns and the relate' Negro cult ure more thoroughly to West author's personal experiences in modern. .African. and Art. ( pp. 55-57) .1frican-Caribbean dance classes

t; t; References

Akpabot, S. E. (1986).Foundations of Niq'ii(I hf radi- Siegel, M. B. ( 1979).The .shapesr change: linaiics of Inmal music.Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum. Anwrican dance.New York: Avon. Asante, M. (1988, fall). The case for multi-cultural liter- Smith, E. (1987, February 14). Jazz dance on tap acy.The Temple Reviele,pp. 20-23. and social: Films from the prival, collection Ernie Banes, S. (1987).Terpsichow siwakers: Post m(nl- Smith (Lecture/Film Presentation).Steppii,i1 out: ern danceMiddletown, CT Wesleyan University. 131ack American dance during the !pratiipat Banks, J. A. (1988, spring). Approaches to multicultural National Museum of American flistory, Smithsotnan curriculum reform.Multicultural Leader, 1 (2),1-4. Institution, Washington, RC., Fenruary 14,1 9 :7. Brown. 1. M. (1979).Du, vision (4' lmoorn datiec. Sorrell, W. (1969).Minya Holm: The biographii glair Princeton, N.1: Princeton. artist.Middletown, CT: Wesleyan I1niversity. Dixon, B. (1990, February 13). Cultural identity and soci- Stearns, M., & Stearns, .1. (19(8).Jazz damICO: Thetart,/ opolitical oppression: Tlw Afrocentric basis of ofAmerfran vermicular dant New York: Schirmer. American concert dance! TheFacult y Herald(pnb- Stockily, E. (1984). Deep Scan/. The dance ofMurtha lished by Temple University). pp. 4-6. Graham.New York: Schirmer. Frosch-Schroder, .1. (1991, March). A global view: Dance Thompson, R. E (1974).African art in motion: icon appreciation for t.he 2Ist century. J014171(11qf PhySilla and act.Los Angeles, CA: Ilniversity of California. EthiCatiMI, M'Crellt loll', and MInCe, 61-66. Thompson, R. F. (1984). Push ofthe :Vika ti and Golding, J. (19(8).Cubism: history and analysis Afro-American art and ph ilosoph q.New York: 1907-1914.Bosum, MA: Boston Book and Art Shop. Vintage.

Holm, H. (Speaker). (1$)66 ). Da nee:Fmir pioneers Woo(I,I'. (1988, June). "Gimme de L neclione bent- : (Film). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University/National African body language and the evoluthm of American Education Television. dance forms. InDu, black tradition in ,1merica11 Pierangeli, ( '.( It)89, August). Personal commtmication modern Durham, NC: American Dance Fest ival with Pierangeli,Depart me ntof Dan ct, Temple Publication. Ilniversity, Philadelphia, PA.

Julie A. Kerr is coordinator of the dance minor program in the Physical Education Department at Mankato State University, Mankato, Minnesota 56002-8400.

f;7 Dance MATERIAL (Dance, Music, and Art Training and Education Resulting In Aesthetic Literacy) John R. Crawford

Dance as an art form is related to the arts of t he field of aesthetics including both similarities music, painting, and theatre. The dancer learns vis- and differences within the arts. ual and spatial forms and designs as well as musical The field of aesthetics oftc a focuses on relation- counts, timing, and phrases. Thus, the dancer ships among the arts and posits theories as to pos- learns to perceive in visual, aural. and kinesthetic sible commonalities. Although the arts may be ways. These modes of perception comprise specific related on either a forr 1 or an ontological basis, areas 'if knowing within the human being. Howard dance, music, and painting all consist of organiza- Gardner (1983) states that human beings have tional factors, and in every instance of art there potential in seven areas. Music. visual-spatial exists a certain manner in which the totality is aspects, and body-kinesthetic aspects comprise st rout ured, "The art forms are similarly con- three of the seven areas of human potential. A st ructed . .they are languages or symbol systems, study of the art forms of dance, music, and paint ing aesthetically articulated and historically deter- can effectively con.tribute to learning within these mined" (Karpati & Abonyi, 1987, p. 102). A study of areas. t he organizational principles within the arts engen- In particular, dance in education is able to facili- ders fuller comprehension of individual art forms tate aesthetic perception, which includes relat and thus multiplies the possibilities of artistic' ships within form and design. In the creation of expression. dance, t he student acquires an understanding of Within the past two decades research in aesthet- the organizational process of the artist. "Teachers ics and aesthetic education has revealed a need for gradually introduce elements of form (unity, har- workable teaciting methods in the comparison of mony, cunt Fast , et('.) and students attempt tO incor- art forms. Theory that supports practice is advo- porat e these elements into their compositional cated by educators. New curricular models and work" (National Dance Association, 1988, p, 13). implement at it ms are requested to provide teachers The abilities to think abstractly and to create con- viable ways in which to present comparisons cretely are both necessary to understand the form- among arts. According to the Getty Center for ing process. Education in the Arts, "This means that university Concepts in the more recently published litera- scholars will twed to work closely with curriculum ture often refer to the fields of aesthetics and aes- specialists and teachers to develop programs thetic edueat ion aml support the idea that aesthetic informed by t he theory and practice of aesthetics, literacy may be developed through the study of sev- art criticism, history and production" (Getty eral art forms. Indeed, the aim of aesthetic educa- Center, 1985, p. (S ). tion is the development of an individual's capacity Wit Ii such curricular materials, teachers are able to perceive, create, study, and evaluate art works in to communicate ideas about art to students, a variety of media. A study of interrelations among Teachers can also more effectively ctmvey the vari- the arts in particular focuses on aspects of compo- ous roles and applications of art to their students, sit ic-1, the composi,ional process, principles of The arts constitute modes of communication that organization used by the artist , and theories wit bin students can decipher as audience members and

6,1

E;S utilize as creators. The arts as a basic means of standing of aesthetics in the arts are increasing, communication can be used to engender self-ex- and often such a course is offered as an elective pression and creativity. within the basic liberal arts requirements of the In order to transform aspects of experience that university. Introductory dance courses designed for are part of the creative process into externalized the general university student can benefit by form, the artist utilizes principles of organization. including the content areas within this curricular The artist orders, arranges, and organizes the model. Additionally, the content areas within Dance material of the art form. A relationship between MATERIAL are applicable to units of instruction emotional feeling and ordered design may occur as within college level dance composition courses. part of thertist's compositional process. Study of the content areas within Dance Principles of organization used by the artist do MATERIAL contributes to the individual's acquisi- not explain what artistic creation is or how it hap- tion of information regarding choreographic pens, Rather, principles of organization illuminate choices and decisions, contributes to the student's aspects of cause and effect utilized by the artist. In acquisition of information regarding aesthetic other words, the artist achieves a certain result judgment and justification, and relates the process through a certain organization of compositional of composition in dance to similar compositional elements. Whereas these principles do not dictate proces !s in music and painting. specific rules for good composition, they do serve Dance MATERIAL presents specific principles of as guidelines for the artist. organization that are similar and comparable in the Dance MATERIAL (Dance, Music, and Art creation of dance, music, and painting, and which Training an(1 Education Resulting In Aesthetic can be taught using dance as an educational focus. Literacy) was designed to identify, describe, and Through an analysis of the choreographer's use of compare principles of organization that seem to be these compositional principles, one is able to com- consiiitently used by the artist in dance, music, and prehend the process of organization interrelated in painting. The significant literature regarding prin- the three arts. The content areas, based on aes- ciples of organization in the arts was analyzed and thetic principles discussed by Thomasine Kushner as a result cf this research, a synthesis of content (1983), Karl Aschenbrenner (1985), and Alma ar, as was developed that interrelates these organi- Hawkins (1988), wnong others, begin with princi zational principles and suggests a basis for curricu- ples of organization in relation to dance. Ne)t, him developnwnt, incorporating dance as the dis- dance is interrelated with the discipline of music seminator of the organizational principles. and, finally, dance and music are interrelated with Lance MATERIAL is a curricular model which painting. Curricular development therefore pro- nploys dance as the educational focus in order to gresses from dance (movenwnt), to dance and teach aspects of unity, variety, contrast, balance, music (movement and sound), to dance and music and their related components as used by the chore- and painting (movement and sound and sight). ographer, composer, and painter in the process of composition. The content areas of this curricular model consist of the following headings, which are Content Area Summary discusspd in detail: coherence within the three arts; Jynarnism within the arts; unity vari- The following is a brief summary of the eight ety; wpetition and contrast; rhythm; emergence principles of organization that were synthesized and recilicnce (i. c., figure and groun(1 ); balance. from an analysis of the relev literature in aes- including symmetry and asymmetry; and develop- thetic's, aesthetic educal ion, antJmce, music, and ment, including transitions and flow to climax. painting composition. These principles comprise Dance serves as the educational focus in a compar- content areas hat can serve as the substantive ison of these organizationaI principles withil1 information within a currk.ulum in aest het ic educa- dance, music, and painting. Additionally, Dance tion: coherence, dynamism. unity and variety, repe- MXIERIAL suggests a method of (caching major tition and contrast , rhythm, emergence and re- principles ot organization as used by the choreog- cedence, balance, and devehanhent. rapher, composr, and painter. Dance MATERIAL is designed as a basis for a Coherence coursi, of study in dance as an art form, with omphasis on dance co-.nposition. Wit hin higher Coherence in art refers to the product of whole- educatiw.-1. murses focusing tlw basic lir der- ness or consistency exhibited by Ow artwork. In addition to the unification of constituent parts, all John Crawford, author, instructs modern dance stu- parts interrelate with all other parts. In an art work dents in the dance program at Kent State University, that exhibits coherence, nothing external to the where the eight principles of organization he describes make up the substantive information work is needed for completion. The work exhibits within a curriculum in aesthetic education, Photo an organic wholeness (Aschenbrenner, 1985; by University Photographers. 13roudy, 1972; Kushner, 1983; Weiss, 1961). As defined by Aschenbrenner, coherence is "the unique way in which elements belong to the art work and justify their place in it" (p. 7). Ile states that the artist in any medium works toward unifica- tion and coherence of specific elements, repetition, and development (p. 93). The concept that form or coherence exists in the arts can therefore he watching the movement of the performer (Labatt & applied to all the arts. Lawrence, 1947, p. xiv). Choreographer Doris Humphrey (1959) was in Laban considered the painter's use of effort and agreement with the concept of cohereiwe when she movement at the time of ereaticm to be still visible stated that. con'inuity is paramount to form in in the resultant art work, even thcmgh the work dance. In her view, not hing should threaten the itself remained static. Movement and energy exist cohesiveness of tlw dan(e (p.1 49). Lynne Anne in static works of art. (such as painting) as well as Blom and Tarin Chaplin (1982) ids() noted that no dynamic ones (such as dance). In consideration of matter imw wide tlw spectrum of varieiy and con- t he art ist Laban (1971) wrote: trast used by the choreographer, those elements The illoveniellis he has used in drawing, paint- must exist within the principle of wholeness which ing or modelling have given character to his cre- binds the dance together (p. 109). ations, and they ro- nain fixed in the still-visible stroks of his pencil, brush, or chisel. The activ- ity of his mind is revealed in the form he has Dynamism given to his material. (1). 9)

The theory of dynannsin is based cm the supposi- Unity and Variety t iontimtenergy underliesallphenomena. Aestheticians such Aschenbrenner (1985), WA. tInity in dance attracts and hokls the viewer's Ball (1988), A. Hill (1968), Timmas Munro (1970), attention. Hawkins (1988) claimed that "the most and Elizabeth Watts (1977) are among those who essential attribute of a well-fornwd dance is unity have described the concept of movement as an or wholeness" (p. 88). When a dance possesses interrelation among the arts. unity,eachpartcontributes tothe whole. Dance theoretician Rudolph Laban (1971) con- Subsequently, the whole should be comprised of sidered movement as a basis for the creation of organic form and not arbitrary t'orm. When visible dance, painting, awl music. "Movement . ..is pres- form is evolved from internal responses, thoughts. ent also in the playing of instruments, in painting ideas, or feelings, real unity emerges in the art pictures, and in all artistic. ictivity." Ile continued work. "From a choreographic standpoint, unity to state that the significance of movement in the means scicrt Pig, Ii ui it ing, and Pm/ ii imthrtinfi (p. arts is varied due to tiw wide range of movement 89). expression (pp.119-100). In his view, human nmve- Variety must exist within t he unified dance. ment serves as a common denominator for the (Te- Variety consists of the :lynamic tensions between at ion of t he various arts. the organintion of forces within the dance. This Effort, which consists of the motion factors of results in contrasts that serve to differentiate weight, time, space, and flow, is both visible and betwe,,m patterns, rhyt hms, and dynamics (i. e., the audible. The effects of effort can be heard in the entire spectrum of the organization of forces). The production Of speech or song. Even if the effort interplay of organizational forces. however, nmst action is not seen, it can be imagined and visualized also be kept in balance. Balance consists of the when the resultant sound k heard ( Laban, 1971, p. controlled relationship Ingween parts. The creato )r. Laban noted that if one watches a musician or choreographer, controls these relationships in play an instrument one can see and register the order to produce a unified and coherent work effort of t he performance. Even if sound is mu developed organically through the expansion and heard, the effcift and rhythm can be discerned by manipulation of the basic dance idea. If the iispect _waif

;..:1- 4

116._

of balance is neglected, t he work may become dis- tion of a form contributes to mUty wit.hin an art torted or incoherent. If t he aspect of variety is work.Rhythm in painting resultsfrom the repeti- absent. t he dance may lack diversification and on- tion of forms. Repetition of the !iame sequence of trast and may become repetitive and monotonous. forms, colors, lines, or sounds "-Ininds viewers or listeners that they have sec! .Nird that portion 1?cpc/1lion(110 of t he art work before" (p. Ideas are conveyed and cmpi.ized thniugh t he Repetition is used in order to unify elements use of repel II i01). The meiminp, or intentof a work wit hin the art work. Repent ion is indispensable in is also conveyed through t he creator's selection allI he arts and occurs visually as well asaurally. and manipulation of repeating elements or themes. The funct ion of repetition is similar in both spatial Differences exist between repel it ion in dance, and temporal art forms, even thinigh the manifest a- music, and painting, however. Repet it ion in visual I ion of repel it ion differsin space andt ime art C011sititti of repeated identicals, whereas in (Aschenbrenner, 11)85). music repetition is a motif which occurs moreIllall In a consideration of repot it ion in visual art om.e, Either manifestation of repetition canexist in Nellie Arnol(l ()76) stated I hat t he regular repel i- dance oepending on t he number of perforniers. If a

(i7 soloist repeats a movement phrase or shape, the silent, dynamics, and change. The subsequent repetition is a singular motif that occurs more than meaning of a dance is affected by one's feeling once. If a group of dancers executes the same responses to the various aspects of rhythm and its nuwement simultaneously, the repetition consists structure. of multiplicity of ident leak (Aschenbrenner, 1985). Rhythm in painting is similar to rhythm in dance Contrast exists in the arts in order to differenti- and music. The difference lies in the fact that ate between extremes. Blom and Chaplin (1982) rhythm in painting is a function of spatial organiza- noted the difierence between variety and contrast. tion. Rhythm in music is a function of temporal Variety consists of :cn infinite spectrum of diversifi- organization. Rhythm in dance is both visible and cations within :411 art work. Contrast, however, is audible and emerges from a kinesthetic (or motor) comprised of differences that. are more extreme. source. Variety may include transitions and gradients con- necting parts of elements. Contrast deals with the Emergence and Recodence comparison of Opposites whereas variety may include a broader range of difkrentiat ions. The concept of emergence and recedence of ele- ments within a work of art is analogous t.o the con- Riot hnt cept of figure and ground. Aschenbrenner (1985) wrote extensively on the concept and stated that The clement of rhythm as a visual, aural. and kin- the artist in any medium makes use of the figure- esthetic manifestation in allt he arts has been ground principle in order to focus the attentUm of expounded throughout the years by both theoreti- the apprehender and emphasize important aspects cians and educators. Dance educator Margaret of the art work. Ile wrote: H. Doubler considered rhythm to be manifested pri- Sceptics onen scoff at the idea that there is any marilythroughkinestheticperception.In common order that underlies musical composi- II'Doubler's perspective, rhythm can be mani- tion, pictorial and sculptural design, dramatic fested and sensed visibly, audibly, and tactually, but and narrative form, the several arts. in short. Clearly, they have not looked very hard. or hard itis first perceived kinesthetically. II'Doubler enough. The application of the figure-gnitind (1940) cited rhythm as the basic and fundamental principle. mit only to music but to other arts as art form. She considored the study of rhythm t.o be well. is so completely fitting and natural that essential to all art forms. The art form of dance what is surprising is only that so little appeal to especially, however, depended on rhythm due to its it has been made. (p. 15:3) kinesthetic basis of perception. Doris Humphrey As examples. Aschenbrenner notes that the painter (1959) in her famous book on dance composition furthers emergence by providing differences in expounded that rhythm "might be compared to the size, color, and shape. The musician is able to fur- ambience of existence" (p. 104). Slw stated that ther emergence thnough the contrast of high and rhythm, which organizes our spatial, temporal. and hav voices and thrmigh the use of timbre. The cho- dynamic existence, would not have developed as it reographer is(ilates im)vement that is highlighted has in music and visual art had it not developed pri- within a phrase or utilizes a soloist who emerges marily through moveinent. from a group. Rhythmic organization within dance pnivides a framework that can contribute to the conveyance Balance of aesthetic. intent. Like 1I'1)oubler. Hawkins (1988) maintains that rhythm is first perceived as Balance is termed as the compromise between kinesthetic awareness. after which the percipient parts. The artist attempts to achieve this compro- equates rhythmic structure with musical symbols mise or synthesis in order to create a coherent and notation. 'Hie kinesthesia created by the visible organizatimin which the parts and the whole co- and audible manifestations of rhythm causes ten- exist and do not destroy each other. Balance is sions t hat pull the observer toward the discovery of achieved in dance through design in t lw shape of meaning in the dance. Rhyt hm. which may be even t he body or movement. iiit he use of the dance or uneven, produces changes in energy and feeling space. and in the movement itself. Ilw relationship response. Even rhyt Inns, like symmet rical balmwe . of the body to gravity through the vertical. diago-

usually promote a sense of continuity. stasis. rest. nal, and horizontal planes constitutes an aspect of and sometimes monotony, Uneven rhythms, like spatial balance. As Laban noted. movement wit hm asymmetrical balance, may solicit a sense of move- the vertical plane is predominantly soln1 or stable.

liS The horizontal axis or plane also suggests stability. Development in dance is synonymous with continu- Labile movement occurs between the vertical and ity. The dance piece is perceived as a happening, an horizontal planes. This diagonal movement is event which unfolds through space and time. replete with dynamism due to the increase of ten- Inherent meaning within a dance is revealed sion as the body moves out of either the vertical or through its unique and individual order and flow. horizontal plane. The most urgent sense of move- The development of the work contributes to the ment isperceive(l at the point of greatest unity and coherence of the piece. imbalance. Development in music and painting occurs in It is a choice of the artist t() present a pattern of analogous ways. Theme development in painting movement, sound, or shape as either synunetrical involves elements that are comparable. I.1nlike the or asymmetrical. Symmetry, which exists as an painter, the musician has no visible shape with identical resemblance between the parts of a pat- which to compose, yet the composer does establish tern, produces an image of minimum tension. regularit ies early in the work. The first notes of a Asymmetry, which consi ,ts of an inequality composition establish a key signature and a time between the parts of a pattern, produces an image signature, which serve as a frame of reference for of maxinnim tension. Balance is then the coherent the piece. The minimal requirements fortheme in relationship between minimum and maximum ten- music would then be a series of contrasts in pitch sions in an art work. and a series of contrasts in time. Thematic devekm- ment in music then ebbs and flows fromthis frame Del'elOpMetit of reference as does development in painting. Transitions act as bridges between parts binding Development in dance. music, and painting is together the disparate aspects of the art work. enhaneed by transitions, or gradients. and the flow Transitions develop from one element or sequence to the climax (or cliniaxes) within the piece. of a work and evolve int() another element or

A modern dance class at Kent Stat e University. Photo by Unirersity Photographers.

mit 4-4aaili#

,

1.41/

()9 sequence. In dance, the transition develops fr(mt creation of dance, music, and painting. Within the one movement idea and leads to t.he next. The indi- curricular model, each principle of organization is vidual work determines the exact way in which its considered in relation to each art form. As the parts are related. Transition differs from contrast. focus of the model, organizational principles are in t hat a transition must consist of several steps or st tidied first in dance, and dance is considered first, intervals that bridge different parts of the art work. in relation t,o the other two arts. Coherence is the Contrast consists of sharply defined opposites. aspect that integrates and connects all parts of an Elements within a work opposing one another pro- art work in order to produce a holistic entity and is vide contrast. Transitions blend together elements included as an integrator of the other principles of and contribute to the development and flow of the organization utilized. The concept of dynamism, or work. movement in the arts, connects the creation of Climax is the result of a developmental progres- dance, music, and painting through movement and sion. In danc and music climax is the inevitable thus becomes an additional component of the con- result of the development of a section or an entire tent area summary. art work. The art ist. consciously or subconsciously As a basis for curriculum development, it is sug- prepares for the climax and builds toward it.It gested that each organizational pril ciple be stud- exists as "the accumulated high point of the piece" ied first in relation to dance, then in relation to (Blom & ('haplin, 1982). A climax is often the music, and third in relation to painting. In this way result of a crescendo and is usually followed by res- the art forms maintain autonomy, and significant olution of some kind. In dance, long choreogra- differem s as well as commonalities may be dis- phies can possess secondary or complementary cli- cussed. The teaching of the eight organizational maxes used to fort her the development which principles incorporates dance as an educational huilds to a large climax. Climo.xes occur as part of focus. Therefore, any of the aspects are first taught the development of a piece. through the medium of dance. Aspects are next taught through dance in relation to music, and Studying the Organizational Principles finally, through dance in relation to music and in relation to painting. The development of a curricu- 1:)ance MATERIAL was designed to interrelate him based on the eight content areas can represent eight selected organizational principles used in the this progression from dance to music to paint ing.

Lynn Deering explains body mechanics as part of the overall dance pro- gram at Kent State University. Photo by University Photographers.

461sit

70 In order to teach the comparison and interrelat- composer's manipulation of notes could be com- edness of coherence, dynamism, unity, variety, rep- pared to the choreographer's manipulation of etition, contrast, rhythm, emergence and re- bodies. Once this connection has been discussed cedence,balance(which inclu(Iesboth and understood, students could investigate the symmetrical and asymmetrical balance), and devel- concept of figure and ground in painting and relate opment (which includes transitions and flow to cli- the painter's choice of focal points and relation- max), an individual principle of organization may ships of figure and ground to the similar process be considered. Within a resultant curriculum the undergone by the choreographer and composer. organizational principle under investigation would Both similarities and differences occurring in the progress through its application :n dance, music, three arts media could be investigated and dis- and painting respectively. As a result. of this cussed. This interrelated perspective presents the sequence each organizational principle would form arts as independent forms that may be compared. a component in the total configurationof the cur- Much can be learned by observing how each art . riculum. Each organizational pi :nciple exists in form is signifWant in its own regard and how each relation to all others and thus reihforces the con- organizational principle manifests itself differently cept of coherence or organic wholeness in the arts. in each art. Both the individual principle and the mamwr in Dance MATERIAL is designed as a basis for a which it is interrelated in the three arts are studied. course of study in dance as an art form,specifically focusing on dance composition. The curricular model interrelates the composition process in the Et11 mp1es qf Imp le»ient at imi three art types and fosters the development of crea- tivity, coLaboration, and aesthetic education. For Tlw implementation of the content areas within example, the dancer benefits from a greater aware- Dance MATERIAL includes the active participation ness of rhythm, nmsic, panern, andlinear design. of the student its the creator of dance, music. and Possibilities of movement are expanded and painting. An example of a possible implementation enhanced. A more comp1Thensive awareness of the could evolve as follows: The instructor could pre- body as a medium of visual, aural, and kinesthetic sent and discuss the concept of emergence and expression results. The choreographer is able to recedence (figure and ground). Students would better understand and utilize music and visual explore the concept through the medium of dance. design in his/her creations. The teacher is able to The choreographer can emphasize the movements (Law from richer visual, aural, and kinesthetic of oiw dancer and cause other movement t.o recede. sources in order to present learningex)eriences to receive less focus. The choreographer may cre- for students. The individual develops a greater ate a solo or duet, which emerges as a focal point , underst and ing of art hist ory, includ i ng dance, while the movement of the other (lancers recedes to music, and painting in other epochs and cultures. A become background. study of the organization of form develops critical Once the students comprehend the concept of thinking skills and gives one a point of departure in emergence and recedence in its manifestation in order to view dance in historic, social, and cultural dance, t he concept can be applied to music. contexts. As a medium of expression, thestudy of Individuals or groups of dancers could be com- dance, music, and painting Offers the individual a pared to hulividual sounds or gnmps of notes. The inultitude of outlets.

References

Arnold, N. D. (1976).Thc intcyrigatcd a Os ill hysurc.' Broudy. 11.S. (197::!). Eil/irditetwdchcrislii tar An essat, Pcureiritai and creat ital. St.Louis. MO: C. !Mosby ii arstiwt cdurct am.Urbana, IL: University of t'ompany. Illinois Press. Aschenbrenner. K. (1985).Thc com'cpt qicata-trtav Gardner, II. (198;0. Frames ofmind: Da' lia'ara art.Dordrecht, Holland: If Heide! Publishing Co, intt'lli.actice.s_New York: Basic Books, Inc W A. (1988. April). Expressing the inexpressible: Publishers. Developing an test heti( v)cabulary.Alu.sic Edta'(s tar's Getty Center for Education in the Arts. (1985).lkyatul Jolt 111(11. 53--:)(i, (7'1'0 Thr 111(ICC Jur (111i II AttleliCtl'S Blom, 1.. &Chaplin, I,. (1982). TheI'd limit(' (It New Ytak: .i. Paul Getty Trust, chat eaftropli i'ittihurgh. PA: I7niversityof Hawkins.A.(1988).Crtat i thrmadt arc. Pittsburgh Press, Princeton, NJ: Princeton Book ( pany.

7 1 r-- If Doubler, M. (1940). Dance: A creative art experi- Laban, R. V, & Lawrence, F C. (1947). Effint London: ence. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. MacDonald & Evans. Hill, A. (Ed.) (1968). DATA: Directions in art, theory Munro, T. (1970). Form and style in tlw arts: An intro- and aesthetics. London: Faber & Faber. duction to aesthetic morphology. Cleveland, OH: Humphrey, D. (1959). The art (f making dances. New Press of Case Western Reserve University. York: Rinehart & Co., Inc. National Dance Association. (1988). Dance curricula Karpati, A. & Abonyi, V. (1987). Interdisciplinarity in guidelines K-12.Reston,VA:National Dance aesthetic education: Ideas, results, prospects. Journal Association. of-Aesthetic Education, 21 (3). Watts, E. (1977). Towards dunce aml art: A study of Kushner, T K. (1983). The atuitomy of art: Problems in relationships between two art fiurnis. London: Lepus the description and evaluation of works of art. St. Books. Louis, MO: Warren II. Green, Inc. Weiss, P (1961). Nine basic arts. Carbondale, IL: Laban, R. V (1971). The mastery of movement (3rd ed., Southern Illinois 1.Iniversity Press. rev. Lisa Ullmann). Boston, MA: Plays, Inc.

John R. Crawford is in the Dance Unit of the School of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio 44242. College/Adult Beginners Developing Skills in Dance: Considerations for Teaching Adult Beginners Carol A. Wood and Susan Gillis-Kruman

Where do successful strategies for teaching Many characteristics of dance movement qu:rlity dance technique originate? The process of develop- emerge only after many hours of training. ing skill in nuivement requires decishm making on Therefore, the primary focus of this paper is to the part of the teacher. Teachers' decisions may be present instructor strategies that will enhance the based on the opinion of the authorities in the field, beginning dancer's ability to articulate the move- on tradition, or on the insight that comes from ment as well as its fundamental qualitative compo- observajon and critical analysis. The purpose of nents, perform the movement sequence correctly, this paper is to suggest practical strategies for the and adhere to the rhythmic structure of the move- teaching of dance. The concepts that will he pre- ment. These teaching strategies are based on the sent.ed have been drawn primarily from the body of skill level/experience of the class are designed to theoretical and research informtition from the dis- be used for teaching in the studio setting. cipline of motor control and learning. In any movement, the learner plans the move- ment based upon an action goal. For any movement Learning Characteristics of Beginners related activities, e.g., basketball or football, the goal of the movement is related to the outcome The task of learning a movement is complicated rather than the quality of the movement itself. by the inability of t.he beginner to manageably From this perspective, dance as nuwement is based reduce the quantity of information needed to per- on a different set of criteria for successful perfGrm- form the movement. Maximum attention demands ance. Not only is the successful tr ical execut on are placed on the information processing systemof of a movement considered but also how the move- the learner because beginners do not have the ment is performed in terms of space, time, and experience to act6urately pinpoint essential infor- energy. Dance movement is internally organized. mation. Characteristics of the beginning dancer Tlw outcome is tied to the individuality of the per- that increase the difficulty of learning nnwement former. It is this uniqueness that makes dance an are 1) lack of knowledge about what elementsof aest hetic exiw hence. The individnal riot only the movement to focus on. 2) hmger time to moni- shapes the movement, but makes aesthetic choices tor perceptual input from the visual system and the about how to use movement qualities to create body, and 3) difficulty in performing simultaneous dynamic and articulate nuivement that expresses movement (Spaeth-Arnold, 1981). the inner organization and intent of the performer. During the initial stages of learning a factor that Criteria for suc('essful movement performan('e must be considered within any teaching setting is may include: 1) clarity of the movementarticula- (114 beginners have extremely limited ('apacities tion: 2) fluidity/ease of execution; 3) awareness of for attending to infornmtion (Gentile, 1972; Fitts & time or temporal change; 4) ability to denumstrate Posner. 1967). For example, when teaching a pile, spat.ial intent; :)) use of body focus/projection, i.e.. many pieces of information may be generatedby the ability of the dancer to demonstrate appr (gni- the instructor. Factors for performing a plie with ate intensity (focus) with intent; () ability to (1is- aesthetic quality are numerous and might include play a dynamic range: 7) correct movement the position of the pelvis, alignment of the knees, sequence and exe(ution; and 8) adherence to the the relationship of the shoulders and the pelvis, rhythmic structure of the nnisic. imsitioning of the rib ...age, activation of abdominal

"18 muscles, head position, heels in contact or not in the consistent movement patterns and the imple- contact with the floor, coordination of arm and mentation of those movement patterns into move- bending kee, and coordination of movement to ment variations that are critical to the (lancer's music. success, When structuring teaching for any beginner, the Rehearsal is defined as a repetitiem of individual instructor must remember that beginners are easily nmvements and movement sequence S. The organi- overwhelmed by the amount of information that zation of rehearsal or practice may take many must be remembered for successful performance. forms. Typical of dance classes, rehearsal of move- lkginning students are not able to adequately ments is rote as in a ballet barre or stylized focus attention on ;Ile relevant aspects of the move- warm-up. Dance practice organization should he meat or the critical cues embedded in the teachers' based on achieving the correct form of the move- movement. instructions. In addition, the student's ment and using those movements in conjunction ability to pay attention to several sources of infor- with other movements. mation (e.g., the position of the legs, arms, tempo, Rehearsal should be structured so that the quali- quality, etc.) is severely limited. And the student's ties of the movement are developed in a way that memory capacity for movement directions pre- can be repeated in many settings and combina- sented by the instructor is restricted due to short. tions. An illustration of this effect is a beginning term memory limitations (see Miller, 1956). This student performing tendu at the barre and at cen- implies that during early learning, instructions and ter. Although the pattern of the tendu should be movement cues from the teacher to the student identical in both situations, moving to center Often must be brief. To overcome these problems and aid causes the beginner to produce a very different successful student learning, several strategies may tendu pattern. In each case, the teacher must allow be implemented by the instructor, practice of the movement. Variations of consistent patterns that are desirable require the instruction to be designed so that the student practices all of Teacher Implemented Strategies the desired variations (Gentile, 1972: Spaeth- Arnold, 1981). The teacher's responsibilities during the initial Clarifying the goal of the task t.hrough modeling stage of learning are numerous. Due to t.he limited and demonstration and structuring class practice processing ability of beginners, abundant verbal- does not necessarily mean that the learner will izat km about the movement is not desired and may attend to the specific characteristics of the move- actually delay the learning process by cogfusing ment that are critical. The teacher niest also use the learner. The teacher should attempt to set up strategies to focus the attention of the learner on t.he learning environment in a way that is most con- the task (tilianeman. 197:3). As a part of the learn- ducive to the learner. ing process, a beginning student must be able to The first task the teacher faces is describing the distinguish the difference between relevant and goal of the act.ion (Gentile, 1972). For example, in irrelevant informal itni that is critical to skilled the pile movement previously described, one goal performance. of t he movement is related specifically to body alignment. Another subgoal of a pile that truly not Cues and Mwieling be readily observable to the learner is the Nile of plie in preparation and landing for jumds. Once the The teacher's identification of critical elements learner has "gotten the idea'' of plie, the learner will or cues used to focus t he attention of t he learner on approximate a response based on the demonstra- the relevant information about the movement tion by the instructor and past movement experi- shoulo, '-.1e used to circumvent conumm errors of the ences. Subsequent attempts at plie allow the movement. flow many cues or critical elemmos learner to refine the response and eventually a plie sluadd an instructor use? The number of pieces of with correct form is performed. information is dependent on the skill level of the The second task facing the teacher is structuring student. As the skill level of the &nicer increases the practice environment so that consistent move- the number critical elements may be increased ment patterns are established. Alt Innigh variations due to the individual's increasin;", efficiency in stor- of nny\ ement (position or speed) may vary, dance is ing information. hir the novice. however. informa a movement form requiring that certain lines of the t ion amounts should be limited to one or two cucs. body remain consistent. Itis ',he devekpment of hir example, when teaching plie, one might \ er- The teacher must use a variety of teaching strategies and structure the learning environ- ment to facilitate learning. Photo of 1 instructor Gael Stepanek and stu- dents at Teachers College, Columbia `ur University by etto M. Berk. gilr

bally cuo on the posithin of the pelvis aini the rela- have been previously developed. This disruption tionship of the knees to the feet. More infornmtion occurs because attention tends to be automatically might confuse the issue. Ilowever, after several drawn to a highly meaningful source, the individu- practice attempts imire information may be given. als image. Many beginners will develop a strategy At the novice level, brevity of information is critical that shifts the gaze from the mirror to the floor so to the learning. that concem ration can be focused on the move- For most teaching, instructors use a nuidel to ment. Eventually the movement has been practiced demonstrate the movement. Modeling is the visual sufficiently to allow the beginner to watch her/his denumstrathm of skill. The elements of the action image and correctt he moveim nt during its are seen directly by the learner. The model can be execution. the teacher, a video tape, orstudent. Studies on Without realizing the potency of the mirror to the modeling tend to suggest several implications for beginner, the teacher may be adding unnecessary instruction. First, learners who receive verbal demands to the task. For this reason the instructor instructions wit hout a visual demonst rat ion require may want to begin mirror work with static move- hmger practice to acquire appropriate imivement ment that is low attention demanding (e.g.. a single quality (Mc( 'ullagh, Steihl, & Weiss, 1990.) Second. movement such as plie, tendu, or a contraction) the timeliness of the demonstration is important. and progress to dynamic nioveinents which are The nnist. effective use of nuideling for student high attention demanding (e.g., across the floor learning of movement occurs when the demonstra- imivement such as leaps, turns. and triplets,) tion is presented before the movement attempt. Teachers may focus the attention of the learner Increases in effectiveness can be gained by nuidcl- on the appropriate features oi he task byapplying ing again (luring the practiee phase of movement verbal labels and imagery techniques. The number learning (Landers, 1975). Third. the skill level (il' of cues or stimuli that ar' verbalized to a student the nuidel and the correctness of the demonstra- can be reduced by these techniques, I*els are ver- tion are critical factors that will influence the bal (i)nintands used by the teacher t,lie subjects learner. The best possible sit mit i(m is for a skilled on rhythm, body relationships, or movement teacher to be a model. If that t an option, using sequence (Shea. 1977: llo & Shea, 1978; Magill& a student peer would be the next best situation Lee. 1987). For example, when teaching a will de ( Landers & Landers, 1973; Mc('ullagh. 1987), bras in ballet class t he i re;tructor. rather than The teacher must understand that processing counting the positions (cl. the port de bras, (e.g., demands are very high during early learning and 1st. 2nd, :3rd. etc.) may label the spatial positions adding nonessential information demands to the for t he movement (e.g., front, high side, low. etc.), learner can be harmful. In many studios, visual The instructor. by verbalizing the positions of the information from mirrors adds to the processing anus in time with the music, can give the countsof hiad of the beginners. At first , watching the image the movement in synchrony with the body posi- may disrupt the nuivement quality and rhythm that tions. Using 'oice inflection to highlight the critical

77 Li 0 beats of the movement. is also helpful. For example, visually monitor the movement. The instructor may in teaching a modern dance triplet, the instructor also use a verbal cue to encourage students to might say "DOWN, up, up" or "ONE, two, three," direct focus on the quality of the port de bras move- accenting the downbeat of the music and initiation ment, e.g., smooth and flowing, versus the quality of a weight shift. The goal of teacher labeling is to of the leg movement, e.g., direct and percussive or count and voice inflect on the beats while reinforc- vice versa, depending on the errors made. ing specific dance vocabulary or movement quality Imagery is a technique whereby a picture of a Feedback related concept that describes an aspect of the movement, such as quality, or a representation of Tlw final goal for productive teaching of begin- some action, shape. and/or feerng is presented to ners is the instructor's role in providing feedback the student. Images allow individuals to draw from about movements. Following initial attempts at a previously acquired knowledge so that a linking of new activity the learner must use feedback to movement and image concepts can be used (Ilall & establish tlw effectiveness of the movement pat- Buckholz, 1983). For example, when teaching a tern (Mart eniuk, 197,;). During early learning the plie, certain images may be used to reinforce beginning dancer will tend to rely heavily on visual proper alignment. One image might be of a spine information to guide and modify the movement sliding down a fireman's pole. This image should (Robb, 1968). As skill develops, kinesthetie/propri- aid the student in understanding the relationship of oceptive information plays an increasing role in the alignment to the downward movement of the movement correction (Fleishman & Rich, 1963). pile. This image gives the quality of the movement The teacher supplements the learner's internal (sliding or fluid) and the visual image of an elon- information sources by providing augmented infor- gated, vertical spine. Through experience, teachers mation about some quality of the movement (e.g., find various images that evoke the best physical "feel the lengthening and lifting of the torso as

response from their students. Many images may be you . . ."). During early learning, the learner may used to enhance proper quality and shape of not be able to adequately immitor all the internal nmvernenl. and external sources of information that provide information about the movement. The teacher's Omsolidatiiuj role is twofold. First he/she must guide the learner in developing his/her internal error detection pro- The beginner's ability to "chunk" or consolidate cess. And two, the teacher must provide informa- information will increase as practice continues. tion that is not readily available to the learner. Discrete nmvements and movement sequences will For example, a beginning student when per- be joined together to form longer phrases or com- forming a grande battement at the barre may tend binations specific to the dance technique (Chase & to use visual feedback early in the learning to guide Simon. 1973; St arkes, Deakin, Limiley, & Crisp, the leg to its proper spatial position and ensure that 1987). A beginner in any dance form. typically, has it returns to fifth position on movement comple- difficulty performing arm and leg movements tion. Early learners appear to be unaware of the simultaneously. Minimal articulation of the torso is posititm of the trunk and pelvis during the move- seen durii.g early practice. As practice begins, the ment and the rotation of the standing leg and ele- learner beconies more familiar with arm awl leg vated leg is usually lost. By providing verbal feed- coonlination and the()arse shape of the imive- back, teachers can focus attention on the mem emerges. Subsequent practice leads to refine- inadequacies of the task. Guidance by the teacher ment in movement articulation and body position- that aids the learner in developing a "correct .sensa- ing in conjunction with the coordnutt ion of he arm t ion" of a movement might be, for example, verbal- and leg. izing "level hips, rotated thighs, activated abdomi- For example. many beginning ballet :tudents nal muscles, or move as if you're reaching to the have difficulty executing tendu in conjunction with sky or spiraling upward. or contracting and port de bras. The port de bras is particularly diffi- expanding with each breath . . .- will serve to cult because ina beginners do not have a good improve the movement form and quality. idea of the path the moving arm, which is mov- The primary consideration fort he feedback . ing in a different dlane from the moving leg. Also, if however, is related to the information demands the path of the arm extends heyond the peripheral placed mi the subject. Providing too much informa- view of the student the student will not be able to t ion in the feedback message, as in oververbali/a-

78 S non, may caust the beginner to attend to a non- information as opposed to relying on the At Atent's critical portion of the message. In the statement own internal, proprioceptive sense. If this were the "You neglected to align your pelvis correctly, you case and the teacher information was withdrawn. had no turn-out., the movement was jerky, you faced performance of the movement may be degraded. the wrong way and you should have begun on count We have attenti,ted to present a variety of teach- two," the beginner might only attend to the fact ing strategies that can be easily implemented into that. she/he began on the wrong count and disre- studio instruction. Although the focus of this arti- gard the remainder of the feedback, cle was teaching adult beginners, many of the sante ('oincidentally. information that is highly precise strategies may be applied to teaching students of may also interlere with learning (Rogers, 1974; varying skill level. To facilitate dance development Magill & Wood, 19M). Care should alo be taken in the studio, the teacher must understand the con- that the feedback messages are spaced across the straints of the activity being taught and the plocess instruction( ',avery,1962; Schmid'. Young, thelearner. It is the ambition of the teacher to Swintic n, & Shapiro. 1989). A teacher who provides help the student "learn how to learn." To aid in the feedlia-k. following each movement attempt may proce, the teacher must consciously structure cause toe learner to rely too heavily on teacher the learning environment to facilitate learning.

References

Chase. WG Simon. H.A. (1973). rerl'eptiou in t'bIOSS. hon. Research QuarterLoOr Ei cruise awl Sport, 54. itirc Psychology, 4,55-81, 346-351. Fitts. PM., & Posner, M.I. (1967). Mina?? ped.orKla ?UV. Marteniuk, R.G. (1976). Information processing in Belmont. CA: Brooks/Cole. motor skills. New York: Bolt, Rinehart and Winston. E.A. & Rich, S. (1963). Role of kinesthetic McCullagh, P (1987). Model similarity effects on motor and spatial visual abilities in perceptual-motor learn- performance. ,Joii rk1al1.i.1 Sp(111.tiPS,11010(Vi9, ing. Jourian E.uperimental Psychology, 66,6-II. 249-260. Gentile. A.M. (1972). A working model of skill acquisi- McCullagh, Steih11., & Weiss, M.R. (1990) tion with application to teachMg. Quest . Monograph Developmental modeling effects on thy quantitative 17,3-23. and qualitative aspects of motor performance. Hall, & Buckholz, E. (1982-8:3). Imagery and the Research Quarterly .for Euerci.se and Sport, 61 , recall of nuivement patterns. Imaginal ion, Coan it ion 344-350. and Personality, 2. 251-260. Miller, G.A. (1956). The magical number siwen phis or lo, L. & Shea1.11. (1978). Levels of processing and the minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processii.:' coding of position cues in motor short-term memory. information. Psyclmlogn'al Review, 6.). 81-97. Journal of Motor Beha rim; 10, 113-121. Robb, NI. (1968). Feedback and skill learning. Research Khaneman, D. (1973). Attention (111(1 Englewtiod Qua rterly37, :393-405. Cliffs, NJ; Prentice-I lall. Rogers, C.A. (1974). Feedback precision and post- Landers. D.M. (1975). Observational learning of a motor feedback interval duration. Journal of Experimental skill: Temporal spacing of demonstrations and audi- Psychology, 102. 604-608, ence presence. ../onrual of Motor Behavior,7, Schmidt. H.A., Young, D.E., Swinnen, S., & Shapiro, D.( . 281-287. (1989). Summary knowledge of results for skill acqui- Landers, & Landers. D.M. (1973). Teacher versus sition: Support for the guidance hypothesis. A111110 peer models: Effect of model's presence and perform- Hj. Experimental Psy(liology: Learning, ilfentary, ance level on motor behavior. Jot/vital 0 Motor and COf in it irm, 15, 325-359. Behar ior 5, 129-139. Shea, J.13. (1977). Effects of labelling on motor short- Lavery. LI. (1962). Retent ion of simple motor skill as a term memory. Journal of Elperimental Psychology: function of type of kno..ykdge of results. Canadian Human Learning and Memory5,179-I87. Journal of Psychology, 16. 300-311. Spaeth-Arnold. R.K. (198( ). Developing sport skills: A Nlagill, HA., & Lee, T.D. (1987). Verbal label effects on dynamic ipt erplay of task, learner, and teacher. Motor response accuracy and organization for learning limb Thcorii into Practice. Monograph 2,1-81. posit lolling movements. Jot/roadof liii wan Starkes1.L.. Deakin-1.M., Lindley, S & Crisp. F (1987). Mmvment wiics, 13. 285-308. Motor versus verbal recall of ballet sequences by ytning & Wood, C.A. (1986). Knowledge of results expert dancers. Journal of .tiport Psychology, 9. precision as a learning variab!e in motor skill acquisi-

Carol A. Wood and Susan Gillis-Kruman are in the Department of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261. Studentas Teacher, Teacher as Student Gail Lee Abrams

As a college dance professor for the past 15 as simply another academic class; they were lazy years, I have often been confronted with questions and seemed to be "sleep-dancing" through classes about the va!idity of dance as a field of study at the at times. Many of them expected to be spoon-fed postsecondary level. College administrators, fac- the material, just as they were in more traditional ulty ccIleagues, students, parents, and even we, as classes. The syndrome of "show me the movement, dancers ourselves, ask about the value of dance in and I'll repeat it back" was surfacing more and education, the practicality of dance as a possible more, and interactions between students and career choice, and the impact dance can have in teacher, and between stude:its themselves, were persona'. growth. Although I have become prac- often mechanical and impersonal. ticed at amwering these questions to most people's It also seemed that when students did try to learn satisfaction, they have raised other questions about movement phrases, they did not really see what how I might better accomplish my goals as a was important in the movement. Their concern was teacher of movement and convey to my students for the steps, the counts, that is, the quantitative just how rich a contribution dance can make to rather than the qualitative essence of the move- thc:r lives. ment. Consequently, their own versions of the movement often tended to be mechanical and externally motivated rather than felt from and con- The Motivation nected to internal motivation and kinesthetic sen- sation. In addition, I wanted to more effectively tap Many people who have not studied dance assume the creative potential of all of my students, espe- that it is a very specific, self-contained discipline cially those who were not as technically skilled but that may not be particularly applicable within the who might have wonderful, creative gifts. I began broader context of a college education. What to look for more ways to clarify, and to teach stu- makes dance so p9tentia1ly effective as a compo- dents to clarify, concepts about movement and nent of higher education is its interactive, partici- what it communicates. patory, experiential approach. Although possible, it It s(!enu'd that the best way to solve these prob- is certainly not easy to get through a dance class lems was to involve students more, not only in the without truly paying attention and actively getting learning process, but also in the l('achin!) pro- involved. Since so many college classes are taught cess. This had always been a significant part of my in a lecture format, in which students can merely composition ':lasses, but I had applied it in my sit, take notes, and decline to participate, a dance technique classes less often and more haphazardly. class can serve as a tremendously challenging, Although I sometimes had students heip each other recuperative, and stimulating ( Terience calling on with movement phrases by learning the opposite the physical and mental cap, nilities 4 the student side in pairs or by observing and correcting eacli in a totally unfamiliar way. other, and although we often did improvisation and In striving to achieve this goal of total involve- short composition studies, these never seemed nwnt, I have been (-valuating many of my own fully integrated into my teaching process in a way teaching methods and hal,discovered the value of that really math, a difference. I had always felt that incorporating "self-teacei./," techniques into my as the teacher, I should be responsible for all, or classes. A few years ago,noticed that some of my most, of tIu, teaching. Once I began to exiwriment students were t reating my dance technique course with different ways of having students t each them-

80

c.,4 1.4 selves and each other. I realized that more produc- becomes something quite different from the origi- tive work was being accomplished, students were nal; however, there is also a unity because each ver- learning more, and I was learning more and teach- sion has sprung from the same source. Playing with ing better. the various phrases in duets, trios, etc. can yield fascinating results and allows students to work on composition,improvisation,andtech.tique The Methods simultaneously. While observing and guiding the studeit...-' work- There is nothing magical about the specific tech- ing processes, I discover more .tbout eac!indivithi- niques I have been using, except that they work: al's own learning methods. The more I understand they help students understand more about move- how and what each student sees and does not see, ment, their own learning processes, and them- and what each student perceives as being impor- selves. Many of the examples I will give are proba- tant in learning a phrase, the better equipped I am bly things that many dance instructors already do to give constructive feedback to that student. I can in their classes. If so, perhaps this will simply pro- speak to her using her own language, and I can vide a new perspective on ways in which they can introduce her to new concepts from the starting be effective; if not, I hope they will prove helpful. point, of things she already understands. Perhaps the most common self-teaching tech- Another way of approaching this is by having stu- nique is having students coach each other in pairs, dents dialogue with themselves while dancing a after having learned a movement phrase in tech- phrase. I ask each dancer to literally talk to herself nique class. The observer gives feedback about out loud; she describes what she is doing, how she what she has seen and what she believes could be is doing it, what she likes and doesn't like about the worked on, both quantitatively and qualitatively. movement., how she feels when doing it, images The coaching process also includes discussion that occur to her, etc. In this manner, the student about how the mover feels when doing the move- consciously hooks into what she is doing and ment, both on a physical and an expressive level. becomes more fully aware of the physical and men- When the roles are reversed, both students realize tal connections. I also ask each student to identify that although they are doing the same basic move- the moment or moments in the phrase that she ment phrase, each puts her own imprint on the loves dancing the most, and to perform those with movement and claims it as her own, because she the fullest energy and commitment possible. Then has discovered her own personal connection to it. she is asked to allow that energy and joy to extend By watC;ing each other, students improve their itself through the movement that occurs before and observational skills; they have to define their own after her favorite moment(s), so that eventually the concept. of the movement in terms of motivation, entire phrase is infused with the same life she gave shape, quality, timing, initiation, phrasing, etc. t he kolated moment.. This not only results in In developing images for herself and her partner, greater enjoyment and fuller performance, it also the student becomes accountable for her own gives her a greater understanding of kinesthetic movement and the choices she makes. She more connections and movement transitions within a onsciously recognizes her own tendencies and dance phrase. preferences and gains concdence in her ability to Asking students to choreograph and teach their observe, evaluate, and help .nother. While working own sequences to the class is an effective "seff- as partners, students challenge each other to justify teaching" method. In most classes, some students a.ill clarify what they are doing. will jump at the opportunity to lead class, while Another exercise in observation and clarification others are terrified at the prospect of such respon- involves showing a movement phrase (usually not a sibility. Once conviiwed to try it, they generally find munted phrase) and having the students repeat it much mow fun but also more diffk.ult than they what they have seen after only one viewing. expected. As they see their classmates try to repro- Obviously, they can't really repeat the phrase accu- duce their movenwnt, the "teachers" learn where rately; the point of the exercise k to find out what they have been unclear, in either time structure or aspects of the movement have made the greatest nwvementquality,initiation,phrasing,or initial impression. Students contince to work on sequence. Their own classmates challenge them to what they cemember of the phrase until they have beconw more art ii..ulate a.s t hey ask for exactness in clarified and developed itinto their own phrase. the teacher's performance or verbal description of "Ilirough this evolutionary process. erten vcrsion tlw movement.By Observing areas in which tlwu-

8 l sti dents have difficulty communicating to each other, solve the problem. Through this assignment, the I learn what concepts I nee(i (k) focus on more fully students usually achieve a new level of objectivity within a particular class. that greatly enhances and improves their subse- One of the most glaring problems to surface dur- quent work. ing this exercise has been in the ;.ea of rhythmic In addition, I require composition students to structure. Students are invariably unable to do the schedule "labs" with each other each week (rotat- movement. the same way twioe because they do not ing partners throughout the semester) in order to understand how to count their own phrases. I have get and give feedback on a more individual basis been dismayed to see this occur even in more before showing their work to a larger audience in advanced classes. This has alerted me to the need class. This enables students to refine their work for more emphasis on rhythmic analysis and music one step further before showing, and gives them training in my classes. whk...h.I accomplish with more practice in critiquing each other. Conse- Dalcroze Eurythmics exercises as well as consulta- quently, they have more confidence in their ability tion and tean -teaching witl, my accompanist. to talk about movement in greater depth, and their During technique and improvisation classes, the comments quickly progress past the level of "It was self-teaching method may also take form through really gool (but I don't know why)." the development of a ritual. To promote group Studews tie their experiences together through unity, I often use this in a "disconnected" class, in journal writing, a vital component of the sells-teach- which people do not seem to be relating to each ing process. By recording experiences, reactions, other as classmates or as frionds. We decide on a observations, and insights about events lwcurring particular concept around which to design a ritual: in and out of class, students articulate, verbalize, it may be an idea I suggest, or it may be something and bring to the conscious level many ideas and related to the season, or perhaps a political or connections of which they might otherwise be social issue. The class brainstorms ideas verbally, unaware. This written diary provides them with a trWs to find some organization or structure from chronological record of their growth and develop- those ideas, and then breaks into groups. Each ment, which can be a valuable resource not only group develops its own part of the ritual, and at during the semester but later on as well. By reading least some part of the ritual brings everyone and commenting on the journal at mid-semester, I together at the beginning, end, or both. Several can encourage students who are on the right track rAearsals precedethefinalperformance. and challenge those who are not to dig deeper or Discussion about the ritual itself as an effective con:;ider other possibilities. communication of the chosen concept, anti about At the end of the semester, all students are the dynamics of group process, concludes the required to re-read their z.-ntire journal and write a class. concluding entry, which may be a summation of In minposit ion class, an excellent assignment in feelings about the course and their progress, an which students teach each other involves random altered response to something they wrote earlier in pairing of classmates who will each (Trate a move- thsemester, or any other thoughts that may ment study for the other. They frankly discuss their emerge as a result of re reading. This process own technical and choreographic strengt hs, prefer- serves as a synthesis of everything that has ences, and weaknesses and give feedback to their occui red throughout the semester. Through read- partner on the same issues. In creatingstudy for ing tile journals, it is clear that students recognize the partner, each choreographer attempts to incor- not only how much they have progressed in their porate both people's assets into one dance, in daoye lives, btit also how applicable their experi- order to capitalize on positiv ? features and mini- ence is to) their personal and academic lives. mize negative ()nes. By blending both styles, each is moving in an unfamiliar way and attempting to give up crutches anti discover new ways of dancing. The Benefits Each is also learning to recognize what is good and valuable about her own movement style, which is Although limnof t he advantages of self-teaching vital since students often experience extrenw inse- are discussed above, a few others should be nwn- curity and doubt abouf, their own creative abilities. honed. Initially,began to use self-teaching tech- While watching the final studies in class, it k amaz- niques nmre frequently during a semester in which ing to see how much each choreograp.) r has I was teaching over seven hours of dance in one day grown and how successfully each ha.s been able to (fortunately, not every day!). Fear of burnout and ;t

82 neck Mjury that semester forced me to find ways of mendous creative skills. Thus, students gain conducting a full class while protecting myself and confidence in themselves through awareness of not cheating my stud ats. Later on, teaching their own special abilities, and they gain respect for through a pregnancy helped me test and refine each other's individual contributions. In addition, other ways of using students to teach each other. I respect for their teacher, and for the process of found this to be a tremendous energy-saver, and my teaching, is enham ed. teaching styleand enthusiasm were quite Dance is often assumed to be a nonverbal disci- rejuvenated. pline that is experienced solely through the body. Having students work with each other also freed This concept must be dispelled, and use of these my eyes so that I could observe more and give more techniques is one way to do Asking students to thorough feedback to individuals in the class. As articulate their body experiences makes light bulbs many of us do, I suffered from the "super-teacher go on for them in a way that is new and revealing. syndrome": I must see everything that is going on By consciously thinking through and verbalizing in the room. I must be able to help evo ryone at what they feel and see, concepts hit honw more once, and I must know all the am.ers. Students quickly and become better integrated, and the stu- can, with the right guidance, find the answers for dent is much more likely to apply her new-found themselves, and often there are severe' n'opriate knowledge to her dancing and choreography. solutions to a particular problem. lising students to The study of dance can have tremendous impact help each other gives rise to many possibilities on the college student by helping to facilitate prob- teachers may not see themselves. lem-finding and problem-solving. It also fosters Having students coach each other helped solve recognition of learning processes, working pro- the problem of what to do with the rest of the class cesses, and studying processes, as well as aware- when I was giving corrections or feedback to one ness of how one functions within a group and particular student. Occupying the rest of the class within interpersonal relationships. These charac- in pairs or groups prevented me from losing the teristics establish dance as a rejuvenator and attention of the class or stopping its momentum, builder of the individual, who is then better able to while promoting class unity and mutual support approach the rest of the curriculum wit h the same relationships at the same time. Equalization of skill sense of connection, vision, and creative insight. level among class members also occurred, as each The concept of "student as teacher, teacher as recognized her ability to help another regardless of st udent" can further facilitate significant, inte- her technical ability. grated, active learning among students, while max- For example, one student may not be as techni- imizing our energy, efficiency, and effectiveness as cally advanced as another, but she may be an excel- teachers. As teachers, we must each remain the lent obseuver, give articulate feedback, or have t re- observer, 1 he seekerthe student.

Gail Lee Abrams teaches in the Dance Department, Scripps College, Claremont, California 91711.

8:3 Ballet I Curricular Design in Higher Education Carol J. Soleau

Ballet I curricular design must relate to the con- their physical well-being, including strength, flexi- text in which the course is taught.. In some institu- bility, balance, and coordination; enhancing their tions, dance classes are offered by dance or fine performance level in another sport or physical arts departments. Auditions are held to determine activity; peer recommendations; or fulfilling a placement, and tlw Ballet I curriculum is de;:igned childhood fantasy or fascination with the art form. to span one or ideally two semesters. In other insti- Though student expectations should not dictate tutions, dance classes are elective ,..hoices within a the goals, they do support the premise that ballet physical education service program. No auditions can be accessible to a broad population rather than are held for placement, and therefore the clientele to a chosen few. It is uorealistic to expect to pro- will differ significantly in ability and motivation. duce highly skilled technicians, because the iwr- Within a typical ten-week quarter system. classes will meet twice a week for an lunir or less. There may be administrative pressure for accountability and the course must incorporate its ustificat on into the curriculum. Furthermore, sinco many service programs are supported by a fee structure for survival in higher education. an entripreneurial system is emerging as standard practice. Popularity, not contentdetermines whet ki'r a class is taught or not. The courses which survive must be an enjoyable experience for the students. Such factors create a particular challenge 7/r for ballet educators. because the content is tradi- tionally taught in a slow refftitive maniwr within a formal working atmosphore that can hardly be described tS The curricular concepts that follow were devel- oped to tuldress the particular situation described above. They can idso be applied in classes that are subject to less restrictive conditiony. The initial challenge is to dtnet mine those con- tent areas that must be taught. reatizing that many students will only take one course in ballet. Students' expectations can In.,. ....fine the goals. For instance. itis safe to as'-al., ...tht young adults taking ILllit for the first t. not realistically pur.,uing a career in the field. ,i.isons for taking Carol Soleau, author, in "Some Other Time," 1990. such a ctitirse would more likely include improving Photo from Oregon State 1' drersity, Corrallis.

8.1 b 7 formance standard takes years of intense training Observation of Novices to achieve. Rather, it seems prudent to introduce the technique as part of a tradition including a rich Sometimes it is difficult to know where to begin historical background and unique aesthetic proper- when confronted with a large class ofadult novices. ties. Teaching a diverse population clarifies the pri- Sonie have had previous experience and sinne have mary focus. It. is to foster an appreciation of the art never entered a dance studio) before. Though the form and to cultivate the joy of dancing. list could be endless, I have identified seven areas The specific technical skills introduced are deter- that seem to pose frequent problems for the begin- mined by observing novices, identifying founda- ning level student. These are: tional ability competence, utilizing the traditional An understanding of alignment, placeinent, ballet barre format, and recognizing that BalletI and initiating movement from the center of students can experience the plea:sure of dancing. t he body. To facilitate teaching, attention is given to accom- 2. Coordination of body parts to achieve move- mdating diverse learning styles and to grouping merit efficiency and enjoyment. steps into similar shapes. Complex skills are built :3. The use of breath. adhering to the desired timing rather than broken 4. The timing of movement, down into parts. Limb preference and directional 5. Outward rotation of the hip joint that affects preference are discouraged in alfort to symmet- overall alignment, particularly the pelvis. rically train the body. Skills are taught by directing knees, and feet. attention to the placement of the entire body, not P. The shape of the pointed foot and weight by "teaching the feet first." bearing foot, Though there are other areas that could enhance 7. The use of straight and bent knees in both efficient presentatain of material, this paper will weight bearing and nonweight bearing !Mut itself to those lescribed above. The applica- exercises. tkin of select ed motor learning research findings These concepts are interrelated and occur and personal experi, nce have contributed to the repeatedly in each class. Several areas need Mune development of these concepts. diate attention, for some students have a precon- ceived picture ot' the ballet aesthetic. For example, they will try to force a turn out of the feet that does Class Structure not reflect the true outward rotation capability of the hip joint. This stance distorts the Ikkly and is Each clw.,s follows a similar format that becomes detrimental to the knees and feet. There is also a familiar to the students. The class begins in the tendency to minimize the pile in order to appear to center with a warm-up, followed by floorwork, the defy gravity Time needs to be spent on clarifying ham', the center, sequences across the floor, and a the adults capabilities, noting individual differ- center fhior chising The warm-up, than., and harry ences in flexibility ranges and strength capacities, take approximately 37 minutes; the center, across and insisting t hat our current kaiiwledge of the the floor work, and closing take 2:3 minutes. Each body can prevent injuries. class include,: the skills that will be intrmhiced, the skills that e previously been introduced and are pract iced, brief anecdot es about dance or Utilizing Foundational Abilities t,e meaning of the vocabulary, and traveling sequencest hat satisfy the students' need for physi- In order to keep stud', its from being over- cal exertion. whelmed by t specifiy of ballet technique, The separate sect k ms of the class not only keep early classes con. motor capabilit that Ihestudents from becoming discouraged in one they already pw;s:-ss, such as valking, skipping . area. hut make the luau. feel longer than itis. The and running boil?rAard and backward. This sup- students are mentally and physically active due to portRichard 11L, i989) findings that founda- the [iris,. pace and the number of skills that afs. t kmal wahilie the performance of com- practiced in each class. These skills are often sim- plex motor sk i !.4, reports that Edwin Fleishmau ply variations of one skill, whici, provides the stu- (1978, 1982) con,wcted research that resulted in dents with the opportunity to build upon their pre- initially identifying II perceptual-motor abilities vious experience. Ideally, this format promote.s and 9 physical proficiency abilities. 'Me percep- learning and ensures it sense of accomplishment. tual-motor abilities, which particuLrly pertain to

85 ballet, include multilimb coordination and control Traveling combinations, on the other hand, allow precision. The physical proficiency abilities, which the students to experience the exhilaration of danc- can be described as physical fitness abilities, ing in spite of their limited technical backgrounds. include static and dynamic strength and 9exibility. Ialso curtail the practice of turning skills to Ba-sed on Fleishman's research, bah A. curricula three or four minutes in every lesson to slowly could utilize this knowledge to maximize teaching develop "spotting" techniques, because there is a efficiency. It would be pointless and unsafe to teach wide difference in proficiency levels among begin- grand fouette en tournant in the first class, whereas ners in executing this particular skill. Those who a grand jete would be at ceptable because itis an like to turn practice constantly on their own. Those extension of running, a foundational motor ability. who don't, complain of dizziness and disorientation Saute attitude en avant could be introduced after and easily get. discouraged. Since the course might practicing skipping, arabesque sautee after prac- be students' only exposure to ballet, an effort is ticing hopping. Though the execution limy not be made to minimize frustration caused by introduc- perfect, students realize that many complex move- ing skills that are enjoyed by only a portion of the ments are built upon skills that they have already class. mastered. Different Learning Styles The Barre Another area that can expedite learning is the The ballet barre is the staple for students of all use of imagery, particularly kinetic imagery. levels. It must be modified for beginners to ensure Though it has become common practice in teach- safe and correct technical practices. The premise is ing dance, it is clear that images must be meaning- to warm up the body slowly and thoroughly begin- ful to tlw learner. In fact, imagery may produce ning with large muscle groups and graduating to negative results aniong some learners, who exercises that rc wire more flexihility, strength, respond better to verbal explanations and visual and qiiekhess. modeling practices. In order to reach the broadest A typical beginning barre fcrmat inuludes:plies popuhit ion. I experiment with a variety of approaches. Demonstration is the most popular tendus,degages,rondde jambes, tclagio sequences. frappes, and grand bat t ements. The met hod of teaching. This can be accompanied with exercises are introduced throughout the quarter a straightforward verbal explanation as well as with and can be modified for novices. For example. several carefully chosen images. grand plie can be eliminated if safety is a concern. For instance. in teaching battement tendu The imporLint point is to prepar- students for quatrime devant, I give the following explanation. dancing. "Keepilw both legs straight, slide the gesture leg "The harry is not a separate entity Once the stu- forwan. hug with the heel until it has to lift off dents have an understanding of plies. temhis. and the fklor. Begin to arch the foot through the instep degages in combinations, they possess the funda- ball of the foot until the toes are stretched, and mental skills for many variations of elevations md are not weight bearing. To return, shde the traveling steps. hail back leading with the toes. Relax the toes and the hall of t he foot until the heel is r4,,leased onto the floor and continue sliding the '.00t back to the Traveling vs. Center Floor Combinations original posit ion.- For some, the following images might help to Charly. ail basic technical skills eannot he taught prmluce the desi:.ed result. "Feel yourself lifted ciut at the beginning level and choices have to lw made. of the Icgs from deep inside the pelvic region. A I choose to focus on preparations for large travel- gentle hirce propels tlw leg hirward from behind ing movement combinat ions (grand allegro) rat her the buttocks smoothly sending energy down and than sustained movement coinbinations (adage) or forward, encasing the back of the leg, Brush qui(k center floor elevations (petit allegro) based through fte floor as if it was covered with powder. upon observing the ahilitis of the majority of feeling as if the foot could travel t hm mgh the floor beginma-s. until itis fully extended. Draw the leg back from Adage requires a strong center. flexibility, deep inside the abdominals. again brushing strength, balance. concentration. Petit allegro through powder until the starting position is requires speed and articulate legs and feet. reached.- 1 'sefel information is impart( .1 i both

Sti explanations, and the different cues may reach a Alternative Teaching Methods larger proportion of the Hass. A common practice among dance teachers is to Grouping '_echnical Steps by Shapes "break down" complex steps or patterns, allowing the student to experience a degree of success in Another principle that seems to facilitate learn- early stages of practice. My premise is to "build" ing among beginners is to group the teaching of complex movements, adhering to the timing of the technical steps into similar shapes of the body as a ultimate goal. whole. This is based on the theory that beginning For instance, I introduce assembles as follows. At level students have difficulty in coordinating bent the barre the tendus are (count 1) plie, (count vs. straight leg combinations. For example. the tendu, (count 3) plié, (count 4) and straight. placement of sur le cou de pied will be taught in the Degagés will be taught as plié for 2, brush both legs same class as frappes, jetés dessus and dessous, straight for 2, in first and in 3rd position A la and finally, skipping with the foot in a reasonable seconde. The timing will then be taught as "and l' proximity of the stir le cou de pied position. Sur le (plie brush close plié). After several other exercises cou de pieci and battement retire are practiced to warm up the feet, assemble dessus i3 practiced before pas de chat is introduced, and glissade der- facing the barre in 3rd position. Immediately fol- riere is taught in the same class with grand jete A la lowing, assemble dessous is practiced. Later both semn&. Glissade and pas de chat are never taught are rehearsed in the center. In the following class, in the same class. The starting and ending points the &gage conthination will be practiced en Croix are the same, but the intent and desired shape of in preparation for assembles en avant and en arri- the legs during the execution are quite different. I ere, giving the students the kinesthetie feeling for combine glissade and assemble together, which is t he many variations of assenthles, b. it these will not less confwing and easier for beginners to grasp. be further developed at the beginning level.

Lesa R. kbroadhead instrut.s ballet students in the dance program at Kent State University's School of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. Photo by University Photographers.

to-

Ma-

87

'.1(-) BEST COPY LI UV The choice to introduce assemble dessus and history of selected ballets. The students particu- dessous together is a conscious one. Ballet is sup- larly enjoy Sandra Noll Hammond's (1982) descrip- posed to be sym.netrically practiced, and in many tion of a 19th century ballet barre. They are inter- cases it is not. Typically, the left hand is placed on ested in the progression of the art form. The the barre first, followed by the right hand. Turns technical skills they learn, combined with their tend to be taught to the right first, followed by the brief exposure to ballet's past as well as its present, left. Assemble dessus is taught first, as is jete des- instill in the students a respect for the difficulty of sus, and glissade derriere. My premise is to try to the medium, as well as an appreciation of its evolu- minimize preferred limb preference and preferred tion through time. directional preference by practicing both equally. Though fewer steps will be taught at the beginning Summary level, ideally, the students will be more .,abitually balanced in their approach to the art form. The curricular design that has been introduced Finally, I never teach "the feet first." Demonstra- grew out of the necessity to survive within a system tions include attention to the placement of the that values the popularity of a course more than its entire body. Students can immediately observe the content. The fact that it must be aimed at a diverse final expected execution. The initial port de bras population, must be taught within a strict. time may be simple, but it must be modeled. The con- limit, and must satisfy the needs of the students, cept of "putting it. all together at the end" wastes mandates that priorities are established. The chal- time. The students must reprocess the information. lenge is to maintain the integrity of the course. Also, teaching in parts requires altering the tinting Identifying and utilizing foundational abilities, of the breath and the overall timing of coordinating grouping technical steps by shapes, and employing the body linths. alternative teaching methods aid in teaching effi- ciency. Structuring the class into many segments, Cultural Components as well as utilizing the barre as the means to achieve freedom of movement, ensures that a Though much of the course is devoted to acquir- itajority of the students will experience a level of ing technical proficiency, I also allow time for success. Introducing students to the rich cultural including the cultural, historical, and aesthetic history of the art form helps to keep its traditions aspects of the art form. All the terms are intro- alive. duced in French and the class is provided with writ- The fac: that the course must be designed to ten English translations of the terms. The students appeal to a broad population has also produced are required to take a vocabulary quiz during the positive results. Many students will experience an sixth week, rather than at the end of the term when introduction to ballet who may not have taken the they will no longer be using the information. course because of its elitist reputation, or its gen- I encourage the class to attend a live ballet per- der biased history. Some of these students will be forniance. If this is not possible, films are t-thown motivated to further their studies. They will know outside of class time. Students are provided with what to expect and will be physically and mentally written guidelines to aid their critical assessment of prepared lc improve their technical movenwnt the performance they observed. Pictures of well- vocabulary. Most important, ballet curriculum will known ballet art kts and choreographers arc shared survive in higher education, for students have with the class, as well as short explanations of the learned through experience to appreciate its value.

References

S.N. (1982). Fleishman,E.A. (1978). I .Iing individual diftvretteos Hammond. Ballet: gond Me ba.sieN Pala to thodimensionsofhumantasks.Er(nnimnics ,21, Alto, ('A: Mayfield PuNishingCo. 1007-1019. Magill, B.A. (1989).Motor learning concepts and Fleishman, E.A. (.1982). Systems for deserilniq, human applications.Dubuque. IA: Win. (', Brown Pubhshers. tasks.American Psychologist,.?1,821-8:),1.

Carol J. Soleau teaches dance in the College of Health mid Human Performance, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331.

88 H I Servhig a Broad Dance Community in Higher Education Eleanor Weisman

The development of dance curriculum at the uni- physical fitness craze has been running strong for versity level is most, frequently focused on the many years now, and many univeffity students take dance major. Dance educators face the challenge of time out of their class schedules to exercise at their training future dance performers, teachers, and school's physical education center. This is defi- choreographers. However, there is another aspect nitely a step in the right direction, but an exercise of dance education to be addressed, the role that regime does not necessarily provide the same bene- dance can play in the general education of all col- fits that a dance experience can--most importantly, lege students. Besides the specialization of the the joy of self-expression through movement. dance major, a general study of dance would be a Educational theorist. Howard Gardner (1983) benefioial component of higher studies just as writes of seven human intelligences in his book English composition and the sciences are part of Ft (Imes (if Mind: linguistic, logical/mathematical, every student's education. spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersinal, Many state education departments and arts coun- and intrapersonal. The specialization that occurs in cils are developing arts curricula that addres!; the higher education usually focuses on the linguistic issue of providing arts education for all stuilents in and t.he logical/mathematical intelligences. Many the lower grades. The Wisconsin Department of college students find themselves under stress and Public Instruction states: intense pressure from this concentration on spe- All peciple 11 ETt heginded comprehensive cific learning styles. Student at the University of experience of dance as a fi ne art in their lives. South Dakota have asked me to present Yoga and The dance experience for most people sin add be stress release programs because they need recu- a joyous one, with emphasis on the process peration front their high-paced lifestyles instead of rather than on the product professnmal dancers stress. Dance is mit just for the elite who can focusing on only two of the intelligences, higher afford expensive study in private studios. educat km must celebrate the wholeness of t he Everpme slumld know the joy of nuiving freely. human being. Dance and movement educat it m is an and unsellconscioasly so as to reveal a unique exploration of our kinesthetic intelligence that also personality.. . . develops our other six intelligences, and as such As the demand for educational excellence grows around the ciumtry, teaching the easily could be a foundation of a liberal arts education. transmitted forms of dance will no kinger be suf- Dance classes can be designed quite nat urally to ficient. Educators will have to expand their own address all the intelligences and to challenge stu- potential in order to expand that of their stu- dents at all levels. A dance session might use verbal dents as well. (Bryant-Weiler, & intages for movement motivation and place thent in Nirschl.I 98S, p. 2) a structured sequence (linguistic intelligence). The We higher education dance educators must also sequence comld be performed to different pieces of expand .nir curricularobjectives to includethe musicorwith the dancers creatiqg their own general stmlent pc imitation in appropriate dance accompanying sounds (musical intelligence )., progranis. logical/ntathematical experienco can be exelon As we move into the 21st century. we recognize by setting specific rhyt hntic counts, then cutting t he in qui:lance of the physical, mental, elnOtional, t he count s in half, dmibling them, etc. Spatial rea- and spiritual aspects of I lw human individual. The soning can be challenged by changing the direc-

89 n 2 tions, levels, and facings of the sequence as well as learn about people with very different backgrounds by creating group formations, Group workalso by a dance classsession exploring an develops interpersonal intelligence, while the Irish jig or an African welcome dance. We use these encouragement of each student to commit to the Objectives as reasons why dance education is so movement and to make it his/her own self-ex- valuable in grades K-12; they are even more acutely pression can foster the intrapersonal. true for older students who will soon be our policy Exploration of one's self and one's relationships makers. with others becomes increasingly more valuable If we look at primary cultures with tribal society (and often more (lifficult) as a person matures. organization, we see that dance was often a com- College students frequently tell me they find dance munal activity. Members of all ages would perform classes based on concept ual experiences to be in ritual and festive dances. We learn from these therapeutic. Certainly most c()Ilege students will societies that dance is not necessarily only a per- cognitively grasp basic concepts easily, but physi- forming art, but has value as a participating art. In cally is another matter. As their physical ability Hist 0 ry the Dance in Art and Education. increases. older students can explore more com- dance scholars Richard Kraus. Sarah Chapman- plex spatial pulls, including off-vertical movement . Ililsendager. and Brenna Dixon (1991) state. more complex use of niovement and language "Among lineage-based cultures. then, one of the through poetry. and movement and music through great purposes of dance has been to establish canons. rounds. accumulatiens, etc. For a college social unity and provide a means of collective student who is a beginning dancer, classes that are strength and purpose" (p. 19). From the Lakota challenging conceptually as well as physically may wacipi (powwow) to the European folk dance gath- be much nuire rewarding than a dance class that ering, dance events provide safe environments for focuses on inntat ion and earning steps. In essence, community interaction. Phy.iical, social, and even dance is a way for a stui 'ent to better understand spiritual needs can be met through community and express him/herself, to better communicate (lance. with others, and to better funct ion in and with the More recently, in the first halt' of this cc nt ury in environnient. Europe, Rudolf Laban developed what he called If dance is defined as the artist ic or creative "dance for the layman." Ile choreographed large aspect of movement. then (lance education is a group pieces and coined the term "movement . method to teach creative thinking through our kin- choir" to describe them. The dancers were lay peo- esthetic intelligence. This type of education need ple with little or nu (lance training. Vera Maletic not stop att he lower grades hut can continue ( 1987) writes of Laban's ideas in 13ml y-Space- thnnighout higher education. Students of business E.garssion: management. for example, learn skills of negotia- Labatt conceived of movement choirs as a tion and team-building. Those same skills are used medium providing an experience of togeth- iumverhally in group dance improvisation. Dance/ erness. as community through dance: movement training based on group improvisation 'Thousands of people can now experience can provide instruction ill communication through the benefit of the rhyt Inn and flow of dance. Inn only as spectators but also an active mirroring, syncronicity, eye contact.touch. spatial players in the joy of mot ing.- However, In' arrangement and patterns. order of moving, and emphasized that besides the shared experi- individual expression. as well as leading and ence of lite joyful movementf he crucial following task of the movement choirs was to maul- The deNelopment of nonverbal communication tain a sense of humanity in a dignified form. Ile saw choral movement not as one ofthe shIls leads tu self-confidence, respect for the Wally waysto achieve hody-mind education uniqueness of the individual, am] successful team- hut as the only possible wayfor adults and workor ensemble. Dance improvisation exercises children alike. I p. 1-- 1 TO relate to t he skills taught for conflict resolution. We all need to he able to express ourselves, to listen to If our education system is to address the education others, and to celebrate our differences inn] our of the "whole person," then certainly dance,Thove- similarities. When we are able to) doso in the move- ment must be part of the learning process. ment space of a dance studio,we mayalso find it Whenour higher education student body studies easierin the political,social.and business dance with this participatory aspect,then' will also) enviromments. be a greater !wed for more technically trained per- Dance is a way to cross culturalharriers. We can formers and teachers. Again quotingfrom Malet lc:

90 (1 ') I.IL) Dance curriculum at the higher education level must be broad enough to serve the community as well as the individual student. Performance of So leau's "Black Widow," 1991, Oregon State University photo.

Lakin also realized that lay participation in to students with little or no previous dance back- these movement choirs led to greatet apprecia- gruind and realize that involving as many students tion of theatre dance, so his promotion of the as possible in positive dance experiences is my danCe form enabled him to solve several peda- gogical problems at "One (p. 14-15) g! sal. I int naluce technique thr(mgh the body thera- pies, specifically Bart cnieff Fundamentals of We increase our audience for dance performance Movement" and Body-Mind Cent eringl", while con- when we expose nonskilled movers to participation centrating on improvisational skills, As I am also a in (lance thnnigh their own experience of it. Our certified movenwnt analyst. I use Laban movement dance curriculum at the higher education level analysis to create a full range of movement experi- must be broad emnigh to serve t he community aml ences, and I borrow Laban's idea of movement the needs of the individual who is not a trained choirs to struct tire large group improvisational (lancer. Inn rather a well-rounded individual. pieces. Tile Itil) Moving (o. came Mr) existence in the spring of 1990. Its purpose is to provide a format One Approach to Community Education for dancing together. Membership is open n) the entire university communitystudents, faculty,

.he only dance faculty Inrson in the Theatre and staff. Movirs need not have dance experience Department of the University of South Dakota. I nor he enndled in dance classes. We provide a ser- founded the USD Moving Co. with community ser- vice to the University by performing at various vice in mind. I teach large, beginning-level classes functions. For example. 18 of us (including three faculty nwmbers) performed on Earth Day 1990. dance teachers, we must also create a darwe curric- The phih)sophy of the c(unpany is reflected in our ulum that is an enabling experience for all stu- work. We value teamwork and the worth of the indi- dents. This could be a participatory Dance vidual within the group. At our first concert per- Appreciation course similar to Music or Art formances, audiences were surprised by the indi- Appreciation courses already offered at many uni- vidualism and freedom in the movement and by the versities. Naima Prevots offers a Dance and Society large number of perfornwrs. The responses soon course at the American University in Washington, became "that looks like fun; I'd like to do it, too." D.C. I suggest that similar courses with a basis in Dance class enrollment3 and the number of partici- dance as a parti(ipating art be developed. pants in the USD Moving co. continue to grow Perhaps we dance educators will rally to proni()te (from :15 studeAts in fall 1989 to over (i0 in spring bodily/kinesthetic intelligence courses as part of 1991). It is obvimis that there is an interest in and a the core requirements for all students. Dance is an need for this type :4 dance activity. In fact, students activity that touches many aspects of being human, frequently give up free Hine on Saturdays and not just the physical. By creating a holistic dance Sundays to meet to dance together and rehearse. curriculum for a broad population of higher educa- Besides developing a dance ,..urriculum for the tion students, we will better educate citizens for the talent ed and select grmip of skilled (lancers and global environnwnt of the 2Ist century.

References

Bryant-Weiler, V, Mills-Maas1., & Nirschl, E. ( 1 f)88). A Kraus. R., eliapman-Hilsendger, S. & Dixon. B. (19)

Eleanor Weisman, formerly in the Theatre Department at the University of South Dakota, is now a doctoral candidate in the Dance Department at. the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43202. Teaching Choreography atu, uopwaawl Jo ssaao1d 1W utua uns aql Nuppval jo uurapow :Agdesifioaioqa y AttapuaAo Iona ssaid

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PA-A s,m)so(I 011:111 I Irni 1(1).,1 1.11: )11() 15111(1 0.1111 1)0111.10J W(11 110s povvind ,,,m1)(1 ti! 11,1VIV, ,1!1\'a jo) '1101550.1(1X) ).1011 ) (I :s.VS .111ok., )511111111.1.111!111 s,111:10%1 111.10.1 1110.1J 1)111!1:01)1 -111,1111(I.) for Desca form need not have subjective signifi- sions which do not move ill space or cance. In section one of the essay. Desca asserts (except for the simplest transitions from one to thc it het ) and are not motivated, but are merely her most basic rule for choreographing: all dances exercises for the manipulation of !hie, in order have a beginning, middle, and end. She suggests an to become familiar with the ideas of their orga- ABA or ABC schema. Desca (1952, March) sug- nization. (I). 59) gests that One choose movements that end in big such as "running, hopping, skipping, jumping, slid- There are several philosophical implications in ing, leaping, turning" (p. 29). She says that if a stu- Humphrey's statenwnt: craft can be experienced dent chooses t' .ree itiq words and works out objectively and is best, initially, taught objectively: smooth transitions between the aoions he/she will there is, consequently, a right and a wrong way to make a dance. There is no importance placed upon explore an element of craft; and by studying objec- subjective content, until the very end of her essay, tive choreographic craft, students will, on their where she suggests stereotypical moods, such as own, grasp the connections hotween craft and the gay or solemn, or character studies. She offers the making of meaningful art. example of character study done on Paul Bunyan. The teaching and writings of Robert Ellis Dunn Des (i'. advises one "might use striding, chopping during the early 1960s, inunediately following the (of wood) and pulling (of trees), all done in a very publication of Humphrey's book, exemplify the exaggerated manner, as would be fitting for A num revolt against such craft-orient NI approaches to of his exaggerated size" (p. :30). Desca's approach choreography. His students comprised the new suggests a nonthreatennig formula that emphasizes avant-garde and were called the Judson Dance the objective a aI ignores subjective memiing. Theatre. "In general, the students who attended Continuing in this Objective vein. but on an emi- I Pinn's (gasses were dissatisfied with composi- nentlymoresophisticatedlevel,isDoris tion courses: these, they felt, were too structured Humphrey's book. The Art (Y. Muking Dunrcs, for genuine innovative exploration" (McDonagh. imblished in 1959. The book is a clear testimony to 1970, p. 77). Dium specifically did not want to rep- craft. outlining four basic elements of choreogra- licate the mistakes he felt other chorecgraphy phy as "design, dynamics, rhythm, and mot vat ion" teachers made: "I had seen both Doris [Humphrey' (p, 16). IIer approach places motivation last. The and Louis 'Horst1 give recipes for things, which I following are Humphrey's directions for isolating thought were very stultifying" (Dunn in McDonagh. the craft concept of space designs: 1970. p. 79). Instead hetried to impleinent teach- ing methods that encouraged individual and unique To realize these ideas, the student is asked to choreographic development in his students. hring immkt,tiesigns for the single body. That Dunn specifically promoted class discussions is, he is to prepare several synunetricals and asymmetricals, both in oppositions and succes- while not evaluating or judging the st udents'

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I.IB i F,86 1 1 ,1,11101.10tho ) 'd (6 Jo vm: .111.10.1 um moo thmo 'iritozoro.1 Imp I .)soli ;1101.1A111 ,411!,)1,) saIBIN 1M11 alp J1,N 'so.)1.11) p)sodoloo ..(1 0111. .NO111,1 ..cPtlI ()sir og -mu.) I? 11:11.1 010.1 111 0111 0.!1Vg).1.) :SSO.)0.1(! x; ..po4sto (oc, ::,),)(0O OM (1 oin 11,N 1)111: litup!0.v tpIts .11rJ1!d o.)!Iv 1R(i1 -flit? c)(1) inoOno.nii 01.) litoirw pot? Voporo irto)!Irs!Ao.olou ...sator9 .,),)01(1 11,)!LoA :1)(1,) uo!,:,udx.) sidttIour ()) 1111!sop omits stoo aiotiA% solopois gmi a.xot1o.1,) 1p-010.1(1i ,).)(mi) Jo osic Ilooq Inocir ,NtIocisol oi .Jios or.) o.)11o!Jodxo su lorpo(Iul! loodsr -mo.I.) oti sliom oiroJ.) Jo plow 011ItIS tutioroi(Idr ')I(It?.11-10oloti.) lot! sr -Itto.10.1 11!ll ti! 'UM° Sill11100.1 or! mg o.v)ro.I.) aos sos0011.) Itolm .10.1 il("` 1)111! () .1 Nop Jog put?) .10.1 oos-A:urto I oti 1.10m JO is,q1n11:011.1Xs(1 ss,),)0.1d oil s(or;1 to:0(10.11?Atr Jo los poi! r 1 .10J 110.)111111m I 1 tir (01(11111!Xt) I! sIsl!0 -010 ;loq1 Jo wilio,o! 1101 ) .dd o 1 1.1; I ment of creative workplay. From this philosophi- cal base Trexler forms her assignments to help ini- tiate her students into the experience of creative play. She sees the teacher's role as designing a place for his/her students to start their own subjec- tive processes, instead of handing out formulae. From this vantage point a future choreographer has the basic tool of play to begin his/her own jour- ney to discover and explore form. The 1980s have continued to bring a greater xploration of the elation between craft. and pro- cess. Insightful examples are the books by Lynne Anne Blom and L. Tarin Chaplin, The hallway Act of Choreography (1982) and The ItIMIleni Of Mmwinent (1988). For these teachers the avenue to understanding choreography is the tool of improvisation. Through this process students are provided the opportunity to discover the relevance of choreographic concepts by direct manipulation of the mediummovement. Implied in Blom and Photo of Providence College Dance Co. by Alan Bean. Chaplin's methods is the notion that students gain access to the understanding of dance-making vs an inner-directed activity by experiencing concepts Kohut cites five examples of mature healthy t In ough improvisation, And craft is not taught as transformations of narcissism: creativity, empathy, objective truths, but as elements of choreography the ability to accept one's eventual death . humor, to he explored. and wisdom. Kohut believes that creative engage- Penelope Ilanstein (1986) in her doctoral disser- ment must come from a healthy aspect of the self, tation. On flu, Nature of the Alt Making in Additionally, he firmly states that there exist inher- Dance: An Artistic Moccss Skills Model .fOr the ent psyc'-ilogical stresses in the creative process, Teaching of Chwvography, suggests a complete that these are not Ktlailogical in nature, and that philosophical rethinking. Her concern is not with there are significant avenues available for artists to objective craft, but with objective skills that allow cope with tly.se psychologic..1 risks. individuals to subjectively engage in process. Such I have u,1 a Kohutian model for creativity to skills as "thinking, perceiving, and forming.' (p. examine Inc writinms of several modern choreogra- 150) are applied to basic activities involved in cho- phers to illuminat:, the role and needs of the self reographing such as idea finding, problem finding. tind attemlent Osks to the self that are involved idea shaping/forming, idea transforming, and solu- in (tic choreographic process. Such a theoretical tion finding. In Ilanstein's work. process. with its understanding of process provides the basis for an ultimate connection to craft. becomes explicit educational envirolment that respects, and is within the choreography classninn. att tined to respond to, subjective creativity.A My own research (Press. 1990) centers on a psy- vocabulary for classroom discussion of process, choanalytic understanding of the choreographic and not .just craft ,is supplied. process from the perspective of the self and Applying these insights to understanding the healthy narcissism. More specifically. I have sought psychodynamics of the choreography classroom, I a theoretical nuldel for creativity frtan the works of have examined the educational milieu, the roles of Heinz Kohut (1971. 1977. 1978. 1981 1987). con- the peer group and teacher, the use of dialogue and sidered the father of psychoanalytically informed improvisation. the place of the teaching of choreo- self-psychology. Kohut's writings concern narcis- graphic form, and t he importance of phase- sism, one's relation to self. in p.:thology and lwalth. appropriate teacher responsls. In conclusion I Kohut argues. in contrast to Freud. that narcissisin assert that the relational aspects of the choreogra- is not something to overcome. hut something that phy classthe student's relation to self, to the goes through teinpering transformations, which. in teacher, to the peer group. and to the emerging art health. cominually form our ideals drive our ambi- work: and the teacher's relation to self, to the indi- tions.titcl to piirtakc in r leaningful fulfil- vidual student, the group. and the choreographic hug act ivit

1 01 processsignificantly promote or Inuit an evolu- phy concerning this issue. Teaclnng methods do tion of the creative process. imply answers to such questions as: What. is craft? Additionally, these insights have led me to a What is creativity? What can be taught about them? greater appreciation of craft. Craft now has its And the implied answers to these questions express niche, its home, in a subjective, meaningful relation philosophical beliefs about the individual's invtive- to process. Significantly, such work is complemen- ment in creative work. Perhaps most importantly, a tary to the work of individuals like Blom, Chaplin, philosophical examination of one's teaching met h- and Ilanstein, who are also searching for better ods opens t he door for teaching itself to bec(nnea ways to integrate process and craft. nu ffe enriching and vital creative process for the To approach the question of the integration of teacher. Without such personal creative involve- process and craft, or lack of' it, in the teaching of ment in teaching, the teaching of a creative form choreography, one must first become aware that loses its dynamic potential and succumbs to rote his/her teaching methods do represent a philos()- and recipe.

References

Blom, L.. & Chaplin, L. (1982).The intimate act qf cho- approach ta the psychoanalytic Itratment al narcis- reography.Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. sisticpersanalitydiNarders. Madison, CT: Blom, L.. & Chaplin, L. (1988).The moment of move- International Universities Press. ment: Dance improvisat nat. Pittsburgh:I Iniversity Kohut, H. (1.177). The restomlional the selfNew York: of Pittsburgh Press. International Universities Press. Coleman, M. (1949, November). On the teaching of cho- Kohut, IL(1978).The sea rch,fOrthe selj; Selef.ted writ- reography: Interview v.athLouisIl(u-st. natal' ingS al Heinz Kohut: 19:50-1978(Vols. 1-2), P Observer,pp. 128-130. Ornstein. Ed. New York: Internationai I Iniversities Coleman, M. (1950, December). On the teaching of cho- Press, reography: Interview with Alwin Nikolais. Danee Kohut. H. (198.1).Haw does analysis curer'A. Goldlwrg Observer, pp.1.18-150. & P E. Stepansky, Eds, Chicago: University of Chicago Coleman, M. (1952, April). On the teaching of choreogra- Press, phy: Interview with Jean Er(lman. Dance Obsevrer, Kohut, II. (1987),The Kohut seminars att self psychol- pp. 52-53. ogy and psychotherapy with adolescents and young 1)esca, E. (1952, March). I 1 OW tcompose a dance. part adul(s,M. Elson, Ed. New York: Norton. I.Mimi'Magazine, p. 29. McDonagh, I). (1970).The rise and fall and rise at Desca, E. (1952, May). How to compose a dance. part II. modern dance.New York: Outerbridge & Dienstfrey. Donee Maf,olzioc, p. 30. Nadel. M. II. (1978). The process of creating a dance. In Dumt, .I. (1967. Novemthl)..ludith lmnn and the endless M. H. Nadel & C. N. Miller (Eds.), Thedapwe c.uperi- quest.DanceMagazine, pp. 48-51, titi-07. ence; Readings in dance appreciat inn(pp. 71-81). Erdman, .1. (1948, April). Young (lancers state their New York: I Iniverse Books. views: As told to Joseph Campbell.Dance Observer, Nunn. M. (1982). A method to the madn(ss: A basic sys- pp. 40-41. tem of dance composition.Dance Dweller Now,4(.1), Hanstein, P (1980/1987). On the nature of art making in I 2-1.1. dance: An artistic process skills model for the teaching Press, ('. (1990). Heinz Kohut's psychoanalytic theories of choreography. Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State of the self and creativity: Implications for the choreo- Tniversity.Dissertation Abstrmis Intermllamal, 47, graphic process in modern dance. Dowtoral disserta- :3640A-364 1A. tion, Columbia I Iniversity. Teachers College. I I awk ins,A.(19(4).(*real ingthrongh do two. Sarason, S. (1990). The challengeof art to psychobum. Englewmul Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. New Ilaven. Yale I Iniversity. Hawkins, A. (1982).Modern &awe in highet eanca- Smith, P (1';90).Killing the spirit: Higher Murat ian in I ion.New York: CORD. AptieriCO. New York: Viking Penguin. Ilorst, L. (1954). Louis Ilorst coosiders the question. Tobias, 1'. (1985, April). A conversation with Paul Taylor bnpu/se, pp. 1-0. and George Meet. DanceMagazine,pp. 51-00. Humphrey, D. (1959).The art al making (lances.New Trexler, A. (1981). Making and (lancing improvisational

York: Grove Press. games,Cataact Qmirterly, (l(1/4 ), 11-1) . Kohut, II. (1971). Theanalysis eq' the self.1 systcrialt ic Winnicott, I). W (1982).Playing and tealitu.New Yor:: Methuen.

Carol M. Press is an artist-in-residence for the Santa Barbara County Schools, Santa Barbara, California 93105.

100 1 r Observation and Criticism in the Choreography Class

Moving beyond "I don't know if it's art, but I know what I like."

Larry Lavender

In the -Evaluations" sect nni of her book Dance which choreography students must gain profi- CompositionAPmcticol Guide Teachers ciency. The first is observation: open-minded, pre- (1976, pp. 92-98). Jacqueline M. Smith lists over reflective looking at dances and dancing. This 50 questions one might ask about a dance. These practice must be taken seriously in order for questions have to do with the dance as a whole, the Smith's questions to be of any use when reflecting movements, the emotional content., the action. upon a dance. The second practice iscriticism: effortspace. staging, music, performance. etc. art iculating am' justifying judgments of t he works They are all good questions. But immediately fol- presented to and observed by the class. The pri- lowing this list Smith tells us: mary educational imperative for teachingobserva- tion and crit idsm to choreography st udents is t.hat Inextricably bound with intellectual reflectkm an any level are the feelingsof pleasure that an in a class of, say, ten students, each must act as an aesthetic work of art evokes in an onlooker. observer/critic nine times for every one time his or Each person experiences this pleasure in vary- her own work is presented. ing ways and in different degrees, butinjudg- Ifowever. choreography teachers ordinarily ing artit is the fundamental criterion.Above devote great aminints of class time to expliiring all, therefore, the most important question to ask the viewer and tlw composer in relat am to movement and producing studies, leaving little his own work, is whether or not the work was time for the specific development of observation pleasing. Did you like it? If the answer is yes. and critical skills. 1;ndoutitedly there are many rea- there is, perhaps. no need for further evaluilion, sons for this. Many teachers may not realizehow except that it can become a useful learnic.g pro- good observation and criticism inform creativity. cess to understand why it wasappreciateo. If the iinswer is no. then probably reasonsfor its "fail- Teachers may assume that these skills are second- ure" , be found by asking sonic of the ques- ary or develop sufficiently bythemselves as stu- ti('ns.p. 98) dents produce and discuss studies. Or there may be Smith is correct that asking her questions can be wide acceptance of the "Did y(ni like it?" principle C, ceIuIl Larning process and can lead to the dis- of evaluation, coupled with uncertainty about how coveu of why and how a dance succeeds or fails, students might learn to be good observer/critics. but I think shis mistaken on several very impor- None of these reasons justifies failing to move stu- tant counts. rirst. pleasure is mit the fundamental dents beyond noting the kind and degree of plea- criterion in j idging art. nor is "Did you like it'?" the sure they feel and stating whether or m)tthey "like" most impw.tant question to ask viewers or compos- a particular work. ers. Finvily, whether the answer to that question is Choreography students can learn to be good yes or no, there is need for further inquiry in order iiliservers through the discipline of mentally set- to just ify one's answer. ting aside artistic prejudices and personalfeelings Smith appears not to recognize that in addition in order to fullysee/experience and describethe to the practice of producing small dances, or dance presented. This means t. hat both practical -studies.- there are two other distinct practices in and conceptual knowledge, as well as what Bert ram

1 01 essup (1960, p. 5.1) terms "felt-appreciation," are Inadequate respoffe may also be described as not permitted to condition observation. failure to respond to the work as object and to Students can develop skills in the practice of crit- use it rat Ler as a trigger to set off memories. feelings, and sentiments which are related to t lw icism by first being taught to listen to and choose object only by psychological privacies or eccen- carefully the words and statements of ordinary dis- tricities of the individual beholder. In that case ctiurse about dance and the other arts, 'Through the taste is directee. not upon the object but disciplined observation and careful use of orthnary upon the recalled and outside incidents and language students can learn to provide good rea- interests of the beholder's life. tp. 58) sons for the aesthetic judgments they make about Now suppose Tom says. "Oh. I hated that dance! their own creative work and that of others. Surely It was dull. I was totally bored." Again he offers no this will enrich the students creative efforts information al.Anit the dance but he makes a judg- which is the primary objective of the choreography ment that it was dull and reports his boredom as classanti enhance their overall fitness as dance proof of this claim. !fere is where Smith. to her professionals. credit, wouldbegin asking Toni questions about I have been referring to the use of ordinary lan- dance. Apparently Smith would recognizethat guage. Let me demonstrate how ordinary language further inquiry is needed because Tom's boredom mdit ions both observation ant' emit icism. is a "psychological privacy or eccentricity." But if Inuigine a choreography class. A student shi,ws a an account ofTom.s boredom calls forth Smith's dance and awaits comments. The teacher asks the questions. so slit add an account of his pleasure. In group. "What did you see in the dance?" or Stnith's both instances Tom's claims are about himself, not question, "Did you like it?" The two quest hms differ the dance. greatly in terms of the context they set for discus- Any passerby can wat eh a dance and answer the sion. The first question calls for language describ- question. "Did you like it?" The question nearly ing the dance and implies tlw need for sharp obser- always elicitspassionate responses. If the teacher vation. The second question asks only for an is seduced by this and forgets to bring the discus- explanation or account of what the students think sion back to the dance. it is unfortunate for Toni if or feel. If teachers hahitually open discussion with he intends his educational experiences to enable the second question. the students' observation him to articulateresponses that are more sophisti- skills become dulled and narrowed by the blinders cated and relevant than those ofany passerby. It is of likes and dislikes. also unroll unate for t he choreographer.who recog- I submit. contrary to Smith. that a precise and nizes that his or her dance is being praised or den- cogent answer to the first question is of considera- igratedon the strength of Tom's claims of happi- bly greater educational value than u /Jr/ possible ness or boredom. The choreographer needs to answer to t ix second. learn which specific aspects ofthe dance have Suppose one of the students. Tom. says. "I liked brought forth a particular judgment from one it.it was very good. It made me feei happy." observer/critic. Tom needs to learn how to trans- Responses like this are typical even when the form his self-reflexive responses into critical state- teacher has asked, "What did you see?" Many teach- ments that may be valuable to his colleagues. ers might not recognize that their question has mit Neither of these needs can be satisfied until Tom been answered or will choose to ignore it. loin learns to provido good reasons to justify his might be invited to elaborate on his response. Ile judgments. does so by giving a more detailed account of the Let me offer assurances to choreography teach- feelings he gained frtnn the piece. ers who may reetiil at the idea of their classes drill- What has It an accomplished? Ile has stated an ing away from specifics of choreography and aesthetic judgment (that :he piece is a good taw) becoming bogged down in language analysis. No and given an explanationor psychological such drifting is necessary or imminent. To &ter- reportof his lytppy feelings or emot hills. If this mitic ifa reason isa good justification for a judg- proves ace.ptable to the teacher, other students ment is not a matter of convoluted jargon or may join in with psychological reports of their feel- kligt hyand confusing talk. Reasons are good when ings. Acconling to Smith this is satisfactory when t hey specify something in particular about the the students' comments amount to praise. I argue dance that can beverified either by seeing the that itis wholly unsatisfactory to "evaluate" the dance again. or upon reflection. As David Eckel. dance by offering psychological reports. lessup (1967) writes, "Thus. justification is terminally (19(P) speaks to this point: nonlinguistic: and the crucial critenon of thesue-

I Iii4 cess of written and oral criticism is apparently its observer, While it may lw interesting to conduct referential adequacy, its abilP.y to make in some psychological inquiry int.() the causes of feelings, way more adequate One's perception of whatis the choreography teacher is not a psychologist., there" (1). 7). and criticism requires good reasons that refer This means that rather t han drifting away from directly to t he work in question. Psychological important choreographic issues, the (WW1 leatiMIS reports have criti('al value only when the teacheris pprMiCh anchors the discussi( n firmly int he willing to) help the student discover and articulato illiniediate Vicinity of these issues as they pertain to the reasons for the judgment implied by his or her the dance under consulenition. Thus language remarks. analysis alone does not tell us a reason is good, but Some educators will disagree, claiming that psy- it (hws tell us right off the bat if what we are hear- chological reports should be allowed and encour- ing from Tom is a reason or a report ot. feelings. ged as vehicles through which students may dis- Suppose Tom says, "I didn't like it.I though, it cover valuable informationabout themselves. This was dull. The movement was too slow andfaced the argument holds t hat discouraging explanat ionsand back too much. I felt bored." flere we have a judg- acConnts of feelings is tantainotnit tocutting stu- ment with reasons and a psychological report. The dents off from vital aspects of their personal inner class must check t he referential adequacy of Tom's reality. Such protests are well-intentioned but reasons to determine if they are good Ones.What is mist aken. important to the class is not that Tom is bored but When a student's dance is about to be presented, that he judges the dance to be dull because of its the rest of the class assembles 01 order to practice speed and Ow perfornwr's facing. observat ion and criticism. After the dance is Now the teacher can maximize the educational shown, gently steering critical discussions away value of the discussion by inviting class members from explanations of feeling-states and toward the to consider t heir own observations of the dance in reasons for t he judgments implied by suchexplmia- order to support or dispute Toill's ju(Igment. This is tions is not detrimental. What is detrimental is to what Alan Torilley ( U)79), int he tyrant ion of allow students to practice Observation geared Immanuel Kant, describe. as testing critical claims toward feeling-level responses as if such responses to see if they can he corroboorted through direct are t he basis of crniciSni. DireCtingdiscussion inspection of, Or reflection upon, the art work ill toward the justificat )ry level of judgnwnts is pre- question. While aesthetic judgments are not open cisely how the proper relationship between obser- to conf rmat (tr(le/false) tests, they are none- vation. criticism, and feeling-level responses is dis- t flyless testable On the basis of their acceptance covered. Of course feelings are iint)ort ant ,but irliong independent judgers. Ilappily, the impossi- accounts of feelings must not become asubstitute bility of objectively verifying critical claims need for criticism. Similarly, in discussing the practiceof tiot force us to embrace Smith's "Did you likeit'?" as creating dances, the value of the choreographer's t he primary question of criticism. There isfertile feelings and inner inclinations can best be ascer- ground between scientific verification and unbri- tained by trying to discover their influence upon dled relativism, creative choices and decisions. Perhaps a student disagrees wit h 'Font and liowever, many teachers are likely to defend psy- describes aspects of t he dance ill order to claim chological reports as a sufficient critical response. t hat it is successful. Ot hers may corroborat eTom's Let me briefly sketch out two habits of mind that claim that the dance fails. and t he teacher can ask may account for this. hrstalthough most artists t hem (mi(1 Toni) to suggest how the dancecould be and critics have discarded t he Greek theory of art improved. All the students are certain to benefit as mimesis or representation infavor of a theory ()I' from t his kind of discussion. art as subjective expression, art.(especially dance, We can see that judgments justified by good rea- beca(lse the Ullman body is its instrument) remains sons generate discussion valuable to)t he choreog- burdened by a central probleni inherited from t he rapher. Psychological reports provide no claims mimetic t heory. This problem ist he assumption inviting debate. If someone says "I like it" and that the work of art, by definition), says or meows another says "I don't like it."t lie two claims are something in particular. consequently, discussions equally t rue and thew is no disagreement. The dif- of art teml bcgill With t he psychological ques- ficulty with psychological reports is that we cannot tion, "What saying?" or "What do('s it illean?" know whet her or to what degree they derive from The only way Ion)t hulks he can answer Wit il the dance or from factors in the personality of t he authority, apparently, is wit li an account of whatthe

0:30 work says or means to him. Thus self-reflexive reaction to it:* (p. 660). Isenberg urges that a care- interpretations, when delivered ;.is explanations of ful distinction be made in critical language between feeling-responses, subjugate observation and the purpose of criticism and that of psychology. description in discourse about art. The first step for teachers in making this distinc- Further muddying the waters is the more general tion is to continually remind students that observa- problem of ambiguity in speech. Arnold Isenberg tions governed by feeling-responses pro(luce (1949) notes that in everyday conversation the dis- &script it)ns and judgments that are inadequate if tinction is seldom made betweenexplaining they focus upon the critic's feelings instead of the ,juslifyingout critical responses to art (or to any- work of art. thing). The chief reason for this is that "some state- The second habit of mind that I believe accounts ments about the object will necessarily figure both for the seeming importance and finality of feeling- in the explanation and the critical defense of any responses to art is the hedonistic criterion or phi-

Va.

Larry Lavender, author, rehearses Lara Lyddon in "Brush the Neck and Shiver," 1987, New York University.

104

BEST COPY AVAILABLE losophy of art such as found in George Santayana's conducting aest hetic inquiry in the classroom or The Sense qf Wauty (1 8f)(1). Santayana makes a studio sett ing. st rung case for the pleasure principle as a theory of Ecker's procedure is as follows: Everyone art. The crux of this theory is that the good mut obserws the performance attentively, ignoring all beautiful (in nature and art) give pleasure while the extraneous stimuli. This is TIME I. Duriug TIME I bad and ugly bring forth displeasure. Since we per- observers are expected to sot aside feeling- u..ive through our senses, what better baromensr responses, theories, and all terms and presupposi- can there be for judging the valueof art but the tions of value which precondition and prejudice pleasure/pain response? We have seen that Smith observation. This setting t.sidewhk.h is the disci- embraces this view in principle. An example of this plino of t he practice of observat ionprevents ,,iew put into critical practice is a passage (written observers from nwnt ally interrupting the flow of nearly 100 years after The Sense of Beau( y) from a tlw dance andfragmentizingits inherent totality. recent New Fork Tinws article by AnnaKisselgoff TIME 2 is a four or five minute lwriod of reflec- ( )90). Discussing the rise to fame of choreogra- tion during which the observers jot down what ha:-. pher Mark Morris, Kisselgoff writes: been observed during TIME 1. This dovetails nicely with Ow practice of keeping a class journal that At his woNt. his step-for-note bias .an drive an many teachers ask of their students.l'eachers will audience into glazed-eye agony . . Bka at his best and he is gettingbetter--he canmake the find that TIME 2 notes become more descriptively public Overlook the choreography's formal rich and less self-reflexive as students learn disci- underpinnings and sweep the entire house into a plined observation. During TIME :3 . observations glorious groundswell of happiness. (p. 11) are shared and the range of differencesof percep- Comments like these justify the judgments tionand of judgment of the dance ;s discovered. "worst" aml "bet ter"--wit h accounts of I he alkged Judgments are articulated and justified during feeling st at cs of the audience. Choreograph('rs fol- TINIE 3 discussion. 13y rooting TIME3 discvssion h)wing this lead often find themselves sacrificing in TINIE observations, which themselves are ambiguity. mystery, risk. and innovation in a des- rooted in the TIME Iexperience, the discussion perate effort to make their audience "feel good." stands a good chalwe of remaining focused on rele- But feeling good is an object ive and a value vant points concerning the dance. Of cimrse, the whose arena is more that of entertainment than teacher must occasionally steer the discussion to artunless we consider these arenas as absolutely assure relevancy. identical. If this is tlw ease, Suzi Gablik's lament Ecker's procedure car be introduced and that "art's value tends to be defined, not by its spir- employed whlunit disrupting the manner in which itual, intellectual, or emotionalcontent, but by its choreography classes ordinarily view and evaluate economic wort h" ( I f)8.1, p. 39) is a sad statemem oil wo rks. l'eacherti lived Ilot al(er Iheir met hods of fact. and all artistic activity and all art criticism is presenting improvisations or creative assignments. proiwrly subsumed by hedAnism, and no unwelcome jargon or extensive t raining in I believeeducat ors mustavoid acceding to hedo- phenomenoloa is required. nistic habits of mind that reduce art to a fetish or David Ecker and Eugene Kaelin's "ladder" of aes- comnhality of pleasul ehowever natural and ordi- thetic inquiry (1)72. p. 267) facilitates TIME :i dis- nary it may have become to t hink of art this way. cussion by schematizing Ow level of discourse on Hedonism takes us no further than the feeling-re- which relevant comments Occur (see FigureI 1. sponse level. the very point at WhiCh we mustteach Ecker and Kaehn place the object/event--in our students to beqin the practice of criticism. casei dance stntlyat t he foundation I t heir Moreover, unless educators strenuously avoid bas- ladder: ing udgments about art upon on .11 single theory or set of values. they risk entrapping students inshrill and fruitless attempts to defend the objective trut h META.THEORY or falseness of critical claims. THEORY If we recognize t hat choreography students META-CRITICISM slanild practice disciplined observation leading to CRITICISM serious crit ica1 discourse about dance and the OBJECT/EVENT ot her arts. the next step is to teach them how. Aesthetic Experience David Eckel. (1980, pp. 14-1(i) articulates a proce- dure grounded in Ilusserhan phenoincnoh)gy for Figure 1. Ecker/Kaelin ladder of aesthetic inquiry.

I Or) are likely to emerge, Of cmirse, it would be absurd Accordingly, it is upon reflection ()I the TIME I to interrupt a discussion to note the position on the experience ()I'I he Object/event Hutt the oh:pryer/ ladder occupied by ea hi statenwnt. But intruiduc- critic begins to formulate aest hetic udgintsitts. ing students to I he ladder can help them 10 diSCOVer Evaluative remarks referring directly 10 I he dance 110W Ille various kinds of statements one makes st tidy are on t he I ung crif Mir example, an about art differ front one another, and In )%14+ each obser..er might say, "Thts ending of the dance is kind of statement operates Ill a discussion of a par- much too abrupt." Another observer might reply. "I ticular work of art. As students become familiar think t lutt to clutractcrims t he ending as too abrupt with thus levels of ;test hot ic impiiry, their critical is a mistake because. . . ." Remarks of this kind that statements should become more acute alid their dispute (or support )crit k.al claims are termed disctission as a whole !wire focused. If a partici!! .r Itiehr-criticisni, Discussions of creat lye statement is ambigua ins or confusing. pausing to approaches or principles of %Attie that may account note which rung tins statement ostensibly occupies for I In. various critical and nusta-crit ical statements can be useful. fall on the level of tin'01,11. For example, "'Me most I! is not particularly difficult to devise cb.keogra- successful dances communicate something very phy assignments. There are lull iks full of them. Nor clearly to the audience." In responsts to tltis wits isitdifficult to base judgments of a dance upon might say, -lite notion that a dance must 'commu- personal feelings. Rut chtireography students arc nicate' soinct [Ong is un!enable because. . entitled I() Haire than Mere exposUre Io Ille Remarks such as these I hat assess some aspect ()I' Iliellls of dance craft and the fveling-responses of one or more theories arts termed meta-thooret 1r111 thusly teachers and peers. Students deserve training remarks. There is no rung on the ladder for psycho- in &Neil/lined ObsCrvill ion and critical discourse in logical reports. order 10 develop as choreographers and as articu- Although the rungs ()I' the ladder ;ire distinct, all late sptikospersons fcr the dance.he choreogra- teachers can ;it test that student discussions are phy class, whit its steady supply of student-created likely to be fluid, and individual statements con- dahces. is the Ideal arena in which to center such taining ideas corresponding to more than one rung training.

References l.i'ki'iIi. \v,( 19(i7). ustifying aesi hon. judgments 1ft kennick (Ed.), .1ft vim! ph ilf).svvidtli, :!nd ed. (pp. Ed '

chutlitut ire Evultutt it, the .-%tts (pp. 1--11). New ( P)tiO. Nos:ember III.I)ivining the mys- York: New York Pniversity Division of Arts and Arts tique of Niark Niorris. ,Vcr< Yurk p.I 1. Education. (i.(I 89(1). Thc Ne%. York: Eeker, & 1

Larry Lavender teaches dance in the Communications Arts Department, at New York Universit3, New York, New York 10003.

I th) irs Faculty Issues Tenure and Promotion of DanceFaculty Jessica Wood

The t (Imre debate rages on within academic cir- ary and benefits that could exceed$600,000 over a cles. There are valid concerns as to why tenure 30-year period (Seldin, 1980). A denial of tenure should be abolished or why tenure should remain. could occur not because of reservations concern- Proponents of the abolition of tenure have offered ing the candidate, but rather on the basis of the numerous alternatives, some of which areinterest- needs of the academic program or fiscal priorities ing and iTedible. Those in favor of retaining tenure (Kirsch ling, 1978). Theoretically, separation from ardently defend its import as a safeguard to aca- an institution as a result of denial of tenurecarries demic freedom, job security, and institutional sta- no professional stigma (Keast & Macy,1973). bility and as a means of ensuring quality faculty. The tenure review process characteristically However interesting this debate may be and involves a pyramid of reviewing committees. The despite one's personal views, most faculty find process begins in the academic departmentwith themselves in a position whereby the earning of peer and departmental chair review andevaluation tenure is critical to their career in academe. If ten- of the candidate. If the department finds the candi- ure is denied, the "up and out" clause forcesthe date worthy of tenure (or promotion), the candi- nonreiwwal of that faculty member's contract. A date's document i.s forwarded to the dean of the junior faculty member who does not understand the appropriate college for review and evaluation. The concept of tenure or promotion is ill-equipped to procedure continues on to a campus-wide tenure make a viable application for a change in status review committee, the president, and finatly the (Hanstein, 1990). In view of the significance of ten- board of trustees for official approval. At each step, ure, a closer look at the institution of tenureis the decision to grant or deny tenure is made and a warranted. negative decision at. any level will terminate the Academic tenure is "an arrangement under process and result in a denial of tenure.By far the which faculty appointments in an institution of most crucial decision is that of the campus-wide higher education are continued until retirement, for tenure review committee. Because of thelong-term age or physical disability, subject to chsmissa;for commitment of institutional resources, tenure deci- adequate cause or unavoidable termination on sions are subject. to a more strenuous, thorough, account of financial exigency or change of institu- and critical review than are other personnel tional program- (Keast & Macy, 1973, p. 256). Any decisions. tenured faculty member is guaranteed, by the priv- Itis at this level of evahiatam t.hat the applica- ilege of tenure. the right to the legal action of (hie tions of dance faculty are often subject to misun- process in a dismissal for cause. Due process mil derstanding h.ised on ignorance of the discipline, tenure protect the academic freedom of the devaluation of evidence of merit, and consequen- The award of tenure is a decision about the tially the denial of tenure. This disturbing fact future quality, content, and direction of the educa- points to the imperative need for dance faculty to tamal program in tandem with the prevailing eco- become involved in institutional governance nomic and budgetary considerations (Keast & through membership on varied campus-wide com- Macy, 1973). The decision to grant tenure is based mittees. It is only as a fully participating affiliate of not only (m the excellence and promise of the can- such institutional mechanisms that the dance fac- didate hut also on other institutional concerns. ulty can begin to make instrumental changes that Granting of tenure has serious financial implica- will facilitate their success in gaining tenure and/or tions. It can commit institutional resources for sal- promotion.

' 09 Generally, the tenure or promotion decision is Itis possible that art making has been omitted based on three areas of endeavor: teaching, schol- from scholarship because of the difficulty in evalu- arship, and service. The granting of tenure is con- ating the work. The other scholarship components tingent upon proof of excellence in all three areas of research and publication have established meth- aed evidence of intent to continue working at a ods of documentation that are relatively noncon- high level of quality. The burden of proof' of excel- t.'oversial and are generally accepted. The docu- lence is the responsibility of the candidate 'he mentation and evaluation of creative endeavors weight or value of each component may vary and the articulation ot' the basis for evaluation is depending upon the mission of the institution, the the responsibility of the dance faculty and t he mission of the academic department, and the role dance chair (ATIIE, 1987). of the candidate within the department. Specific criteria for tenure and/or pronmtion are best deter- Documenting Orally(' l'(fl mined by the faculty of each academic department by clearly defining the institutional criteria as they Documentation of artistic accomplishments relate to the standards of each discipline. should include a vmeotape of the performance. "While dance as a field of study has become an Incorporation of the entire body of work in the accepted part of academics, considerations for video portion is beyond the scope of the tenure/ retention, promotion and tenure of dance faculty pronmtion committee's responsibility to review have not taken into account the nature of the disci- such massive information. "Ivo or three works rep- pline" (Real, Rosenberg, & Sandback, 1986, p. 15). resentative of the body of dances are suggested. To do this "the general categories of teaching, Committee membersNA Illbe familiar with the scholarship and service should be more narrowly amount of time, energy, and effort it takes to write defined by the dance faculty the academic com- an article or book, but they will have little or no ponent level" (Ilanstein, 1990, p. 3). information about the choreographic process. If At nwst universities and colleges, scholarship t he committee views only the perfornlance, the has emerged as the leading criterion for awarding product might appear effortless (Real, Rosenberg, tenure and promotion (Real, Rosenberg, & & Sandback, 1986). Sandback, 1986). Scholarship is most widely con- To guard against this perception, the documen- sidered to be manifested by research and publica- tary video might also include segments of the cho- tions. This interpretation of scholarship is too lim- reographer in the process of creating the move- iting in scope for any institution in which art ment vocabulary for the dance and rehearsals at making is an integral part of any of its disciplines. the beginning, mid-point, and near the end of the The creation and performance of dance is central rehearsal period. Needless to say, the video must be to the discipline and therefore, it must be consid- of high quality. Depending on the length of the ered zvital part of the evaluation of dance faculty work, a dance might be equated with an article or a for tenure and/or promotion. The Association for book. Theater in Higher Education in their "Guidelines Articles vary in value as evidence of scholarship. for Evaluating Teacher/Artists for Promot.ion and An article published in a juried ournal is weighted Tenure" states that "all faculty who have publk per- more than one published in a nonjuried journal. formance responsibilities should be evaluated, at This distinction can be translated to creative least in part, on their level of achievement in tlwsc endeavors to differentiate between on-campus per- responsibilities" (1987, p. 39). romances and off-campus performances. Contri- To actively lobby for the inclusion of creative butions to on-campus performances have mei it: endeavors in the definition of scholarship, t he however, contributions to off-campus perform- (lance faculty must bccome involved in campus- ances will undoubtedly be considered stronger evi- wide committees that deal with such issues. As a dence of accomplishment in creative endeavors. committee member, the dance representative will Works that are performed by invitation or in a be in place to initiate change and to educate the juried concert will be held in higher regard. other faculty about the field of dance. Most faculty To augment the weight of on-canipus perform- fr(nn other areas will have little prior knowledge or ances, an outside adj,idicat or can be invited to experience of dance. This is a difficult, delicate, review and evaluate the artistic merit Of a specific and possibly politically explosive assigmnent. work or works. Tlw dance department should Therefore, it might best be undertaken by a dance assemble a list of dance knowledgeable people in faculty member with tenure. t he geographic area from which the clhireographer

10 C11( H )SV clii adjudicator. If bildgeNtry consid- nique class is different frinn the teaching met hod- eration permits, an adjudicator, possibly with pro- ology of a choreogcaphy or academic class. Most fessional credentials from outside the geographic universities and colleges use standardized student area, would be brought to campus toreview and evaluations that may not be applicable or appropri- evaluate the choreographer's work. A staltdardized ate for use in determining the teaching qualifica- form for evaluat km is suggested. Any narrative the tion of dance faculty. l'he dance faculty and dance adjudicator might wish to add to the evaluation chair are encouraged to create, or adapt, a student should be attached to the form. The sante evalua- evaluation instrument that will measure the ability tive form should be completed by the dance depart- of the instructor for each category of class taught limn chair and selected dance faculty. in the department. A list of organizations t hat offer opportunities to have choreography adjudicated and selected for Evallud Maching Po:fiwnuitirc performance within the geographic area of' the institution and nation-wide should be compiled by The two basic purposes of faculty teaching evalu- the dance faculty. Submitting choreographies to ations are to intprove faculty performance (a forin- these organizations on an annual or bianimalbasis ative function) and to assist in making equitable is recommended. Choreographies accepted for and effect ive aca0emic perminnel decisions (a stim- performance sponsored by these organizations ulative functi,m) (Miller, 1987). Any evaluation he equated with a juried article. Any chore- instrument should "seek information which can be ography should be considered juried when another utilized in a formative and summative manner" institution, dance company, or reputable Organiza- (Seldin, 1980). Within the instrument, quest kins to tion accepts the work for performance. elicit information for both functions should be The promotion/tenure documentation should included. include a video tape, evaluation by the adjudicator. Peer evaluatHI of teacher competency by class- chairperson, and peers, and a written statem('nt room visitation is part of thecontprehensive review that the choreographer prepares including infor- of any faculty for prinnot ion/t enure. l'his method of mation that will evaluation is most effective when it"involves friendliness and interest as well as critical and ) Provide adequate informatiIm alum( the work: title, number of dancers. length of the instructional purpose" (Seldin, 1980, p. 08). The work, musi(' . observer is best prepared wit en supplied in 2 )Indicate under what circumstances the work advance of the visitation with a course outline and was choreographed or performed: Was it an an outline of the material for thatday. A pre-obser- invited perforManCe, an adjudicated per. vation discussion allows the faculty member who is formance, or an off-campus concert pni- (Need by yourself or a group of fellow artists being evaluated antple opportunity to prepare the with or without external funding. visiting faculty nnrnher to view the class. A post- :3) Provide a statement of your artistic inten- observaft)n discussion would facilitate the oppor- tion. purpose, (ir vision. tunity to st ,re the insights of the visiting faculty .1)If a self-evahiation is appropriate, discuss with the faculty member who is being observed. A briefly how a particular work resulted in sig- nificant growth for yon as an artist, discuss standard peer evaluation instrument will ensure 1 hat all faculty are as.sessed On the sante criteria. In audience reactimi, . . .

5 )Include review of critic's . . addition to these evaluations of teaching. it is help- Ilanstein, 1990, pp. 7-81 ful to include in the promotion/tenure document Even when a pro ivision is in place to include cre- course syllabi that contain a course outline,objec- ative endeavors as a part of scholarship. publica- tives, met hods of student assessment, and course t ions often must be included in the scholarship assignments (I lanst('in, 1990). portfolio if dance faculty are to be successful ill t he The service component is divided into service to promotion/tenure process (Real. Rosenberg, & the institution and service to the profession. Sandback,I 98G ). The need for publications is Membership On departmental and institutional more critical for the dance faculty whohold Phl ) committees or the faculty senate and varied degrees than for those who Inild MFA degrees. recruitment act ivities are all aspects of inst uttut ional The teaching component involved in the tenure/ service. Leadership roles in professii mat organiza- promotion review process needs to be clearly delin- tions, participation on 1 he board of a dance com- eated in regards to the structure of the discipline. pany, production organization, or ;illscouncil par- For example. the teaching methodology of a tech- ticipation are avenues for service to t he profession.

112 In general, the service component of die promo- the annual review (Hanstein, 1990). A written "jot) tion/tenure triad is similar to the service compo- description" summarizes the role, responsibilities, nent in other disciplines. Therefore, it needs little and the priority of each area of assessment. The translation to those outside the field. process of delineation of role, annual review, and 'ruleAmerican AssociationofUniversity four-step improvement plan are all "mile markers" Professors suggests that a pretenure faculty mem- on the road to promotion/tenure. Do not allow ber should come up for tenure after a probationary them to be passed over. Insist. on each one. period of not more than seven years of full tnne The same criteria are generally utilized for pro- elnployment at the university of college. The nmtion and tenure. "Promotion criteria focus more pretenure years are most constructively regarded on the merit of the instructor's professional and by the institution and faculty member as years of scholarly contributions and promise, the criteria development of the teacher/artist/scholar and not. for tenure focus More on the long-term worth of merely an extended period of screening (Smith & the instructor to the university" (Miller, 1987, associates, 1973). In some instances, credit for 92). Promotion through the ranks of instructor, years of service at a previous institution (or a previ- assistant professor, associate professor, and pro- ous award of tenure) may shorten the pret enure fessor varies at each university. It is contingent period. Each faculty member on pretenure status upon not only the above-mentioned criteria but "must be informed of the standards and procedures also years of service in the rank and academic employed in making decisions about reappoint- credent lats. ment or tenure" (Bledso, 1988, p. 9). An annual of end of semester review of the work 1Vmnen Farulty Farr Negatitv Factais and progress of a probationary faculty should be conducted by the dance department chair. The The fact that the majority of dam.e faculty are annual review process is initiated by the chair, who women can be arid probably is a negative factor in evaluates in writing the faculty member in terms of the application for promotion/tenure. Although tea,..hing effectiveness. scholarly/creative endeav- women have increased in number as undergradu- ors, personal growth, and institutional and profes- ates and PhDs since 1964, "women remain dispro- sional sxrvice. This evaluation is then given to the portionately underrepresented in the tenure ranks evaluated faculty member to read and to assess. A of academe. In 1988-89. only 49% of female faculty conference is then set to discuss the specifics of held tenure, compared to 71% of male faculty" the critique. Afterwards, the faculty member may (Vanden & Fishbein, 1989). More women are being respond, in writing, to any aspect of the content of hired. but at lower ranks, and they are promoted at the evaluat iui. Both statements become part of the a slower rate than their male counterparts. When personnel file (Georgia State I..Tuiversity Faculty hired, women are further handicapped in their pro- Handbook. 1989). This system guarantees the gress toward promotion/tenure in that their teach- awareness and involvement of the faculty memher ing loads are heavier than their male counterparts. in his or her progress toward promotnin/t enure In addition. t heir course load is generally com- long before the seven year deadline. prised of lower level courses. The teaching of grad- If. during the annual review, an area of weakness uate students and reseanii are !mire highly valued or conc:rn is pointed out, a four-step guide to act ivit ies in consideration for advalwement of (en- strengthen or correct the weakness is then sug- tire. III colkailld ion with lower rank and a less desir- gested. hrst. the probable (wise must be deter- able excessive teaching load, the scholarship a mined and described: second, possible solutions female faculty produces is often downgraded. are presented; t bird. implementation of the sug- "Numerous studies have shown that articles attrib- gested s()Int ions are determined and rated for pos- uted to women are given lower 'grPdes than identi- sible success; and fourth, the results are describeil cal articles at t ribut ed to men" (Vanden & Fishbein. at a later date. Because each of the four steps is 1989). written, the procedure deals with concrete matters For wo mien dance faculty, this poses a double specifically and constructively, It is then the faculty bind. First, the scholarship in the form of creative member's responsillity to implement the improve- endeavors is still considered less important than ment plan (Karman, 19(i9). raditional scholarship of a written nature. Second, A statement of the pretenure faculty's role in the the gender of the candidate affects negatively the department and the expectations of his or her role evaluation I )1 her work. Consequently, dance work will clarify the status of each area of evaluation in of a feminist unit ure or choreographic material on

112 113 female themes would probably be a poor choice to Join women's groups such as AAUW that pro- docunwnt as evidence of scholarship. This sad fact vide expertise and support from outside aca- deme. Collect data about the gender distribution serves to illuminate the magnitude of the work left of tenure-track and nontenure-track slots on to do to facilitate the understanding and reap- your local campus and write letters to or sched- praisal of the discipline of dance and the status of ule a meeting with administration officials to women in the university. voice your concerns and explore solutions. Women's professional service is often judged dif- (Vandell and Fishbein, 1989). ferently from that of men's and it may even go unrecognized. Service to any woman's organiza- As women, the majority of dance faculty begin tion, whether on- or off-campus, is subject to deval- the tenure/promotion process from a disadw.,i- uation through the claim that such involvement is taged position. The lack of knowledge about the political activity. Conversely, men's involvement in discipline of dance on the part of faculty from other groups such as the aycees is likely to be consid- fields and the resistance to the inclusion of creative ered valuable service (Vanden & Fishbein, 1989). endeavors as scholarship combine to place the Not only do women faculty have to face prejudice application of dance faculty in lwri;. Dance as a dis- in every area of evaluation for promotion/tenure, cipline must specify standards and methodologies they will also he negatively affected by the "tenure to measure excellence in creative endeavors that crunch.- The "tenure crunch" refers to the large reflect the same rigor of judgment applied in other number of faculty tenured in the 1950s and 1960s, disciphnes. which resulted in many departments and instan- Evaluation of faculty is an ongoing process and t ions being top-heavy with tenured facultymostly does not end with tenure or promotion to the rank men. Therefore, the number of tenure appoint- of professor. The time and effort put into learning mews is reduced by the enlarged number of ten- about the promotion/tenure system can only ured faculty. Some departments may be so over- enhance the applicant's ability to prepare a cogent, tenured that no possibility of granting tenure to cohesive, viable document to send to the commit- another faculty member exists. tee. The research and creativity involved in putting The American Association of University Women forth a strong resolution that artistic endeavors be recommends these strategies for women faculty: considered part of scholarship and the education of Develop a ten-year career plan including faculty outside of dance form a mission that will research and networking . an excellent impact on all applications of dance faculty now and research portfolio must be supplemented by fac- in the future. ulty allies for the tenure ,.view process.

References Associ:itimi for Theater in Higher Edu(ation. (1)87). Keast, W. R., & W. (1973). Faculty tenure: A Gnirichno.s ,forEralialt illy Teacher/Artists .lor report and recommendations by the Commission on Proundion and Tenure.New York: the Association. Academic Tenure in Higher Education. San Francisco: Beal, R. K.. Rosenberg, L. K., & Sandback, P R. (1986), Jossey-Isass. Publishers. meetingretention,promotion and tenure criteria: Kirschling, W. R., Ed. (1978). Ern/nminq filo/Myper- Suggestions for dance faililty.American Dance: .1 JOrma lice and vitality: Neu. directions:rot' in.st Journal 4 The.4mo/iconDance I.(1). ionol resets rch Vol.4, No. 4. San Francisco: Jossey- Bledsoe, G. B. (1988). Entering the profession: Advice Bass Inc., Pulilishers. for the uhtenured.National Education Association: Miller. R. I. (1987).Es abutting ,larnIt:for promotion To Promote Academic Ju.st ice and E.rcellence. and tenure.SanFrancisco:.lossey-BassInc., Washington. DC: National Education Association. Publishers, GoorfintSlat( (1niucusittl Faculty H(1 ndbook. (I 989 ). Seldin, P (1980).Socces.sful evaluation pro- lanta, GA: Georgia State I Iniversity. gram.s: A matt 1(.01 (1111(10 10110'011',101111111 pet/ lanstein. P (1990). The evaluation. promotion and ten- orma nce promot ion /I u re der'iSi011.S. ure of dance faculty: Establishing credibility in the aca- Crugers, NY: Coventry Press. demic community. Paper presented to the National Smith, B. L. & associates. (1973).The tenni(' debate. Dance Association meeting in New Orleans. LA on San Frani isco: Jossey-Bass Inc., Publishing. MarchP. Vanden. K. and Fishbein, L. (1989, December), Women Kiirman. T.A. (1969 )Faculty evaloation.Liberal and tenure: The opportunity or a century. Amorico is Education. ,5.5, Associat ion of 1115 iver.sity Woimos.

Jessica Wood is a graduate student in dance at Texas Woman's University, Denton, Texas 76201.

1 4 Management Competencies for Dance Administrators In Higher Education Erlyne F. Whiteman

The discipline of dance in higher education has came t o a consensus of views on 25 of the 50

undergone many changes in the past decade and it. compet encies. has been difficult to meet all the challenges neces- sary to accommodate these changes. The develop- ment of management competencies for dance Management Competency Development administrators in higher education may help t.o meet some of the (1(4111111(1S for the future. Lloyd E. Prior to the 1950s, the history of management McCleary (197:3), a specialist in the field of man- thought in physical education and its related fields agement competencies in educational administra- pertained more to principles of administrat ion t han tion, stated Hutt "No group can claim professional to management competencies. As early as 1951, standing without explicit st atements about what R. A. Snyder and I larry A. Scott "detailed a compe- constitutes competency in that field and the means tency-based approach to professional preparat km" by which it can be Obtained and assessed." in physical education aml allied fields, but accord- The development of management competencies ing to Earle E Zeigler and G. S. Bowie (1983), t he for administrators in the fields of physical educa- concept was ahead of its time aml did not make an tion and leisure studies has most recently been impact (p. 11). addressed by various theses and dissertations and It was not until 1975 that the duties and respon- by a number of books and journals. Sport manage- sibilities of physical education, recreat ion, and ment, in particular, has been (Mined as manage- health administrators were expressed in terms of ment that relat.es to "sport, exercise, dance, and competencies. John Foley (1975) analyzed a num- play" (NASSM, 1987). ber of connpetencies for these administ rotors at the In order to assess maliagement competencies fOr elementary and secondary levels. Twenty-one criti- dance admMist rators, the Delphi technique was ut cal chit ies were identified that cmild be related to lized to create a consensus of views about bot h gen- administrators in higher education in subsequent eral Animist rat ive areas of responsibilities and research. specific competencies related to these general A comprehensive research study on managenient areas.Five dance pioneers (Alma Hawkins, competency was developed for physical education Elizabet h Ilayes, Araminta Lit tie. Aileene Lockhart, and sport by Ronald Paris in 1979. Wit h Zeigler as an(l Betty Toman) were involved in a pilot study to his chairman. he analyzed competencies viewed by determine the ten major administrative areas, selected educational administrators in physical using the t hesis by Ronald Paris (1979) as a model. education and sport. As a result of the final analy- Forty-five dance administrators across the country sis, six major areas of general administ rat ion were participated in the Delphi study, which is a t hree- identified wit h five to ten specific competencies round questionnaire developed by Olaf Helmer and delineated under each. This model was ut ilized in Norman Dalkey in 1951 to determine solicitation of t he research for dance administrators in higher expert opinions through the use of a controlled education. In 1983. Zeigler and Bowie published fee(Iback system (Helmer, 1968), Fifty competen- thefirstmajortext book on Manafiement cies were developed from the first questionnaire. Competency Development in Sport and Physical Thirty-five of the original group of experts Education. utiliz;ng information from Paris (1979) completed all three rounds of questionnaires and and other research from business administration

111 115 and the newly developing field of sport manage- on the job, recent literature reported inJOPERD ment. In addition, the first issue of theJournal af suggested that the process might be expedited by Sports Managenwntaddressed the concept of some professional training. Susan Lee(1984) dis- management competency for sport in four of its covered a t.rend away from "the cottage industry articles, overviewed by Janet Parks and Gordan approach to dance management- (p, 75) toward Olafson (1987). training in law, art management, and business man- agement, that was specific to the discipline of dance. She forecasted that dance administration Development of Dance Administration would become an expanding market in the future. Based on these concerns, Alma Hawkins, one of the Historically, the foundations for dance adminis- pioneers in dance education, founded CODA tration began as early as 1926 when Margaret (Council of Dance Administrators) and in 1985 II'Doubler created the first dance major within the developed some standards for helping "young department of women's physical education at the administrators understand the role of chairperson University of Wisconsin, The new major led the way and accompanying problems and how to deal with for other pioneers in the 19:30s and 1940s. Much of them" (Fichter, 1985, p. 18A conference was held the literature of this formative period focused on in June 1985 to outline the various responsibilities, the place of dance in education, giving support to specifically delineating tasks, responsibilities, and the need for educating students at all levels in the practices unique to dance administrators, the discipline of dance. results of which were published in the report, It was not until the 1960s that the issue of dance DanceAdministration, Themes and Diwct ions. administration as a field of inquiry came to the Articles in JOPERD by Barbara Ebenstein attention of the National Section on Dance of (1986), Louanne Norwood and Terry Worthy AAHPER. The Section created a platform for dance (1986), and inSpotlight .jar Danceby Mary Ella as a discipline in higher education, separatefrom Montague (1987) all indicated a trend toward the physical education, in which they saw a need for addition of administration and management the development of leadership standards for the courses within graduate and undergraduate pro- training of dance educators. As the Section devel- grams in the United States. Ebensteinspecifically oped into a Division by 1970. the need for the expressed a need for doctoral degrees to fulfill the development of professional competencies for need for training for department chairpersons in dance educators was identified and later refined by dance in higher education. 1974 in AMIPER'sPrafssional Preparation in Dance, Physical Edncationc;o1Cly Education, and School Health Education. The reportwas Analysis of Management Competencies specifically designed to identify the unique charac- teristics of dance as a discipline and to suggest In order to ident0 some of the general and spe- guidelines and competencies for the training of cific. management competencies needed by dance dance students in the areas of teaching and administrators, a modified Delphi technique was leadership. utilized to gain some consensus among dance However, it was not until the mid-1970s that the administrators in various settings in higher educa- literature specifically addressed the need for train- tion across the thiited States. Five dance pioneers ing int he tasks, responsibilities, and practices of participated in a pilot study to determine ten gen- dance administrators. A numher of articles eral areas of achninistrative responsibility (Table appeared inDance Magazinefrom 1975-198:3 on I). Fifty dance department chairpersons across the administrative issues for both professional compa- United States were asked to participate in a pilot nies and educators at the college and university study of three rounds of questions to determine level. In (me such article, Ruth Solomon (1983) dis- specific tasks and skills for each of the ten general cussed the role of the university dance achninistra- administrative areas. Forty-five agreed to partici- t or as me who had "grown up with and thr(mgh t he pate. while only 35 actually completed all three program" (p. 67), but had no experience or train- rounds. Thirty-four institutions of higher learning ing specific to the new role. were represented in 23 stats across the country. While many dance administrators in higher edu- Departmental housing vari, (mi physical educa- cation and dance company directors in the profes- tion, to theatre or fine arts, io independent depart- sional world tended to learn the achninistrative role ments of dance. Twenty-one of the administrators

115 Table 1. Dimensions of General Administrative Areas of Responsibility Dimension (D) Description of Dance strator Artist (D-I) Has had experience as Ancer-choreographer in educational setting Communicator (D2) Conveys information effectively about dance as an art & discipline Educator (D3) Has had teaching experie-ice Facilitator (D4) Is an ombudsman, collaborator, counselor, negotiator, intermediary Motivator (D5) Is an encourager, supporter, initiator Planner (D6) Organizes and initiates Resource Developer (07) Helps to develop human, physical, & financial resources Public Relations (D8) Has expertise in dealing with various types of publics for Ole enrichment of the program Scholar (D9) Encourages & initiates research Visionary Leader(01O) Is a role model in dreaming the feasible & impossible dreams for the future of dance education

hadeither a PhD or EdD and allbelongedto a num- Recomnwndations for further research are sug- ber of professional dance-related organizations. gested in light of the findings of the study and Responses by this panel of experts were combined hwlude: additional Delphi investigations that might andcategorized into 50 competency items, 20 of reveal some information as to why a greater con- which were calculated as falling within a 75 to 100 sensus did not occur on more competencies; inves- percent consensus. The medians, int erquartile tigations that might also reveal differences in views scores, and deviations are shown for these compe- about competencies between dance administrators tencies in Table2.Conclusions were drawn in light in various settings, comparing dance programs of the consensus reached that competency training within physical education to independent depart- is essential for dance administrators and that fur- ments, or to fine or theatre arts departments; and ther research is needed in order to accomplish this investigations into programs at the graduate level task. t.hat presently offer degree programs in dance administ ration.

References

AAIIPER hmessimm/ pre/ma/riot! it! dance, Montague, M. E. (11)87). Beliefs, fears, biases. Spot/ight physical edncat iH1, recwat ion education, .salet an Dance,/3(3), 1,8. ed neat ion, and school health edu«dion. NASSM. (1987). Management menms. ./ourtia/ hfSport Washington, DC: AAIIITR. ManagemeHt, 1(1).87. Ebenstein, U. .1. (198(). A PhD in what? A survey of (hit- Norwood, I.., & VVorthy, T. (1986). Dance teacher evalua- toral programs in dance. JOPERD, 57(8), 18-21. tion: Current met Innis and criteria, JOPERD, 57(2). Fichter, N. S. (Ed.). (1985, June). Dance administration, thenws and (firections. In Proccedinqs ht the CODA Paris. R. II.( 1979). At/analysis al management com- rot/jet:et/ccan Dance Adm 1111Sf rat hocMonticello. petency as c ieiced by selected (ducat hula/ adm in is- IL: Council of Dance Administrators. t odors in ()Warn) physical ed !Ica/ ion and spoi. EoleyL E (19;5). An analysis of the duties and responsi- Unpuhlished master's thesis, University of Graduate bilities of selected administrators of lwalth, physical Studies, London, Ontarki. education, and recreation in New Thrk State. Doctoral Parks. 3., & Olafson, G. ( 1987). Sport mamigement and a dissertation,IndianaUniversity.Disseitatimi new journal. Jourm,/ Sport Alatiaqement, 1(1). Absti:actsInterwit imod. 36, :4iA. Ilelmer, 0. ( 1 f)68).The u,se af the delphi technique in Snyder, I.. &Scott. II. (195.1).Prafessiona pwpara- piablems al. education innaratimis(1)-3199). Santa t ion in In'alth. physical (ducat ian, and recreat Monica: The Rand Corporation. ethical ion.New York: McGraw Hill. Lee. S. (1984). Dance administrative opportuniti(s. Sokinum. I. (1983). Dancer into administrator: Chairing ./OPERI)55(5), 7-1-75, 81. the departnwntr life at the top. JOPERD, 57(2), Mc(leary. L. (1973). Competency-hased educational

adniinistration and application to related fields. In Zeigler, 1 I & Bowie, G. S. (If)8:31.illamigcmcnt Proccedis (,/the Con/erotic(' an Admit! i.st rat ire pc/cricy dorchqmicnt ill spwl am/ Mots/cat odara- Campetence (on.26-28). Tempe AZ: Arizona State Philadelphia: Lea & h'ebiger. University. Bureau of Educational Research.

1 16 1 7 Table 2. Analysis of Management Competencies for Dance Administrators Percent 01 03 d Competency (D1-10) Essentiality Hires quality teachers & performers* (D1) 91.7 5.00 5 3 Is adept at verbal, written & visual skills* (D2) 97.2 5.00 5 0 Communicates/interprets polices & decisions (D2) 91.7 5.00 5 3 Is current as a pedagogue (D3) 75.0 4.25 5 2 Makes things happen (D4) 88.9 5.00 5 4 Resolves conflict with human relations skills (D4) 91.7 5.00 5 3 Facilitates meetings with group management skills (D4) 88.9 5.00 5 4 Advises/counsels with listening skills (D4) 80.6 5.00 5 7 Encourages risk, growth, & change (D4) 86.1 5.00 5 5 Sets the tone for work habits, expectations, & artistic standards* (D5) 88.9 5.00 5 4 Recognizes contributions in teaching, scholarship, & choreography* (D5) 91.7 5.00 5 3 Encourages cohesiveness (D5) 94.4 5.00 5 2 Leads department in budget making & grant funding (D6) 91.7 5.00 5 3 Leads department in development of schedules, curriculum, & productions* (D6) 75.0 5.00 5 8 Leads department in planning new facilitie3 & equipment (D6) 80.6 5.00 5 7 Leads department in policy-making decisions (D6) 94.4 5.00 5 2 Leads department in long & short-range plans (D6) 97.2 5.00 5 0 Works with higher administration on budgetary support (D7) 97.2 5.00 5 0 Recruits qualified faculty, staff, & students (D7) 88.9 5.00 5 4 Encourages development of teaching & artistic talent in faculty & students* (D7) 77.8 5.00 5 3 Helps to shape individual & public opinion about dance* (D8) 88.9 5.00 5 4 Stays current with educational philosophy & theory (D9) 75.0 4.25 5 1 Develops a mission statement for department (D10) 75.0 4.25 5 4 Keeps informed of societal trends (D10) 77.8 5.00 5 8 Empowers faculty & programs (D10) 88.9 5.00 5 3 Note: 50 competencies were initially developed in Round 1, from which the above 25 were analyzed and agreed upon in Rounds 2 and 3, where for all entries: N = 35, the median = 5 (highly essential), 01-03 = 75% of scores, d = #people out- side the consensus, * = competencies unique to dance, and D = general administrative dimensions from Table 1.

Erlyne Whiteman is assistant professor of physical education and dance, Westmont College, Santa Barbara, California 93108-1099. Benign Neglect: Issues in Mentoring Kelley Pierce-Byrd

The worlds of business and leadership have enter into a one-on-only relathinship over time as mined a phrase, "benign neglect," and generally friend, advisor. teacher, coach, listener, and apply it to noninterference with the careers of their resonirce person" (Stephan. 1989). professionals---doing no harm but also (10g n) good. It seems odd, then, that these worlds, having long recognized the importance of molt oring the Mentoring Defined inexperienced, should excuse their neglect of these individuals with the use of the term "benign" when, Psychologist Daniel Levinson devised an excel- in fact, this type of neglect appears much more lent model describing the roles and functions of a malignant in nature. mentor (Levinson, 1987). In the Levinson model, Itis the purpose of this paper to examine the the mentor acts as a teacher in order to enhance concept of mentoring, highlighting its importance the protege's skills and intellectual development, in the careers of young professionals, particularly As a sponsor, the mentor influences the protege's those in higher education and specifically those ability to enter into the discipline and make untenured faculty members in university/college advancements. When in the rode of host and guide, departments of dance. Further. the concept of neg- the mentor is the protege's contact with the inner lecting mentoring will be explored through a malig- social circles of the discipline, introducing and nancy model that demonstrates a connection tutoring the protege in the values, customs, between the health of the dance discipline in higher resources, and personalities of that group. The education and the career health of those artistic mentor is the protege's exemplar, the role model professionals which comprise its faculties. whom the protege emulates as well as the coun- Mentoring has its formal beginnings in Greek selor to whom the protege may turn in tittles of mythology, dating back to the time Odysseus was stress. The anchor of this model is found in the preparing to depart on his famous journey, the mentor's role as "promoter of the dream," a term Odyssey. Ile entrusted his son Telemachus to his that brings images of shared goals and connects/ friend Mentor, who had agreed to raise and educate coordinates the mentor's functions. the boy, taking the role of "trusted counselor and Linda Philips-Jones further divides mentoring guide." A fascinating twist to this tale, often omit- into primary and secondary roles (Philips-Jones, ted by modern writers, is that. Mentor was reported 1982). As the primary supporter. the mentor enters to be the goddess Athena in disguise. making that willingly into a relationship that is both personal first mentor a powerful woman. and emotional. The mentor huts the poiwer to make Mentoring is. in its largest context. arelationship things happen for the protege, helping the proteges between a more experienced professional and a advance their career significantly. and provides novice. Shirley Chater, president of Texas Woman's "the blessing," a crucial element. The secondary l`niversity. describes mentoring as a "mutually ben- supporter is typically a peer who offers silpporl eficial process . a personally interactive pro- and encouragement yet is, to) an extent, limited cess," a process that "does not end" formally but because of his/her own "junior status." It is the role extends across t'ine and throughout careers. of the primary mentor that then appears to be the Although no single definition has been agreed most significant. exerting the greatest influence on upon, the act of mentoring suggests the process as the protege. the teaching of "a young person valuable lessons ln general, the rotle of the mentor promotes pro- along the way" and the participants as "willing to fessional development through the sharing of

1 1 8 PROTEGE Mutaal Respect/Liking

t- Shared Values

Similar Affiliation Needs

Equal Caring Receptive to assistance Receptive Willing to be subordinate Believes in protege's success potential Believes in own success potential Believes in role Self confidence Demonstrates ability to promote growth in Ambition others Visibility/promise of Self confidence based on high performance competence Promoter of Secure "The Dream" Willing to share Teacher

Sponsor

Host/Guide

Exemplar

Counselor

Figure 1. "Stepping Stones": A Model of Mentoring

1 19 km)wledge. The protege's career is advanced -is the The benefits of mentoring are not reserved for mentor Provides exposure and visibility at t.he work the protege but rather further the theme of "rela- place as well as the social sett.ing. The protege's tionship," in that both parties may gain from the professional competence is confirmed through the mentoring experience. Through their interactions, mentor's efforts and the mentor becomes the hon- both gain insights, knowledge, and sat isfaction est friend who not 0n13 will career plan with the from the relationship. Promotion of an individual protege, but will provide truthful evaluat ion of pro- follows a two-way street and while the mentor pro- gress and contributions. motes the protege, the protege responds with pro- Because of the special nature of nwntoring, the motion of tlw mentor (Philip-Jones, 1982). Ego roles of mentor and protege are only for certain gratification for both parties is available, the pro- individuals. Proteges must be receptive to assist- tege as they make ca er gains and the mentor as mwe and hold the belief that the mentor can help. the gains are made possible through them. They must be willing to take the subordinate role, Signifkantly, the power and influence of both pro- not to infer subservience, for a great deal of self- tege and nwntor are increased as a direct result of confidence is necessary to assume this role. But the mentoring process (Kram, 1985). also they must be accepting of guidance, feedback, and critical review of performance, trusting tlw mentor to lead the way. Further, they must be ready The Malignancy Model for a mentoring relationship on a personal basis. Proteges must believe they can be successful, con- Ilow then is a lack of mentoring malignant? To fident in their abilities, and driven by an ambition better explain this phenomenon, it k helpful to to succeed. Although having the desire and ability look at a modified systems model (see Figure 2) to accept the power and risk resulting from this frequently used in the medical profession. The relationship is essential, these attributes are moot premise of this template takes into account that if readiness and promise of high perforinance are multiple factors affect t he general state of health. A not made visible to a potent ial nwnt or. single neglected component compromises the Mentorship, as well, requires a very siwcial indi- whole organism. In a malignant condition a unit vidual. Receptivity or desire for the process is becomes dysfunctional due to the disease process, essential. It has been demonstrated that mentor and (Iue to) the interrelatedness of all the systems. relationships that develop on their own initiative the disease affects all ot her units. When the condi- prove to he tlw longest lasting. most beneficial and tion is neglected, the disease seeds itself to addi- most satisfying (Stephan. 1989). Mentors believe tional and seemingly unrelated units, coimpromis- the protege can succeed and therefore make a wise ing the entire organism. The end resultis a investment in taking this protege tmder t heir wing. sickness of the whole organism mult iplied in swift- They generally heliev- leaders are responsible for ness and morbidity by the number of units invaded. t 1w devehipment of tal -at and skills in the inexperi- It stands to reason that if the inexperienced ence(l and have demonstrated an ability to) promote dance faculty nwmber is deficient in any one unit. it growth in others, relating particularly well to those affects the whole performance of this individual. with less experience. The iwrsonality profile of a Does it not also stand to reason, if the malignancy mentor includes a self-confidence based On compe- templatt is followed. that the deficiencies may seed tence, a security with self and posit ion (Ley, 198.1). and cause the okInise of this individual at a faster a willingness to share (Stephan. 198)). and a joy in and more deadly pace? the talents of others. E. Paul Torrance, educator. It therefore becomes quite clear that to ignore a descrilws the mentor as idealistic. nonviolent in young faculty member's deficiencies and inexperi- philosophy. relaxed. patient. thorough, vital, and ence (benign negle(t), to deny him/lwr nwntoring. witty (Torrance. 1981). is to place him/her in danger of failure. The poten- The ingredients that blend tlw mentor and the tial losses are mult i-fold. Not only does the individ- protege toget her lwgin with mutual respect and lik- ual lose his/her position in hiiter education but ing, The mentor and protege demonstrate to each higher education loses an artist whose potential Other shared values and a similar need for affilia- was never realized. The students h)so, the art form t ion. Furthermoffe, the relationship is (VIllent ed in loses. the dance depart ment loses, and no .111 e an equal depth of caring, both part icipants invest- wins. ing the same amounts in the mentoring process Itfurther heroines clear that any one deficient (see Figure 1). area affects the whole "well-being.' of that faculty

120 121 member.Thisis where mentoring becomes crucial, Perceived Expectations Survey Just as a person seeks a physician for a cheek-up of all their systems, so itis equally desirable In a small survey conducted during t he fall (indee(i, imperative) that the uwenured faculty semester 19Mwithint he Texas Woman's member seek those with more experience. more University Programs in Dance, six faculty and five practiced insight and more personal distance for a graduate studentswith univvrsitylevel teaching "check-up." experience were questioned as to their perceived

Total Organism

Compromised Unit

If the systems model is applied to the career of a young profession& in higher education it might appear esfollows:

understands and successful in works effectively social & interperson in the academic interactions setting

maintains physical self-actualization and mental well in teaching, artistry being in view of and research outside stressoys 1

_

Figure 2. Systems Model of Thung Professionals I2I expectations of mit enured (juni(n) faculty mem- ing for independent responses. Responses fell into bers. Responses were received from 10 of the 11 seven general categories: surveyed. 1. Growth in teaching skills/curriculum inno- The survey instrument was divided into four sec- vation. tions. The initial section developed a profile of the Publication in professimml journals/presenta- respondent, involving information regarding the tions of papers. number of years served as a junior and senior fac- ;3. Creative (dance) works/presentation of crea- ulty member and any prevfinis experience in a men- tive works. toring relationship. 4. Growth in committee skills/interaction with The second section posed questions concerning other departments. the respondent's knowledge of a university work 5. IVIembership/service in professional organi- situation prim. to becoming a faculty member jux- zations. taposed against what each respondent felt was nec- 6. Student recruitment/advising. essary to know before beginning a faculty career. 7. Attendance at social/political functions. This section presented ;3;3 separate questions rang- ing from publication concerns to committee mem- Categories 1 t hr mgh 4 were deemed as those bership, political functioning, and personal inter- areas needing the most guidance. If these catego- actions. The final question was structured so as to ries are placed in a systems model, it becomes clear allow any additional responses not present in the how complex the position of a dance faculty mem- survey. Questions were responded to with a check ber is (see Figure 4). mark beside each applicable area. The final sect ion required written responses, The third section explined each resp(mdent's answering questions that called for an opinion. The expectations of the junior faculty member, posing respondents were asked to consider which expecta- various questions regarding areas for growth, tions of a .junior faculty member were most critical scholarship, teaching performance. and service to and thereforemightrequire "the most guidance." the department and the university. A total of IS Perceptions of the role of a mentor were asked fin. questions were included with a final question allow- and I he appeal of a formal mentoring system was

teaching publication creative skills in works journals

/committee profession. student skills/ orgs. recruitmen membership! & advising

\\ // ------____.-c--,_--

Figure 3. Expectations/System Model

12:2 1 ' appraised. As a final question, the concept of nwn- functions must be doubly appliedboth in the aca- Wring as a feminist issue was posed with thought demic and in the artistic worlds in which the dance toward exploring this in fin ure investigations of faculty member must function. In light of the com- nwntoring. prehensive roles perceived of the mentor, it scents that within dance in higher education the need for a guide is imperative. Survey Results It is not within the scope of this paper to pre- scribe the implementation aspects of ment ming: The Texas Woman's University dance depart- however, the TWEJ survey proved itself overwhelm- ment appears to have a clep.r sense of mentoring ingly in favor of the process. Again consistent with needs and 1,nctions nmst important to the growth professional literature was the thought that men- of the untenured faculty member. In general, they toring was best implemented on an informal basis, see the role of mentor for a dance faculty member allowing mentorMg relationships to develop along as: "sincere and sensitive- lines. Pacilitat or Although acadenfic competition between faculty Colleague members (tenured or not) is traditionally regarded Provider of professional advice (career) as strong, the belief that the system of a depart- Involving the junior faculty member in the ment is healthy and productive only when all the inner circles (social and polit ical) components are likewise healthy and productive Communicator of the "myths" and "symbols" may assist in reconciling this phenomenon. It is of the inst itution perhaps noteworthy, and most certainly a topic due 'Technical advisor (curriculum, grant writing. further consideration, that although women were teaching, research, and publication) not py,rceived as traditional mentors in the TWU Role model survey, the nature of mentoring embraces feminist Perspective nmnit or (personal an(1 profes- thought and practice. In the male dominated world sional) of higher education, where role models and men- Confidante/friend tors are largely not available to women, the fact that These areas match professional literature in con- dance faculties are largely female provides an excel- with the added dimension t hat all of these lent resource for future study and consideration.

References

Kram. (1985).Mcntoritly al work: et opulent al one rit ical in nct ions relat ionsh i p ,heto is, a nd rola! ionships.In Oryaoizatiomt1 Glenview. II.: out comes.Unpublished doctoral (lissertation. Seattle Scott. Foresman. I Iniversity, Washington, Levinson, D.J. (1987). Scumms (?/. b1a/1'sI Ncw Torrance, El'. (1)84). Mentorw/o t ionsh ips: t hen York: Ballantine Books. a id creat re achievement . end te, (ha d ie. Philips-Jones. L. (1982).Men/ ors a ad prof eges.New Buffalo. NY: lkarly Ltd. York: Arbor House. Zey, (198.1).The mentor con nee/ ion.Homewood. Stephan, N.L. (1989). MotitorimIand the su Mend- IL: How

Kelley Pierce-Byrd is a graduate student in the Dance Department at Texas Woman's University, Denton, Texas 76201.

1 2:3 PURPOSES OF THE AMERICAN ALLIANCE FOR HEALTH, PHYSICAL EDUCATION, RECREATION AND DANCE The American Alliance is an educational organization, structured for the purposes of supporting, encouraging, and providing assistance to member groups and their personnel throughout the nation as they seek to initiate, develop, and conduct programs in health, leisure, and movement-related activities for the emichment of human lift. Alliance objectives include: 1. Professional growth and developmentto support, encourage and provide guidance in the development and conduct of programs in health, leisure, and movement-related activities which are based on the needs, interests, and inherent capacities of the individual in today's soc iety. 2. Communicationto facilitate public and professional understanding and appreciation of health, leisure, and movement-related activities, and to disseminate the findings to the profession and other interested and concerned publics. 3. Standards and guidelinesto further the continuous development, and evaluation of standards within the profession for personnel and programs in health, leisure, and movement-related activities. 4. Publk affairsto coordinate and administer a planned program of professional, public and governmental relations that will improve education in areas of health, leisure, and movement-related activities. 5. To conduct such other activities as shall be approved by the Board of Governors and t he Alliance Assembly, provided that the Alliance shall not engage in any activity which would be inconsistent with the status of an educational and charitable organization as defined in Section 501 (c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 or any successor provision thereto, and none of the said purposes shall at any time be deemed or construed to be purposes other than the public benefit, pm-poses and objectives consistent with such educational and charitable status. 4 - !OS, iDt..

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