Implications of Having an Independent Missionary: A Review of the 1910 Kuki Mission Jangkholam Haokip

uring the latter part of the nineteenth century and the among the dominant Meitei Hindus in the valley.6 The colonial Dearly twentieth century, Christian mission work in authorities soon revoked their permission for this work because what is now called Northeast was conducted in of its perceived threat to the colonial administration; as collaboration with the British colonial administration a result, Pettigrew relocated his mission among the then present. In fact, the period during which mis- Tangkhul people in the hills of the northern part of sionaries were most active in , the state.7 By 1896 Pettigrew had left the Arthing- particularly in the area where the ton Aborigine Mission and had joined the lived, coincided with the peak of colonialism. “forces,” as they were called, of the American Missionary activity in that period was based Baptist Mission.8 Since Pettigrew had been the on a concept of racial and cultural superiority first missionary to work in , the colo- and was marked by the religious optimism nial government recognized him as the sole of the West. In this article I evaluate, from official missionary in the state and refused an insider’s viewpoint, the work a century access to Manipur to any other missionary. ago of an independent Welsh missionary, (see accompanying photo- Mission through a Back Door graph), among the Kuki, whose traditional homeland now forms parts of Northeast The 1910 World Missionary Conference India, Burma, and the Chittagong Hill Tracts in Edinburgh can be considered the high of . I argue that a fresh look at such point of world evangelization. For the Kukis, independent mission enterprises can enlighten however, 1910 was the dawn of . contemporary mission thinking and practice.1 Despite the tight restrictions in Manipur, Watkin Roberts brought Christianity to the Kukis in 1910, Mission Enterprise in Northeast India sixteen years after Pettigrew, the official missionary, had first arrived. The earliest known Christian missionaries in Northeast A successful quarryman, Watkin Roberts was born in India were Roman Catholic missioners in the seventeenth and 1886 at Carnarvon, North , and was a product of the 1904–6 eighteenth centuries. Their work was not sustained, possibly revival in Wales. At the Keswick Convention of 1907 he learned because of a lack of vision for the region.2 After a century-long about and committed to the work in and soon thereafter gap, Christianity was reintroduced, but this time the faith came traveled to India as an independent missionary to assist the work in conjunction with the rise of colonial power, which operated of Fraser, as mentioned above.9 Roberts was never on the staff of with the conviction that “what could not be achieved by the the Welsh Presbyterian Mission or of the Baptist Mission. Rather, military power could be gained by the power of the gospel.”3 he was self-appointed, unpaid, and unordained—an untrained The Serampore Mission of the British Baptist Missionary Society missionary working at his own expense as an assistant to Fraser. was the first agency to be invited by the colonial administration A letter from Fraser to R. J. Williams, secretary of the Calvinist to work in Northeast India, and the American Baptist Missionary Methodist Mission Society, shows Roberts’s commitment: “[Rob- Union came in contact with Northeast India at the invitation of erts] believes he would be disobeying our Lord if he stayed at Francis Jenkins, a colonial officer.4 The first American missionar- home now for a number of years.” Fraser continues, “It is my duty ies arrived in the Brahmaputra Valley in March 1836, and Jenkins and privilege to pray that the Lord will send out labourers into himself supported their work.5 A third agency was the Welsh His harvest. Mr. Roberts seems to be an answer to that prayer.”10 Presbyterian Mission, which in its beginnings had no ties with Since he was a product of the revival in Wales and sub- the colonial administration. David Evan Jones, the first Welsh sequently of the Keswick Convention, it is not surprising that Presbyterian missionary, arrived in the Lushai Hills, now called Roberts’s main mission objective was the spiritual conversion , on August 31, 1897. Ten years later a medical doctor of the people. He learned the Lusei dialect and did evangelism named Peter Fraser joined Jones in Mizoram, and independent while assisting Fraser in his clinic. During that time he received missionary Watkin Roberts in turn assisted Fraser. a gift of five pounds through a minister in Wales, with which he In 1894 William Pettigrew of Arthington Aborigine Mission bought copies of the Gospel of John, which he distributed among brought Christianity to the princely state of Manipur, working the surrounding chiefs. As a result, he received an invitation from Kamkholun Singson, chief of Senvon, to come and explain Jangkholam Haokip was previously registrar and the message of the book. It was an invitation that he saw as a lecturer in the Department of Theology and Ethics, “Macedonian call.” The invitation read, “Sir, come yourself, and Union Biblical Seminary, Pune, India. Following tell us about this book and your God.”11 Roberts immediately completion of doctoral studies at the University of responded by visiting Kamkholun Singson at his village in 1910 Aberdeen, Scotland, in 2011, he has been involved in and preaching in the surrounding villages as well. the development of local theology and integral mission In 1910 Roberts formed an independent mission called in India. —[email protected] the Thado-Kuki Pioneer Mission, whose main purpose was to evangelize those who did not yet have a missionary, specifically,

90 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 38, No. 2 the Kukis. The heading on the official letterhead read, “An unde- A report in the November 1929 issue of Kristian (Christian), nominational and thoroughly Evangelical Mission, formed with a monthly journal published by the mission, shows that the the express desire of preaching the Gospel among the Thado- mission was growing both numerically and geographically. It Kookies in the State of Manipur, India.”12 was becoming a uniting organization among the Kuki people The Thado are one of the largest clans within the Kuki, in Lakhipur (now a city in Assam), (the third smallest although, as with any other ethnic identity, the boundary of the state in the country of India, now dominated by migrants), Chit- group cannot be precisely ascertained. The Thado developed tagong Hill Tracts (now in Bangladesh), and Upper Chindwin and, like the Lusei in the Lushai hills of Mizoram to the south, and Upper Burma (now in ).14 By 1954 there were became influential in the region; the Thado-Kuki language was 27,824 converts, with 134 national pastors, evangelists, and spoken by others, including some Nagas to the north. Possibly teachers; 341 chapels in Manipur; and 1,762 enrolled in Sunday it was for this reason that the hyphenated term Thado-Kuki was School. There were 50 teachers in Chittagong Hill Tracts.15 By used, but the scope of the mission included all the Kuki groups, 1960 the number of converts had grown to 29,678, hence the which, since the government of India recognized them as separate remark, “From our Mission Compound at Churachandpur men and women go forth to preach, to teach and to baptize, not only within the confines of the North East India General Mission field, but in other areas as well.”16 The NEIGM, today called the Evangelical Congregational Church of India (ECCI), claims to be one of the largest evangelical denominations in Northeast India.17 With a deep sense of gratitude, Thimkhup Buiting, a local ordained minister, writes about the work of the Kuki Mission in the Chittagong Hill Tracts: “Thus Christianity was spread among the Bâwm [Kuki] people, and today the Bâwm are 100% Christian. The first adopted denomination Evangelical Christian Church con- tinues its mission till today.”18 Mission versus Structures

A faith mission practitioner, Roberts came into fierce confrontation with the structures of the established institutional mission agencies, and the authori- ties regarded him as an intruder. Conflict began when Roberts first officially forwarded a request, sent through a colonial officer in the Lushai Hills, tribes, are now known by various names (such as, besides the to the political agent in Manipur seeking permission to work Thado, the Hmar, Gangte, and Vaiphei, as well as a number of in Manipur.19 In October 1911 the political agent of Manipur, others). Altogether, the Kukis today number half a million. We William Shakespear, sent a telegraph to the superintendent see evidence for the broader vision held by the mission from (1) of Lushai Hills directing him to stop Roberts from entering the mission’s first converts, who were Thangkai and Lungpau Manipur when he had already started his work there. Although of the Vaiphei group; (2) the first chief to be converted, who the matter appeared purely political, Pettigrew, being the only was Kamkholun Singson of the Thado group; and (3) the first officially recognized missionary in the state, was informed of village to be converted, which was Senvon, populated by the all the developments either by the political agent or by the Hmar group. Because of the mission’s breadth of outreach, it is vice president of the Darbar (i.e., the council to the maharaja).20 more appropriate now in the postmissionary era to refer to the Besides his zeal for evangelization, Roberts viewed the Kuki whole as the Kuki Mission of 1910. Viewed from outside and as Mission as based on what he considered to be an issue of justice occurred with pioneering missions elsewhere, the Thado-Kuki and fairness for all people. This matter of justice and fairness led Pioneer Mission was formed for all the Kuki groups in the both Fraser and Roberts to fight unswervingly for the abolition region. Viewed from within, the mission was designed by God of bawi, or soh, a local system of slavery. They did so based on for all the Kuki communities, and they all need to cherish it. the fact that slavery had been abolished in Britain.21 With the support of local converts, initially from their brethren With regard to the legitimacy of the Kuki mission, Roberts in Mizoram and then from within the Kuki groups in Manipur wrote in 1912: themselves, within five years the Christian message had spread throughout the entire hill region in the south of Manipur. It then If the fact that the Gospel has been preached to a people so long moved on to wherever the Kuki people lived beyond Manipur, neglected, and in whose language not a single missionary could including areas that are now part of Burma and the Chittagong preach the Gospel, previous to our entering the territory, has Hill Tracts of Bangladesh. In 1923, in order to include all the been the cause of any “ill-feeling,” I am extremely sorry. Sorry, not that the Lord has given us the honour of being the first to regions, the name Thado-Kuki Pioneer Mission was changed 13 take the Gospel to this important tribe, but sorry for those who to North East India General Mission (NEIGM). Unlike Pet- are decidedly working on lines which are not Scriptural. The tigrew’s ministry, the work of Roberts had no connections with heathen are perishing, and no one can afford to be “annoyed” the colonial administration.

April 2014 91 and “Upset” over these matters when we have His very own comply with an order for them to leave Manipur, asked them to command to “go . . . into all the world.” Praise God, even the join the American Baptist Mission.26 In 1914, during the annual Thado-Kookies are included in His programme!22 conference of the Kuki Mission, the president of the Darbar for Manipur State, under incessant pressure from Pettigrew, gave The official statement of the Kuki mission, signed on Feb- an order for the group to “quit Manipur State.”27 Having seen ruary 20, 1914, by D. Lloyd Jones and Watkin Roberts, argued: no response to that order, the government issued a stronger one: “If you do not want to go away, you should stop being The American Baptists . . . had not done any work at all among Christian.”28 Roberts’s status as a private missionary and an the Thados . . . who were in utter darkness. . . . Heathen are adherent of nondenominational mission clearly was causing perishing and have a right to know of their Saviour who died friction between him and other missionaries and their agencies. for them, and Mr Roberts felt, after being invited by the Chief . . . that he had to go. . . . After seeing the terrible darkness of the people and how they were going into Eternity without having The Decline of Kuki Mission heard of and His love, [he] pledged himself to God that he would do all [in his power] to help to save these precious souls The positive developments and growth of Roberts’s work, the for whom Jesus died. Is this considered a crime by the Church very sign of the success of his mission, turned out to be the reason of Christ, the carrying of the Gospel to perishing souls? If so, is for the fate that befell him. The regional mission association, there not something wrong somewhere?23 Protestant Foreign Missions in Bengal and Assam, suspended Roberts’s mission in December 1922 for breaching comity, the A local observer, D. Khaizalian, suggests that, as the Kuki agreement by which missions were restricted from working Mission grew, so did antagonistic feelings against Pettigrew outside their allocated geographic territories.29 Following India’s for utilizing governmental machinery to protect his privileged independence in 1947, the Kuki people found themselves divided position. Khaizalian records that in 1911 some 50 households, among three countries, and cooperation among them across led by Letzakai from a village in Lushai Hills (now the state of international boundaries became even more difficult. Mizoram), migrated to Tuithaphai in Manipur and that another Translation of the Bible, carried out with the intent of has- group of nearly 150 families from the same region subsequently tening the process of evangelization, served to fragment the settled in Khopibung, also in Manipur, where Watkin Roberts people. The decision to translate the Bible into each local dialect established a school for them. This step helped them to grow rather than to produce a pan-Kuki translation became a major numerically.24 Having learned about the situation, Pettigrew disintegrating factor among the Kuki people following India’s became alarmed and “recalled the agreement with the Mani- independence. In A Critical Historical Study of Bible Translations pur Maharaja that in the State of Manipur no one but ABM among the in North-East India, Khup Za Go clearly [American Baptist Mission] could preach the Christian faith.”25 outlines the negative effects of these efforts. According to his The government arrested some and, since they had failed to findings, Bible translation began in the southern part of Manipur

92 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 38, No. 2 with Watkin Roberts translating the Gospel of John into Vaiphei the independent, entrepreneurial spirit shown by him and their in 1917. Next to be translated was the Gospel of Mark, into the own resistance to British overlordship.32 Hmar dialect in 1920. The Gospel of John was further translated The role that Roberts’s independence played, positively into Thado-Kuki (1924), Paite (1951), and Simte (1957); and the and negatively, bears further examination. Though other tribal Gospel of Matthew, into Gangte (1952) and Kom Rem (1954). The groups in adjacent areas responded to the Gospel in equally entire New Testament was translated into Zou in 1967.30 high percentages when it was brought to them by missionaries Peter Chiru, who is currently translating the Bible into a supported by denominational mission boards, in what ways Chiru dialect, observes that translators often coined words in might Roberts’s nonaffiliation have had particular resonance order to make the tribe and language concerned look different for the Kuki? At the same time, Roberts’s style of spiritual and from others,31 although for the most part the languages of the ecclesiastical independence also had drawbacks. various groups are mutually intelligible. Following such prac- One of the main and obvious limitations entailed by having tices in Bible translation has led inevitably to divisions within an independent missionary was lack of wider connections, which the church. This practice has been followed, even though the resulted in a relatively narrow theology and practice. The church Kuki Mission at first had its own publications (e.g., Kristian, Roberts founded reflected his one-sidedly spiritual approach to North East India Tidings, Rest, and Herald of Truth), in which all mission; in the absence of a plurality of teachers, its theology the dialects were used and were understood by all. Some of these was informed almost solely by his understanding of God and publications were still being published as late as the early 1950s. mission, including his imminent expectation of the Parousia. If the earlier Kuki peoples could use and understand a common The theology he bequeathed lacked an integral understanding literature, why were separate Bible translations into each of the of salvation and spirituality. For him the ultimate purpose of dialects felt to be necessary? On a deeper level, we could ask, mission was to convert local people and then simply unleash Why did the various groups use their own Bible translation for them to evangelize others. His work did not lay a theological their own glory and pride instead of recognizing that God was foundation sufficient to enable the people to respond to their doing a common work of grace among them? contemporary context effectively. Another limitation can be observed in the church’s eccle- Implications of an Independent Mission siastical structure. While converts of established missions became part of their respective denominations and continued The response of the Kuki to Watkin Roberts’s evangelizing began to get support through connection with a broader community early, and the number of Christians among the Kuki continued of Christians, the products of the independent Kuki Mission to grow. Today the majority, if not all, of the Kuki identify them- become an isolated community. They were like an island in the selves as Christians. In light of the Kuki Rebellion of 1917–19, one midst of a vast sea, having no links with other converts as part wonders whether one factor in the Kukis’ positive response to of a wider community of God. The impact was and is crucial, Roberts’s message might have been an affinity they saw between especially in a hierarchical social structure such as that of India,

tor of Voices, the journal of the Ecumenical Association of before moving to the United States in 1966, where he spent Third World Theologians (EATWOT), and as chairman of the twenty-five years at Hartford Seminary, Hartford, Connecti- Theological Commission of EATWOT, Africa zone. Protus cut, as professor of Islamic studies, academic dean, editor of has served as professor of religion at the University of Port the journal Muslim World, and founder and director of the Harcourt and as a visiting lecturer at the Catholic Institute Duncan Black Macdonald Center for the Study of Islam and of West Africa, both in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. In 2005–6 he Christian-Muslim Relations. He also established the Islamic was a Project Luke Scholar at the Overseas Ministries Study Studies program at McGill University in Montreal, Canada, Center, New Haven, Connecticut. He is the author of Founda- in 1975. His doctoral dissertation at the University of Utrecht tions of Christian Religious and Moral Education (Port Harcourt: was published in 1959 as Islam as a Post-Christian Religion: An Link Advertising, 1992). Inquiry into the Theological Evaluation of Islam, Mainly in the Honored. Gerald H. Anderson, director emeritus of Twentieth Century (in Dutch, with English summary). the Overseas Ministries Study Center and a former editor Died. Jan van Lin, 73, Dutch Catholic missiologist, of the International Bulletin of Missionary Research, September 19, 2013, in Grubbenvorst, Netherlands. Van New Haven, Connecticut, traveled to Rome last fall. There, Lin was trained and ordained as a missionary of the Mis- on November 14, he met Pope Francis, gave a lecture, and sionaries of the Holy Family (M.S.F.). Appointed to become received an honorary doctor of missiology degree from the lecturer of missiology in Indonesia, he was sent for further Pontifical Urbaniana University. The degree was presented studies to the Catholic University of Nijmegen, where he by Cardinal Fernando Filoni, chancellor of the university. It obtained a Ph.D. in 1974. He left the priesthood but never was the first time Urbaniana, founded in 1627 and part of the lost his missionary zeal. His doctoral dissertation, entitled Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, has given an De protestantse theologie der godsdiensten, was later translated honorary degree to a Protestant. and published as Shaking the Fundamentals: Religious Plural- Died. Willem A. Bijlefeld, 88, scholar of comparative ity and Ecumenical Movement (Amsterdam and New York, religions and interreligious dialogue, December 15, 2013, in 2002). Van Lin was study secretary of the Pontifical Mission Windsor, Vermont. Born in Indonesia, the son of Dutch mis- Works (1972–92) and director of the Nijmegen Institute for sionaries, Bijlefeld taught in the Netherlands and Nigeria Mission Studies (1993–2002).

April 2014 93 where the so-called tribal peoples are at the bottom of the social starting a work among them. If it had not been for his radical structure. In pursuit of what they perceived as a better option, mission approach, the Kuki people of southern Manipur would the people developed their own community-based churches, not have had the chance to hear the Christian message in 1910 but doing so did not serve them equally. Smaller communities and to respond in the way they did. Roberts brought a heart for were left behind, and the particularization of the church within and a commitment to this marginalized group of people. His each clan promoted overall disintegration and isolation from commitment was rooted in his Christian understanding of justice other Kuki peoples. and fairness, leading him to stand against the structures that The third and final limitation, related to the two previous deprived the marginalized communities and to bring the Christian points, is that ad hoc independent mission lacks a long-term message to the Kuki. vision and plan for the newly formed Christian community Watkin Roberts played a prophetic role in mission, and and its life in a multiethnic context. Wider issues—including for that reason he can be called a missionary ahead of his time. the social, political, and economic concerns of the people—were Despite what can be viewed now as limitations, Roberts brought not part of the mission agenda. The mission was oblivious to the Christian message of salvation, and Kuki believers today them, an absence that is still present in the one-sided emphasis bear the responsibility of making it relevant to their own time on spirituality and evangelization among Kuki churches today. and setting. In rediscovering and reowning their God-given These limitations must not blur the fact that, because of missionary, Watkin Roberts, the Kuki people will find in him Roberts, the Kuki people received the opportunity to hear the God’s desire for their lives and unity as a people. In granting Christian message. Other missionaries serving in the same time recognition to the unrecognized missionary, world Christianity period as Roberts simply overlooked the Kuki people. Roberts will find itself better able to hear similar voices of the people noticed the situation of the Kukis and took up the challenge of without voice in our increasingly complex world. Notes 1. A longer version of this article was presented at a meeting of the 14. Kristian, November 1929. This report gives the names of workers Yale-Edinburgh Group on the History of the Missionary Movement and their place of origin, their date of joining, and the place and and World Christianity, held June 27–29, 2013, at Yale Divinity nature of their work; copy in author’s files. School, New Haven, Connecticut. The article is based upon original 15. Census Report from Manipur State, India, and Chittagong Hill research and makes use of materials in the archives of the National Tracts, Pakistan, North East India Tidings (monthly magazine of Library of Wales in Aberystwyth, Regent’s College in Oxford, the NEIGM), December 31, 1954. British Library in London, and the Council of Baptist Churches 16. Thangkai, “How the Light First Pierced into the Darkness,” North of North-East India (CBCNEI) in Guwahati, Assam, India. The East India Tidings, May 1960, 3. photograph of Watkin Roberts on page 90 is courtesy of Bibles for 17. “ECCI: Who We Are,” www.ecchurch.co.in/who-we-are.php. the World, Colorado Springs, Colorado. 18. Thimkhup Buiting, “The Advent of Christianity among the 2. See Lal Dena, Christian Missions and Colonialism: A Study of Mission- Bâwms,” http://bawm.info/bawmchristianity.htm. ary Movement in North East India, with Special Reference to Manipur 19. K. M. Singh, History of Christian Missions in Manipur and the Neigh- and Lushai Hills, 1894–1947 (Shillong: Vendrame Institute, 1988), 18, bouring States (New Delhi: Mittal Publications, 1991), 111. and Frederick S. Downs, History of , vol. 5, part 5, 20. Ibid., 114. North-East India in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Bangalore: 21. Sources, including seventy-two pages of a document file “Doctor Church History Association of India, 1992), 65. Fraser’s Case,” are kept in the National Library of Wales. There see 3. Dena, Christian Missions, 19. CMA 27,318, Letter File V; Lloyd George Correspondence, NLM 4. The American Baptist Missionary Union later changed its name to MS 22522, 204-12; and “A Report on Slavery in Lushai,” CMA 27, the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society, hereafter referred to 316, File III. as the American Baptist Mission. 22. Roberts’s letter dated June 22, 1912, preserved in the National Library 5. Downs, History, 69. of Wales. 6. Dena, Christian Missions, 32–33. 23. An official letter of TKPM, C. M. Archives, 27, 318, preserved in the 7. William Pettigrew, letter, December 1894, in William Pettigrew, National Library of Wales. Mission Reports and Letters, 1891–1932, comp. Champhang Jajo 24. Khaizalian, quoted in L. Jeyaseelan, Impact of the Missionary Move- (Gauhati, Assam, India: Chandan Press, n.d), 9. ment in Manipur (New Delhi: Scholar Publishing House, 1996), 87. 8. “Report on Christian Work in Manipur,” in 125 Anniversary Jubi- 25. Ibid., 88. lee Reports of Baptist Work in North East India, 1836–1961, pre 26. Savoma, “Pathian Thu Lo Luh Dan” (How the Word of God Came), served at CBCNEI. Rest: Christian Magazine (March 1960), 6. 9. Lal Dena, In Search of Identity: Hmars of North-East India (New Delhi: 27. Ruolngul, Chanchintha, 45. Akansha Publishing House, 2008), 46. 28. Khaizalian, quoted in Jeyaseelan, Impact, 89. 10. Peter Fraser, letter to R. J. Williams, secretary, Calvinistic Methodist 29. Dena, Christian Missions, 53. Mission Society, September 14, 1908, C. M. Archives, 27, 314, preserved 30. Khup Za Go, A Critical Historical Study of Bible Translations among the in the National Library of Wales. Zo People in North East India (Churachandpur: Chin Baptist Literature 11. S. T. Henpu, “Kum 50 Jubilee Thu Belh” (The Jubilee Year), Rest: Board, 1996), 73–88. Christian Magazine (quarterly issued by NEIGM), March 1960, 9. 31. Peter Chiru, interviewed by the author on February 22, 2008, on the 12. An official letter of TKPM, C. M. Archives, 27, 318, preserved in way to Choroi Kholen in Churachandpur, Manipur. the National Library of Wales. Regarding the date of the mission’s 32. In opposition to the colonial administration’s order to support founding the document states, “On November 29th 1910 Dr and the British forces in the war in France, the Kukis fought against Mrs Fraser and Mr Roberts started on a journey of about 500 miles the colonial administration during the period 1917–19, suffering to the Khasia Hills. They stayed a few days at Silchar as the guests heavy losses of cattle and houses and the loss of some parts of their of the Rev and Mrs T.W. Reese. At the request of Mr Reese, Mr ancestral lands. The British also imposed a new administration in Roberts spoke in English of the new Thado-Kuki work.” the region. 13. D. Ruolngul, Chanchintha Kalchawi (The Gospel’s Onward Move- ment), (Churachandpur, Manipur: published by author, 1982), 20.

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