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THE UNIVERSITY of HULL Interstate Cooperation and Anti-Trafficking: Assessing Existing Approaches Between Nigeria and the United

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THE UNIVERSITY of HULL Interstate Cooperation and Anti-Trafficking: Assessing Existing Approaches Between Nigeria and the United THE UNIVERSITY OF HULL Interstate Cooperation and Anti-Trafficking: Assessing Existing Approaches between Nigeria and the United Kingdom being a Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor in Philosophy (PhD) in Law in the University of Hull by MAY N. IKEORA MA. Peace Studies (University of Bradford) BSc. Psychology (Nnamdi Azikiwe University) (December 2010) Declaration I hereby declare that this submission is wholly and to the best of my knowledge the outcome of my research and I am its sole author. This thesis does not contain any material previously published or accepted for any award. Where other sources of information have been used, they have been properly acknowledged. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. NAME: .................................................................................................... SIGNATURE: DATE: ..................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements The successful completion of this doctoral research would not have been conceivable without the astute support of several people. Firstly, I thank the University of Hull, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences (FASS) for the PhD scholarship that has made this thesis possible. I am extremely grateful to my research supervisors, Dr. Joel Quirk and Dr. Richard Burchill for their valuable guidance, constructive criticisms and the consistent encouragement I received throughout the course of my research. I thank Dr. Joel Quirk for presenting me with a number of opportunities that has helped shape my experience as a scholar. I would also like to show profound appreciation to the support staff of the Law School and Graduate School. They were always there to provide advice and assistance during my entire research experience. To the staff of The National Agency for the Prohibition of Traffic in Persons and Other Related Matters (NAPTIP) and the United Kingdom Human Trafficking Centre (UKHTC), especially Mr. Godwin Morka and Mr. Mark Walters, I thank them for their immense support in gathering data for this research during my fieldwork. I also appreciate the survivors of human trafficking that I interviewed, for their bravery in retelling their stories and sharing their experiences with me for the originality of my research work. My gratitude also extends to the various organisations that gave me audience during my fieldwork both in Nigeria and the United Kingdom. Further, the moral support and motivation of my numerous friends and family have been sources of strength in the duration of this research journey. I thank my father, Mr. J.E. Ikeora for his words of wisdom and scholarly advice while reading through my work. To Philip Uwumarogie, Dr. George Nwangwu and John Sarbah for the countless times you have read through my work, shared your thoughts and encouraged me, I remain thankful for having friends like you. To Nancy iii Quadri, Fatim Kamara, Saran Toure, Antoinette Dike, Cynthia Taiwo, Charity Onyeneho, Elsie Till, Thomas Millar, Omozele Okosun, Temi Conde, Gabriel Ikeora, Mr. Ayo, Mr. Badejo, Chike Oputa and my mother – Mrs. Helen Ikeora, this PhD is a testament to your faith in me. To Dr. Roger Koranteng, Dr. K. Osei- Nyame Jnr and Dr. R. Ako, I am profoundly grateful for your support and scholarly advice. In addition, I would like to thank my examiners Professor Kevin Bales and Dr. Christine van de Anker for their encouragement, insightful comments, and hard questions. Above all, I owe it all to almighty God for granting me the wisdom, health and strength to undertake this research task and enabling me to its completion. iv TABLE OF CONTENT ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................... VII TABLES ............................................................................................................................... X DIAGRAMS........................................................................................................................ XI APPENDIX ......................................................................................................................... XII LAWS, TREATIES AND POLICIES ............................................................................................. XIII CASE LAW....................................................................................................................... XVI CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 1 ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 3 HUMAN TRAFFICKING: FORMS AND SCOPE ............................................................................ 3 MOVING FROM THE STUDY OF TRAFFICKING TO ANTI-TRAFFICKING ......................................... 13 RESEARCH QUESTION[S] AND DISCUSSIONS .......................................................................... 21 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................ 24 CASE STUDY SELECTION: WHY NIGERIA AND THE UK?............................................................ 24 QUALITATIVE APPROACH ................................................................................................... 25 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION ................................................................................................... 26 FIELDWORK/INTERVIEWS ..................................................................................................... 29 DATA AND FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS ...................................................................................... 31 CHAPTER STRUCTURE ......................................................................................................... 34 CHAPTER TWO - CONCEPTUALIZING HUMAN TRAFFICKING: A HUMAN RIGHTS PERSPECTIVE ................................................................................................................. 37 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 37 HUMAN RIGHTS AND HUMAN TRAFFICKING .......................................................................... 38 HUMAN RIGHTS-BASED APPROACH: HUMAN-CENTRED ENOUGH? ......................................... 45 TRAFFICKING TYPOLOGIES: STATE-CENTRIC VS. HUMAN-CENTRED PERSPECTIVES ..................... 51 AS A SYMPTOM OF MIGRATION .......................................................................................... 53 AS A BY-PRODUCT OF FORCED LABOUR .............................................................................. 67 AS A RESULT OF PROSTITUTION? .......................................................................................... 78 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................... 84 CHAPTER THREE- INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND THE ANTI-TRAFFICKING REGIME ......................................................................................................................... 87 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 87 THE ANTI-TRAFFICKING REGIME AND INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORKS ............................. 88 ANTI-TRAFFICKING REGIME: INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COMPLIANCE .................... 110 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................. 129 CHAPTER FOUR - THE MODUS OPERANDI OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING BETWEEN NIGERIA AND THE UNITED KINGDOM: AN EMPIRICAL BACKGROUND .................. 132 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 132 TRAFFICKING BETWEEN NIGERIA AND THE UK ...................................................................... 134 RECRUITMENT STAGE ........................................................................................................ 139 v TRANSPORTATION STAGE .................................................................................................. 149 EXPLOITATION STAGE ....................................................................................................... 155 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................. 162 CHAPTER FIVE - ADDRESSING HUMAN TRAFFICKING FROM NIGERIA: THE CONTEXT OF A SOURCE COUNTRY ........................................................................................... 164 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 164 NATIONAL ANTI-TRAFFICKING LEGAL FRAMEWORKS IN NIGERIA ........................................... 165 THE EXTENT OF NIGERIA‘S ANTI-TRAFFICKING MEASURES IN PRACTICE ................................... 176 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................. 200 CHAPTER SIX - ADDRESSING HUMAN TRAFFICKING IN THE UNITED KINGDOM: THE CONTEXT OF A DESTINATION COUNTRY .................................................................. 203 INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................
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