Roman Empire What happened in What CDLXXVI did the tortoise ? teach the Romans?
Why the LONG FACE, Quid novi? Senator? Translation: “What’s new?”
IN PARTNERSHIP WITH
Roman_Empire_FC.indd 1 3/13/17 11:01 AM II (2) and leopatra s eet in a sea attle at c The Empire Begins tium, in Greece. The assassination of Roman ruler Julius Soon after that victory, Octavian became Caesar in 44 BCE led to civil war. Over the the sole ruler of Rome. He took the name next 13 years, the Roman world suffered Augustus Caesar and the title princeps from an ongoing struggle among political fi rst one . he oman ep lic was rivals. Those battling for power included over. But because Augustus was both Caesar’s adoptive son Octavian and Marc strong and wise, he won widespread s p Antony, who had served as a general under port. Augustus reigned until his death in Caesar. Antony eventually allied himself 14 CE. The empire he established would with Cleopatra, the Egyptian queen. But in last for hundreds of years. 31 BCE, Octavian’s forces defeated Antony
THE FORUM WAS Rome’s main political, religious, and busi- ness center. Built on flat ground surrounded by the city’s hills, the forum was home to many important temples, monuments, and public buildings. The Roman senate met there, in a building called the Curia.
l AUGUSTUS l CALIGULA WAS l NEROISREMEM- Caesar, Rome’s cruel. Some say bered as the ruler first emperor, he wanted his who played his restored peace horse to be an fiddle while
RULERS to Rome. official! Rome burned.
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l UNDER AUGUSTUS’S l AUGUSTUS’S REIGN to Rome and sub- leadership, the marked the begin- mit to the Roman empire grew and ning of the Pax army’s control. The prospered. By the Romana (Roman Pax Romana ended end of his reign, Peace). For about during the reign of Rome controlled 200 years, the entire Emperor Marcus lands in Africa, Mediterranean world Aurelius (161–180 Asia, and Europe. remained remark- CE). Marcus (left) Augustus helped ably calm under faced revolts and unify this diverse Rome’s protection. invasions at the empire by granting Many provinces were empire’s borders citizenship to free allowed to govern in Syria, Germany, men in the prov- themselves, but they Britain, and else- inces. He also made had to pay taxes where. taxation fairer and tried to improve the TODAY lives of the poor.
l TRAJAN, A l HADRIAN WAS A l MARCUS AURELIUS, l CONSTANTINE kind emperor, great emperor. last emperor of the made Constan- encouraged His architects Pax Romana, cam- tinople the capital education and built many mag- paigned against of the Eastern the arts. nificent buildings. the barbarians. Roman Empire.
Roman_Empire_2-3.indd 3 3/13/17 11:25 AM IV (4) Trade and Money Roman Trade Network in 180 CE The emperor Augustus believed that Roman Empire building a network of roads across Internal Trade Route BRITAIN External Trade Route the empire was vital, not only for Londinium GERMANY conquests and defense but – just as important – for trade. The wealth GAUL that trade created allowed Roman (FRANCE) c lt re to o rish. ATLANTIC OCEAN Lugdunum Besides roads, the Mediterranean Arelate Sirmium Sea and the empire’s major rivers Rome Barcino served as essential trade routes. Thessalonica Byzantium Trapezus Ships carried millions of sacks of SPAIN GREECE ASIA MINOR grain from Egypt to Rome each year. Antiocha Each province of the empire pro- Carthage duced its own exports. For example, Leptis Magna Spain exported olive oil to other N Tyrus Alexandria provinces. W E ARABIA EGYPT The Romans traded far beyond S AFRICA their empire – with China, India, Persia, and non-Roman Africa. Silk cloth was a key import from China. Asian and African traders introduced the Romans to new spices. Pepper from India became a Roman favorite for cooking. Romans also used spic- l MATERIAL GOODS weren’t the only es to make medicines, cosmetics, things traded and perfumes. throughout the Roman Empire. There was also a busy trade in ideas and beliefs. The Romans spread their state religion across the lands they conquered. But the religions of the conquered peoples also made their way to Rome. Some Romans u THE ROMANSHAD value for each kind portrait. Augustus worshipped gods learned about the of coin so that and the emperors like Mithras (left), use of coins from traders across the who followed him from Persia, and the Greeks. But empire could use continued this Isis, from Egypt. it was not until the same money. practice. Most Greek philosophy 23 or 24 BCE that Coins were made Roman coins dis- also appealed to Augustus estab- of gold, silver, play the image of many Romans, lished a standard bronze, and cop- the emperor who who adopted the currency, or money, per. Julius Caesar ruled at the time ways of living for the whole had issued coins they were minted. recommended by empire. He set a stamped with his Greek thinkers.
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r THE ROMANS Roman Trade Network in 180 CE were master road- builders. Over centuries, they Roman Empire constructed 50,000 Internal Trade Route BRITAIN miles of roads link- External Trade Route GERMANY ing all parts of the Londinium empire. Their roads were higher in the middle and lower GAUL (FRANCE) at the sides so that ATLANTIC rainwater would Lugdunum drain into ditches. OCEAN The roads were Arelate Sirmium so well made that Rome stretches of Roman Barcino Thessalonica road still exist Byzantium Trapezus today in Europe, SPAIN GREECE ASIA Africa, and the MINOR Middle East. Antiocha Carthage
Leptis Magna N Tyrus Alexandria W E ARABIA EGYPT S AFRICA
u TRADEBETWEEN goods back and the Roman Empire forth along it. They and the far-off brought silk from land of China was China to the West made possible by and wool, gold, the Silk Road. The and silver from Silk Road was a the Roman Empire 4,000-mile path to China. Trade across central Asia. along this route u WHEREVERTHEY cities that were bathhouses, the- So did Lyon, Teams of mer- reached its height went, the Roman modeled on Rome aters, and arenas. France; its ancient chants and their in about 200 CE, armies built forts. itself. Like the The city of London, Roman name was animals – camels, during China’s Han Some of these empire’s capital, England, originated Lugdunum. donkeys, and hors- dynasty. military outposts they had their own as a Roman city es – transported developed into forums, markets, called Londinium.
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A PLATE OF ARMOR made of metal The Roman Army strips tied together The Roman Empire’s power with leather straps protected the upper came from its well-trained body. Although this army. Roman soldiers made metal jacket was heavy, the metal conquest possible. Once strips allowed the lands were captured, troops soldier some free- kept conquered peoples un- dom of movement. Soldiers had to der control and protected help each other the empire’s borders. put on and lace Roman soldiers were busy. up their armor. hen the weren t fi ghting, the were ilding orts and ridges, s per ising mines and arries, or making road repairs. On many days UNDER HIS METAL jacket, the the hiked miles carr ing soldier wore a 60-pound packs. tunic of wool. s emperor, g st s en acted dramatic reforms, or
changes, to ome s arm . SOLDIERSCARRIED He cut its size in half and or- metal-tipped throwing spears, gani ed it into militar daggers, and nits called legions, each short, double- with a few thousand sol- edged swords. diers. or training and fi ght ing, each legion was split in to smaller gro ps, called
centuries, of about 100 men THIS BELT, ORAPRON, each. Their commanders of leather strips protected the were called centurions. lower body. Heavy ring the time o the re weights on the public, soldiers had been bottom of each strip kept the paid not with money, but apron in place. with al a les taken rom the people they conquered. g st s changed this, too. e ga e soldiers reg lar pa THESOLDIER’S and created a retirement heavy sandals were studded program or them. eca se with nails. of these reforms, more men made the army a career. The army became more profes- sional – and more loyal to Rome than to any one army leader.
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CENTURIONSAND r WHEN ATTACKING other command- a city, Roman ing officers wore soldiers sometimes crests on their linked their shields helmets so their above their heads soldiers could in what they called spot them easily the testudo, or tor- in battle. The hel- toise. The shields met covered and protected them protected the head from the stones without blocking and missiles vision. Flaps hurled by their protected the enemies. It made cheeks and neck. a roof so strong that other soldiers could walk over it.
r THE ROMANS called this giant slingshot a ballista. It fired heavy rocks over 1,200 feet. CENTURIONS WORE red tunics under their armor.
u THESIGHTOFA huge battering ram struck fear in the THESOLDIER’S hearts of Rome’s d CATAPULTS SENT rectangular shield enemies. Mounted spears soaring into was made of many on a wheeled the enemy’s camp. layers of thick platform, the ram Sometimes burning wood wrapped in pounded against rags were attached leather, with an the walls and gates to the tips of the iron rim at the top of a city or fort until spears. and bottom. The they splintered. soldier’s heavy Then the Roman pack held his per- army surged in. sonal gear, enough grain for about 15 days, cook- ing utensils, the CENTURIONSGAINED stakes needed extra protection to build a camp, from these metal and a pick, an ax, leg shields called or a saw. greaves.
Roman_Empire_6-7.indd 7 3/13/17 11:06 AM VIII (8) The Life SHORTLY AFTER BIRTH, a new baby was of the Poor placed at its father’s feet. The baby was In ancient Rome, there were not accepted into great differences between the the family until the father picked up and lives of rich and poor people. held his newborn The poor lived in the dirtiest, child. noisiest, most crowded parts of the city. Their houses were poorly constructed four- and
fi e stor apartment ildings ECAUSE THEIR B ENSLAVED PEOPLE, that usually lacked heat, water, apartments had like the young and kitchens. The rooms of the no kitchens, the boy getting water, poor had little furniture – per- poor ate cooked were poorest of meats and other all. Many people haps only a chair or stool and a hot food at stalls, captured in battle bed. Few poor children learned or they bought during Roman cooked food to conquests were to read or write. This lack of bring home. Some forced into slav- education among the majority people cooked on ery. The Roman of Romans was one of the em- small stoves in the Empire’s depen- street. dence on slavery pire’s great weaknesses. was another of its weaknesses.
INTHESTREETS, children pushed hoops, flew kites, and played games like blind man’s buff.
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WALKING DOWN A BYTHEFIRST Roman street could century CE, Rome be messy, because had over 45,000 apartment dwellers blocks of apart- tossed all kinds ment buildings. of garbage out of Living in these tall, their windows. narrow buildings was often danger- ous. Most were so poorly made that sooner or later they u WHENBABIES collapsed. Walls were nine days cracked or roofs old, they received fell in, and fire was this charm, called a constant danger. a bulla, which was worn around the neck to chase away evil spirits.
u LIKECHILDREN today, Roman children loved to play with dolls. This wooden doll has movable arms and legs.
FEW PEOPLE HAD A PRIVATE water supply or indoor plumbing. Water was collected from public fountains. But the very rich had water piped directly into their homes.
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T I R G B R E R LONDINIUM H I M N A E N Y
A N C E O C I GAUL T N (FRANCE) A L LUGDUNUM T
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RAVENNA
CORSICA
ROME S P A I N S A R D I N I A ITALY R R A A TINGIS T E N E A S E E D I N M S I C I L Y
CARTHAGE N U M N I A I D E T A I A U R M A
S ahara Desert AFRICA
Roman_Empire_10-11.indd 10 3/13/17 11:12 AM Five Good Emperors Some Roman emper- an (right), Antoninus ors were bad at the Pius, and Marcus Au- job. Some were just relius – were capa- ineffective – they ble, tolerant, gener- couldn’t get things ous, and wise. They G E done. A few, like Cal- faced problems, in- R M A igula and Nero, were cluding plagues and N selfish and corrupt, invasions. But they Y or evil. But for a peri- successfully defend- od lasting from 96 CE ed and even expand- to 180 CE, the empire ed the empire’s bor- prospered under the ders. During their rule of five effective reigns, the Roman emperors in a row. Empire grew to its These emperors – largest size. Nerva, Trajan, Hadri-
S A R M A T I A
D A C I A
RAVENNA D a n u b e K S E A L A C U M B R I C I L L Y
BYZANTIUM M
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C E ITALY D O ASIA N MINOR I A ATHENS S I C I L Y GREECE SYRIA
TYRE
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E YRENE C D ALEXANDRIA U N J N A I C A R E i Y l AFRICA C EGYPT e
Roman_Empire_10-11.indd 11 3/13/17 11:12 AM XII (12) The Life of the Rich INSIDE A WEALTHY Roman’s home was a series of rooms built around a central courtyard, called an atrium. The home might have a garden, a dining room, sev- eral bedrooms, and a kitchen, where enslaved servants did the cooking.
l INTHE ROMAN wrapped around Empire, only men the body. However, could be citizens. few poor people Both rich and could afford togas. poor citizens were entitled to wear l SOMEWOMEN, en. Some draped the toga, a wide rich and poor a long scarf over square or rectangle alike, wore a robe the stola to of cloth draped called a stola. protect their hair over one shoul- Wealthy women when they went der and carefully wore stolas of lin- outdoors. Rich Romans lived, dressed, and even ate furniture made of bronze, ivory, and rare differently from the poor. In the city, they wood. Walls were decorated with brightly built their houses far from the noisy, nar- painted murals. Homes had courtyards, row streets of the poor. From the outside pools, and gardens. Many wealthy Romans their homes often looked plain. Inside they also had huge country estates called villas. were costl and com orta le, fi lled with Only the children of the rich got a formal
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l INSTEAD OF carpets, the rich decorated their floors with beautiful mosaics. Mosaics are pictures or designs made up of several thousand tiny pieces of col- ored stone laid in wet plaster.
u SCHOOLSWERE mostly single rooms with classes taught by teachers who often were Greek. Punishment for misbehaving was severe. Children wrote on wax tab- lets with a stylus (a pointed metal pen). To erase a mistake, the pupil simply rubbed it out and smoothed the wax with the flat end of the stylus.
WEALTHY ROMANS liked parties and ostrich, jellyfish, l MENANDWOMEN l MOST ROMAN often held long, flamingo, mouse, curled their hair girls married in fancy dinners sea urchins and with curling tongs. their teens. On at home. They other delicacies. The Romans her wedding day, liked rich, exotic Enslaved people considered pale the bride wore a foods. Guests made the food skin beautiful, special white might enjoy and served it to so women put robe, a circle of the diners. powdered chalk flowers on her on their faces head, and a bright and arms. orange veil. education. They started school at about were civic-minded. They spent their own age , and most le t age . irls fi n money to construct public buildings and ished their schooling before boys and pre- fund entertainments for the whole city. pared for marriage. Some boys continued Some, however, were corrupt, and rich their education and became the empire’s Romans’ dependence on slave labor played leading citizens. Many wealthy citizens a part in Rome’s decline.
Roman_Empire_12-13.indd 13 3/13/17 11:14 AM XIV (14) had several choic- es for their bath The Romans at Play temperature, from icy cold to steam- Today, if you and your family want ing hot. Public to have fun, you might go to the baths were huge movies, play in a park, or watch a complexes that included a gym for ball game. When Romans wanted exercising and lift- to amuse themselves, they also ing weights, a chose from an array of activities. library for reading, u THE PUBLIC BATHS latest news. Men and gardens to In ancient times, Romans went were a great place and women went stroll through. to public bathhouses to talk, gos- to get clean and to separate bath- sip, and even make business deals. catch up on the houses. Bathers For an evening out, wealthy people might go to a concert. The Romans r SPECTATORS packed the had learned about theater from the Colosseum for the Greeks, and Greek plays were pop- gladiator games. ular. Poor people could choose Hidden elevators and trapdoors from chariot races or the bloody allowed animals fi ghts known as gladiator games. and men to make Emperors and other powerful pub- exciting surprise entrances and exits. lic leaders paid for these entertain- Archers armed with ments to win the support of the bows and arrows people. Politicians used the con- stood on the top level of the building, tests to help the poor forget their ready to shoot any troubles. At a chariot race or gladi- wild animal that ator fi ght, the crowds expressed escaped. their frustrations by yelling at the players instead of at their leaders. d THE COLOSSEUM columns on the Which American was the larg- outside are for TODAY sports do you est arena in the decoration only. think Romans empire. Even today Arches do the real would enjoy it is one of Rome’s work of supporting watching? Why? most impressive the weight of the buildings. The building.
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l SOMETIMESTHE Colosseum floor was flooded so that gladiators could take part in “sea battles.” Crocodiles swam around the small ships in which the u SOAPDIDNOT gladiators fought, exist in Roman ready to gobble up times, but bathers anyone who fell put olive oil on their overboard. skin, then wiped off both oil and dirt u ATTHERACE- with special scrap- course known ers called strigili. as the Circus Maximus, fans bet on their favorite teams at all-day chariot races. Bettors put their money on one of four teams: the Whites, Greens, Blues, or Reds.
u BLOODY GLADIATOR enslaved people who contests attracted huge might win their freedom crowds. Spectators if they pleased the u CHARIOTRACING stars and musicians cheered as the gladia- crowd. Audiences would could be a deadly sport. of today, some chari- tors fought lions, tigers, give an especially brave The lightweight chariots oteers became crowd or each other to the gladiator the thumbs- tipped over easily. Riders favorites and earned death. Some gladia- up sign. Thumbs down often fell from their chari- huge amounts of gold. tors were convicted meant “Let this one ots and were trampled Most charioteers were criminals. Others were die.” to death. Like the sports enslaved men.
Some Romans, like the historian Tacitus, objected to gladiator contests and other forms of entertainment. He condemned “the mania for gladi- atorial shows and horse-racing.”* He thought such shows interfered with young peo- ple’s education. Do you think that spending time watching sports can be harmful? Why or why not?
*Cornelius Tacitus. From The Annals, translated by Alfred Church and William Brodribb. Macmillan, 1900.
Roman_Empire_14-15.indd 15 3/13/17 11:19 AM XVI (16) The End of the Empire
l THE HUNSLIVED in central Asia. The Romans hated them, thinking their nomadic lifestyle was uncivilized. But the Huns were far from uncivi- lized. They were excellent metal- workers, farmers, and warriors. Around 370 CE, the Huns began invad- ing the Roman Empire, helping cause its final collapse.
u THE FALL OF ROME France, and the changed the map. Angles and Saxons Barbarian tribes turned Roman like the Franks Britain into Saxon turned Gaul into England.
Roman_Empire_16-17.indd 16 3/13/17 11:20 AM XVII (17) For centuries after the rule and did not speak atin was awa its al a les. ot long o its fi rst emperor, eg n a ar arian. oman armies a terward, the omans were in 27 BCE, the oman m were na le to stop them. orced to gi e p control o pire was the most power l he estern emperors lost ritain, a l rance , and state in the ancient world. their power, and this part o pain. he fi nal low came t eginning in the rd the empire slipped awa , in CE, when a ar arian century CE, fi erce tri es o piece piece. named doacer declared people the omans called inall , in CE, ar himsel king o tal . he ar arians in aded the em arians called oths estern oman mpire pire. o the omans, an stormed ome, destro ed ended. he astern mpire one who was not oman its ildings, and carried lasted another , ears.
u BYTHEENDOFTHE u EMPEROR CON- 3rd century CE, stantine founded civil wars and out- Constantinople, side attacks had which became greatly weakened the capital of the the empire. Emperor Eastern Empire. Diocletian divided u HISTORIANSGIVE each other. As The Eastern the empire into two many reasons for the government Empire survived parts, East and West. the Western Empire’s weakened, Roman until 1453, when Each had its own fall. Instead of uniting armies grew more it fell to the Turks. emperor. against the barbarian powerful. Groups of Constantinople threat, the Roman soldiers fought one is now known as emperors and politi- another to make Istanbul. cians plotted against their own favorite leader emperor. In the end, the government lost the loyalty of the Roman people, who were forced to pay high taxes to support the army. Wealthy Romans moved to their u ATTHEBEGINNING country villas and of the 5th century, stopped participat- the Goths descend- ing in or caring ed on Italy and about the Roman u THE HUNSWERE Roman Empire continued their government. among the fiercest while Rome’s attacks on Rome u WHEN ODOACER, king of Italy, the of the barbarians. armies were busy until Emperor a German tribal Western Roman Led by Attila, the fighting off other Honorius moved army commander, Empire officially Huns attacked barbarian tribes. the empire’s capi- declared himself was no more. many parts of the tal to the Italian city of Ravenna. The great city of Rome had finally fallen.
Roman_Empire_16-17.indd 17 3/13/17 11:20 AM XVIII (18) Activities
WRITE AN EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH The Roman Empire didn’t fall in a day, a month, or even a year. But fall it did. Your job is to write a paragraph that explains the different reasons the Roman Empire fell. Use what you have learned in the magazine. Be sure to discuss the various invaders and the emperors’ responses to them. Use a Venn diagram, a time- line, or a T-chart to organize your information.
DESIGN A COIN Most currency, including coins, contains at least one symbol of the country of origin. What symbols might be on a coin used in the Roman Empire? What images would represent those symbols? Use your ideas to design a coin that might have been used in the Roman Empire. Draw a picture of the coin. Write a caption that explains the symbols it contains.
Roman_Empire_18-19.indd 18 3/13/17 11:22 AM XIX (19) MAKE CONNECTIONS WITH THESE RELATED TITLES
Early Romans Christianity and Early Greeks It began as a collection of small farm- Rome’s Legacies From philosophy to democracy, ancient ing villages and grew to become a city As an empire, Rome’s expansive Greece has had a profound impact on that ruled over a vast empire. Along reach stretched far and wide across human civilization. But how did Greek the way, a king was overthrown, a the ancient world. Today, we see its culture and society get its start? Learn republic was begun, and a government impact and influence across the globe. about the geography of the region of checks and balances was created. Paramount to Rome’s empire lies the and its direct impact on trade, which Find out the details behind Rome’s religion of Christianity, a centerpiece in gave birth to cities such as Sparta and early people and its extraordinary place the empire’s growth and legacy. Athens. in history.
CALIFORNIA STANDARDS
HSS 6.7 Students analyze the geo- graphic, political, economic, reli- gious, and social structures during the development of Rome. 6.7.3 Identify the location of and the political and geographic reasons for the growth of Roman territories and expansion of the empire, including how the empire fostered economic growth through the use of currency and trade routes. 6.7.4 Discuss the influence of Julius Caesar and Augustus in Rome’s transition from republic to empire. LEARN MORE ONLINE! Historical and Social Sciences Analysis Skills: • Tacitus (above), a Roman historian • Rome wasn’t the first civilization who lived several decades after to take an official count – or Research, Evidence, and Point of View Augustus, really didn’t like Rome’s census – of its people. But the 5. Students detect the different histor- transformation from a republic to Roman Empire’s census was more ical points of view on historical events an empire. Read an excerpt from advanced than earlier censuses. and determine the context in which one of his works on the subject. It was regular, usually occurring the historical statements were made (the questions asked, sources used, every five years. author’s perspectives). • Greek influence on Roman civili- zation remained strong during the • When the emperor Diocletian divid- time of the empire, especially in ed the empire, he strengthened the arts. Many educated Romans it. He ruled the eastern part and preferred to speak Greek rather put an officer named Maximian in than Latin. charge of the western part.
Roman_Empire_18-19.indd 19 3/13/17 11:22 AM hmhco.com
EDITOR: Jennifer Dixon FACT-CHECKER: Amy McIlwaine ART DIRECTION: Brobel Design DESIGNERS: Ian Brown, Ed Gabel, AUTHOR: Linda Scher, James Waller David Ricculli, Jeremy Rech AUTHOR TEAM LEAD: Amy K. Hughes PHOTO RESEARCH: Ted Levine, Elisabeth Morgan PRESIDENT AND CEO: Ted Levine ACTIVITIES WRITER: Marjorie Frank CHAIRMAN AND FOUNDER: Mark Levine PROOFREADER: Amy Handy, Amy McIlwaine
GRADE 6 TITLES p. center attering ram cala p. right oman doll l m p. pper right (student), p.12 bottom left (togas). Bridgeman Images: Museo e Gallerie Nazionali World’s Early People Ancient India di apodimonte, aples, tal p. top right lla . agli rti e gostini ict re i rar p. ottom right hairdresser , p. ottom right enari s o onori s Mesopotamia Indian Empires linari p. pper le t gladiators against wildcats . Getty Images: DEA/G. Dagli Orti/ Ancient Egypt Ancient China De Agostini Picture Library: p.3 bottom (Marcus Aurelius), p.2 bottom center (Caligula), p.3 bottom left (Trajan); Fine Art Images/Heritage/Hulton Archive: p.2 bottom right Archaeology Early Romans (Nero); Universal History Archive: p.3 bottom left (Hadrian); Lipnitzki: p.3 bottom Language Roman Empire right onstantine , p. pper right onstantine . Granger Collection, NYC: p. top center a al attle p. pper center Attila, the Scourge of God , p. ottom Ancient Hebrews Christianity and Rome’s Legacies le t doacer aphael p. lower right ttila s horseman . iStock: diane p. Early Greeks Olmec and Maya ottom le t g st s aesar stand p. top right testudo); wjarek: p.13 bottom left (altar), p.12 bottom center (stola asticcio p. top right mosaic oto p. top Greece’s Golden Age Civil Rights oman ath lexe is p. top right earthenware gs rafissimo p. pper Ancient Persia right oman gladiators ina encel p. pper right chariot racing . Shutterstock: r an so icki p. middle right oman or m diak p. top right oman road trip mage p. ottom right o gga r ins ixachi p. middle le t olosse m, ome Laia Design Studio: p.18 top (journal cartoon); Natsmith1: p.18 bottom (Roman Nero ON THE COVER: Roman Empire ruins. Science Source: Brian Brake. coin st dio p. top center atican .
PICTURE CREDITS: Alamy: Azoor Photo: p.3 top left (Augustus of Prima Porta); Adam ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS: astland ome p. top arc s reli s ose ramon polo lope p. ottom le t oman Brobel Design: aps pp. , p. . coins orld istor rchi e p. ottom right ithras orth ind ict re rchi es p. le t ilk oad cara an risma rchi o p. top right adrian alkenstein oto Michael Kline Illustration: Cartoons, Cover. p. top center irc s axim s www. i le and ict res.com p. pper le t iocletian p. top le t incinnat s recei ing the am assadors Wood Ronsaville Harlin, Inc.: hil olprit, pp. oman or m , pp. ich alkenstein oto p. ottom acit s . Ancient Art and Architecture Collection: i e , pp. olosse m ill illiams, pp. oldier, ent rion ni orms , p. onald heridan p. ottom right catap lt spears . Art Resource: DEA Picture Library: n o ood, pp. oor i e aren arnes, pp. ap .
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