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The Rhetorical Construction of Motive After Mass Shootings in the United States Between 1949-2012

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The Rhetorical Construction of Motive After Mass Shootings in the United States Between 1949-2012 MADNESS AND VIOLENCE: THE RHETORICAL CONSTRUCTION OF MOTIVE AFTER MASS SHOOTINGS IN THE UNITED STATES BETWEEN 1949-2012 BY © 2017 CASSANDRA C. BIRD Submitted to the graduate degree program in Communication Studies and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Chairperson: Dr. Jay P. Childers Dr. Beth Innocenti Dr. Ashley Muddiman Dr. Dave Tell Dr. Barbara Barnett Date Defended: April 7, 2017 The dissertation committee for CASSANDRA C. BIRD certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: MADNESS AND VIOLENCE: THE RHETORICAL CONSTRUCTION OF MOTIVE AFTER MASS SHOOTINGS IN THE UNITED STATES BETWEEN 1949-2012 Chairperson: Dr. Jay P. Childers Date Approved: April 10, 2017 ii Abstract This dissertation project offers an historical perspective on news media response to mass violence. More specifically, my dissertation traces associations between mental illness and dangerousness as articulated in the aftermath of rampage shootings. Drawing from rhetorical and reception history methodologies, I investigate the discursive aftermath of four notable rampage shootings: the 1949 neighborhood shooting in Camden, New Jersey; the 1984 McDonald’s shooting in San Ysidro, California; the 1991 Luby’s shooting in Killeen, Texas; and finally the 2012 movie theater shooting in Aurora, Colorado. An analysis of news media reports in the aftermath of these shootings reveals the extent to which journalists used fear and stigma associated with the mentally ill as a justification or explanation for the violence. Over time, watching for signs of mental illness became the primary narrative in responses to mass shootings in contemporary American culture. As such, mental illness links the public’s desire to know, or understand, mass violence with the public’s desire to control, or prevent, mass violence. The case studies presented in this dissertation demonstrate that for the American news media and its audience, mental illness has become one of, if not the, primary warning signs of mass shootings. Ultimately, however, accusations of madness and stigmatization of the mentally ill often prevent effective policy change. I believe it is the job of rhetorical scholars to recognize, investigate, and expose the political and ideological commitments underpinning cultural understandings and policy decisions. Indeed, the pervasive use of mental illness in news media as the justification for violence suggests that any benefits of advocacy campaigns and other anti- stigma initiatives cannot be fully realized without substantive changes in news media production habits. iii Acknowledgements Contrary to what my advisor would say, a dissertation does not necessarily start with a question. Indeed, a good question does matter. But I believe a dissertation starts long before a question is formed. It starts in the classes we take, the colleagues we meet, and the events we attend. That being said, there are so many people who have contributed to the success of this dissertation project. Writing a dissertation is hard. It is a labor of love—a product of an unwavering desire to achieve a dream. In this section, I want to say thank you to the many individuals who gave up their time and offered their guidance in the completion of this project. First and foremost, I want to thank my advisor, Dr. Jay Childers. For those who know me, it would come as little surprise that I am a rather demanding pupil; I pride myself on my time management skills and far too often focus on research-product over research-process. Despite these faults, Jay found a way to help me grow as both a scholar and a person. Although his methods were, at times, frustrating and his feedback piercing, his dedication to my success was resolute. Jay was always available to think through a research question, talk through an argument, or, all too often, provide resources to improve my grammar skills. Five years of his mentorship have made me a stronger, more confident academic. So thank you, Jay, thank you so much for everything you have done and will continue to do in pursuit of my success. I also owe a huge thanks to my dissertation committee, Dr. Dave Tell, Dr. Beth Innocenti, Dr. Ashley Muddiman, and Dr. Barbara Barnett, for their valuable insights and scholarly contributions on this project. I am so proud of this final dissertation, and it would have been impossible without their help from the conception of my project to its completion. Graduate school is hard. It challenges you intellectually, mentally, and, at times, even physically. Without my dad, Arthur Bird, and mom, Annie Bird, there is no way I could have made iv it to this point. My parents fielded tearful calls about the impossibility of finishing this project, cheered on my successes, patched the wounds of rejection, and, from time to time, sent along a little money to buy some chocolate to make the writing process a little sweeter. It is not often I am unable to find the words to express adoration or appreciation, but when it comes to my mom and dad, there are no words, in any language, that can grasp the immense gratitude and love I have for their unwavering support. I owe them everything. My sisters, Amanda and Kristina have also been instrumental to finishing this project. Kristina read through countless chapter drafts, reigning in the grammatical errors and troubleshooting ideas or arguments I was failing to articulate clearly. Amanda supported and encouraged me as each deadline was met and goal was achieved. She also helped by letting me video chat with my adorable nephews, Westin and Caleb. I also have a number of friends who have supported me along this journey. From reading chapters, to sitting over coffee and hashing out ideas, these individuals deserve a majority of credit for this finished product. Most notably I want to thank Gaby Byrd, Gretchen Montgomery, Lindsay Harroff, Nick Labinski, and Josh Morgan for their friendship and support. Finally, while graduate school has given me invaluable experiences, immeasurable knowledge, and lifelong friendships, the very best consequence of my time at KU was meeting the love of my life, Michael Kearney. Mike is the kindest, most thoughtful, most generous person I have ever met. He has spent the past five years making my life better, while still challenging me to be a better scholar, teacher, writer, and researcher. The passion he puts into his own research and the dedication he has shown to being a success in his field makes me both proud and inspired. I am so very lucky to have him by my side. Mike—thank you, I love you, and this is for you. v Table of Contents Title Page ........................................................................................................................................ i Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... vi Chapter 1: Rampage Shootings and Mental Illness in America .............................................. 1 America’s Gun Culture and Restrictions ..............................................................................................8 America and Mental Illness ..................................................................................................................13 Framing and Focusing Events ..............................................................................................................16 Reception Histories and Case Studies ..................................................................................................18 Chapter Outline and Conclusion .........................................................................................................26 Chapter 2: Howard Unruh and the Camden Neighborhood Shooting .................................. 33 Fear of Insanity in 1949 America .........................................................................................................37 “Othering” Howard Unruh ..................................................................................................................42 “Othering” by Religious Fanaticism ...................................................................................................43 “Othering” by Appearance ..................................................................................................................47 “Othering” by Penchant for Violence .................................................................................................53 The Verdict for Unruh ..........................................................................................................................56 Conclusion and Epilogue ......................................................................................................................58 Chapter 3: James Huberty and the San Ysidro McDonald’s Massacre ................................ 68 Contextual Factors of the 1984 Shooting .............................................................................................72 Rise of the Mass Murderer ..................................................................................................................75 Definition and Motive
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