Hallucinations Author(S): Ronald K. Siegel Source: Scientific American, Vol

Hallucinations Author(s): Ronald K. Siegel Source: Scientific American, Vol. 237, No. 4 (October 1977), pp. 132-141 Published by: Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/24953969 Accessed: 07-10-2017 20:50 UTC

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This content downloaded from 137.22.17.133 on Sat, 07 Oct 2017 20:50:14 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Hallucinations

These false perceptions, which can occur in any ofthe senses, turn out to be much alike from one person to another. Apparently they have their roots in excitations of the central nervous system

by Ronald K. Siegel

motorist who drives alone at night states of insanity. delirium tremens. such as tunnel, funnel, alley. cone and A in a state of extreme fatigue may drug intoxication. nervous disorders. vessel. The fourth type consisted of spi n well perceive things that are not nightmares. dreams. ecstasies and fevers rals. The form constants were further there: people. animals. vehicles or were all characterized by excitation and characterized by varied and saturated strange forms. Such a percept is charac the production of images from memory colors. intense brightness and symmetri terized as a hallucination. Although the and the imagination. His countryman cal configurations. The visions seemed definition of the word (which comes Jacques Moreau described hallucina to be located at reading distance. They from the Latin hallucinari. meaning to tions as being similar to dreams in which varied gre'atly in apparent size. In gener prate. to dream or to wander in mind) is imagined visual, auditory and tactile al they could not be consciously con far from precise. one that is widely ac stimuli seem to be real. Foretelling what trolled. cepted in psychiatry is: "A false sensory future neurophysiological research Kluver made the crucial observation perception in the absence of an actual would reveal, he maintained that hallu that these form constants appear in a external stimulus. May be induced by cinations resulted from excitation of the wide variety of hallucinatory condi emotional and other factors such as brain. Moreau's technique. which he de tions. He listed a number of the condi drugs. alcohol and stress. May occur in scribed in 1845. was to take hashish. tions. and other investigators have add any of the senses." which put him in a hallucinatory state ed to his list. which now includes falling By this definition it is likely that ev while leaving him able to report his ex asleep. waking up. insulin hypoglyce eryone has had a hallucination at one periences. (Moreau also tried to per mia. the delirium of fever. epilepsy. psy time or another. Lonely explorers. iso suade his medical colleagues and friends chotic episodes. advanced syphilis. sen lated hunters in the Arctic and prisoners to take hashish. His colleagues were hes sory deprivation. photostimulation. elec in dark cells have reported experiencing itant because they did not view the tak trical stimulation. crystal gazing. mi them. Some people seek out the experi ing of hashish as an acceptable form of graineheadaches. dizziness and of course ence by taking hallucinogenic drugs. objective experimentation. The Bohe a variety of drug intoxications. Under the right social circumstances the mian artists and writers of 19th-century Most of the drugs that give rise to perceptions may be regarded as valid. Paris were more receptive. One of them. such imagery are classifed as hallucino Joan of Arc became a saint because of the novelist Theophile Gautier. went on gens. Other drugs and substances can her visions. and the flashes of light per to organize the Club des Haschichins. give rise to similar effects.however. and ceived by the astronauts were taken whose members included Balzac. Bau so most psychoactive compounds (to quite seriously. (They were actually delaire. the younger Dumas and Victor the extent that they cause the mind or cau�ed by cosmic rays.) On the other Hugo. Some of the club members' writ the attention to wander) can be regarded hand. negative evaluations are applied ings testify to the richness of the imag as hallucinogens. In this category are al to similar perceptions by inmates of cor ery induced by hashish.) cohol, carbon dioxide. cocaine. cortisol. rectional institutions. All such reports. In Germany and the U.S. early stu digitalis. scopolamine and even tobacco however. are necessarily subjective. dents of hallucinations followed a simi with a high concentration of nicotine. When one has a hallucination. one does lar course of self-experimentation and so alone. in the privacy of one's mind. focused mainly on visual hallucinations. he form constants appear in the first Do the hallucinations of one person Using mescaline. a hallucinogenic alka Tof two stages of drug-induced imag have anything in common with those of loid derived from the peyote cactus ery. The images of the second stage. another? My colleagues and I in the Lophophora williamsii. Heinrich Klu· which are more complex but can incor Neuropsychiatric Institute of the Uni ver began a series of investigations at the porate the simple constants. include versity of California at Los Angeles University of Chicago in 1926. He re landscapes. faces and familiar objects have attempted to answer the question ported that mescaline-induced imagery and places. The complex images. which by means of experiment. We find that could be observed with the eyes either are perhaps the most dramatic aspect of hallucinations do have a great deal in closed or open and that with the eyes the hallucinatory experience. are usual common. Moreover. the experiments open it was impossible to look at a ly regarded as an activation of images point to underlying mechanisms in the blank wall without seeing it as being already recorded in the memory. central nervous system as the source of a covered with various forms. One would expect the forms and universal phenomenology of hallucina Among these forms Kluver found scenes of complex imagery to be almost tions. four constant types. One he described infinitely diverse. Actually constants ap One of the earliest classifications of with terms such as grating. lattice. fret pear even at this stage. Indeed. a review hallucinations was offered in 1853 by work. filigree. honeycomb and chess of more than 500 hallucinations in Brierre de Boismont of France. He board. A second type resembled cob duced by lysergic acid diethylamide found that hallucinations occurring in webs. A third was described with terms (LSD) revealed that whereas between 62

132 This content downloaded from 137.22.17.133 on Sat, 07 Oct 2017 20:50:14 UTC All use© 1977 subject SCIENTIFIC to http://about.jstor.org/terms AMERICAN, INC and 72 percent of the subjects experi the novelty of the visions. expressing the Our firstexperiments were designed enced the simple form constants. more view that many hallucinating people are to see if the hallucinatory phenomena I than 79 percent reported quite similar so overwhelmed by the color or bright have described appeared when halluci complex images. They included reli ness of the images that they do not artic nations were induced in untrained sub gious symbols and images (72 percent) ulate the basic forms. It was this inartic jects by drugs. Each subject was given and images of small animals and hu ulateness that challenged KlUver to de either a standard dose of a hallucinogen man beings (49 percent). most of them scribe the simple first stage of hallucina (usually marihuana or its active princi friendly and many in the nature of car tory imagery. The apparent complexity ple. tetrahydrocannabinol) or an inac toons and caricatures. of the second-stage images challenged tive placebo. (The subject did not know Most of the investigators and the sub us to do the same for them. We believed which substance he was receiving.) He jects did not describe the complex imag the study of such phenomena might was then asked to lie on a bed in a light ery in detail. Moreover. before KlUver's point to a common visual imagery un proof and soundproof chamber and to classic work little was said about the ge derlying hallucinations and so might report his experiences. We recorded the ometry of even simple hallucinatory im help us understand the origin of these reports on tape and analyzed them ac ages. KlUver attributed this omission to percepts and related ones. cording to the frequency of different

HALLUCINATORY SHAPES AND COLORS are represented in left is carrying a basket of freshly harvested peyote and viewing a this yarn painting made by a member of the Huichol Indian group vision that is exploding with color and streaks and Hashes of light. in Mexico. The picture was made to show visions of the kind experi The peyote cactus is represented at the right. The picture was made enced in hallucination brought on by taking peyote. The Indian at the by putting beeswax on wood and then pressing yarn into the beeswax.

This content downloaded from 137.22.17.133 on Sat, 07 Oct 2017 20:50:14 UTC 133 All use© 1977 subject SCIENTIFIC to http://about.jstor.org/terms AMERICAN, INC forms, colors, movements and complex geometric forms in it. The imagery was The geometric forms were soon re images. characterized by a bright light in the placed by complex imagery. The com The results showed that normal imag center of the field of vision that ob plex images reported included recogniz ery (that is, imagery not induced by scured details but allowed images on the able scenes, people and objects, many in drugs) is characterized by amorphous periphery to be observed. cartoon or caricature form, with some black-and-white forms (sometimes in The location of this point of light cre degree of depth and symmetry. The cluding lines and curves) that move ated a tunnel-like perspective. The sub images were often projected against a about randomly in the visual field. Any jects reported viewing much of their im background of geometric forms. one who closes his eyes or goes into a agery in relation to a tunnel. According In listening to these reports we en dark room is likely to experience a base to their reports, the images tended to countered certain difficulties. The sub line imagery of this kind. Indeed, one pulsate, moving toward the center of the jects differed widely in their choice of can induce similar imagery, some of it tunnel or away from the bright light and words. Moreover, the reports were rid brightly colored and geometric, by gent sometimes moving in both directions. dled with idiosyncratic experiences. We ly rubbing one's closed eyelids. When the images appeared in color, therefore decided to facilitate the ease With hallucinogenic drugs, however, all colors were reported, although the and accuracy of reporting by training the number of images reported by the incidence of reports that the color was our subjects to use a standard descrip subjects rose sharply. The consensus red increased as the dosage of the drug tive code. was that the imagery resembled what increased. Geometric forms frequently one would see in a motion picture or a combined, duplicated and superim fforts along this line had previously slide show. A number of the subjects posed. At times the flow of imagery was E been made at Harvard University had difficulty in describing the imagery, so rapid that most subjects found it diffi by the psychologists Ogden R. Lindsley but they agreed that there were many cult to maintain a running commentary. and Timothy Leary. They employed the

LATTICE FORMS, one of several form constants reported dnring in the hallucinatory visions induced by peyote. Some pictures made drug-induced hallucinations, are depicted in four samples of Huichol by schizophrenics exhibit a similar preoccupation with geometric de Indian embroidery. The patterns illustrate designs commonly found signs, which are often distorted and repeated in symmetrical patterns.

134 This content downloaded from 137.22.17.133 on Sat, 07 Oct 2017 20:50:14 UTC All use© 1977 subject SCIENTIFIC to http://about.jstor.org/terms AMERICAN, INC operant key press as a reporting device; each key was equated with the occur rence of a subjective state. A hallucinat ing subject who wanted to report that he "saw" or "heard" something would press a given key for each condition. Lindsley and his colleagues had already demonstrated that the key-pressing technique provided a continuous and objective method for the study of gross behavior in altered states of conscious ness. Nevertheless. a method for obtaining detailed information on subjective phe nomena was not developed until Lind sley and Leary devised the "experiential typewriter." This apparatus consisted of a 20-key typewriter connected to a re cording instrument. The keys served to code various subjective states. including modes of perception. internal images. external images. images seen with the eyes closed and with the eyes open. hal lucinations. colors and so on. Training consisted of having the subjects memo rize the categories and the correspond ing keys. When a subject felt a bodily sensation such as "pain." he pressed a specific key to signify the event. A hall u cination with oscillating colors could be signified by pressing a different key. In tests with the hallucinogens LSD and dimethyltryptamine Leary found that the muscular discoordination asso WHITE LIGHT seen during the early stages of intoxication with a hallucinogenic drug is ciated with those drugs interfered with portrayed. The visual imagery is reported to explode from the center to the periphery. Pattern app earsinitially in black and white, but bright colors may develop as the experieuce progresses. pressing the keys. The problem could have been avoided with lower doses. and the key press could have been re placed by a verbal report. (Leary had found that verbal reporting was not dis rupted by the drugs.) Therefore we de cided to develop a verbal code for re porting drug-induced hallucinations. On the basis of the previous results we constructed a list of eight forms (ran dom. line. curve. web. lattice. tunnel, spiral and kaleidoscope). eight colors (black. violet. blue. green. yellow. or ange. red and white) and eight patterns of movement (aimless. vertical, hori zontal, oblique. explosive. concentric. rotational and pulsating) for subjects to employ in describing visual imagery. We then selected a group of subjects and trained them with slides illustrating the different categories. For example. in training related to the tunnel form we showed hundreds of different slides of tunnels so that the subjects would have a broad concept of the tunnel form. In this way new instances of the form. which might not have been perceived before. could be appropriately classified on the basis of common features. The subjects were trained to recognize all three cate gories (form. color and movement) in displays projected for eight millisec onds. with a one-second pause between displays. Our aim in making the displays brief was to simulate the rapid changes SPIRAL TUNNEL is another of the early form constants in drug-induced hallucination. The of imagery in hallucinations. main patterns of movemeut accompanying the form are reported as pulsation and rotation.

135 This content downloaded from 137.22.17.133 on Sat, 07 Oct 2017 20:50:14 UTC All use© 1977 subject SCIENTIFIC to http://about.jstor.org/terms AMERICAN, INC tice-tunnel forms was reported. There after complex forms constituted from 43 to 75 percent of the forms reported by trained subjects who had received hallucinogens. The complex images first appeared in the reports as overlying the lattice-tunnels and situated on the pe riphery of those images. Common complex images included childhood memories and scenes associ ated with strong emotional experiences that the subjects had undergone. These hallucinatory images were more than pictorial replicas; many of them were elaborated and embellished into fantas tic scenes. This constructive aspect of imagery can be illustrated by a simple exercise. Recall the last time you went swimming in the ocean. Now ask your self if this memory includes a picture of yourself running along the beach or moving about in the water. Such a pic ture is obviously fictitious. since you could not have been looking at yourself. but images in the memory often include fleeting pictures of this kind. Our sub jects often reported equally improbable images. such as aerial perspectives and underwater views. It has not been established where such constructions arise. but contributions are probably made in the encoding. stor age and retrieval stages of the memory process. Much of the content of com plex imagery can also be influencedby environmental stimuli. Since our sub jects were in an isolated chamber. most LATTICE-TUNNEL FORM CONSTANT is depicted in a painting made to show a pattern of their images came from their memo that is often reported during the early stages of intoxication from marihuana and tetrahydro ry. Occasionally. however. we escorted cannabinol (the active principle of marihuana). It is possible that the blue color is related to the the subjects (at the peak of the halluci initial lowering of the body temperature and to the absorption of blue light by hemoglobin in natory experience) to a botanical gar "Hoater" cells in the retina. Colors tend to become red with time and with increasing dosage. den. There they wore goggles through which they could not see. lay on the grass and reported what they "saw" with All the subjects. including some who ports per minute; the untrained subjects their eyes open. At these times the imag were untrained so' that we could see if reported only about five times per min ery from memory was reduced signifi their reports of visual experiences were ute. (The duration of a typical session carttly. and reports of birds. airplanes. comparable to those of the trained sub was six hours.) trees and so on increased. In other ex jects. then participated in a series of The imagery associated with place periments we have shaped and guided weekly test sessions in each of which bos. the stimulant d-amphetamine and drug-induced imagery by giving the sub they received either a hallucinogen. a the depressant phenobarbital was de jects suggestive words or music. Never stimulant. a depressant or a placebo. No scribed as black-artd-white random theless. even these primed complex im subject knew what he was receiving. forms moving about aimlessly. The hal ages were usually reported as appearing Both high and low doses were tested. lucinogens tetrahydrocannabinol, psilo in lattice-tunnel arrangements and mov The subjects were tested in the light cybin. LSD and mescaline induced dra ing in explosive or rotational configura proof chamber I have mentioned. All matic changes. Here the forms became tions. the subjects were instructed to report less random and more organized and ge During the peak hallucinatory peri what they "saw" with their eyes open. ometric as the experience progressed. ods the subjects frequently described but the trained subjects were restricted The black-and-white images began to themselves as having become part of the to the descriptive code. In the middle of take on blue hues. and movement be imagery. At such times they stopped us the session the trained subjects were came more organized and pulsating. At ing similes in their reports and asserted tested with slides of real images to en 30 minutes after the administration of that the images were real. This point sure that the drugs and dosages were not the drug the subjects reported a signifi marked the transition from pseudohal impairing the skills they had acquired in cant increase in lattice and tunnel forms lucination to true hallucination. Highly training. (We found no indication of im and a slight increase in kaleidoscopic creative and fantastic combinations of pairment.) forms. By 90 and 120 minutes most imagery were reported. sometimes with forms were lattice-tunnels. Concomi as many as 10 changes of image per sec he results were intriguing. We found tantly the colors shifted to red. orange ond. The subjects frequently reported Tthat the trained subjects could keep and yellow. Movement continued to be feeling dissociated from their bodies. abreast of the rapid flow of imagery and pulsating but became more organized. could readily classify most of the im with explosive and rotational patterns. he remarkable constancies of drug ages into the categories of the reporting Complex imagery usually did not ap T induced hallucinations lead natural code. These subjects averaged 20 re- pear until well after the shift to the lat- ly to an inquiry into how universal they

136 This content downloaded from 137.22.17.133 on Sat, 07 Oct 2017 20:50:14 UTC All use© 1977 subject SCIENTIFIC to http://about.jstor.org/terms AMERICAN, INC UNUSUAL PERSPECTIVES are reported in hallucinatory images pattern with complex memory images at the periphery (upper right), that seem to be drawn from the memory. Characteristic perspectives a scene viewed asif the subject were under water, looking up toward include a distant scene (with abundant detail) often recognized as an and through the surface (lower left) and an aerial perspective (lower event that was experienced in childhood (upper left), a lattice-tunnel right), which may be accompanied by sensations of floating and flying.

137 This content downloaded from 137.22.17.133 on Sat, 07 Oct 2017 20:50:14 UTC All use© 1977 subject SCIENTIFIC to http://about.jstor.org/terms AMERICAN, INC may be. Some of them are strikingly lective unconscious. Moreover, as many to study a group of Huichol Indians who similar to the primordial or archetypal anthropologists have noted, the halluci take peyote. They have remained rela forms (such as the mandala, the mystic nogen-inspired art of many primitive tively isolated since Aztec times. We in symbol of the universe employed in peoples often contains constants of terviewed them during their peyote cer Hinduism and Buddhism as an aid to form, color and movement. emonies, eliciting reports on their visual meditation) that the psychoanalyst C. We examined this phenomenon by imagery. The images proved to be virtu O. J ung described as part of man's col- traveling to the Sierra Madre of Mexico ally identical to the symmetrical. repeat-

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VISUAL HALLUCINATIONS seen during controlled intoxication the periphery of the visual field.Patterns c, e,f, g, i, k and I are virtually with cocaine were drawn by people who served as subjects in the au identical to the patterns seen in the hallucinations accompanying mi thor's experiments. The patterns were usually seen with the eyes open graine attacks. Indeed, pattern I is the "fortification illusion" that is in a dark room; they appeared as transitory black-and-white spots in frequently reported by people who are suffering migraine headaches.

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: Royal-Oliveni-�mlth Corana Aman a-lrtton-Commodore- the discharge of neurons in structures of nervous system. As early as 1845 Mo We carry. . e��;;;;�::�S;;;-C�:�!P:8�'clo�d�'�-=-�i;::;:r��- the eye. Phosphenes can include spots, reau was maintaining that hallucinations Micrama-Uoyds-B05hei-RockweII-Sentry Sales-Walton Gym equipl.-RCA-Zenitll-Sony---Atllri-Phone Mate·Record A Call-Code A . disks, concentric arcs or circles and resulted from cerebral excitation that Pllone and many mo'e. Qver20.000C8ns. unils. (Try COFFEE. PLUS 8t S1.79 per one pound can LA.by the case al 24 Fretghl prepald.l checkerboard patterns. enabled thoughts and memories to be Prices are I.o.b. Goods subjecllo availability. Ask lor ourlamous catatog. We will beat 8ny prices il the competition has tile goods on I"Ilod. IU. The constants are also highly similar come transformed into sensory impres Add U.OO lor shipping hind l"Ield calculatorl. CA residents add 6Of. sales to the patterns found in hallucinations sions. Recent electrophysiological re accompanying migraine attacks. Mi search has confirmed that hallucinations graine patterns include lines, grids, con- are directly related to states of excita-

139 This content downloaded from 137.22.17.133 on Sat, 07 Oct 2017 20:50:14 UTC All use© 1977 subject SCIENTIFIC to http://about.jstor.org/terms AMERICAN, INC tion and arousal of the central nervous system, which are coupled with a func tional disorganization of the part of the brain that regulates incoming stimuli. Behaviorally the result is an impairment of the discrimination normally based on external stimuli and a preoccupation • with internal imagery. This hallucinatory process has been described by such terms as "memory flashback" and "involuntary reminis cence." Certain psychoanalysts have postulated that it is the result of a gener al regression to primitive or childlike thinking. coupled with the emergence of repressed information and memories. Students of psychedelic phenomena have postulated that hallucinogens re lease normally suppressed information and memories. Perhaps the most integrated explana tion has been provided by the percep tual-release theory of hallucinations, which was formulated by the British neurologist Hughlings Jackson in 19 31. As recently brought up to date by Louis Jolyon West of UCLA. the.hypothesis assumes that normal memories are sup pressed by a mechanism that acts as a gate to the flowof information from the outside. An input of new information inhibits the emergence and awareness of When we build Questars for special applications, they are engineered to previous perceptions and processed in combat the hostile environments that prevent an optical system from formation. If the input is decreased or delivering its theoretical performance. Our designs tackle the problems of impaired while awareness remains. such atmospheric conditions, e xtremes of temperature, high vibration levels perceptions are released and may be dy and high gravitational forces in a combination of ways, depending on the namically organized and experienced as critical demands of the application. hallucinations. dreams or fantasies. We were the first to put the temperature-stable optical material Cer-Vit® West has offered an analogy to illus into production optics; we introduced peaked dielectric coatings shortly trate the process. Picture a man in his after their inception and have now included enhanced silver for maximum living room. standing at a closed win reflectivity when it is needed. Special metals such as Invar have long been dow opposite his fireplace and looking used to decrease the expansion factors of our ruggedized models, thus out at the sunset. He is absorbed by the maintaining an instrument's focus throughout temperature extremes. view of the outside world and does not When your specs read like this: "optics system to function as receiving visualize the interior of the room. As aperture in conjunction with laser system operating at a wavelength of darkness falls outside. however, the im 0.6943 microns" or when the frequency, sinusoidal amplitude and sweep rate ages of the objects in the room behind of the vibration levels demand the ultimate in ruggedization, consider him can be seen reflected dimly in the Questar. We have met these challenges and our answers are in production window. With the deepening of dark here every day. ness the fire in the fireplace. illuminates the room. and the man now sees a vivid Both photographs show the Questar SR-7, a modified version of our reflection of the room, which appears to famous Questar Seven. If is the prime optical component of a laser tracking be outside the window. As the analogy is system and features diffraction limited optics of Cer-Vif® and quartz applied to the perceptual-release hy housed in a ruggedized barrel assembly of Invar. As a result, the system pothesis, the daylight (the sensory input) is essentially temperature compensated and extremely stable when o perating is reduced while the interior illumina in a variety of environmental and climatic conditions. tion (the general level of arousal of the

@QUESTAR CORPORATION 1974 central nervous system) remains bright. All rights reserved so that images originating within the rooms of the brain may be perceived as though they came from outside the win dows of the senses. Through such research and hypothe BOXQUESTAR SR20, NEW. HOPE, PA. 18938 ses we have begun to understand the na ture of hallucinations as stored images SEND FOR OUR LITERATURE. in the brain. Like a mirage that shows a OUR 1977 BOOKLET ABOUT magnificent city. the images of halluci QUESTAR, THE WORLD'S FIN nations are actually reflectedimages of EST, MOST VERSATILE TELE real objects located elsewhere. The city SCOPE CONTAINS BEA UTIFUL is no less intriguing and no less worthy PHOTOGRAPHS BY QUESTAR of study because it is not where we think OWNERS. $1 COVERS MAILING it is. Further experiments will help lo COSTS ON THIS CONTINEN T; BY AIR, TO S. AMERICA $3; EU calize it. ROPE AND N. AFRICA, $3.50; ELSEWHERE $4. This content downloaded from 137.22.17.133 on Sat, 07 Oct 2017 20:50:14 UTC All use©® 1977 Resubjectgist�red SCIENTIFIC to http://about.jstor.org/terms Trademark AMERICAN, of INC Owens-illinoiS, Inc. Our promise is simple: we'll show you how to photogra�tl everything you love in nature. You add new dimensions to your enjoyment of nature when you record memorable scenes and moments on film, to enjoy over and over again. Now, let the LIFE Library of PhOlograI?hy show you how to make your photos as memorable as nature Itself. The introductory volume in the Library. Photographing Natllre, tells you and shows you how to capture the fleeting,the almost hid den,or the awesome scenes of nature. How to photograph subjects that won't stand still. How to get ultra close-ups. How to shoot underwater. How to capture the grandeur of vast landscapes. You'll tum again and again to its inspiring collection of nature photographs from the masters, absorbing their special techniques. The btrds of Roger ToryPeterson and Eric Hosking. The sea crea tures of Douglas Faulkner. The landscapes of Ansel Adams and Eliot Porter. And so many more. With the guidance of the LIFE Library of Photography, your technical ability will grow and grow ... not only in nature photogra phy, but in all areas of photography. See how Ralph Morse used a But see for yourself at our expense. We'll send you the introduc high-speed strobe to capture this How can you get a dramatic shot like this? Photographing Nature, 10 gibbon inswing. (See page 24) tory volume, for days free. Details are on See how Bob Walch did it-with a wide the order form. angle lens. (See page 215)

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