Marches Et Frontières Dans Les Himalayas

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Marches Et Frontières Dans Les Himalayas C h a P i t r e 1 les HimalaYas et la barrière Une union très imparfaite 1. LES HIMALAYAS oU la PÉriPHÉrie COMME QUESTION ceNTRALE entre la plaine indo-gangétique et les basses terres du Takla Makan-Gobi sont concentrées 96 % des terres de plus de 3 000 m de l’asie1, qui constituent le plus formidable ensemble de hautes terres du globe (d’une altitude moyenne de 4 500 m), circonscrit au nord et au sud par des chaînes culminant à 7 000 m, voire 8 000 m . Étroitement liées entre elles au sortir du nœud des Pamirs (500 km à peine séparent Karghalik de Rawalpindi), les chaînes divergent et s’individualisent rapidement pour composer de longs aligne- ments globalement orientés ouest-est (la largeur de l’ensemble est alors de 1 . asie insulaire non comprise . Le chiffre associe au Tibet les massifs périphériques qui forment avec lui un ensemble continu . Voir André Cailleux, « Tibet, Andes : catastrophes, plaques et rétroaction », Annales de géographie, no 488, juillet-août 1979, p . 419-431 . 20 Marches et frontières dans les Himalayas près de 1 500 km) avant de se réunir au rebroussement birman et d’épouser une direction méridienne (quelque 1 300 km de largeur) . Dans ce contexte régional l’Himalaya apparaît comme « un monde à part, indien par sa base, par sa végétation, par son climat, par les fleuves qui s’y épanchent, tibétain par l’énorme protubérance terrestre dont il forme le rebord méridional2 » . il est « la figure géographique qui domine l’inde3 » et, dans la géographie régionale classique, l’une des trois macro-régions de l’inde, avec les Plaines septentrionales (Northern plains) et la péninsule du Deccan . Le ou les Himalaya(s) ? Nulle règle ne paraît s’être imposée, mais le singulier – sans doute influencé en cela par le religieux4, – est privilégié quand sont évoqués le milieu, la structure du massif ou l’étagement altitu- dinal des végétations et des modes de vie : l’Himalaya comme système est objet d’études . Par contre, dès qu’on prend en compte la diversité des faits sociaux ou politiques dans le massif, le pluriel est préféré parce qu’exprimant mieux la diversité des modes d’occupation de l’espace, celle des formes et degrés de développement, ou les phénomènes politiques . 1.1. Des questions de Limites Le rebord sud des hautes terres tibétaines Par convention, l’Himalaya est présenté comme une chaîne de montagnes s’étendant du N-N-O en direction de l’e, puis du S-e sur plus de 2 500 km, entre les gorges de l’indus au droit du Nanga Parbat et celle du Tsangpo au droit du Namche Barwa, entre 74° 50 e et 95° 40 e, entre inde et Chine (Tibet)5 . Cette définition est aussi celle des géographes chinois, qui consi- dèrent ces deux sommets comme constituant les limites ouest et est du massif himalayen6 . Une seconde définition, qui associe aux critères morphologiques des données hydrographiques, intègre dans un « système himalayen » la totalité de son bassin versant, soit les cours supérieurs et médians de l’indus et du Brahmapoutre, ainsi que leurs affluents, associant en outre à la chaîne himalayenne stricto sensu celle de l’Hindou Kouch, du Karakoram et les chaînes indo-birmanes7 . 2 . Élisée reclus, Nouvelle géographie universelle, t . VIIi, Paris, 1883, p . 35 . 3 . K .M . Panikkar, Geographical Factors in Indian History, Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1959, p . 47 . 4 . et peut-être aussi le contexte spécifique du démarrage de la recherche en Himalaya, qui n’eut accès, dans un premier temps, qu’au terrain de l’Himalaya du Népal, favorisant la production d’un « modèle » himalayen . 5 . Selon J .D . ives et B . Messerli, The Himalayan Dilemma, Londres, routledge, 1989, p . 16 . 6 . ren Mei’e (dir ),. An Outline of China’s physical Geography, Beijing, Foreign Language Press, 1985, p . 452 . Les mêmes limites sont retenues par les géographes népalais ; voir Ram Kumar Panday, The Himalayan Heights, Katmandou, ratna Pustar Bhandar, 1995, p . 17 . 7 . C’est une définition de travail, définissant les limites de l’espace pris en compte par l’iCiMOD, et que ives et Messerli (op. cit., p . 21) identifient comme « south-central Asian mountains-plateaus-plains system » . Limites des Himalayas Les Himalayas KAZAKHSTAN KIRGHIZISTAN CHINE et la barrière TADJIKISTAN AFGHANISTAN PAKISTAN NÉPAL BHOUTAN BANGLADESH MYANMAR INDE 0 200 km altitudes supérieures à 3000 m 21 ©EG, 1998 22 Marches et frontières dans les Himalayas C’est une définition intermédiaire qui est actuellement la plus évoquée par les géographes indiens, « de 72° 30 E à 97° 30 E8 », mais elle est ­fortement marquée par des critères politiques, puisque les limites ainsi définies ­coïn cident avec les extrémités occidentale et orientale de la frontière sino-indienne, telle que l’inde la revendique9 . il semble y avoir confusion implicite entre la chaîne et le massif, entre cette succession de hautes crêtes qui abrite les 30 sommets de plus de 8 000 m de la planète, et l’ensemble de reliefs dont le Grand Himalaya constitue l’épine dorsale . au sud, la limite entre les Plaines septentrionales et le massif est fixée par convention au Teraï, dont les dépôts détritiques (notamment les plus grossiers, ceux du Bharbar) marquent la limite avec les plaines alluviales de l’indus, du Gange et du Brahmapoutre . La limite septentrionale varie par contre selon les auteurs et une approche classique intègre dans le massif himalayen les chaînes bordant au sud l’ensemble tibétain, au-delà de la zone de suture indus-Tsangpo10, qui correspond à quelques exceptions près aux limites septentrionales du bassin versant indien de l’ensemble tibétain . Toutefois, si cette définition géomorphologique est communément admise, d’autres limites sont évoquées quand sont prises en compte des données administratives ou humaines faisant coïncider l’espace en question avec les frontières nationales et ne prenant plus en compte que les pentes sud du Grand Himalaya, ou les territoires au sud des lignes des plus hautes crêtes11 . L’espace visible est approprié comme espace national12, intégrant parfois les « enclaves étrangères » du Népal et du Bhoutan13 . Les Himalayas apparaissent globalement comme un vaste rempart bordant les plaines indo-gangétique et du Brahmapoutre au nord-ouest, nord et nord-est de l’inde, depuis la région de Punch (Cachemire) à l’ouest jusqu’à C 8 . .D . Deshpande, India : A Regional Interpretation, New Delhi, Northern Book Centre, 1992, p . 13 . 9 . Cette définition ne s’applique que lorsqu’on s’intéresse au massif ; la chaîne demeure dans des limites plus classiques ; B C. Law (dir ),. Mountains and Rivers of India, Calcutta, National Committee for Geography, 1968, p . 38-39 . 10 . Bernard Francou, Hautes montagnes, passions d’exploration, Paris, Masson, 1993, p . 34 . 11 . ainsi Saroj K . Pal, dans une géographie régionale de l’Himalaya, intègre dans l’espace himalayen la chaîne du Ladakh dans la région de l’Himalaya du Cachemire, mais l’exclut dans l’Himalaya du Pendjab ; Saroj K . Pal, « Terrain determinism and mobility of Himalayan settlements », Anindya Pal (dir ),. The Himalaya Environment, Economy and Society, New Delhi, Vikas Publishers, 1995, p . 34-35 . 12 . Curieusement, les limites ainsi définies excluent alors la limite occidentale de l’Himalaya, puisque le Nanga Parbat est en territoire pakistanais, à 30 km à l’ouest de la ligne de contrôle effectif . 13 . Si le Népal est cité comme pays étranger quand il est traité dans les géographies régionales, le Sikkim (avant 1975) et le Bhoutan sont souvent traités sans qu’il soit fait état de leur souveraineté . Les Himalayas et la barrière 23 la vallée de la Lohit (arunachal Pradesh) à l’est, que la tradition hindoue a nommé Himavanta, et que les puranas classent comme Varsaparvata et Maryadaparvata, comme des montagnes-frontières14 . Secteur occidental Karakash Kangxigar Dahongluitan Karakoram La Daulat Tianshuihai Aksai Chin Tso Beg Oldi Kizil Jilga Tielongtan Murgo Shyok Sumdo Sasoma Galwan Satti Changmar Lanak La Khardung La Kongka La Tsolu Nyingri Leh Shyok Tangtse Phobrang Chang La Karu Khurnak Fort Rong Pangong Tso Wüjiang Chushul Indus Spanggur Rudog Rudog Takh Chang La ligne de contrôle effectif Tashigong Jaggang limite Tibet-Xinjiang (Gar Gunsa) Hanle territoire revendiqué Chumar Demchok route carrossable Jara La piste col Indus ville, lieu-dit Zhaxigang Shiquanhe 0 100 km (Ali) 14B . C. Law, « Mountains of india as in ancient literature », B C. Law (dir ),. Mountains and Rivers of India, Calcutta, National Committee for Geography, 1968, p . 5 ..
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