A Common Platform

Thomas Hanna, Mathew Please print on Lawrence, Nils Peters recycled Paper December 2020 This PDF has been designed to mininimize paper and Ink use.

The authors would like to thank Michael Brennan and Houston Davidson for their research and writing contributions to this report. We would also like to thank Katie Parker, Miriam Brett, and Adrienne Buller for their comments and suggestions. Produced by Common Wealth and Democracy Collaborative

common-wealth.co.uk democracycollaborative.org ii Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters 13 19 Contents 5-Reforms and alternatives 7 4-Detrimental power effects monopolyof platform 4 3-The political economy of platforms 2 2-Definitions and terminology 1 1-Introduction iii Summary Executive 40 10-Conclusion 28 recommendations 9-Policy 25 public ownership democratic of principles and 8-Goals 7-Data and platforms in the US 18 and platforms in6-Data the UK

iii common-wealth.co.uk summary Executive and collected by the companies. platform users platform by generated data of monetisation and analysis, collection, exponential this power is consolidated and by akey extended feature of the the economy: platform Moreover, processes. to and democratic undermine workers’power regulations, rights, from search to online and using retail their and from to social services, mobility networks increasingly acquiring adominant position of our across more and economy, more parts by seemingly limitless flows of venture(VC),capital corporations these platforms are a combination of the effects of digitalconnection and anti-competitive action. Boosted enabled today’s giants platform to accumulate wealth such and extraordinary power is or more distinct two between but interdependent sets of –is users not new. What has business model –in which the product or business is on focussed facilitating interactions and proliferation of digital over platforms the as The platform a several past years. billion. aroundof $200 his personal fortune rise by more than $73 billion of the since crisis the to start arecord to believable scarcely levels. Jeff Bezos, the founder Amazon,of for instance, has seen surged during the Covid-19 pandemic, the wealth of their major shareholders have risen tens billions of are all dollars. of worth of the market cap of the and S&P companies 500 like Uber, Airbnb, and Paypal Lyft, “Big Five” Google Apple, Amazon, –represent –Facebook, Microsoft, more than 20% the For instance, systems. political and ourinfluence culture,over interactions, social tremendous wield and dominate increasingly like our economies Amazon and Google antitrust rules by distorting competition in online retail markets. Just weeks later, the European Commission formally accused Amazon of breaking EU companies in history, the move is likely long-overdue. Yet Google/Alphabet is not alone. market and parent its company, Alphabet, now one of the largest and valuable most of thiscases century. With Google controlling more than an 87% share of the U.S. search action against Google, thestep first whatin mightbe one of the biggest anti-monopoly political outcomes, both independently and in conjunction with collection and use of data. and coincidentally, economic, linked being also are they social, to numerous negative their power. curtailing at aimed regulations away public and policies Not swatting and Their main focus has the become collection of rent while fending offpotential competitors rentier and our giants of age. barons robber the become have – economy physical the and increasingly, the digital, of and engagements the transactions of the heart at sitting The unprecedented rise of many of these companies is linked to the emergence At this point, it is relatively uncontroversial to point out that “Big Tech” giants TuesdayOn 2020, October 20th the of Justice US Department filed an antitrust These include,These but are not limited to: This has to led asituation in which asmall group of large companies platform – 1 Moreover, as the value of these tech giants has iv Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters should guide atransformative agenda related to platforms and are: These data. technology (fintech), among others. It then presentsfive foundational principles that believewe power, workers’ rights and protections, online and privacy data control, speech, and financial asUK, well as key policies, regulations, and legislation in the areas of antitrust and monopoly of ownership and control. private power is not beyond democratic regulation. Central to this must anew be architecture ensuring platforms, the by monopolised currently rights coordination economic democratise bothwe can recode and change how they operate and in interests. whose We can disperse and economy is run is neither Platforms are fixed legalcertain. nor as much as digital institutions; platforms have encouraged a sense of technological inevitability, the way that our digital Crucially,while maximisation. and profit ownership corporate concentrated of the logics from ownership, giving suppliers and of users the genuine platform voice and control. have great potential to organised be through multi-stakeholder models of governance and andlive, play. work, Moreover, given their collaborative and networked nature, platforms also an enormously useful function and, as Covid-19 has proved, they are indispensable to how we an infrastructure for platforms can and connecting do provide people to and goods services, of economic stark and social challenges, there remains potential extraordinary inAs platforms. 3. 2. 1. ------and control ofplatforms anddata must take global dynamicsinto- andes account Global multi-stakeholder governance: Any to proposals democratize theownership governance. forms andassets withnew publicandcommons as publicutilities ofownership and From enclosure Platforms to thecommons: anddata reconceptualized should be holder organizations andapproaches are needed. tions orthestate aspresently constituted. Rather, new democratic andmulti-stake inthehandsofprivate left shouldnot be andhow data used corpora canbe - collect, Privacy onwhether todata, andanti-surveillance: what Decisions collect data to landscapes andnaturallandscapes systems. Negative environmental impacts,withthedigitalsphere intimately linked to material ble regulatory environments) by platform profits. to companies boost oftaxThe use avoidance/evasion andregulatory arbitrage (e.g.shoppingfor favoura- misinformation andmanipulation. The underminingofdemocratic andcivilnormsthrough theproliferation offorms of unfair, andracist outcomes into core features system. ofoureconomic ofalgorithmicmanagementThe rise (andbias),whichishardwiring discriminatory, and direct human behavior. are for mined data whichisnot butincreasingly to onlybought andsold, used modify of“surveillance capitalism,”The deepening oflife andsociety inwhichallaspects andworkplacenicious forms control. ofsocial The steady protections andlabour erosion ofsocial andthedeployment ofnew,- per inevitable outgrowths ofthedominant platforms’ rentier position. monopoly andtheconcentration power,Increasing inequality ofeconomic economic whichare The challenge is to liberate the democratic and enlivening potential of the platform and enlivening challenge to liberate is The potential the democratic the platform of Yet, if monopoly power in the hands of giant for-profitcorporations is producing aseries This report outlinesThis report the current political economy of platforms and in data the US and - v common-wealth.co.uk the by today’s crises posed and data regimes. platform include: These by offering a menu policiesof and solutions thatcan we feel meet the scale dynamicand of Building on these principles and the existing political economic landscape, concludes this report ------5. 4. Development, &Production) institutionsand approaches.Development, decentralized anddemocratically viaavariety ofnew public RD&P(Research, owned the development ofdata andplatforms (andtheecosystem around them) that are TheUSandUKshoulddirectPublic DigitalCooperatives publicfunding into (PDCs): Public Platform Accelerator (PPA), National for Lab Data Community (NLCD), and specific data on sector.specific conditions intheir terms and data orhelpimproveport thebargaining ofworkers power to by givingthemaccess and democratically. trans to Suchdata designed pool for- trustscould, be instance, dians andstewards making data sureset, that ofaspecific thedatasafely isshared would actascusto autonomous These bodies established. legal trusts shouldbe dataover data that ofsectoral canimprove Aseries andplace-based their lives: of“dataA network trusts”to provide anddemocratic citizens withaccess control monitoring intheworkplace. technologies aresay introduced, includingafinal ontheintroduction and ofsurveillance anduse havingnities new rights to determine collectively technologies how data collecting should determine withworkers whenandhow data collected, canbe andcommu - anew multi-stakeholder Inthe USandtheUK, tion anduse: agency ororganisation A new multi-stakeholder agency to set the standards for andprinciples data collec enhanced. ofworkers Furthermore, theability and decent. to organiseshould be collectively introduced tobe ensure work organised through platform intermediaries issecure forA 21stcentury “New Deal” workers rights Anew setoflabour should andunions: tures, respectively. bank digitalcurrency banking system andpostal asthedigital andphysical architec ing ademocratically digitalpayments accountable infrastructure, includingacentral should get aheadofprivate platform capitalistsandfintech establish- companies by Central bankdigitalcurrency banking system: andapostal The USinparticular whereservice they operate conditions. undermonopoly platforms ofplatforms subsidiaries regulated –orparticular –shouldbe asautility ownership withitsbroader inconjunction (perhaps antitrust strategy). IntheUK, into digitalpublicutilities bringingthese the USshouldconsider democratic public natural andother problems monopoly brought onby thedominant platform firms, Democratic publicownership ofmajorplatforms: Inorder to sufficiently the resolve multistakeholder, platforms, publiclyowned andother alternatives. expanded and redirectedpublic fundingshouldbe thedevelopment to of support rate andincrease (suchasantitrust power competition andregulatory strategies), Increasing public funding:Inadditionto other government actionsto reduce corpo platforms andBigTech companies. structural to connected intheownership deeper changes should be andcontrol of ofBigTech power nopoly andplatform iscentral, companies butantitrust strategies Reducing corporate concentration Challengingandreducing andpower: themo canmeaningfullyparticipate.the USandUK) andapproaches around bytablish processes theworld whichpeople (and not justin 2

- - - - - 1 common-wealth.co.uk complicit in spiking housing and increasing costs displacement in cities around the world. competition. Airbnb has essentially turned some residential neighborhoods into hotels and is running huge financial losses (backed bottomless pit by a of VC funding) in order to undercut ignoring or willfully violating laws and regulations to gain afoothold in lucrative markets, and standards, to avoid employment independent contractors as workers misclassifying on based destabilizing and outcomes. dangerous, deleterious, gentrification, precarity,workplace alienation, and social discord, amongst a of host other and rentier power, inequality, and racial monopoly economic and displacement driving force capitalist the actors, of platforms at the the “sharing heart economy” have apowerful become money.”to homes and offices gardens, as us toward sharing and cooperation enabled by social technologies of a myriad of suchassets shifting us away from the outdated forms of consumerism. Instead, these trends are moving are consciousness, cost and concerns environmental pressing well as as strangers, between convergence“the of social that networks make more access convenient and facilitate trust author of the What’s book Mine is Yours: The Rise of Collaborative Consumption, wrote that cohesion and the exchange free of and knowledge In ideas. 2010, for instance, Rachel Botsman, production. of modes relationships and employment outdated and replace the environment, heal consumerism, to bring people and communities together in mutually beneficial market exchanges, reduce or other digital systems that facilitate connections and matchmaking), was upheld as away around the world. The “sharing economy,” powered by new online platforms (websites, apps, discourse in both the United and States the United Kingdom, as well as in many other countries 1 companies like Robinhood have “gamified” and “automated” economic decisions and exposed likecompanies “gamified” have Robinhood and exposed and decisions economic “automated” schemes. avoidance “aggressive” and tax sophisticated deploying and competitors Amazon has decimated local economies and businesses by undercutting brick and mortar and mortar brick undercutting by and businesses economies local decimated has Amazon “hijacked” by Big Tech corporations venture and powerful capitalists. In the hands of these Center, Economies Law the of Sustainable co-founder Janelle of in the words quickly Orsi, Introduction Introduction - - of seeking toof seeking retain andgrow value inplace. platforms andinfrastructures –withtheoverarching are andowned developed goal at theforefront ofhow we reimagine how data isgenerated andhow digital andused PPA, Wealth digitalCommunity local NCLD, Building strategies andPDC), shouldbe (includingdata suggested above codetermination,the proposals data trusts,andthe guard anew digitalfuture. ofcharting with,orinadditionto, Inconjunction many of WealthDigital Community Building: Towns, inthevan andregions cities, shouldbe - level by aNational Investment Bank. establishment suchasthe ofpublicbanks ofanetwork finance, led at thenational andother democratic alternativesform co-ops viabroader transformations ofpublic National thefinancinggap Investment theUSandUKshouldclose for plat- Bank: For instance, platforms like Uber, Lyft, and Deliveroo have embraced a business model like model business a have platforms embraced instance, andFor Uber, Deliveroo Lyft, Ten on, such years statements appear quaint and naive. The sharing economy was, In the and late 2010s, early 2000s a sense of techno-utopianism public pervaded 3 Relatedly, social media platforms were going to enhance community 4 6 Fintech Fintech 5

2 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters platform. platform. and/or for facilitatingcommissions transactions, to the charging for access subscription a fee capitalising users, on the that data party is produced while the platform is used, charging revenue by monetising the “attention” through of users its selling space to advertising third- generate Platforms groups. user between and demand and coordinate supply connections 2 system. political-economic sustainable can play arole in the development of anew more democratic, equitable, and ecologically embed new values and principles, and visualise how these critical functions and organisations ahead is to diagnose the failures of the current approach, re-conceptualise and data platforms, There is no going back to a world in which and platforms do data Rather, not exist. the task enormous transformative potential and of sectors human across awide variety interactions. and are data fundamental and unavoidable components of the modern economy and have capitalism, to it is important recognize of the still that underlying parts hold. theory Platforms naive and failed to account for the realities and relatively predictable outcomes of corporate of and data advantages for poses and the disadvantages powerful for the powerful.” less Christian Fuchs “There is writes. a‘big divide’ data that concerns the ownership and control a few. increased “The commodificationcoming alongwith big means data social inequality,” data), consolidation, and location namebut to financialisation, recognition facial corporate and isdata enabling racial discrimination (e.g. algorithmic bias), social control and surveillance (e.g. increasing concerns but also around around and privacy theft, data data the ways in which many, platforms and if not other most, large technology companies. exponential increase in the collection and analysis of is data key to the business model of While the popular “data as oil” metaphor is misleading, itis relatively uncontroversial that the asset usedby corporations to reshape markets and increase their market power and profits.” NathanAs Newman explains, “data has called been the ‘new oil’ of the information age, an sectors) are continually seeking to generate, capture, and monetize as much as data possible. thing we’re sharing behind.” is the it left mess was supposed to transform our world for the better,” Susie Cagle “Instead, writes. the only right-wing hate speech. extremist of theresurgence and division, social increased and Twitter, monetisewho attention, have and abetted facilitated rising disinformation, consequences). consumers to complex financial and risky instruments (sometimeswith devastatingpersonal terminology Definitions and and Definitions In their purest sense, are platforms essentially matchmaking intermediaries that make While some of the discourse early around the sharing economy was undoubtedly in (alongside various online other corporations time,At these platforms thesame 7 And studies And have found that social media/advertising like platforms Facebook 9 12 This has not led only to 8 “Sharing “Sharing 13 10 11

3 common-wealth.co.uk consumer to business) business to consumer, and business to business, Market (including place subscription Business and industrial Consumer subscription Commission Advertising/Attention type Platform Figure 1 known examples. way. Figure 1provides arough snapshot of some of theof platforms differentandtypes well- internet.” the via through service the or more distinct but interdependent of sets (whether users firms or individuals)who interact “An online platform,” they explain, that facilitates “is adigital service interactions two between rentier the our giants of age. become have – increasingly, and digital, the of economy engagements and physical the transactions the of This has to led asituation in which asmall group of monopolists platform –sitting at the heart and consolidation. concentration incentivise andwhich using it, the number otheron users of depends platform usinga from value when derived the occur which effects, network create world without having aphysical presence in any particular country. That makes it possible to of digital platforms are quickly scalable once in place, allowing them to operate across the Operations system. them into the of making global economic and components scale, central and proliferation of the internet and digital technologies has fundamentally altered their scope have long played to host companies business whose is intermediation. However, the invention However, not all online the same function or serve are platforms organised in the same For the a2019 purposes of this report, OECD definition of online platforms is instructive. Platforms are not new. From shopping centres to stock exchanges, our economies ------Subcategory Equipment (SaaS) Software asaService Cloud Computing Cloud Computing Cultural (music, TV) goods Online payment Shelter/home rental delivery Food Transport network Social Search engine 14

------Example Alibaba Amazon John Deere Siemens Rolls Royce Salesforce Amazon Web Services Dropbox Spotify, Netflix Stripe Airbnb Instacart Deliveroo, JustEat, Uber, Lyft WeChat Instagram Facebook, Google 4 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters omy of platforms warned in Initial its Public Offering (IPO) prospectus that itmay neverprofitable.become tensreceiving of billions in VC funding, Uber has never turned aprofit. fraught with controversy and criticism. For instance, despite being in business for ten and years (likesupport breaks, subsidies, and tax incentives). other and public contracts, government government, theUS of levels various spending from would not exist in anything like current its form without of considerable decades public R&D Silicon Valley in this series, generally) papers (and more in sector previous the tech discussed intervention bring to society. Upon closer scrutiny, however, this narrative hardly holds up. As that emphasisingstate involvement and investment and without the innovation benefits to financialisation. contributes well as as models, meaningful R&D within the tech sector, exploitative and ithas business often also driven risky management, and monetisation company. of the startup While funding stage early allows for in direction, the involved closely become sometimes and revenue-generating are they before companies support VC often investors model, revenue viable that a have companies stage investment to that opposed As Private can cover Equity losses. funding, which invests in late- of companies, hedging on the likelihood that one of those companies matures as aprofitable with avaluation of around $70 billion. raised around $26 billion in funding across 15 financing rounds and early in 2019 went public companies that are as seen having the potential for long-term Uber, growth. for instance, has amounts of venture capital (VC) funding –aform of that private equity is provided to early-stage (or help the considerable of corporations) with other large of subsidiaries corporations large 3 raised. From this point onwards, the monopolistic or monopsonistic position can be exploited exploited be can position monopsonistic or monopolistic the From this onwards, point raised. nonsensical until this out adominant company has carved market share and can be prices with enougha startup money sothey can undercut the of prices their competitors only looks readily forgo profits to channel all available money into revenue Supplyingand user growth. in their investment to capitalise They try on a startup’s portfolio. first mover advantage, and and pushing for they rapid growth, hope to realise outsized returns with only afew companies the promise of outsized future in returns unproven, buying equity .By high potential companies unit theyevery sell. VCs are essentially driving ahigh high risk, reward strategy, investing in announced arecord-breaking $18 billion loss. Fund I(a $100 billion VC fund that shook up the tech world when it was launched in 2017) Related of to companies the performance poor like Uber, in March of 2020 Softbank’s Vision more specificallywhy an investor wouldpour millions intocompanies that moneylose on The political econ political The Over time,Over many online platforms have evolved from smaller operations startup to This raises the obvious question of why VCs would want to invest in And platforms. Stories about successful VC funds accompanied are often by undertone, alibertarian Leaving this aside, even on their merits own private VC funding of platforms has been 15 VC funding funds provide early-stage to alarge number 19

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17 In the fact, company

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5 common-wealth.co.uk concentrated heavily on market dominance over profitability (especially in theirearly years). “market of monopsonist. or tendency tipping” monopolist a becoming and with large profit margins. of oil barons and controlling railroad “By states. tycoons,” the report to markets, access these that challenged the status quo have the become kinds of monopolies we last in saw the era reduce competition. “To put itsimply, companies that once were scrappy, underdog startups to power and political using increasingly are their economic companies tremendous these results of an investigation extensive into the practices of Big Tech companies, concluding that themselves and/or increase barriers for competitors. regulations on reduce to power influence and using and political contractors; and suppliers willfully violating laws andproperty; regulations to gain afoothold in new markets; squeezing behaviour.competitive includes acquiring This intellectual and stockpiling smaller competitors monopoly and monopsony power of apparent platforms becomes through various forms of anti- the indicators, their unparalleled almost financialperformance Besides and entrepreneurs. (below), it becomes apparent why the growth-before-profits strategy is embraced by investors Platforms, itis applicablePlatforms, more broadly also. Both Facebook and Amazon, for instance, raised (orbe labour squeezed further). While this is true particularly for Commission policy regulations until adominant market position is acquired, which after pricescan them to undermine (or outright ignore) andother public labour potentially burdensome enables also but competitors, established their and undercut more growth exponential From of entrepreneurs, the perspective lavish VC funding not only helps subsidize Looking at the sheer scale of the giants platform today, as illustrated in Figure 3 Recently, the Judiciary Committee in the U.S. House of Representatives released the take the cash flows. accountingof our GAAP and maximizing the present value of future we’ll cash flows, optimising the appearance [...] between to choose companies. than some forced When differently make may and weigh we tradeoffs decisions germ, the long emphasis on to and our extend solidify current market leadership opposition. [...] of Because our value we create over the long term. This value will a direct be result of our ability 1997Shareholders, present as is an viewed ill-conceived notion. disagree. Irespectfully the raison d'etre of the company. Profit models replace profits, and planning for the becomes plan business a of articulation aberration; temporary a as viewed is business their enterpres always measurable "within the margins". The present condition of their future of divine metaphysical by some sort connection: the size, color and calculus of into locked are the leaders intuited are theassumptionquestions that business by Two “bricks vs and mortar” platform company of growth: visions We believe that afundamental measure of our will success the be shareholder Leonard Riggion, Chairman and CEO of Barnes and Noble, to Letter our [...] question. the "vision" to entrepreneurs ask days fashionable these It is The Jeff Bezos, Founder and CEO Amazon, of Letter to Shareholders, 1997 20 The VC funding strategy is therefore connected closely to platforms’

6 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters to the operation of online and platforms, the digital economy as a whole. At basic most its businesses. entrenchingof defending and platform platforms to essentially natural be monopolies. Moreover, as a“moat” they –away also serve in the eyes of investors and are one of the reasons why some consider analysts the dominant and valuation its sodoes present effects terms. Network a robust in value monetary proposition Once in place, effects. isthe network value from derived using a platform grows exponentially, one the first mentioned, previously As platforms. some of status monopsonistic or monopolistic characteristics that are crucial of drivers their value and at the same time help to perpetuate the their but products, also their market power and dominance. There central are two platform systems. technological and digital as much as decisions political underpinning the power of and platforms, reflects the fact platforms are products of legal and economy.digital but a right currently almost exclusively allocated to large platform firmswithin thecontext of the argument,important Paul Sanjukta makes clear that coordination rights are apublic resource, whereas within of the the boundary firm, cancoordinateUber prices for users and In drivers. an raise prices this would likely treated be as an illegal under cartel existing antitrust regulations, surplus as well as terms and conditions. For example, if Uber organised drivers together to limiting the ability of other labour actors, in particular, to bargain effectively over theeconomic of other economic actors to coordinate This embeds or co-operate. asharp power asymmetry, allocate economic coordination rights to large companies while limiting or prohibiting the right below their rates of productivity. asymmetry, has resulted in being platforms task able to markdown what workers are paid monopsonistic nature of combined platforms, with weak labour standards and information power is concentrated in rentier of sectors the economy. Analysis has also found that the pay, down monopsonistic and drives monopsony protection, of bargaining other forms or rights in the UK private sector from 1998 to 2017. Silvana Tenreyro, Thwaites and examined Gregory the effects of growing monopsonypower sometimes act as single of labour, buyers i.e. monopsonists. and extracting valuable from data the people and businesses that on them.” rely power, but they also abuse itby charging exorbitant imposing fees, contract oppressive terms, tremendous wield throughout our economy. only not They losers and winners pick giants can Crucially, the outsized valuations of are platforms not just areflection of thevalue of Platform companies are able to do this because existing in part antitrust frameworks the dominantonline in market, being single a even or sellers platforms often Besides The driver second of value is the flows of data that facilitate.platforms centralData is 25 This monopoly of economic coordination rights is another critical element element another critical is rights coordination economic of monopoly This 24 23 Their conclusion: where workers lack collective collective lack workers conclusion: Their where 22 A recent paper by Will Abel, 21

7 common-wealth.co.uk oly power oly of platform monop is one defined by monopolistic and monopsonistic tendencies. Starting with a funding a with model Starting tendencies. monopsonistic and monopolistic by defined one is was excluded. Facebook’s ROCE has also been consistently high; dropped not has consistently it been also excluded. ROCE has was Facebook’s alone and was would 38%, have 44% been if the fine imposed by the EuropeanCommission an average of 39% over the last nine years. illustrated in Figure the 3, CMA found that Alphabet’s return on capital employed (ROCE) was study), which demonstrates the profitability economicand scale of the majorAs platforms. (CMA) published the results of an investigation (Online platforms and digital advertisingmarket 4 explore. now we as outcomes, political and economic, social, competitors. potential scale and Their scope. main occupation has the become collection of rent while fending off of the economy, digital platforms own that assets enable effects economiesand network of across a number of them. Bearing great similarity of to rentierisation processes in other domains that works in best winner-takes-all markets, platforms have now acquired adominant position can account for 16% of the firm's market valuation, and has an annualrate of 35%.”growth instance, one 2019 found study that value “the of from derived data Amazon's business model corporations, and asource comparative of vital advantage in the economy. contemporary For information that is linked or linkable to aspecific individual.” trace an individual’s identity, either alone or when combined with other personal or identifying Administrationthe US General Services as “information that used to can be distinguish or maydata or may not considered be Personally Identifiable Information (PII). PII is defined by personal combinations),contexts different(and certain regimes, regulatory and under different political preferences, health social facial media records, posts, features, and much more. includes people’s search histories, location information, shopping banking habits, details, refers to the information collected from and about individuals and groups of individuals. It forms it takes. dueData to the ever-increasing amount the in of it, speed which itis collected, and the various online. Big to as this Collectively, other institutions information collect referred sometimes is level, refers data to the amounts massive of information that companies, governments, and dominant market power. In 2019, for example, the UK’s Competition and Markets Authority Detrimentaleffects The major platforms are enjoying economic returns, extraordinary reflecting their The picture that emerges from this quick of the political survey economy of platforms is increasinglyData becoming an incredibly valuable asset for online and platforms other Perhaps the subset important most of this information is Personal personal data. data 26 30 Not coincidentally, they are also being linked to numerous negative 31 The ROCE for 2018 for the Google segment 28 - 27 In In 29 8 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters by Amazon CEO and major shareholder, 80% Jeff rose by to whose Bezos, $203 net worth hissaw fortune increase by 85% to $101 billion from March to October 2020. This is dwarfed shareholders, driving surge an extraordinary in wealth inequality. For example, Mark Zuckerberg below 20% since 2015 and has on an been upward trajectory, reaching 51% in 2018. extraordinary marketextraordinary valuation. This in turn has vastly increased the wealth of platform The scale of income some of the major generate platforms is reflected in their engines for the generation of revenue and wealth. and revenue of engines generation the for during the pandemic demonstrates the extent to which these companies are vast for approximately 96% of the of the gain. performance tech The giants extraordinary about 72% of More that broadly, performance. just 15 companies in the Index account 6%. down is upS&P just 500 over 2% this year, without the FAAMG stocks, the Index would be of the value of the Index S&P 500 and the Index being market cap weighted. While the andApple, Microsoft, Google/Alphabet. This is due to their accounting for about 25% 500’s strength has fueled been by the “FAAMG” five companies: Amazon, Facebook, being by driven,asmall in large number part, of big companies. In particular, the S&P correlated with profits. higher YTD Companies profits. datewith (YTD) higher salesversus the growth previous year also – the total current value of publicly its traded shares –correlated with higher year-to- Covid-19 companies tech and the 38% in February before the38% in crisis February Moreover, hit. acompany’s market capitalization companies500 had negative returns since the beginning of the year, compared to which are sectors surging and which are failing. pointed out how indices as baselines information conceal more important about • • • In other itappears words, that the overall of stock markets performance is Looking at the stock market during the Covid-19 crisis, Nathan Tankus has • • • 34 billion. Microsoft’s revenue quarterly increased by 13% from $33.7 billion to $38 products with a 43.2% quarterly revenue quarterly increase.products with a43.2% due to the volatility across but products, Google its Cloud led Alphabet's Alphabet’s revenue quarterly was slightly down from the previous year year-agothe quarter. revenueApple had quarterly of $59.7 billion — an increase of 11% from to $5.2 billion. $5.2 to a year prior. The company’s net income doubled nearly from $2.6 billion Amazon net billion its saw sales increase —to $88.9 40% from billion $63.4 billion. to $5.2 prior billion $2.6 from the year doubled nearly income net quarterly Facebook’s recent tracka powerful record: A snapshot of FAAMG’s from April performances to June 2020 indicates Since the end of 2017, with the up 23%, S&P FAAMG accounts 500 for 38 36 35 37

33 In September 2020, 57% of S&P 39

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9 common-wealth.co.uk programmers) and significantly adds to financial volatility. or sellbuy shares. This benefits larger financial firms that can afford best the programs (and computer systems to large quickly process quantities of and data make snap decisions to algorithmic trading trading high-frequency or (sometimes trading) speed called also uses (especially in the US and UK), ithas turbocharged been by the rise of Big Data. decades several for occurring Whilebeen financialisation has amongothers. processes, economic (and stability intensifying financial crises), and capturethe of regulatory politicaland higher less including unemployment, outcomes, rising inequality, growth, economic lower outcomes.” economic and policy economic over and currency trading, etc.) grows the vis-a-vis productive sector and gains “greater influence about isn’t users its merely to used target ads but to shape the flow of news to them.” ‘connect’, ‘build Note communities’ that the company’s reality. the and commercial knowledge – sure there has ever a more been complete disconnect what a company between it – does says isdoes watch you, and then about use what you it knows and your behaviour to sell I’m ads. not you than the intrusive most government has ever about known citizens...What its Facebook the biggest surveillance-based enterprise in of the mankind. history far, It knows far more about it is in the advertising business, Facebook is in the surveillance in business. is Facebook, fact, societies. democratic of future the and freedoms implications for enormous Thishas individual outcomes,” Zuboff explains. and subliminal rewards, cues, and punishments that shunt us toward their profitable most subtle with action,’ of ‘economies our behavior and condition to tune, herd, they learn as develop now capitalists “Surveillance intervention. to behavioural collection data from moving 9/11 the (especially after liberties increasingly is Moreover, capitalism attacks). surveillance regulation that was afeature of the neoliberal as era well as the slow erosion and of privacy civil issale. non-consensual The process and secretive by nature, and benefits from a distrust of This is data then packaged and including of purposes, for used avariety for as acommodity claiming of private human experience as raw material free for translation into behavioral data.” of the humans that create the algorithms) is akey cause of algorithmic bias. Heilweil writes. are trained or checked not are complete, often balanced, or selected appropriately,” Rebecca thatdata it is being fed. are simply instructions to acomputer program or system on how to analyse the mountains of that was automatically and methodically choosing white over faces Black faces. outcomes. Recently, for instance, Twitter was forced to apologise for a photo cropping algorithm machine learning and artificial intelligence)can create discriminatory, unfair, racistand factor in the increasing during wage inequality this observed period. economicSince rents have 2000, increasing been within the economy and have acentral been billion. who getswho selected for ajob interview, and is who chosen to amortgage. receive bias has also shown up in is who political targeted for or certain commercial advertisements, 41 Financialisation is the by which process the finance sector (banking, investment,stock For instance, with regards to John Facebook, Lanchester explains that “even more than Surveillance capitalism is aterm coined by Shoshana Zuboff“the to describeunilateral Algorithmic bias is intimately connected to in because data this algorithms context, Algorithmic bias refers to the way in which computer systems and programs (including Nor is this just a recent phenomenon or solely the results of the Covid-19 pandemic. 46 This, along with other factors (such as the conscious and unconscious biases 45 However, ondata which “the many of these decision-making systems 48 50 It has linked been to numerous detrimental 52

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51 For instance, instance, For 43 44 Algorithmic Algorithmic

49 47

10 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters uses data in data uses both warehouse its control systems and anti-union its For instance, activities. a the app.” via and surveillance “continuous collection in particular data management approaches. the As name indicates, these techniques are reliant and on data, “algorithmic that claimed sometimes they use techniques than rather traditional management” in an labour attempt to regulations, skirt ride-hailing platforms (like Uber have and Lyft) workplace arrangements underpinned are often by the control and use For of instance, data. low paid and subjected to gruelling conditions and standards. the company for is known being aggressively anti-union and workers in warehouses its are both trillionaire) has accused of been promoting and profiting from precarity.workplace particular,In referendum (Prop 22) that exempt would law. the from them employees. as also gig(AB known 5, as “the worker bill”) that many would independent reclassify contractors threatened to withdraw entirely from the State of California if forced to comply with a new law recently, Most the companies independent as contractors. drivers their classifying of model subject to their discipline and subordinate to their authority.” difficultattain: to workers who are technically,not, their employees whobut are nonetheless found something have otherwise they employers it gives that but and independence, flexibility as Katrina Forrester argues, is “what new about the gig economy isn’t that itgives workers relationship. weaken and their Indeed, employment the control to amplify technologies digital that intermediate use those labour. companies these particularly In short, corporations, mentioned, such labour arrangements are central to the business model of many platform (including unions), to labour protections access and/or insecure. or unstable are of financialisation. beneficiaries and offshore, limitingyield. cash reserves tax with platforms now to using invest cash in reserves financial market speculation andstore large of foregone may cost impose investment thethese opportunity reserves in the real economy, of $120 billion. Though the major digital do platforms invest significantly in R&D, the size of it had $193.817 billion cash on hand, while Alphabet –valued at $1.04 trillion –has cash reserves financial actors as much as companies. tech For example,Apple’s third-quarter of 2020 showed dominance.” political and economic corporate and and deepen banking, commerce the traditionalviolate between separation encroachment into of Facebook and partners sector, its the financial services which would (2)partners, hazardous arbitrage of the financialsystem, regulatory and (3) concerted the “poses three overarching, interrelated threats: (1) mass surveillance of Libra and users business bias all togethercomes is Facebook’s Libra “digital currency” Libra, project. Carillo writes, One example of how financialisation, capitalism,surveillance data, platforms, and algorithmic andplatforms, other financialthat are, Raúl services Carillo“the data frontier.” next suggests, interfaces.” self-service with staff service algorithms –such –or they as a‘robo-adviser’ create to platforms replace customer-facing Fintech initiatives either create systems that replace the jobs of financial professionalswith understand fintech,” explains,Scott “is it Brett to see as the automation of traditional finance. financialisation and is reliantcapturing on ever-increasing amounts waybest “The to of data. Similarly, Amazon (whose CEO JeffBezos is on track become to the world’s first for instance,Uber have and in been Lyft, constant legal in battles multiple countries over all,Above the vast revenue generated by the major platforms has turned many into Relatedly, the rise of the “fintech” (financialtechnology) sector is both contributor a to Precarious work refers to jobs that paid, are lack poorly social benefits and workplace 60 At the same time, they spent tens of millions of dollars on asuccessful 55

56 / 53 57 Fintech includes digital currencies, payment payment Fintech currencies, includes digital As such, As the are platforms increasingly drivers 59 61 Moreover, precarious these 62 Similarly, Amazon 58 As previously previously As 54

11 common-wealth.co.uk a profit and recently went publicwith avaluation of around $22 billion, backedis both by in domestic institutions,” Sarah writes. Kreps by foreign actors seeking to exploit polarization in the political landscape and undermine trust deployed strategically they increasingly misinformation, confront the marketplace often ideas, of turn to populace citizens in the democratic “When unwilling problems. these often to address xenophobic ideas and organizing. Social media in platforms particular have incapable been and and science, as well as how they are enabling the rise and proliferation of and fascist, racist, contribute to the undermining of democratic norms and institutions, communitarian values, acontractwhere it recently related received to the Covid-19 pandemic. in around 150 and businesses to governments including countries, the UK, services sifting data Palantir its deploys Department), (like agencies otherand US Defense and theFBI, CIA, board). Facebook’s on Peter serves (who also Thiel supporter Trump prominent and capitalist venture billionaire and (CIA) Agency Intelligence Central the deportations. and detentions, raids, Technologies and enabling US Immigration in supporting plays and Enforcement Customs (ICE) to enable social control approaches. agencies government and governments with (including partnering increasingly are platforms) discriminatoryotherwise and the oppressive. And third is around how technology companies are and, used, in particular, how they deployed are often in ways that are xenophobic, racist, or community life. The second is around how technologically-enabled social control approaches and individual of untouched parts into their and encroachment previously approaches control centresrole The first of platforms. around how data and platforms enable the expansion of social more, all of which on the rely collection and analysis of data. messaging/advertising, authentication, and many targeted biometrics tracking, location chips, RFID (Radio-frequency Identification) analysis, DNA include recognition, facial technologies writes. behavior,” to influence designed strategies Marx Gary to technological are increasingly subject and borders environments cultural, and psychological scale up these in activities unprecedented “Our ways. personal spatial, communication, social, governments have always involved been in social control, the rise of is Big allowing Data them to and encourage to conformity norms both formally and informally…” businessplatform model could not operate as itdoes. the job.” on developed issues health them for mental to compensate May 2020, for example, Facebook “agreed to pay $52 million to current and former moderators thousands and thousands of disturbing images and clips video aday. The toll is immense. In “cleaning” and moderating removing South in content, Global the workers insecure uploaded award-winning 2018 documentary, social-media platforms such as Facebook on low-wage, rely platforms on rely outsourced work to operate. For example, as explored in The Cleaners, an visualize at least around different 40 sets,” data JasonDel Rey and Shirinexplain. Ghaffary other “threats”). perceived new technology “The system...would help the company and analyze to monitordollars and grievances union on software over conditions workplace activity (among recently leaked internal memo from Amazon describes plans to spend hundreds of thousands of Misinformation and manipulation refers to the way in which platforms and Big Data One example of how all three of these concerns come together concerns the role Palantir There are three general concerns around the use of Big for Data social control and the Nor is labour and insecurity exploitation geographically bounded. Many of the major Social control is aclassical concept that defined“to can be regulate, as ways enforce, 67 The secretive tech company, which has never turned 70

68 In addition to work its with ICE 66 These new and emerging and new These 65 64 While companies and and companies While Without this the work, 69

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12 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters by 2025.by whole US contributes today. Moreover, they could use as much as 20% of the world’s electricity surpassing aviation and shipping – and up to 14% around by 2040, the as same the proportion that digital communications platforms could create up to 3.5% of global emissions by 2020 – atgoods the push to of delivered abutton, be by avehicle. Recently, researchers have estimated allows to the reorder which customer Button, Dash the the of Amazon development is latter requirements and the lowering of servers data of barriers to consumption. example An of the include energy growing the These impacts. environmental negative having also are services and However, are increasingthere indications thatpractices their business and services. goods of “dematerialising” and meetings face-to-face for need the consumptionexample, the reducing than $100 billion havens by using in taxes and tax loopholes around the world. tech companies (Amazon, and Google, Apple,had Facebook, Netflix) Microsoft, avoided more instance, in 2019, from Fair areport Tax Mark found 2010 that between and 2019, just major six power, makes them particularly well-positioned to take full advantage of such approaches. For combined with the intangible nature of and many their of their vast market services and political businesses, transnational nature many The of platform them. of practitioners wholehearted both within countries countries. and between public finances contributeand to a “race-to-the-bottom” on labour and environmentalstandards Tax evasion/avoidance impoverish nonetheless while legal, sometimes arbitrage, and regulatory laws. and heightened secrecy regulations, and environmental labour lax rates, through tax lower take advantage of different legal and regimesregulatory around the world profits boost to when large for-profitcorporations are the final arbiter in such matters. of and interest limitations arise conflicts and what manipulation, makes decisions, such who the line into misinformation crosses around numerous what and questions though, raises This, or false divisive. content blatantly is that certain flagging,suppressing, removing deprioritizing, or several ofyears, the larger companies have begun to take tentative steps in the direction of that was being shared or transmitted over their However, platforms. in recent months and and manipulation, long claiming it was not their job or role to “police” the information and data right-wing phenomenon.” a predominantly is “it ideologically than foreign, misinformation problem bigger a domestic is from the NYU Stern Centera recent report for Business and Human Rights found that not only motivated use of misinformation and manipulation is growing at an alarming rate. For instance, is domestic. From climate change to Covid-19 to racial justice, the politically and ideologically in spreading misinformation role a threat undoubtedly play and manipulating the biggest data, organisations and misleading. While foreign governments itself this on is topic discourse hand, major platforms may increasing be material efficiency ineconomy, the through, for The environmental impact of and platforms mixed. Bigare, Data the On at best, one While companies platform are not the originators of such they practices, are often Tax evasion/avoidance and arbitrage regulatory are by the which processes corporations Platforms and Big Tech companies have complicit been in the rise of misinformation However, the emphasis that placed on “foreign is actors” often in popular and political 73 71

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13 common-wealth.co.uk by the UK’s CMA –are implemented, they might not have the intendedwhen effects applied report in the recent proposed recently those as such approaches, conventional regulatory more “product” is essentially for provided free. to an be inadequate standard for antitrust action against platforms where in the cases most anti-competitive. In particular, the still prevalent focus on consumer welfare and prices is likely on a wholesale revision of the grounds on which a company is deemed to a monopoly be or prosecutions by the Thus, antitrust asuccessful Justice Department. strategy is contingent reinterpretation of antitrust and law alarge by the decline courts in antitrust successful would to need overhauled. be Specifically, in the UnitedStates there has afundamentalbeen the entire legal regime around antitrust that has developed over the several past decades will complicated be to deploy effectively. First and be foremost, to actualised and effective, public ownership agenda), these strategies will likely limited be in what they can achieve and TechBig democratic a in conjunction with (and, pursued companies should be contend, we rent-seeking activities. made in their recent years, increasing market and political power, and their monopolistic and have corporations number acquisitions these of the large of in view and appealing response — bodies are in the making for the digital economy. legislative and other actions (such as antitrust enforcement). in And the new UK, regulatory and preparing regulation proposals, drafting investigations, conducting also currently are regulations. inpiece the Financial which Times, was interpreted on shaping as seeking coming ahead start and regulation in an opinion intervention government more demanded even Zuckerberg has should not removed be (as as avenue well for as user serve appeals). an “independent” oversight board that will ultimately set standards on what content should or voluntarily introduced stricter rules privacy for and ecosystems its Facebook has announced companies themselves are scrambling to get ahead For instance, of Apple thehas curve. it seemsfact, inevitable that some significant changes are on the horizon, and the Big Tech In among others. and policymakers, society, civil emanating academia, from proposals itis unsurprisingdata, that there are innumerable reform, restructuring, and reimagining 5 approach to antitrust that was prevalent in the first half of thecentury. 20th It is an intuitive conceived reintroducing and broadly and are reminiscent competition robust the of more Elizabeth Warren, these proposals aim squarely at reducing corporate concentration and other Big Tech companies. Popularised by US Senator (and former Presidential candidate) natives Reforms and alter Besides that, even if pro-competition policies – which include not only antitrust, but also also but antitrust, include which only – not policies pro-competition if even that, Besides Prominent among these reform proposals are demands to “break up” platforms and and and challenges arising problems around serious of platforms the plethora Given While antitrust strategies are undoubtedly critical with regards to platforms and other Antitrust 75 Big legislative bodies like EU’s the and bodies Congress US the legislative Big European Commission 74 Facebook CEO Mark Facebook - 14 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters — which is to the direct detriment of platforms relying on ad revenue like Google and Facebook. step to follow from this so far was Apple’s announcement to block tracking in iOS14 cookies – inspeech which he warned against an emerging “data-industrial complex”. decisive The most towards regulators around privacy. In 2018, for instance, Apple’s Tim gave Cook privacy adata level. federal the on effectively more be done potentially could difficultand been has enforcement protections, privacy data the CCPA is an improvement certainly in alegal landscape that to previously no provided next California Consumer Act Privacy (CCPA), are bedeviled by similar problems. For instance, while resolved. been not has not equal been enforcement across member states and that cross-border disputes have consequently investigated and penalised. However, in June 2020 the EU admitted that there From the rights acivil GDPR perspective, will only have alasting impact if breaches are businesses have to devote arelatively larger share of their resources to compliance measures. (e.g.the of quality digital relevance services of search ads, results). criticised the GDPR requirements, contending that they and slow decrease business activity Somewhat expectedly, to provide their business services. representatives of necessary data of the GDPR broadly state that businesses are required to only collect the minimum amount Protection Regulation (GDPR) is an example of to how regulators achieve try this. The principles andof data, increasing transparency about the use of consumer The EU’s data. General Data (e.g. for how long kept itcan be by platform), requiring opt-outs from or opt-ins into uses certain has amajor been concern for regulators. Common proposals include limiting the use of data — neoliberalism. and strategies in an ofera strong ideological and political adherence to market fundamentalism quickly, highlightingrelatively the additional to implementing challenges related antitrust ultimatelyCentury) reconsolidated. The former took several while decades the occurred latter instance, both Standard Oil and AT&T of (two the famous most antitrust breakups in the 20th For this. of ample evidence is there In context, US the inevitable. almost is reconcentration market mechanisms (and a imperatives) intervention, between balance and state broader additional changes to the structure of the companies (i.e. ownership, control, values) and the much to their dominant market positions in search and respectively. video Moreover, without before this it, now maintains industry impossibly high barriers to entry.” to offercompetitive levels of utility consumersto out of the gate.withAs telecommunications when more use them.users This meanwhile makes it extraordinarily difficult for new entrants Amazon, operated andby GoogleFacebook, effects: increase the networked services valuein monopoly,” network consistently exhibit firms leading “Its constituent explains. Ghosh Dipayan their functioning“Theconsumer depends effects. on network internetkind is a of natural to natural monopolies. of antitrust regulation has prompted various Big Tech companies into conciliatory gestures the power of large corporations while smaller ithurts businesses. This is smaller because Antitrust regulation and protection privacy also influenceeach other.The specter From adifferent it been hasnoted perspective, that the GDPR might actually fortify In addition to antitrust regulation and competition policy, protection data and privacy In other words, even breaking Google and apart Youtube, for instance, might not do Public utilities Public &Privacy Protection Data 78 Other regulations that are similar to the GDPR, like the State of California’s 76 Arguably, many platforms effectively are natural monopoliesbecause 77 15 common-wealth.co.uk an infrastructure of nature apublic-good which on.” rely users the of digital ecosystem should platforms measured be similarly to public utilities, since itis Therefore, available elsewhere. often not are which others, among news, hotels and books, to extends range The sellers. and consumers communities, for essential become has which ideas products, and democracy, platforms’ deals“the ecosystem with services, the to access and institutions). Explaining the argument for reclassification,Vincente Bagnoli writes that market-oriented more along with scholars themselves the companies by opposed vehemently innovation. and investment regime linked to public interest objectives (such as journalism); local and requirements around around transparency and data privacy; around algorithms and algorithmic bias; ataxation standards lines; into stricter business new and entry acquisitions, evaluatingfor mergers, utilities (those by owned the people, usually through government bodies). privately utilities owned (those by owned individuals and investors) and/or publicly owned Dependingothers. on the prevailing legal regime in aparticular area, this definitioncan include among water, electricity, that included entities provide have these and communication services, that and are provide apublic subject to service specific government regulations. Traditionally tobe regulate them like public utilities. Public utilities are enterprises or business organizations counterbalance to corporate power, wealth and extraction, exploitative labour arrangements. is grounded in the long (and of as successful) an cooperatives alternative often history and vote). one principles (such them to according democratic govern person, one as approach This of platforms (and, implicitly, the collection data process) into the hands of their will who users to platforms and data has centred on cooperative forms. Specifically shifting the ownership added). may not tolerable, be and either public regulation or ownership may alesser evil” be (emphasis monopoly powerif its is sizeable, even the short-run effects of private unregulated monopoly that “if that the or technical commodity is regarded as essential monopoly is of and a service may preferable. be For instance, in his famous Capitalism book and Freedom, Friedman wrote ownership of forms that alternative and suggested corporations private monopolistic of dangers latter, even classic free-marketeers like H.C. Simons and Milton Friedman warned against the outcomes. poor other and abuses, labour degradation, environmental (andsystem), power democratic influencethe over corporate consumers, for costs excessive of ownership in such cases. ideological no, perspectives) been and has often that itis preferable to adopt alternative models Traditionally,and power? (including diverse from and theory experience both the from answer concentration corporate with with theassociated deal sufficient to innumerable problems model –essentiallyutility” more stringently regulated for-profit monopolies – of public utilities fundamental question of ownership. Specifically, is the “regulated or utility” “investor owned corporations as public utilities is a controversial, yet emerging perspective (one that is public emerging as yet perspective utilities controversial, a corporations is sector demonstrates that, while better than nothing, stringent regulation does little to curb little than nothing, stringent regulation does while better that, demonstrates sector Alternative models of ownership of models Alternative If are platforms natural monopolies, one alternative, Ghosh and others would suggest, The idea of classifying and regulatingThe idea of classifying platforms and other Bigdependent Data Treating as platforms public utilities would likely include clear and transparent processes Thus far, much of the discourse around alternative forms of ownership as they relate In terms of the former, the US experience with investor-owned utilities in the energy The intersecting of concepts natural monopoly and public regulation utility open up the 82

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81 With regards to the 16 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters dominant. partnerships and These hybrid ownership forms could mitigate some of the and of cooperatives displacegrowth the corporate “Big Tech” that platforms are currently ownership of platforms and digital infrastructure could help to facilitate the proliferation and small Dakota farmers in North and elsewhere, in the digital economy, democratic public and cooperatives of an ecosystem of thedevelopment facilities supported have processing ownershipdata and control. For instance, just as how publicly-owned banks and agricultural this role that supportive helps to scale up and cooperatives platform collective approaches to rivals. ethos to remain competitive or face pressures to sell out to their larger and better-financed their on cooperative Moreover, to compromise have system. often they economic capitalist a andsupport control structures, cooperatives face limitations to scale, impact, and influence in they are not automatically an alternative institutional form.” in democratizing the ownership of enterprises within the frame of a capitalist economy, but logic,its is also fundamental to capitalism. Hence, may cooperatives represent step apositive and idea, This benefits. and in decision-making right the of to participate source the as notion question private ownership of the means of production. They tend to this see individualistic to“tend operate within the capitalist and logic profitability…cooperatives of productivity rarely and profit-oriented,especially within Azzellinicapitalist DarioAs systems. Cooperatives it: puts of and data the use of technologies that have associated become with surveillance capitalism. and monetization collection regarding the mass display rightly reservations often cooperatives unlikely that investors will realise outsized returns with cooperatives. platform incompatible with goals the set performance out by venture Consequently, capitalists. itis for cooperatives platform several Organic reasons. and dispersed growth ownership are often However, for business. model of out replicable a this not is competitors to drive designed is amounts of VC funding which isto needed sustain the “growth before profits”strategy which financingof a is problem. key platforms makes it difficult compete to and/orscale up alternativemodes. for this is that the existing market power and loss-making business model of the large could considered be aviable alternative to the of the corporate model. reason platform Part and in countries around the world, they have as not, of reached yet, ascale by which they greater power to drivers. modelsplatform could increase safety, and improve transfer to access personalised services, exploringstudy It the found potential that cooperative in of cooperatives platform services. car control. under corporate that this would offer thepotential correct to for many of the deficienciesexhibited by platforms interactions with these platforms through achange in platforms’ ownership structure; and and without users control over their data) could and should have ameaningful say in their benefits (like relations employment power without contractors platform of end theat receiving democratic public ownership and robust antitrust strategies are also not mutually necessarily in terms of ownership rights and democratic governance. Moreover, as will discussed, be market and protecting them from corporate takeover), and maximize the benefits bothof models limitations and face on pressures their cooperatives platform (such own as creating a sheltered commons approaches or indirectly through representative structures) may able be to play In essence, proponents of platform cooperatives contend that people who are currently are currently who contend that people cooperatives platform of proponents In essence, As willAs discussed be below, democratic public ownership (either directly through However, of the problem part is also structural. Traditionally, are cooperatives still market While experiments with are cooperatives platform emerging sector in every virtually 83 84 For instance, the New Economics Foundation recently conducted a a conducted Foundation recently Economics the New instance, For

86 As previously mentioned, platforms have been relying on large large on relying been have platforms mentioned, previously As 88 Thus, without additional public 85 Specifically, lack lack Specifically, 87 Besides that, 17 common-wealth.co.uk creation and of trusts, data acoherent approach to “data on the sovereignty” national level. intellectual (e.g. the property IP regime should loosened be around AI research). of things like digital infrastructure (which should under be local and democratic control) and public/common on and national that focus government local for recommendations ownership curation and productive use of public data. giantsplatform as utilities, this would mean creating that drives the a publicly service owned regulating Beyond public and involvement ownership. state direct envisions also proposal However, development. Commonwealth the Digital platform new for strategies introducing local strategies such as forcing major platforms to open up their to new upon data markets entry and good. the common serve this argue and Laurie Laybourn-Langton report) that production its and distribution should central of the commodity economy, platform Mathew (who Lawrence is also a co-author of to envision amore radical alternative to the current economy. platform the with data, Starting of It data. buildsimportance on some of the regulatory proposals previously discussed in order of aDigital Common Wealth combines the focus on ownership with akeen awareness of the the concept instance, For model. cooperative the platform that beyond go ownership of models institutional design. new potentiala former the and potentiala offering process transitional the latter exclusive, with recommendations include data procurement and open data policies on the local level, the level, thelocal on policies data open and procurement include data recommendations Building on this with the concept of aDigital Commons, James Meadway makes Finally, in recent there years have a few been emerging proposals around alternative 89 The suggested means to achieve this includes pro-competition to this achieve includes pro-competition means suggested The 90 Further Further 18 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters manipulation), itis telling that this is hardly addressed. All the 2017 UK Digital mentions Strategy public (especially around misinformation to broader the abundantly clear and companies tech Brexit referendum and the 2016 events US election, which two made the negative potentials of regulation. “innovation-friendly” hands-off, for advocated Strategy is of to course easy point out that self-regulation has failed. But as late as 2017, the UK Digital described asbest being steered by the hope for self-regulation among firms. it In retrospect, it will likely most remembered be for the real estate glut itcreated. sought to create a tech akin ecosystem to Silicon Valley. While boosting the shortly tech scene, initiative. UK government by the Supported Conservative-led from 2010 onwards, the initiative example of this is the East London Tech (more City commonly as “Silicon known Roundabout”) metbe with awelcoming environment, regulatory which the UK has happy been to provide. An clusters. tech growing that is patented and spun out as acompany. Bristol and especially Manchester are also fast- benefit from andgraduates Oxford that go on become founders,researchto or cutting-edge founded and investment other received, areas are catching cities up. like University Cambridge 2019. and 2017 total of £47.59 billion in 2019. Further, VC investment more than doubled to million £958 between fromThe which pool the funding is drawn (i.e the. sum of VC and PE funds raised) reached a in the In UK. 2019, venture capital and private invested equity £10.2 billion into 1,198 companies. investment. The expansion of the tech sector went hand in hand with theof VC growth investing EU among countries”.work” Annarosa Pesole and colleagues found that UK “the has the highest incidence of platform and was among the countries with the highest share of active platforms. European economy platform found that the UK (together with France) operated platforms most compared to other countries. For instance, by astudy Brian Fabo and colleagues examining the frombenefitted the UK regulatory environment, given that they play an outsizedeconomic role and Transferwise, Telegram. and the messaging service Platforms more generally to seem have them are popular platforms like company Deliveroo, the the food-delivery fintech firms Revolut a valuation of over $1 billion), ranking third in the world behind only the US and China. Among which resulted of in the fast growth tech sector in recent years. regulatory and legal environment. In all three domains, the accommodating, UK has very been monopolisation and this section contextualises this development by looking at the UK political, towards display tendency a platforms generally. above, more mentioned As the UK sector tech in the UK economy.dynamic 6 in the UK thein UK Data and platforms Venture capital financing alonecannot create rentier however. platforms, It needs to A tech of ecosystem this size can only brought be into existence with large sums of There are currently 77 tech “unicorns” in the UK (privately companies held startup with dominant a currently is rentierism out, pointed recently has Christophers Brett As The regulatory approachThe regulatory to platforms and tech companies by UK past governments is 95 While London remains by far the active area most in terms of companies 91 94 This insight is pertinent for understanding data and platforms and and and platforms data understanding for insight This pertinent is

92 97

Given that this was after the the after that this was Given 96

93 Another study by by study Another 19 common-wealth.co.uk complex web of US from legal sector to and sector frameworks. regulatory and vary These by such, many reform proposals and alternatives will guided be by, and have to navigate, the (owned by Facebook), Instagram (owned by Facebook), PayPal, eBay, and many others. As companiesplatform in the world, including Uber, Amazon, Twitter, Facebook, Lyft, WhatsApp 7 require rethinking UK employment law and system. wider its social security that employees have by right. Addressing this structural feature of the economy platform will “employee”, it means many working people in the economy platform do not have many benefits workers platform labour by the classifying market. employment By status of “worker” rather than months later. few a cleared formally then and approved provisionally When Deliveroo bankruptcy faced during the of the stages early pandemic, the deal was first Deliveroo. The CMA initially probed the deal and then threatened an in-depth investigation. point. In 2019, early Amazon led a £450 million investment round and acquired a 16% stake in Play. Music Google and Amazon Music, Apple Spotify, as such platforms by operated models the business on focusing music streaming services, into investigation an announced has Parliament UK the and economy digital the for regulators designated names clearly now Ofcom, and ICO CMA, of formed Forum, Regulation Cooperation addressed the market-dominance of Google and Facebook. theOn one hand, the CMA’s recent market of study platforms and digital squarely advertising the CMA to lead aDigital Markets Taskforce. that it would accept all of the Furman Review’s strategic recommendations. It asked further event in this the UKchain was changes Government’s incrementalof policy announcement Markets Unit), an updated merger policy, and changes to antitrust policy. (Digital watchdog new a recommended the Furman Following this, regulation. for Review internet.” is fragmented with overlaps and gaps. Notably, there is no specificcontent regulator for the worldwide, would not relevant be anymore for UK legislation. regulators tech active the most of one as that theEuropean clear Commission, become also had UK are currently under public scrutiny and that acoordinated international response is needed. with regards to these momentous events is that some companies with headquarters outside the Lords report RegulatingLords report in aDigital World found that “regulation of the digital environment in the US in the US from drastic actions. The CMA’s approval of Amazon’s investment in Deliveroo in is acase Data and platforms The United is States the nominal home of many of the largest and powerful most digital precarious structurally a create helped has law UK employment this, Alongside theOn other hand, when with faced hard decisions, the CMA has sofar refrained regulation. this in platform will for meaningful change whether result is question The 2019,By the problems platforms create could no longer go unaddressed. At this point, it 99 Further, it recommended the development of a comprehensive and holistic strategy strategy holistic and comprehensive a of thedevelopment Further, recommended it 102

98 101 In response, the House of Furthermore, the Digital 103 100 For now, For the last 20 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters fact, thefact, only meaningful recent federal level intervention rule has aproposed been by the contractors to avoid various labour protections, obligations. workplace standards, and tax In how companies platform like Uber, and their DoorDash misclassify workers as Lyft, independent — economy. digital the imagination around the ownership structures and social values that ought to embedded be in lacks Further, defines. clearly report the that the report scale of and economies loops, feedback or sufficiently solve the natural switching data problemsmonopoly effects, costs, of network limited are doesn’t market-based necessarily a since recommendations framework competition to use the antitrust of the powers government to address these issues. there is no real that evidence either the has Democratic the or Republican political will Party the unprecedented fines levied bothin in the US and elsewhere a of business”–“cost yetstill direct threats to democracy they because are able to exist above the law – i.e. they consider has thus far attempted. been through acquisitions rather than through public markets,” no meaningful antitrust enforcement created innovation “kill zones” where venture capitalists “prefer realizing their investments Further, decade. GAFA the last despite over having companies these hundreds by of done single a acquisition out block did not economy,key thedigital of areas enforcers antitrust antitrust has with regard to tech Despite platforms. clear evidence of monopolization in andFacebook, Apple (GAFA) reveals the impact this consumer welfare centric concept of welfare.” consumer maximizing mundane of to themore way mission governing given communities had in Democracy’s Discontent, ‘antitrust “the dream’ of adecentralized economy sustaining self- the 1970s “By Department. and 1980s,” political philosopher Harvard Michael Sandel writes antitrust and law by the alarge courts decline in successful antitrust prosecutions by the Justice and since of the there the mid century 20th has part afundamental been reinterpretation of private actors providing and goods needed services.” economic power, developing arobust set of ideas and arguments about how to regulate concentrated of “Rather, consequences Rahman broader for writes. accounted reformers efficiency,prices, or consumer welfare, thefocus modern of antitrustregulation,” K. Sabeel original intent of the antitrust statutes with the DOJ, FTC, and judicial system. Justice (DOJ) to enforce antitrust. This arrangement to broad authority interpret has left the of the Department in conjunction with that works body (FTC)Commission theregulatory as andAct, the Federal Trade Commission of Acts 1914. — on afew particularly relevant areas. policy landscape as itcurrently exists with regards to platforms and with aspecific data, focus state, and federal law and regulation here. Rather, what follows is a highof the level overview geography, and itwould impossible be to document the single details of every relevant local, monopsonistic practices and suggests important policies for increasing competition, the competition, increasing for policies important suggests and practices monopsonistic While is a damning the House report indictment of the platforms’ monopolistic and The recent investigation by the House Antitrust Subcommittee into Google, Amazon, Original conceptions and enforcement of the antitrust statutes were “not confined to The three main US antitrust laws are the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, the Clayton Thus far, the federal government has not in intervened any meaningful way to restrict Workers’ rights Antitrust 106

107 Most alarmingly, the investigation identifies these platforms as as alarmingly, Most platforms these theinvestigation identifies 105 104 However, faded has focus this broader The latter created the Federal Trade the Federal created latter The 21 common-wealth.co.uk in August 2020, following a court’s ruling that were Uberin violation and Lyft of both AB5, — public.”the where theyAmerica, are empowered to write their for laws own and them support buy among of flagrantlystock This rose. prices sort anti-democraticbehavior is normal corporationsfor in to convince (or, failing that, mislead) voters, won, and massivesaw returns on their spending as existence wrote alaw to crush labor, spent hundreds of millions of dollars to create propaganda 22 on November 2020, 3, “corporations with some of the exploitative most labor practices in capitalism and social control. propaganda and with users workers –abig development with regards to levels of surveillance Uber, and Postmates even utilized Lyft, their to interfaces platform directly share Yes on 22 until they were able to finallykill it through the referendum Perhaps process. most disturbingly, on Prop 22 – meaning the capital strike worked and actively allowed them to the subvert law the companies only had to show how they would their shift business model following the vote companies threatened strike. acapital share –astrikingly large “investment” race. for acity-level tocommittee on Councilmember aride- oust an Oakland City tax 50c alocal supported who the Yes on 22 campaign. Huffman became an outspoken supporter of from $85,000 having Yes on 22 after received offwhencomes it to theirpolitical activities California.in For President NAACP instance, Alice rights proponents only managed to raise around $10 million). This level of corporate spending simply cannot matched be by opponents (in this labour case, of itfrom companies, platform making the ballot initiative the expensive most in US history. Moreover, through October 2020, the Yes on 22 campaign raised more than $184 million, most eighths in majority the state legislature it into tocodifying it –effectively overturn law indefinitely. power increasingly translates to control over the political system. Prop 22 requires aseven- in platforms’ threat to afuture democracy and portend in which their overwhelming economic in election. 2020 the general passed which contractors, independent as them ballot initiative, Proposition 22, to exempt from drivers and AB5 app-based to continue to classify in 2020 January and instead challenged the On other, itin the courts. they filed backedand a resistance. the On one hand, they refused to comply with the new law when it came into effect contractors. In reaction, companies platform (led prongs by established Uber of and two Lyft) requiring employers to the pass “ABC to prove test” workers should classified be as independent 2019, was AB5 signed into law, establishing the presumption that workers are employees and with California, home to many of the large platform companies, at the epicentre. In September debates around gig workers’ employment rights and protections have to shifted the states – contractor.an independent rather than employee an considered be can who bar on raise the would and misclassification Supreme judge Antonin Court Scalia) that would actually make itharder to challenge such (led of Labor Department by Eugene Scalia, aTrump appointee and son of the conservative “To recap,” Edward Jr. Ongweso summarized California after voters approved Prop There is also ample evidence further that the platform companies have taken the gloves escalation significant a represent events these workers, the potential on impact Beyond In the face of an uninterested, if not downright hostile, federal government, US policy

Speech 115 111 In recently contributed addition, Lyft $100,000 to apolitical action 108 114

113 The threat forced acompromise with the state whereby 112 And, as previously mentioned, mentioned, previously as And, 109

110

22 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters September 2020, Attorney General Barr’s DOJ aseries proposed of legislative changes to California Consumer Act Privacy (CCPA). with the matters, leading anddata privacy data security edge of digital law privacy being the legislation privacy data by legal scholar Frank Pasquale. the Accountability Data and Transparency which Act, has called been the “gold standard” of introduced recently Brown Sherrod Senator economy. the digital of this, to In address order tospheres monopolize various ability for the platforms’ responsible partially is national standard Insurance and Accounting Portability and Act, the Gramm Leach Bliley Act). the Federal Trade Commission the Act, Children’s Online Protection Privacy the Act, Health (including practices analysis and collection to legislation regulate data federal of patchwork a (GDPR), the US has no comprehensive national standard for and privacy data instead relies on Moreover,sphere. unlike the European Union’s Regulation Protection Data General recent unreasonable search and seizures, this principle has asnot, of extended to yet, been the digital — implications for the public utility function of social media platforms with regards to speech. surrounding and outcome the likely debate broad with having Court to Supreme the decision ruling came down in favour of the plaintiffs and the Trump administration recently appealed the government purposes and the blocks are on the basis of viewpoint discrimination). on the basis that it amounted to aviolation of the First Amendment (since the account is used for Institute at Columbia University’s lawsuit against President Trump for blocking on users Twitter white supremacy this summer. past as Matter “terrorists” supporters Lives in the wake of the uprisings against and police brutality the Trump Administration has aggressively moved to paint antifascist protesters and Black explanation.” reasonable a by and accompanied moderation not done in “good faith... in accordance with plain and particular terms of service Section 230. This included exempting Section 230 liability content for “terrorist” and any content platforms with little to no public input and accountability. of content solely in theto is remove left hands types or not of remove private, for-profit certain since the platforms are not obligated to censor speech; on the other hand, though, the power sword. double edged a as a publisher for illegal content In by users. many this ways, law as currently interpreted serves protecting internet speech”– provides platforms in the US legal liability from being treated as violence. “interference”,communications of threats versus or hate speech considered is and what valuable (i.e., that which generates “user engagement”), what constitutes legitimate political considered is (or speech in many cases) what decide not themselves for to able decide been had relatively complete and unaccountable control over the new public square. Platforms have have thus far platforms media social in citizenpreventing expression, government interference and the with latter regards bias to by against platforms perceived right-wing content. the former with regards to the platforms’ role in knowingly propagating “disinformation”; In the absence of federal level standards, state governments are leading the way on While the Amendment Fourth of the US Constitution guarantees the right against Beyond Section 230, another relevant concerns matter the The Knight First Amendment Republicans, and Democrats both from under fire come recently has 230 Section law important most “the considered – Act the of Communications 230 Decency Section Since the First Amendment’s guarantee of freedom of is speech relevant only to Data 116 On the On the one hand, ideal of it a preserves free and open internet, 123 Similar to the right GDPR, “the itprovides users to 118 This is particularly chilling that considering particularly is This 122

121 This lack of a 119 The initial initial The 117 In In 120 23 common-wealth.co.uk — rules and building institutional capacity. Trump Administration advanced the Federal Strategy Data to begin implementing the new half the Commission’sabout Act’s Following the adoption, the Evidence recommendations. 2019, establishing Committee on for Data Evidence an Building Advisory at OMB and enacting outcome –the Foundations for Evidence-based Policymaking Act – went into effect in January and service. storage data for and strengthening institutional capacity government and data facilitate linkages for authorized modernizing projects, protections, privacy Policymaking. Evidence-based on Commission the established Congress (FedRAMP). Management and Risk Authorization Program the Federal as known and management, services cloud procured for standards Budgetof Managementand (OMB)established Office remaining capitalism unchecked,”surveillance the Electronic Frontier Foundation contends. not deal agood for consumers to get ahandful of dollars from companies in exchange for such an approach runs the risk of actually entrenching further surveillance capitalism. “It is the amount of being data collected and democratic extend control over once data it is collected, services), the devil is in the detail. Without being connected to new mechanisms to both reduce of using the funds to develop social wealth funds that pay acitizen social dividend or support data.” “California’s consumers should also able be to share in the wealth that is created from their to consumers or the state government. In announcing the proposal, Newsom that stated corporations that collect and monetize online would data required be to make payments back exercising rights. than their affirmatively rather conditions dominant power of the platforms since will users most default to accepting their terms and exercisingfor their CCPA rights.” the right to opt-out of the sale of their personal information; and the right to non-discrimination exceptions); them (with some from informationshared; the collected right to delete personal aboutknow the personal information a business collects about them and how it is and used made recommendations on establishing a National Secure Data Service to store the trove of of the trove to store Service Data National a Secure establishing on recommendations made 125 When it to comes collection data by public entities at the federal level, in 2011 the Beyond this, Governor Gavin Newsom has floated a “data dividend” which proposal by Financial technology (fintech)Financial technology While elements of this proposed approach are interesting are (including approach this of thepossibility proposed While elements 127 In 2016, in order to create cohesive federal policy on government standards, data 124 However, these rights do not meaningfully challenge the 130 129 The bipartisan legislative legislative bipartisan The 128 The Commission Commission The 126

24 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters financialcollection data with US law enforcement. particular,In Carillostated that: the entrenchment of corporate power and threat to financial and the stability; integration of techsurveillance-based companies; the irresponsible integration of banking and commerce; marketing, loan underwriting and monitoring, and pricing; banks and partnerships between current legal regime surrounding fintech, including: the use of forAI and predictive analytics recommendations, during arecent hearing Carrillo laid out anumber of concerns around the ecosystem. the Task Force on Financial Technology in order to adapt policy to the emerging fintech was put in place. banks worldwide, with calls for amoratorium on launch its until aproper framework regulatory Libra’s announcement in June 2019 sparked significantbacklash frompolicymakers centraland dominance.” and political economic corporate and deepen and banking, commerce between intoand partners its sector, the financial services which wouldviolate the traditional separation arbitrage of the financial system, regulatory and (3) encroachment theconcerted of Facebook interrelated threats: (1) surveillance mass of Libra (2) and users business partners, hazardous According to Raúl Carrillo, Policy Counsel for Demand Progress, Libra “poses three overarching, of people” Libra via as a“stablecoin” and Calibra cryptocurrency as adigital wallets system. billions and financial empowers that system simpleinfrastructure a enable global payment “to legislation. This has proven been insufficient by the Facebook-led Libra project, which proposes fintech sector is largely regulated under interpretations of existing finance and banking ------and local lawand local enforcement andthreatening ourcivilrights.” increasingly withfederal, intertwined isbecoming Financial data state, collection ing to heightened increased surveillance, corporate power, andfinancial exclusion. Wall Valley, Silicon Street, andthefintech industryare“war oncash”, waging a lead- would entrench corporate andthreaten power financialstability. by projects BigTech proposed Global stablecoin [e.g.,Facebook’s Libra project] (and payments andplatforms). Wall Street Valley andSilicon are irresponsibly integrating banking andcommerce many regulators have adopted alaissez faire attitude toward fintech. Rather thanproviding consistent andoversight guidance through proper process, have alreadyconcerns regarding raised discrimnation. unique,specific technology companies banksExisting partnerships between andsurveillance-based fundamental protection consumer risks andfair lendingconcerns. underwriting andmonitoring, andthepricingofvarious raises products andservices intelligence ofartificial The use (AI) andpredictivefor marketing, analytics loan bank charter inorder to evade state protection consumer laws. “The existing regulatory framework allows nonbank[fintech] companies to ‘rent’ a In 2019, House Financial Services Committee Chairperson Maxine Waters established Waters established Maxine In Chairperson 2019, Committee Financial House Services Due to a lack of new policymaking by Congress, the rapidly emerging and growing 134 While the force task is still conducting work its and has yet to offer any final 133 135

132 131

25 common-wealth.co.uk following five principles and goals. goals. principles and following five To the steps. suggest we and debates and intermediary decisions, guidediscussions, these pathways transition well clear as as structures; and arrangements economic political differentin, control of platforms and along data, with a vision of how these interact with, and are embedded deliver positive outcomes. Ultimately, what is are needed new models of public ownership and inequitable, capitalist, and extractive, imperialist political economic system is unlikely to ever corporate ownership and control of platforms and within data (at apseudo-democratic best), fit. sees purpose society isdata just information that collected can be or not collected and or used not for used any givenimportant that many of the challenges we face are increasingly global in nature); and platforms are simply ways in which to bring disparate people and groups together (which is a more progressive and solidaristic set of goals and values. This is because, at their heart, their emancipatory and democratic potential if structured in different ways and oriented around 8 platforms andplatforms in data our political contemporary economic system, itis not difficultsee to public ownership of democratic ples Goals and princi 1. for purposes other thanwas originallyintended.for purposes be used cansubsequently purposes andbeneficial innocuous forlected seemingly ishow andoppression datadisparities, - concern col andsubjugation. Ofparticular controlof social andinways that entrench racial inequality, power andeconomic by privateused andpublicactors (often witheachother) inconjunction for purposes operations.veillance And more generally, data andmis- isincreasingly used being As previously many platforms discussed, sur- large-scale have become essentially Privacy andanti-surveillance stakeholder organizations and approaches will likely be needed. Beyond this, access access this, Beyond will likely needed. approaches be and organizations stakeholder private corporations or the state as presently constituted, and new democratic and multi- into existence at all. have applications, positive the potential harm of misuse may require it not to brought be the subject. data Thus, even though itcould argued be that some forms of may data for discipline capacity oppressive once the leveraged can be data by someone beyond take into account personally particularly identifiable how data, generates data, inevitably general). with asimple question: This starts “should This this question exist?” data must public ownership of and data platforms (or reform and restructuring proposals in such,As and privacy anti-surveillance must key be principles in any vision of democratic However, For-profit andcontrol. the key like around of is one ownership questions always, Despite the multifaceted set of problems and outcomes poor associated with

Moreover, how such decisions are made solely in cannot the left be hands of - 26 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters 3. 2. 700 cities around700 cities theworld. than there operates are America,andUber inNorth inupwards and of60countries the world. For there instance, are more asmanyusers inAsia thantwice Facebook the United States theirusers (andto extent, are theUK), alesser located throughout While many ofthemajor platform andBigTech are in companies nominallybased Global multi-stakeholder governance just in the US and the UK) canparticipatejust intheUS andtheUK) intheownership andgovernance ofplat- est,” andapproaches around by set upprocesses theworld whichpeople (andnot global dynamicsinto and,inaccordance withthe principleof“affected account inter- Any to proposals democratize theownership ofplatforms anddata must take these safeguards put in place to regulate and access use and restrict surveillance and misuse. entitiesdata must structured be democratically and with appropriate measures and public these mentioned, power. and monopsonistic monopolistic previously As foundation platforms’ of challenge and theeconomic privacy protect to both in order Similarly, when isdata collected it should held be in a public commonsdata or trust data good. common the and public benefit maximize can structures organisational and competition among private, for-profit entities, and instead thinking what about values public or commons-based model. This means focusing on more than just bolstering of with platforms an eye towards moving away from amodel of enclosure towards a mechanics and structure the on ought we to focus debates, and discussions these Doing soopens up various new forms of regulation and ownership, and during andassets. reconceptualized aspublicutilities be generate effects. network Ultimately, thismeansthat platforms anddata shouldlikely ver, are products andservices often these platforms valuable andimpactful because world. Moreo inthemodern that for essential havevices billionsofpeople become However, increasingly clearthat itisbecoming platforms provide products- andser practices withathicket ofIPprotections andvast oflawyers armies andlobbyists. guarding and protecting theiralgorithms,vast treasure troves ofdata, andbusiness Currently, ofthemajorplatforms most operate usinganenclosure jealously model, From enclosure to thecommons alike. corporations and private governments by data of collection anti-democratic represent acritical tool for combatting the enormous, secretive, and fundamentally anti-surveillance democratic framework, public ownership of platforms and could data usage anddata algorithms) and privacy. If done correctly, and in accordance with an structures and subject to strict regulations around use (including transparency around to that data is collected should mediated be by democratically accountable ownership efit to the datasource.” extract, analyze, data andown user for profit andmarket ben- influence withnominal amounts to ‘Scramble a“modern-day for Africa’ where large tech scale companies South to bolster theirprofits. This colonialism,”“digital DanielleColemanwrites, dominantly Western corporations are andextracting collecting data from theGlobal

137

136 Consequently, asituation by hasarisen whichpre - -

27 common-wealth.co.uk 4. 5. against Google. that recently itisfilinganantitrust Department announced lawsuitthe USJustice enforcement. Inadditionto theaforementioned ofRepresentatives USHouse report, oftheAtlantic, sides on both leadingto renewed callsfor more robust antitrust sectors ofthedigitaleconomy. Thisisincreasingly andpoliticians alarmingexperts (orare andmonopsony monopoly acrossestablished power establishing) various As previously asmallnumber ofplatforms discussed, and BigTech have companies Reducing corporate concentration andpower direct federal for spending the development ofademocratic digitaleconomy. For as IPandpublicR&Dto democratic thiscallfor principles, publicfundingincludes platforms, andother alternatives. Inadditionto bindingindirect state such support their VC andother sources ofprivate funds),andinto cooperatives, publiclyowned awaydiverted from large platforms (whodon’t andtech itgiven companies need of direct increased andindirect and andstate both subsidies should be privileges) (suchasantitrustcompetition andregulatory strategies), publicfunding(intheform In additionto other government actionsto reduce corporate andincrease power ernment R&Dinvestment andcontracts. to power they andpolitical secure are lucrative economic usingtheirimmense gov- and other standards, andbuyupcompetitors andsmallerfirms. same time, At the competitors, seize market share, engageinregulatory arbitrage, underminelabour areones) swimming inVC fundingthat allows them)to them(andcompels undercut more democratic alternatives, isfunding.At thelarger platforms present, (especially tor, andoneofthefactors proliferation, holdingbackthedevelopment, of andscaling One ofthefactors drivingcorporate concentration inthetechnology andpower sec Increasing publicfunding company. immediately actionable (suchimmediately actionable regulation nationalization). or public as utility to curbing corporate concentration and power may more be applicable and other approaches However, and perspectives, additional these absent provisions or public forms of ownership or control), they should and supported be pursued. up companies or spun off business lines are subsequently cooperativeconverted to ownership and control of platforms and Big Tech companies (for instance, broken as antitrust strategies connected can be to deeper structural changes in the reconsolidation). (i.e. corporate Inasmuch temporary somewhat be can effects greater competition (at the expense of other goals and objectives) and market its limited encouraging usually on also to are focusing objectives Its context. economic tool,Antitrust but one is which apowerful is hard to wield in the current political structures instructive. ed” ofgovernance anddecision-making) isparticularly Elinor Ostrom’s management work- oncommons approaches “nest (andinparticular likely ofplatform andthese achieved, willvary onthetype involved,be depending forms anddata commons/trusts. Whilethere are multiple ways inwhich thiscould

140

139 Thisisinadditionto numerous state-level investigations into that 138

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28 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters powerful economies of scale. scale. of economies powerful that exhibits infrastructure crucially, and, networked assets; presiding over or infrastructure that requireproviding large-scale investments services over time to maintain the underlying have aright that to; are in providing demand services (or are experiencing demand); stable that people good vital a that are considered near-monopoly services providing conditions; that cannot efficiently be services easily or replicated; under or monopoly providing services — other proposals. of applicability and details intended have inevitably, another unintended and would, or implications the for proposal one These proposals are not intended necessarily to constitute an integrated plan, and adopting on theirwith commentary applicability (or lack thereof) to either the current US or UK context. Ineconomic this context. spirit, what follows are aseries of potential public policy proposals top-down strategies need to be developed based both on geography and the evolving political manner. From this position of power, the voices of workers and ignored. be can users too often effectively run a these naturalplatforms effects, often monopoly collectand fees ina rentier-like ruthlessly, as the example of Uber shows) for strive market dominance. by network Buttressed andPlatforms, especially commission require platforms, size to profitable become and (often democratic potential of the is platform corrupted by the existing political economy of platforms. giving suppliers and of users the genuine platform voice and control. discussed As above, the also have great potential to organised be through multi-stakeholder models of governance, provide an enormously useful function. Given their collaborative, networked nature, platforms 9 to realise this. We believe that in order to address these problems, various and bottom-up fulfil socially usefulfunctions. However, a number of problems be solved in need to order potential. To do that, or democratically we have to managed scale co-owned platforms that dations dations Policy recommen Increasingly, major are platforms becoming public utilities, characterized providing by: We to need rescue the socially useful role of the platform and unlock democratic its The as platform an infrastructure for connecting can people to and goods services large, for-profitthe fundinggapbetween platforms andalternative models. that canoffer analternative to commercialVC fundsand banks begin to close and confronted be could by orpublicbank(s) agovernment establishing fundingbody drum” (theproblem ofmobilisingenoughmoney to get cooperatives offtheground) encouraging development thelocal ofplatforms. Furthermore, the“capital conun- gramming interface (API) that would lower platform development costs, andstartup madeavailable be publicfundingcould instance, for developing anapplication pro Democratic public major platforms of ownership Democratic - - 29 common-wealth.co.uk democratic structures and new common good values and principles. For more details on what what on details more For and principles. values good common and new structures democratic ownership, the companies platforms themselves should restructured be to embed both in control Washington) shifts time party and privatisation pressure. once in Second, public This could insulate the public trust both from political pressure (and shifting priorities every one. the only be would not it structure, in a such stakeholder one be could the government (with the trust fully authorized to exercise the voting rights associated with the shares). While (ortrust similar principles multi-stakeholder and vehicle) to democratic according organised are taken in major platform companies, they should likely held be in an autonomous public and governance structures of these new institutions. First and foremost, if ownership stakes however, importantly, Most principles throughout embedding will democratic the ownership be necessary. where into together public national regional and andfederated entities networks UK has some useful points starting that could adapted be to the US context. regulation in the public on utility the following section decisions, such making for measures terms of deciding which platforms might taken be into public ownership, and the metrics and manufacturing companies, auto-makers, insurance companies, mines, and many more. where the government at has, various taken stages, ownership stakes in banks, railroads, is commonplace around the world and throughout history. material, the concept of public ownership stakes in major companies and economic institutions (a combination of antitrust and ownership strategies). ownership democratic of under public forms other or re-organised be parts their constituent Meidner Plan); and/or 4) breaking up large platforms and tech companies and requiring that mandating shares transferred be over time into apublicly fund owned (a variant on the Swedish stakea majority but more than any other single shareholder); 3) alonger-term of process or more of each firm; 2) short-term acquisition controllingof a stake eachin firm (less than the sale. This could include: 1) short-term acquisition ownership of amajority stake of 51% sequencing that would maximize public benefit and minimize private-sector profiteering from so, the appropriate government agency or enterprise toand lead thethe optimalprocess, companiesplatform into democratic public ownership, along with the legal to authority do words. Rather, to “get is ideals. the institutions right,”democratic needed is Elinor what to use Ostrom’s insufficient by themselves tosufficiently resolve these issues and align the Internet its with for arenewal of antitrust, breaking up Big Tech, and public regulation utility are valuable but switching switching data and economies costs, of costs, previously scale. mentioned, As calls main functions of the Internet due to the natural monopoly problem inherent to effects, network demonstrates, the dominant platforms are able to maintain control over and ownership of the ownership).of policymakers in the UK pursue a regulatory approach (while still acknowledging the possibility pursue an ownership approach (while still acknowledging the of possibility regulation), and possible in the US than it is in the such, As UK. we recommend that policymakers in the US conceptually, more least at is, public in country, the ownership headquartered are companies as it relates to the dominant companies. platform However, due to the fact that many platform possible natural is monopolies) option either In regulation are public and US, the ownership. 141 Under public ownership, these could platforms ultimately decentralized be into local we haveAs detailed in in this previous reports as series, well as various other published In the US, the federal government should investigate ways in which to take the large theAs recent historic investigation by the US House Antitrust Subcommittee Historically, main the public two policy options for dealing with utilities (and especially

142 This includes the United States 143 In In 30 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters into these new The current publicly-owned platforms. business model of Amazon, Facebook, as utilities. These include: These utilities. as market dominance the leading platform in has), that area typically mean they effectively function ofbecause the essential and non-substitutable being nature offered of the services (and the as identifiedcategories ofby activity platform the recent House antitrust investigation that, or are infrastructural in vital a digital economy. services However, we believe there are a number to our ability to communicate. and foundational are – outcomes in determining and post telecommunications, socioeconomic though that are they becoming provide services arguably at least as as important broadcasting, oversight has of yet the to to digital extend large parts economy, including even the platforms, this regulatory yet, As services. and postal telecommunications, broadcasting, of the provision covering Communicationsof powers sector. (Ofcom)of range a has example, the Office For This isand already in rates the the of with case service. telecommunications many services course not new. In such instances, government regulation sets fair and non-discriminatory terms competencesregulatory and make more consequential use of the tools at disposal. its on issues of antitrust regulation. However, of Digital the Office Platforms would concentrate Markets Unit) and that the Digital Markets Taskforce is currently advising the government WePlatforms. recognise that asimilar in has proposed been the body Furman (Digital Report major platforms as utilities in terms of their operation in the UK through of Digital a new Office aresult,As instead of pursuing apublic ownership strategy, it should seek to regulate the — Act (including, potentially, codetermination of and data trusts as data described below). frameworkprivacy such as Senator Sherrod Brown’s Accountability Data and Transparency national data strict a of the establishment to, subsequent in or conjunction with, ownership public enabling legislation democratic to pass all be would option enabling Another legislation. control). Rather anti-surveillance and values privacy and rules should included be in any and climate change). with and deal extraction to end and then transitioning winding or corporations fuel down fossil regimes within these firms ought be to ended entirely (similar to thestrategy of nationalizing key existing a data which is question developed, public is ownership fordemocratic strategy any this As entire remove orientation. to strategically would need public ownership democratic inherently dependent on mass collection data and utilization for profit, and anyinto shift Google, and the other firms thatcould potentially candidatesbe for public ownership is may instructive. be CumbersAndy and Thomas Hanna, M. the latter also being one of the authors of this paper) this Public might Enterprise 2019 the entail, (authored Democratic the by Constructing report data (includingdata sharing it with government agencies engaged in surveillance and social new public platforms will face incentives and pressure to monetize, collect, and/or misuse - - Online commerce (Amazon) Online search (Google) Of particular concern willOf embedding be anti-surveillance values privacy and pro-data Not all services or functionsNot by digital provided all are platforms services equivalent to public goods Regulating private operators as utilities when they provide essential functions is of This cannot as an it would be afterthought, introduce the unacceptable risk that the The UK Government’s options are more limited when to itcomes platforms. US-based Public utility regulation Public utility 144

31 common-wealth.co.uk “land grabs” for their monopolies, platform fintech respective takes thisdynamicstep a further for surveillance capitalism. Just as Google, and Amazon, Facebook, Apple were able to make bringing itin line with that of other regulated utilities. should limit the percentage profit margin, measured as EBIT (earningsbefore income tax), and This workers. and consumers indirectly and companies including advertising to customers, should use utility rate-making to the fix prices that platforms regulated as utilitiescan charge required to to UK of haveDigital customers. The alicence Office Platforms to provide services above in positions of monopoly should considered be to regulated be as utilities, and should be globally –itwould subject be to regulation as acondition of operation. obvious example being Google’s search engine, the dominant search engine in the UK and and products like Chromecast would not covered. be But where it provides a utility –the most regulated like utilities. Research and development like like DeepMind, Google services Pay should subject be to regulation as autility, regardless of their size. arebelieve essential that and non-substitutable where services then the providing platform in the UK market, total traffic, percentage or ofother users, measures ofactivity. In general,we isplatform in adominant position within the market, on based total market share by turnover Metrics for the application of regulation incore these could five areas includewhether a ------Not all should platforms providing regulated be necessarily these services as utilities. Facebook) (Google, Digital advertising Web browsers (Google) Voice assistants (Amazon, Apple) Amazon) (Iaas,Paas,Cloud computing andSaaS)(Google, Apple) Digital mapping(Google, (Apple,Google) Mobile OS Mobile appstores (Apple,Google) (Facebook) networks, media Social social The lack of public policy around the ascendant fintech makes industry it frontierthe next such,As we recommend that listed that platforms provide one of the core services A Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) and banking postal system orasaresult ofactiontakenpublic onrequest, by theOffice. data they into feed prepared theiralgorithms andbe to explain theiralgorithmsto the toThe power require (andpublicinstitutions)to companies keep audit of the logs suring minimum standards around content ontheplatform. published ofcare to platforms aduty media forThe ability establish for social theirusers, en- dial powers ifsuppliers are unfairly being impacted. which might suffer from thedominantpower oftheplatform, by accompanied reme Powers to investigate thepotential negative effects onsuppliers to theplatform, where scenarios therecertain are detriments. clearcitizen, oreconomic consumer ableto aswellcredit asbeing restrict scoring, orprohibit ofdata in thecollection data for ofsocial thedevelopmentfor of types example, ofcertain banningtheuse toThe power intervene andregulate including, practices data anduses, collection including: benefit, the for public powers new should have Office the this, Alongside In practice, for example, this would mean that not all of Alphabet’s activities would be - 32 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters trade-off in trade-off the CBDC’s design would build an backdoor expansive statefor corporateand financing terrorism, gangs, and blackmarkets, but avoidingconfronting this privacy proposed FedAccounts. The argument against “cash-like” digital currency on fearmongering rests of and be builtto private fintech on top services of it, including digital wallets platforms such as digitalThis currency abase provides level privacy-preserving infrastructure that allows public centralized ledger. go through a to or distributed need the without verification for components (e.g., watermarks), barcodes, “cash-like” instruments would contain cryptographically-secure system). ledger a via bearer instruments” (i.e., those the “bear” who unit hold the value directly, rather than indirectly “Digital Dollars,” etc., instead of being aledger-based currency, should function as “currency system, described above, from the currency itself. design should ensure the currency unit is as “cash-like” as possible by diverging the wallets anti-surveillance are properly integrated into the digital architecture, the underlying technology process. drafting throughor legislative the details will likely to need ultimately hammered be out by acommittee/commission of experts outrightFederal Reserve (rather than offering FedAccounts as a public option) – and the exact the central bank ledger in aCBDC scheme and proposals all to shift demand deposits to the through existing TreasuryDirect Accounts and Saule Omarova’s focus on the asset side of first the adoption FedAccounts of to sequence proposal Hockett’s Robert such as – ideas fixed amount. helicopter drops” policy tool, as simply anew FedAccount monetary marking by a up every financial institutions; mechanism “UBI and for would governmenta have direct 2) the federal having a direct immediate impact on bank accounts, rather than being mediated by extractive (IOR)– Interest Reserves On –would significantly be more effective in managing inflation by macroeconomic consequences of this are:1) the central policy bank’s tool monetary primary higher interest return on balances, real-time and payments, no interchange Two fees. notable that this could offer a number consumerof advantages, including: no or fees minimumbalances, and Menand suggest Crawford, Ricks, services, banking public a basic for option below). As digital (similar platform to familiar mobile banking interfaces) and banks postal (elaborated on than this being solely a privilege for banks. architecture. (i.e., how the value is held); and 3) banking apostal system, or the CBDC’s adjacent physical 1) a digital wallets (i.e., platform where the value is held); 2) the digital currency technology digital payments infrastructure. There are three elements to consider incorporating into aCBDC: aroundcoalesce the idea of establishing acentral bank digital currency (CBDC) as the public a magnitude by incorporating further platforms’ natural monopoly dynamics. digital wallets system, the private capture of public money by the financial sectorwill takenbe eventuality. this off and operationalized to in head order developed to be needs infrastructure digital payments scale, and ambition of Facebook’s Libra project demonstrates the urgency with which apublic by locking in aglobal future of money itself controlled by private capitalists. The platform scope, access to a bank account directly with the central bank (known as “FedAccounts”), rather in the US context is for theto give Federal individuals, Reserve businesses, and institutions With regards to currency technology, in order to ensure the principles and of privacy FedAccounts and the CBDC debate about and ongoing significant is discussion There With regards to digital wallets, the main under proposal consideration and debate The “public option” discussions occurring with policymakers and central banks generally 145 150 If Libra or another private actor steps in and to create acryptocurrency Analogous to the current use of multiple paper notes layers for verifying 147148 146 These FedAccounts would be accessible via a 149 The legally usable “Treasury Notes,” 151

33 common-wealth.co.uk system from 1910 to 1967, offering post officesat basicacross the banking country. services surveillance, even if not utilized initially. — so. to do interventions captured by private rentiers; Wall Street and Silicon Valley will make significant lobbying of this new digital payments infrastructure remains bound to the public interest rather than dependency to ensure in the path principles order DPO by to abide this for proposal imperative wings. establishment and movement the party’s for consensus a as to emerge policy signallingfollowing primary, presidential the contentious 2020 Democratic the potential for the Task released Unity system) inreport featured theis Recommendations Biden-Sanders Force allowing an underclass to remain in dire due need to alack of administrative care. inmost of need inclusion of this relief and payments infrastructure are included, rather than homeless, disabled, and remote areas by adedicated outreach This corps. ensures those at FDIC-insured offices, and banks, post through targeted at-riskoutreach to the elderly, currency instrument. The swipe cards would distributed be mail via in-person pick-up request, FedAccounts public digital wallets and the use of swipe cards builds in aprivacy-preserving concluded. crisis the after through year a inperson with America swipe cards that automatically added $1,000 to the balance monthly is instructiveAct, for how this three-prong system would operate. It providing proposed every accessible not just to those everyone, able to utilize an via app or website. digital services This establishes the value of maximum inclusivity, ensuring this payments infrastructure is banks could provide the interface for their to users access accounts tellers via and ATMs. postal option, cash physical the maintains intentionally proposal CBDC above the Since equitable This world of 21st work. “New Deal” century for work should include: for all can ensure we emerge from the current Covid-19 crisis with a fairer, more secure, and reimagining for agenda work In comprehensive a doing described). so, previously the ones or embedded into the governance and management structures of new entities platform (like in their current companies incarnation, platform andregulation legislation targeting standalone through done be could This decent. and secure is intermediaries through platform organised labour.and that US and UK employment law generates in favour of management and over capital workers for workers platform instead of regulation a weakness reflects and widerthe power imbalances through itshould badly paid, precarious, or be lacking in control. That this the is reality often - - setting outof theirpay including hours, and conditions payment for breaks during paternity, andadoption leave, holiday pay, protection from unfair aclear dismissal, cluding statutory redundancy pay, sick pay, family-friendly rights includingmaternity, All workers from should benefit a guaranteed, strongset ofrights from day one, in- raising thefloor for all. contractorcontracts, self-employment/independent helpingendbogus status and ers, includingagency workers, dependent contractors, onzero-hours andpeople The creation status legal to cover allexisting ofanew andwork ‘worker’ employees To address this, anew set of labour rights should introduced be to ensure work With regards to political feasibility, this dual (a proposal CBDC banking and postal Representative Rashida Tlaib’s recent Covid-19 relief legislation, as the known ABC Postal banking has similarly much seen debate recently. The US banking had apostal There is nothing innate in the concept of the that platform means that work organised A 21st workers for “New Deal” and unions century 153 The cards’ accounts would function similar to the 154 It is is It 152 -

34 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters be considered acceptable speech and content on social media platforms. Instead, a new a Instead, platforms. media and content social on speech acceptable considered be or distant state authorities. The same applies to decisions around what should or should not what should used purposes can be data not the be prerogative of multinational corporations around data collection and speech labour. technologies and ensure the gains of new technologies are fairly shared among capital and the design of company strategies, particularly those that relate to the deployment of new to adapt to new forms Moreover, of work. itwill ensure the collective voice of workers shapes power are also Doing to extended work. so will platform enable both workers and companies across the wider economy but also ensure that these mechanisms for rebalancing voice and in the Nordic nations. the cutting edge of labour relations, with, for example, awide range of agreements now in place bargaining agreements to organise the terms and conditions of work platform is increasingly at and organisedwork performed through platforms. out in many key of the sectors economy, aparticular focus should ensuring be that itcovers productivity, and strengthen workplace democracy. While sectoral bargaining should rolled be improve employers, good and pay, conditions inequality, wage improve working support reduce and training will This pensions, and development. characteristics, and other protected class relating equalities to ethnicity, equality, workplace gender andsafety, health security, job the of case the US) to cover pay and conditions, working time and holidays, dispute settlement, jurisprudence. 10.3% as in awhole, and the 6.2% private sector) due to of decades hostile public policies and bargain collectively.” indisputable in relation to the right to trade union autonomy, right to strike, and the right to recently found that trade union rights “are the restrictive most in the Western World. This is the Institute In union for theEmployment UK, trade Relations rights. governs which framework - - - - - platform economy. of exploitation organised increasingly andinsecurity, includingsections through the that ofoccupation suffer extended to shouldbe from types (GLAA) highlevels thority sectoral approachThe successful licensing oftheGangmasters Au Abuse - Labour retained.ing that shouldbe oftribunalfees triggered theabolition To ensure workers canenforce theirrights where breached, theSupreme rul- Court nomic status inprotected characteristics. toA new duty provide harassment-free workplaces andtheinclusionofsocio-eco number ofguaranteed hours andhave apremium rate for overtime. An endto zero-hours contracts, replaced withcontracts that provide aminimum Decisions about what types of should data Decisions collected, be about how is what data collected, types and for standards and enforce to set agencies or bodies and multi-stakeholder deliberative New The use of sectoral bargaining and stronger forms of enterprise-level collective To address this, collective sectoral bargaining should re-introduced be (or introduced in Alongside new workers’ rights, action to is needed reform the US and UK’s legal the employer candemonstrate that they are genuinely self-employed. astatutoryshould be presumption that unless allindividualsqualifyasemployees the Taylor Review inCalifornia’s and was established “GigWorkers (AB law” 5),there As theEnglish andWelsh Trade to set outintheirresponse UnionsCongress (TUC) andunionrights.shifts, 157

158 156 It that is vital in the US and UK we not only expand collective bargaining In the US, union density is at historic lows for the modern era (just (just era the modern for lows historic at is union In density the US, 155 - 35 common-wealth.co.uk we suggest that they might that they include: suggest we While these “rights” should developed be by adeliberative and consultative planning process, the collection and use of that data would focus on rebalancing power in the digital economy. Alongside this, the agency should help develop and enforce anew “bill of rights” relating to recommendations and drafting new legislation as it relates to privacy, data collection, and use. consequences (within the of context established law); and on the other, tasked with making with the to authority limit or prohibit the collection of that data has harmful and oppressive extraction. to unchecked data existingamplify inequalities in society, forms worsen of surveillance and oppression, and lead Without thiswork. countervailing force, collection data and digital technologies are likely to in their communities and technologies workplaces, which intimately how we pattern live and technologies and application data of the well development as as collection data concerning decisions. making of ways deliberative and participatory and principles democratic same the content on social media but this platforms, may also aseparate be organised body around within the UK and or agency US. The same could, body conceivably, also set standards for principles around what can or data should collected be and determine the contours of use its andautonomous should agency standards or set and deliberative multi-stakeholder body organisations, businesses, and more shape collectively –can the rules and regulations ------tems operate andtheireffects on workingconditions. orgroupsuncomplicated, to enablingpeople quickly understand how technical sys- understandable, and decision-making trees). Thisdata easilyaccessible, shouldbe information how AI about anddata systems work andrecord (and alldecisions the adoptionofanalgorithmic“blackbox”. that adevice Thiswould records be The right to have fulltransparency inAI systems andhow they intervene through scraping data from thepublic, powers to thedevelopment shape ofthephysical where are landscape companies may Italso includeensuringthat governmentsand how itisused. local have new Intelligence (AI) systems andhave asay inwhat dataintheworkplace iscollected workers thedevelopment andothers anddeployment canco-determine ofArtificial andmonitoring ensuring that ofsurveillance Thisincludes and use technologies. and analysis aresay technologies introduced, includingafinal ontheintroduction The right ofworkers to andcommunities determine collectively how data collection outside ofwork hours. gaining agreements have ensured workers are not required to or answer send emails The “right to disconnect,” ontheFrench where based ofsectoral model aseries bar- decision-making processes. explanation over machine-based controlhow legal over isexercised, machines andresponsibility includingaright of The right to approach, a“human-in-command” whereby candetermine publicbodies bargaining duringcollective negotiations.the handoflabour toability exercise control over andbalance one’s own work time–andto strengthen improve andworking includingprotecting –the conditions, social sovereignty” “time The right data anduse to generated access by workers areas orpublicsindefined to aswell asapproachesgages) to algorithmicaccountability. impact onworking- (includingaround conditions suchasmort financialdecisions, algorithmicsystemsThe right to that co-design form and decision-making processes The goal should to be ensure all stakeholders – workers, residents, community The agency body, should on the both be and one aregulatory hand advisory endowed 159 160 161 36 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters cooperative platforms)cooperative should required be to provide the trust data with the collected in data trusts’ data a place-based area (e.g., Uber, Airbnb, Google Maps or, ideally, new public and abuse of sets data but also ensures that they benefit allstakeholders. Platforms operating in to prevent crucial only not is This champion theprinciple deliberation co-determination. and of analysis remain in private hands. For this trusts data could reason, place-based and should and data crucial planning in their cases, decisions In communities remainsome obscure. decisions made can be in domains that directly impact citizens’ livelihoods. To many citizens, housing,on traffic,transport, tourism, etc. should be madeavailable better, so more democratic workplace. the in effectively more help intervene them generating insights that can from the The trust to should trust. data help support analyse provide users analytical the data, individual organisations workers, and society civil would able be to to request access the data employment status of suitably the anonymised workforce, to with respect privacy. Trade unions, to provide to the “sector aset of agreed trust” such data datasets, as conditions, wages, and bargaining to improve pay and conditions. unions enable trade or information to recognition use for collective leverage as status employee bargain. Worker As Info Exchange argues, help itcan workers in the economy platform gain and collectively existing rights, enforce campaign, organise, and helpconditions unions better employment the status, pooling of enable can data workers understand to their better work and providing them with of view a both better individual and aggregate earnings, conditions, and made accessible to workers and trade unions, at both the enterprise and sectoral level. By areactivities organised digital via To platforms. address this, relevant of sets should data be cements power imbalances This at is work. arguably pronounced most for workers whose employers –heightened by inequalities in to and data access the insights itgenerates –further incorporatedbe into how these trusts are data established, structured, and governed. recommended several practices for best trusts (based data on three pilots), and these should establishment of sectoralInstitute The Data Open and trusts. data place-based has recently monopolies. platform of shareholders the isdata anonymised, decommodified, and working towards public interests,rather than serving build the policy foundations of commoning for data aprocess –guaranteeing that collective making sure that the isdata shared safely and democratically. trusts –an autonomous that legal as acts body acustodian and steward of aspecific set, data dominated by corporate enclosure to commons. adata way One vital to do this is through data control over that data can improve their lives. set of principles and standards for the collection and use of can begin data to reverse this. Embedding population. and and the proactive wider new a actors undemocratic these between Hitherto, the lightly regulated practices of platforms and states has led to adeep imbalance data collectiondata (and non-collection), but to also transform the control of from data a system - privacy, rights, oftheworkers orwellbeing andthewiderpublic. The right forms to oranalysis ofdata bancertain whenitinfringes collecting onthe As part ofAs part sectoral collective bargaining agreements, companies should be required With regard to in sectoral the information trusts, data asymmetry workers between and We recommend that established, of be trusts data anew network specifically the around and decisions regulations, the rules, democratise just to not important It is Establish of anew ‘data network trusts’ to provide citizens and with access democratic and is record The an power to ever-more observe one in powerful the digital age. Similarly, trusts should data place-based to data pool improve governance. local Data 164 166 162 / 163 A trustdata could help 165

37 common-wealth.co.uk to intake projects, co-create strategic plans for their for and plans and implementation, strategic development co-create to intake projects, Project engineers of the digital would acting labs, interface with the assembly as servants, civil platforms to created be and utilized in the public interest as defined by the citizen assembly. R&D agencies, the PDCs would develop the “digital feedback infrastructure” for public and data democracy.” political and economic to ensure they fulfil their mandate“to develop the infrastructure of a morecomplete social, – which establishes digital labs in disinvested communities, by overseen citizen assemblies Hind’s British Digital model Cooperative –generalized here to Public Digital (PDCs) Cooperatives to in ensure order national national model comparability, longitudinal consistency, and quality. while maintaining under a agencies government the system and local and state universities incorporating multi-stakeholder local governance the formal labs via and between networks and the principle of affected interest (in thiscase, research institutions). as asuccessful precedent of apublic institution data built around community participation Research on Innovation and Science (IRIS) at of the Michigan, University established in 2015, to translate the lab’s work to the of needs local data citizens. and funding, and the Grant model of Land universities for training, coordination, and outreach” public infrastructure data the of pieces the “taking [US] national lab system as amodel for R&D comprehensive a as function would explains, NLCD Lane The system, trusts. data governed collection/use around codetermination data to, in conjunction or with, democratically and for CommunityLab (NLCD) Data proposal and how it could potentially developed be in addition a federated structure in key areas such as and mobility the rental market. electric vehicles. platforms could Place-based link up with an overarching national in platform anddrivers, setting socially useful goals for the such platform, as requiring the transition to and other connectingtaxis providers, mobility to users the providing platform, work good for Manchester Combined or Authority New York Council City working in partnership with local orwide potentially platform, adopted be and tailored to by, needs local for example, the Greater branding of national organisation to help itscale and get new users. PPA to develop iterations local but have of the the support larger technical infrastructure and groups, from authorities local to community groups, could use the products developed by the development The developed platforms would kit. have aplug-in and play -i.e. aspect local this would the be development that can then of by used others basic be software as aplatform multi-stakeholder. be would platform the Foundational of for governance the and investors, designed to maximise the utility of the for platform and users its workers not returns to its but with akey difference: the platforms created wouldbe not-for-profit, with fee structures technologies. democratic new scaling of Publica network Digital could Cooperatives play acentral role in providing an alternative for (PPA), Accelerator Public (NLCD), a Platform Data agencies, for Community National a Lab and wrought with extraction, monopolization, work precarity, and social control. Three new public — actors should also make to antheirfeed effort data into moresystematically.trusts order for itto available be for public use (with sufficient privacy andaccess guidelines). Public Another proposal potentially worthy of consideration, adaptation, and adoption is Dan Dan is adoption and adaptation, consideration, of potentially worthy proposal Another investigation Julia of Lane’s further National recommend we to data, comes it When For example, the creation of could platform a mobility function as either anationwide The PPA would tasked be with developing platforms that replicate existing platforms, The VC approach to incubating has fueled adigital and data startups platform economy Public Accelerator, Platform and Public System, Cooperatives Digital National Lab 169 While the PPA and NLCD function as nationally directed 167 She references the Institute for references She 168 Lane proposes proposes Lane 38 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters regain control ofdemocratise data, urban technologies, and move beyond unequal neoliberal that: that: and 4)to capability; and data analytical using public procurement to open up private data. safeguards); 3) including access privacy reclaiming both infrastructure, digital democratising and appropriate (with stringent possible 2) wherever ensuring and interoperable data open the legal regime around to data make it democratically governed and susceptible less to misuse; geographies, each strategy should underpinned be by four key principles and aims: 1) shifting competitors commercial differentprinciples to and accessible computing to broaden can who analyse capacity at data scale, organised on like otherthe of public development digital infrastructures, public funded a publicly or cloud help enable the creationcouldIt of locallyalsobe specific undergirdedtools and services. by models. growth goal of seeking to retain and grow value in place. how digital platforms and infrastructures are developed and owned – with the overarching strategies should at be the forefront of how we reimagine how is data generated and and used codetermination, and data trusts, the PPA, NCLD, and PDC), digital Community Wealth Building In conjunction with, or in addition to, many of the proposals suggested above (including data — ownership. public democratic of and principles along the goals in this out the challengesreport laid meets up that best the bottom an institutional of from arrangement development creative further suggest to simply is models particular these proposing of purpose The jurisdiction. in every (or desirable) likely are necessary models allimplement not these of hand, locally. other the On NLCD’s would data critical be to decisions by the PDC’s assemblies on what technologies to assemblies could play arole in shaping the strategic direction of the PPA or NLCD; and the architecture; the PDC’s data sound for inherently includes citizendevelopment the need to one another.and could services provide important For example, the PPA’s focus on platform values). property/land local mapping and sets data and tools that anti-gentrification support work (for withinstance regards to geo-spatial analyses of which they are asubject (and the ability to opt-in or out of these analyses), and/or assemblies themselves), search engines showing individuals the public and private data some ideas includework, for platforms democratic participation (to by used the be citizen published). is analysis standards), safe (de-identification), data safeand outputs (minimizing re-identification risk when of the data), safe people (authorized usage of data), safe settings (e.g. storage data FedRAMP to this commons would on based the be “Five Safes” utility safe framework: projects (justified place the final product in an open-source data and commons.IP Restrictions on accessibility - economic coordination orenvironmentaleconomic tools; data to provide mobility, local healthcare, anddemocratic to more services effective authorities, enterprises. civicorganisations range Thiscould andsocial from using Encourage includingby innovation public services, inthedigital delivery oflocal In Wealth particular, Building include could measures Community digital approaches While being flexible to particularitiesthe andcommunities of needs local economicand Towns, cities, and regions should in be the vanguard of charting anew digital future. It should noted be these three models as described above are not mutually exclusive While the citizen assembly would provide the mandate ultimately informing the PDCs Digital community wealth building wealth community Digital 172 The more judicious collection and effective curation shouldpublic of data judicious and effective more collection The 170 171 In doing so, they can help towns and cities 39 common-wealth.co.uk — only to digital economy firms structuresand that abide by democratic and shared ownership institution. counter to the private banking sector requires the complement of apublic lending and finance banking system provides the much-needed public digital payments infrastructure, afull-scale of the NIB and function of larger its industrial as part policy. while And the CBDC and postal ownership, one option would for be the public trust (or holding company) to asubsidiary be strategies as well. For instance, when bringing the monopoly under platforms democratic public drives innovation in the public interest. This would answer the problem of innovation “kill zones” with ademocratic alternative that entrepreneurship recently launched by the Media Enterprise Design and Lab Zebras United. to (E2C), Community” an alternative framework development for startup toward genuine social inspiration of “Exit is another source recommendations, previous the of in several out spelled exchange, use, and creation take place in the economy. In addition to the democratic principles more critical as platforms take root in designing the future of how production, consumption, genuine economy, a of to facilitatein thethis development even order democratic is but principles. Public financing generally shouldbe restricted to firms that abide by such principles spending). bank central or appropriations budgetary either by provided be could which for regional public banks, led at the federal level by aNational Investment Bank (NIB) (funding to VC funding. This could accomplished be by the establishment of and local of a network community wealth building approaches, there should also aviable be and scalable alternative and to the further development of democratically governed and/or labs, data trusts, data digital supplement to this, in order to close the financing gapand public forco-ops platform platforms a toand purchasing bring them into public As dominant ownership. democratic platforms the forform theof support non-discretionary above institutions proposed (PPA, NLCD, PDCs) answerprimary to this must rejecting be and austerity advocating direct federal spending in - - - range enterprises ofownership andcooperatives. includingsocial models, encouraging thedevelopment by innovative ofnew digitalservices witha companies Pluralise ownership withinthedigitaleconomy through actively authority thelocal procurement contracts; throughcompanies their interaction withthepublicrealm, making of itacondition authorities publicprocurement canuse to upthedata open generated by private ditions. As isincreasingly inleadingEuropean happening towns local andcities, updataOpen from theprivate sectorthrough ofpublicprocurement theuse - con digitalsystemsclosed that extract data anditsresultant andenclose value; neutral architectures instead government oflocking local into privately provided and Build digitalinfrastructures local that are source andfavour open interoperable, The NIB and subsidiary financing its entities would have amandate to provide lending Additionally, aNIB could play arole in supporting some of the “top-down” proposed Undoubtedly, the question of how to finance these proposalswill raised.be The Financing investment national banks via 175

173 174

40 Thomas Hanna, Mathew Lawrence, A Common Platform Nils Peters controlled. controlled. can reimagine and how platforms, the they data –and we –generate, is owned, governed, and that currently shape their operation. This, though, will require ambitious anewly agenda that maximisation profit and ownership corporate concentrated of logics the from coordinate and further. The challenge is to liberate the potential of the to platform communicate, connect, democracy can reimagine how platforms operate and for whom, their power will only entrench of Covid-19, leaving us more unequal and more insecure. algorithmic Moreover, the effects by management. accelerated baleful have trends been these precarious forms of digitally-organised to ubiquitous work, surveillance and the rise of biased increasingly harmful economic and from social surging effects, inequality and of the growth number of tech giants and their shareholders. This consolidation of power is in turn creating currently afeature, not abug –is consolidating vast wealth and control in the hands of asmall for change is closing The in-built fast. drive to in monopoly the economy platform –which is institutions that have developed over the are decade past still in their the window stages, early technologies to expand the realm of human freedom. However, though the approaches and How technical systems operate and in interest whose is not fixedcan norcertain. We reimagine 10 economies for the foreseeable future; and the decisions we make now are critical. Unless Conclusion Conclusion The digital monopolies are to poised dominate the commanding heights of our When to itcomes and platforms we are data, at acritical juncture. Technology is political. 41 common-wealth.co.uk 2020). https://www.wired.co.uk/article/why-is-uber-losing-money-analysis at: Available Wired. Wealth. Common R&D. and London: Property Intellectual nytimes.com/2019/05/15/technology/uber-ipo-price.html a$120 of Promise the How I.P.O. Uber Billion [online] https://www. at: York Available New Evaporated. Times. www.investopedia.com/insights/ubers-top-investors/ OECD Publishing. Paris: through is produced other (adata data capacity generative of deal agreat Lastly, collection. and conceptualisation through only – exists intent and context with combined as information broadly very requires – intentionaldata understood data as conceptualisation such. In short, Instead, collection. to prior exist not does data refining, and to drilling prior existing as of thought be can which unlike oil, Furthermore, operationalised. is it in which infrastructure informational the beyond capture) and enclosure of conditions (absent value inherent no has data aresult, As non-exhaustible. in theory is contrast, 2020). www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/public_comments/2014/08/00015-92370.pdf are-debate https://www.vice.com/en/article/594aj8/its-time-to-end-the-data-is-vs-data- at: [online] Available Debate. Vice. D. Are' (2018). 'Data Is' vs Oberhaus, 'Data to End the see: Time It's debate, grammatical this of a discussion 2020). https://onezero.medium.com/the-sharing-economy-was-always-a-scam-68a9b36f3e4b uploads/sites/93/2019/09/CyberTroop-Report19.pdf https://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/ Institute. Internet Oxford Manipulation. Media Social Organised of 2020). October https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/25/opinion/robinhood-suicide-trading.html at: Available worst-for-aggressive-tax-avoidance https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/dec/02/new-study-deems-amazon- at: Available Guardian. 2020). 2October (Accessed https://www.uclalawreview.org/los-angeles-displacement-and-the-rise-of-airbnb/ at: Available Review. cnn.com/2010/OPINION/11/02/botsman.collaborative.consumption/index.html https://daily.jstor.org/the-sharing-economy-was-dead-on-arrival/ at: Available https://theodi.org/article/odi-data-trusts-report/ less-disconnecte [online] https://nathantankus.substack.com/p/the-stock-market-is- at: Available Crises. You the on Notes Think. 17 16 15 14 13 oil). in found not 12 https:// at: [online] Available Population. FTC. the of Sectors Vulnerable Other and to Low-Income 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Endnotes (Accessed 20 October 2020). 20October (Accessed

d (Accessed 9 November 2020). 9November d (Accessed Bedingfield, W. (2019).How the hell did Uber just lose $5 billion in three months? three in billion $5 [online]W. (2019).How lose Bedingfield, just Uber did hell the Transforming Knowledge: D. (2020). Democratising Brown, and M., T.M., Hanna, Brett, Bloomenthal, A. (2020). Uber’s Biggest Investors. [online] Investopedia. Available at: https:// at: Available [online] Investopedia. Investors. (2020). Biggest Uber’s A. Bloomenthal, Transformation. Digital in the Role their and OECD (2019). Platforms to Online Introduction An 55. p. Sage. London: (2017). C. Introduction. Fuchs, ACritical Media: Social by Data, nonrenewable. and scarce, exhaustible, being by defined acommodity is Oil Especially to Consumers, (2014). N. Harm Economic Newman, Enables Data Big How are.” “data than For is” rather “data phrase the paper, use this will of we purposes the For at: Available [online] aScam. (2019). OneZero. S. Cagle, Was Always Economy Sharing The P. Howard, and S. 2019 Bradshaw, Order (2019) Inventory Global Disinformation Global The [online] aReckoning. for York New aTime and anApp Times. (2020). ASuicide, K. Swisher, Neate, R. (2019).New study deems Amazon worst for 'aggressive' tax avoidance. [online] avoidance. tax 'aggressive' for worst (2019).New Amazon R. deems Neate, study Law [online] AirBNB. of UCLA Rise the and (2018). Displacement, A. Angeles, Los Scott, [online] https://www. (2010). at: Available CNN. Owning. R. Replacing is Botsman, Sharing [online] Daily. JSOR (2018). Arrival. on M. Was Dead Economy Bulajewski, Sharing The at: Available Institute. [online] Data Open pilots. three from (2019). ODI lessons trusts: Data Than Economy” “Real the From Disconnected Less Is Market Tankus, Stock (2020). N. The . (Accessed 25 October 2020). 25 October (Accessed (Accessed 5 October 2020); Isaac, M. et. al. (2019). al. et. M. 2020); Isaac, 5October (Accessed (Accessed 5 October 2020). 5October (Accessed (Accessed 2 October 2020). 2October (Accessed (Accessed 2 October 2010). (Accessed 5 October (Accessed 4 November (Accessed 5 October (Accessed 20 (Accessed

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