Forensic Anthropology from Individual Identification to Person Identification

1300

FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY FROM INDIVIDUAL IDENTIFICATION TO PERSON IDENTIFICATION. A REVIEW

George Cristian Curcă1,2, Iuliana Diac1,2,*

1“Mina Minovici” National Institute of Forensic Medicine, 2“Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: Forensic anthropology emerges from the ground centered on skull examinations which were told to give answers to all questions. Identification was the paramount task in front of any anthropologist. Then the skeleton came into interest of the forensic anthropologist as the inflicted trauma lesions examination and taphonomy develops. Forensic anthropology followed a long road from anthropologists such as Lacassagne or Minovici in late 19th century until the recently use of stable isotopes in the late decade. Several historical periods were stepped on. Whenever the forensic anthropologist is a forensic doctor specialist born in legal medicine or an anthropologist with legal medicine competence, forensic anthropology examination need interdisciplinary teams for broadening expertise and competence. We no longer call forensic anthropology a physical specialty because even if the tasks gravity around the human remains, all modern technologies, i.e. micro-XRF, micro-CT, stable isotopes, spectroscopy, etc., allows reconstitution not only of the physical elements of a dead individual but of a living individual, receiving a physionomy, a way of life and finally, a name and a model of consciousness to rebuild and recover the person of the deceased individual. Therefore, another paradigmatic change has moved anthropology with its tasks and methods from individual identification to person identification. Modern values in forensic anthropology and generally speaking on anthropology mirror the moral values of the scientific European space in 1937 made vocal at the tribune of the 17th Congress of International Anthropology in Bucharest, a rare paradox for a Congress of anthropology in an European space full of eugenics where the great force of science and reconciliation suppressed all negative concepts and behaviours. We could define forensic anthropology as a medical specialization that, at the request of justice, aims to identify all human remains, the circumstances in which those individuals died and lived to conclude finally to a person identification.

Key words: forensic anthropology, micro-XRF, micro-CT, Fourier spectroscopy, stable isotopes, identification of the individual, identification of the person, rebuilding and recovery of a person.

INTRODUCTION post-mortem changes of the human body subjected to the action of the environment and animals), forensic Etymologically speaking, anthropology comes dentistry (the study of the medical aspects of the from the Greek word “anthropos”, which means masticatory apparatus in order to identify a person) “human being”, and logos - “speech”, that is, the study in order to determine one’s sex, age, height, their date, of humans. Within biological anthropology we have cause and circumstances of death, their identity, the forensic anthropology, which focuses its study to also diseases they suffered from, but also their eating and meet the demands of justice as a specialization with life habits, where they lived, or if there were traces of a pronounced applied characteristic; it makes use violence or traumatic injuries suffered before, during or of modern technological developments to analyze after their death. decomposed human bodies or their remains, especially “Dead people will tell their story” - an old from the perspective of establishing their identity [1]. aphorism born when in 1889, at the very beginning Forensic (physical) anthropology collaborates of forensic anthropology [2], Alexandre Lacassagne, with forensic pathology (the study of organic and a professor of forensic medicine in Lyon, solved, like traumatic injuries), forensic archeology (methods of a “French Sherlock Holmes”, a murder where the identifying, excavating, protecting and preserving unidentified dead body was cut into pieces. During the forensic artifacts), forensic taphonomy (the study of same period and with the same intensity, in Romania *Correspondence to: Iuliana Diac, E-mail: [email protected] 28 Forensic anthropology from individual identification to person identification professor Mina Minovici was leading the development The development stages of forensic of forensic anthropology within the forensic medicine anthropology worldwide specialization [3, 4]. After about 100 years of forensic In our opinion, one can summarize two anthropology, in 1988, professor Mehmet Yaşar Ișcan development periods for forensic anthropology: a wrote in a scientific article for a large professional historical period and a modern period. audience that forensic anthropology arose from the The historical period begins in the early 1890s. need of the medical and legal systems to determine Through his entire professional activity professor Mina the characteristics of an individual; and that this Minovici closely connected legal medicine and forensic specialization, as it’s in a development process, needs anthropology as a subspecialty of legal medicine. In scientific proofing methods so that “the role of the Romania this historical period was institutionally forensic anthropologist is fully understood and accepted supported from the beginning by the activity of the by both the anthropological scientific community and Institute of Forensic Medicine from Bucharest, founded the forensic one”. [5]. by professor Mina Minovici in 1892. His scientific views Professor MY Ișcan’s clairvoyance was were critical on the Lombrosian theory, on “moral confirmed and the development of molecular biology madness of the criminal” and on the “stigmas of the techniques in close connection to the legal system inborn criminal” and well-known [9]. He did not shy counted as a decisive step in the identification of a away from talking from the dais of the International person; this was a valuable aid for forensic anthropology Anthropology Congress about his scientific but did not replace it: thus the DNA analytical methods, reservations regarding the Lombrosian theory; as such, especially PCR (polymerase chain reaction), as methods he was not a supporter of eugenics. He said, “According of amplifying the infinitesimal amounts of DNA that to Lombroso, criminals have a stigma of degeneracy can still be found in altered bone fragments, have led to which would allow to identify them in advance. Well, I the development of judicial genetics [6]. have not come across any of these stigmas.” [10]. However, jurisprudence requires that the On March 15, 1892 in Bucharest professor methods and investigations provide scientific results Mina Minovici set up the anthropometric service as a which are reliable [7, 8], have been tested and scientifically unit of the Ministry of Justice and the criminal record peer reviewed [7, 8], have a presentation of the error rate, (“Catalog of convicts from all over the country”). can be “acceptable” and, furthermore, have a “general Between 1892 and 1896 he undertook a comprehensive acceptance” [8] within the scientific community which anthropological study on 7,217 cases (5,980 men, is then accountable for them (Daubert vs. Merrell Dow 494 women, 743 children, with a total of 20 ethnic Pharmaceuticals (113 S. Ct. 2786) [7]. groups), applying the Bertillon system of identification In Romania, professor Mina Minovici (1892), based on anthropometric measurements. He followed followed by professor Nicolae Minovici (1918) and up on some of these cases after the death of the their forensic schools started a complex education of subjects as well: he methodically, scientifically and forensic anthropology within the forensic medicine anthropologically analyzed the anatomical landmarks profession which still continues today, as the forensic of various criminals’ bones and skulls; he also did an anthropology course is part of the mandatory curricula evaluation from a broader ethnic and anthropological for the forensic medicine specialization. perspective, putting together the second largest

29 G.C. Curcă and I. Diac

anthropological collection in the country after professor formation of specialists in legal medicine and forensic Francisc Rainer’s one. Both collections can be studied anthropology which still continues today: forensic today at the Fr. Rainer Institute of Anthropology and, anthropology is part of the curricula for the forensic respectively, at the museum of the National Institute of medicine specialization. Forensic Medicine Mina Minovici in Bucharest. As a result, in our country forensic Professor Nicolae Minovici, as the director of anthropology as a subfield of forensic activity was the anthropology and identification service, continued practiced by experts trained at the National Institute of his older brother’s research [11] but also supported, in Forensic Medicine Mina Minovici Bucharest as a center the early 1900s, the development of dactyloscopy and of excellence since 1890 by professor Mina Minovici of the identification of dead bodies by reconstructing (1857-1933), professor Theodor Vasiliu (1897- 1961) their facies (including the prosthesis of the globes) and [12], Dr. Cantemir Riscuția (1923-2003) [13], professor photographing them afterwards. But perhaps the apex Viorel Emanoil Panaitescu (1938-2017) [14], but also of the importance Romanian forensic anthropology had at the Cluj-Napoca Forensic Institute starting in 1919 in this historical period was professor Nicolae Minovici with professor Nicolae Minovici (1868-1941), then hosting the International Congress of Anthropology professor Viorel Kernbach (1895-1976) a member of and Prehistoric Archeology in 1937, as the scientific the team of anthropologists attributed to investigate the secretary of the Congress. That year he brought to Katyn massacre (1943), as well as at the Iasi Forensic Bucharest all the representatives of the anthropology Institute with professor George Bogdan (1859-1930), schools in the world, who gathered around his who built the foundations of the institutional destinies personality supported by his professional value, his of forensic medicine in Moldova. renown and visibility in this field; thus, benefiting from The modern period worldwide begins in the the backing of the Romanian government and the royal 1970s, when forensic anthropology is relaunched as a crown, he successfully organized a convention that will physical biological science, a scientific subfield either remain forever in the history of this world event. within forensic medicine or detached from it, once the Professor Francisc I. Rainer (1874-1944) importance of subspecialization and advanced training remains the most representative figure of Romanian for forensic anthropology experts is recognized. The anthropology as the founder of the anthropological modern period has in turn several development stages school. Benefitting from the peak moment of the [15]. historical development of Romanian anthropology, The first stage was the development of the International Congress of 1937, in 1940 Francisc quantitative methods. In the USA, the involvement of I. Rainer established the Institute of Anthropology as the justice system as the beneficiary of forensic results an autonomous institution, next to the University of and opinions was achieved by supporting facilities P<0.05 is considered as significant Bucharest. He organized there the largest collection of such as the Anthropology Research Facility (ARF) to skeletons and skeletal remains in Romania, over 6,300 study the decomposition of the bodies or by putting artifacts with all the anthropometric data listed. together extensive osteological collections such as Professor Mina Minovici (since 1892), followed that of William M. Bass (over 600 persons) or, over a by professor Nicolae Minovici (from 1918) and their decade, the Terry Skeletal Collection (BSC) with over forensic schools, started a complex training and 1,600 people; all this led to the set up of a large forensic database, the Forensic Data Bank (FDB) which led to the development of the field through discriminative analysis. The BSC is an essential component of the FDB and was started in the US in 1986 by the National Institute of Justice (Jantz and Moore-Jansen, 1988) [15]. Modern means of investigation are added to the study of forensic anthropology and they provide details, data and information useful for the justice system; an example is Fordisk, which lets one compare data with known racial, ethnic, age, sex, and other profiles, using the analysis of discriminative functions. Fordisk uses multivariate statistical techniques (Jantz and Ousley, 1993, 2005; Ousley and Jantz, 1996), a discriminative Courtesy of the Fr. I. Rainer Institute 30 Forensic anthropology from individual identification to person identification analysis based on data provided by the FDB and The third stage may be represented by compared with measurements of unknown persons to the development of forensic archeology (practical be identified. Over the past 30 years, starting with 1990, taphonomy). MY Ișcan was also talking about forensic empirical results on single or multiple persons have led archeology when he was presenting the “archeological to the verification and completion of the FDB data [15]. site from the scene” (“Crime Scene Archeology”, 1988) A second stage was represented by the and was recommending mapping the place of discovery development of forensic taphonomy, which changed [6]. the paradigm in forensic anthropology [16]. Through In 1982 Snow said that “the spatial distribution taphonomy, forensic anthropology has changed from a of bones, teeth and other items that are recovered from laboratory discipline into a clinical, scientific discipline; the scene can provide information about the initial forensic anthropologist experts have enriched their placement of the body and suggest its initial position” forensic medicine knowledge and vice versa, and all [20]. Locating the crime field or crime scene using combined their expertise with that of an investigator GPS or electronic total stations is a basic technological within a complex team professional investigators also approach today [21]. Conceptually it is considered that belong to. all the materials that are found at the site where the Efremov (1940) seems to have been the corpse is located are part of the forensic anthropological first to use the “forensic taphonomy” phrase, which material evidence of that site [20, 21]. was later associated with archeology (Grayson The fourth stage in the development of forensic (1984) and paleontology (Klein and Cruz-Uribe, anthropology was the systematic investigation of the 1984); it truly developed between 1960 and 1980 traumatic lesions of the skeleton, taking into account when studies of sampling (Boaz, Behrensmeyer, the following aspects: (1) anthropological investigation 1976), transportation (Voorhies, 1969; Wolff, 1973), of skeletal remains using (or not) the knowledge of the conservation (Behrensmeyer, 1978), in situ (Patterson forensic pathologist, (2) biomechanical aspects of the et al., 1970; Isaac et al. (1971), or statistical comparative bone as well as microscopy as a basic study method (3) analysis could be carried out. Whenever people anthropological taphonomy. become taphonomic agents themselves, the study of Consequently, the forensic anthropologists the resulting taphonomic effects becomes a goal of managed to find their place on the team of the forensic anthropology; this is not only to understand forensic pathologist using their knowledge of the phenomena, processes and methods that have been anatomy, biomechanics and criminology. Of course, used to alter human remains, but especially as a vehicle anthropologists can themselves be forensic pathologists to understand human behavior [17]. with prior training and extensive knowledge (Smith et What we today call post-mortem evaluation or al., 1990 [22]; Symes and Smith, 1998 [23]; Galloway analysis of skeletal remains is in fact applied forensic et al., 1999 [24]). This would be an advantage from the taphonomy. Forensic taphonomy is thus defined as “the expert perspective as one person would have access to use of models, approaches, and analyses in a forensic such complex, varied and multidisciplinary knowledge context to estimate the time elapsed from death, to as that of forensic medicine and forensic anthropology. reconstruct the circumstances before and after the body The role of the forensic pathologist and of was placed, and to differentiate the products of human the forensic anthropologist with extensive knowledge behavior from the natural ones”. (Haglund and Sorg, of forensic medicine is highlighted at this stage of 1997, p. 3 [18]). the development of anthropology. The field gains From a taphonomic perspective, forensic knowledge which is absolutely necessary to approach anthropology, beyond the identification of the person/ the conclusions of the experts’ trauma opinions on persons, has gained 3 goals of taphonomy itself: (1) the skeletal remains [25-28]. estimation of the post-mortem interval (through the Also during this stage the anthropological analysis of decomposition, the use of physical, chemical forensic analysis approached the children and the or entomological investigations), (2) the reconstruction elderly differently, establishing characteristics regarding of the initial position and orientation of the body at the age of the individual, the occurrence of injuries the time of death and (3) the evaluation of the role of and especially the evolution of the corpse in time, human intervention (a person as a taphonomic agent) that is, its perimortem (antemortem, during death or or of any other natural causes on the stripping away of postmortem) nature and of the trauma (pre-trauma, human remains (Gifford 1981, [19]). during trauma or post-trauma) [26].

31 G.C. Curcă and I. Diac

A correct interpretation of traumatic injuries or the action of the fire, as well as the differentiation should take into account the lesion aspects and the victim between pre-existing lesions and those that appeared themselves with their diseases, age, sex but also the during the aggression or after death. Identifying, lifting, Figure 1. Light microscopic micrograph of testis in control group. taphonomic elements, such as the human activities that transporting and preserving burned human remains is caused the injuries or the period after their occurrence, very difficult: often these fragments are fragile, wet due including death following human intervention, the to the fire fighters’ intervention, and contaminated with action of nature or both. Forensic archeology together various flame retardants or substances that set off the with taphonomy are thus both important to create a combustion, which are not at the fire scene, and are correct approach that reconstitutes the circumstances often without proteins due to the action of the fire at of the victim’s laying down on/in the ground. temperatures above 200 degrees Celsius; this greatly The fifth stage is important and still ongoing as reduces the possibility of DNA protein identification the stage of forensic anthropological casuistry and of [30, 32]. the development of the study of stable isotopes [15]. To determine the number of victims is It has been undergoing two historically intricate sub- becoming increasingly important, especially in regard to stages: their subsequent identification. Thus, for identification (1) the casuistry period when suspicions were purposes, the anthropological examination precedes raised regarding the violation of human rights (e.g. the DNA analysis; it also involves differentiating the investigations undertaken by the Doretti forensic between traumatic lesions that have a high forensic anthropology team in the 1980s or the anthropological significance (perimortem lesions) and those that have investigations in cases where there were suspicions of a lower forensic significance (the post-mortem or burn precipitate burials in mass graves, i.e. the mass graves injuries, as the case may be). in Kathyn in Poland in 1940, Argentina in 1976-1983, which led to the foundation of the Argentine Forensic Ah, the isotopes ... Anthropology Team in 1986, etc.). In October 2000, in Utah, near the Great Salt (2) the casuistry period of war conflagrations Lake, some hunters found 26 bone fragments, some and terrorist attacks. blond hair stuck to a skull and a few clothes. A search The forensic value of the artifacts in these to identify the missing person begins under the name cases can be diminished by the absence of contextual “Saltair Sally”. Beyond the anthropological landmarks information, which in turn affects the work of the of female, about 20 years old and blond hair, the case prosecutors [15]. An archaeologically correct anthropological identification stagnates [33]. approach of a case increases the chance of taphonomic Seven years later, in 2008, a method developed reconstructions that would allow for the identification at the University of Utah discovers the possibility of and preservation of evidence; this in turn leads to the identifying stable isotopes and their ratio (in this case final identification of the victims through DNA (or of H and O in water) as well as the role they play in other forensic methods) and of the traumatic injuries establishing the deceased’s residence, migration and by the forensic pathologists involved. (Tuller et al., 2008 reconstitution of their way of life. [33-37] It is decided [29]). to use the blond hair for an isotopic analysis. The time The analysis and interpretation of the scene of flight method is used in a mass spectrometer with where a fire or arson took place and the analysis of secondary ions (TOF-SIMS) at Salt Lake City-based the resulting trauma is an example of the importance IsoForensic. This becomes the first case of forensic of correlating forensic archeology and forensic anthropological investigation of stable isotopes [33]. taphonomy with the examination of specialized teams A drop of water from the clouds above the of investigators, among whom the presence of forensic Pacific coast usually contains O-18, a heavier isotope pathologists is compulsory. (Mayne Correia, 1997 [30]; of oxygen, so the fresh water that these coastal Mayne Correia and Beattie, 2002 [31]), Schmidt and populations drink is loading O-18 into the body of Symes, 2008 [32]). those inhabitants. The clouds above the land, however, Anthropological investigation has two goals in contain lighter oxygen, the lighter the more we move these complex cases: (1) identification of bone fragments away from the coast, because the water droplets are with or without soft parts (2) forensic interpretation smaller (O16-O11). It is thus discovered that during the of the lesions from the perspective of the moment of last 2 years Saltair Sally migrated between the coastal the arson perimortem or which occurred due to arson region and the inland several times [33].

32 Forensic anthropology from individual identification to person identification

As per the isotopic structure and the isoscape investigation. [40]. of the girl’s hair, in 2012 the Salt Lake police requested The isotopic signature of the teeth never the public’s help in identifying a young blonde girl who changes, that of the bones changes very slowly (20-25 migrated in the last two years of her life with a travel years), that of the muscles faster (3-6 months) [41]. pattern of repeated trips between the coastal region The most commonly used stable isotopes are (Seattle) and the inland (Saltair); this eventually led to the following [40]: the identification of the missing person as the 20-year- - Carbon isotopes C (C-13) or C (C-12) and old Nikole Bakoles, later individualized and confirmed their C/C ratio called δ13C (delta-13-C) to determine by DNA testing her mother and the skeletal remains the type of diet based on wheat or corn. Carbon is found in Saltair [38]. reflected in the diet it reaches from the plants that take Each atom contains protons and neutrons. The in atmospheric CO2. Thus, C3 is found in a diet based number of protons defines the element (H, O, C, N, Sr, on wheat, rice, and sugar beet, while corn, sorghum, etc.), the number of neutrons defines the isotope, and and sugar cane contain C4 and high levels of C-13 [40]. the sum of the protons and neutrons defines the atomic - Nitrogen isotopes N (N-15) and N (N-14) and their mass of an element. For example, C has 6 neutrons and N/ N ratio called δ15N (delta-15-N) for diet (e.g. 6 protons and is listed as C12. 1% of the Earth’s carbon consumption of fish or animal meat) or the moment contains 6 protons and 7 neutrons and represents of natural dietary diversification. Similar to carbon, the heavy carbon C13, a stable isotope. C14 contains the nitrogen reflects the diet it reaches from the meat 6 protons and 8 neutrons, is radioactive and thus of animals and also from the plants these ate during unstable. By measuring the amount of the radioactive their life. Nitrogen varies if the person is omnivorous, isotope C14 found in a plant or in a bone fragment, one vegetarian, or vegan, with an N-15/N-14 ratio increasing can determine the age of the plant or of the bone, given by 3.4% with maximum N-15 values in vegans [41]. that the half-life of C14 by decay is of 5,730 years; thus - Oxygen isotopes 18O (O-18) and 16O (O- the dating period extends practically between 500 and 16) and their ratio (18O/16O), called δ18O (delta- 50,000 years. 18-O) are used to determine the pattern of fresh water Stable isotopes, unlike radioactive ones, have a consumption. The isotopic composition in H and O stable nucleus that does not split. In the last ten years, (bones and hair) can be related to the values of δ2H and the use of stable isotopes in modern anthropology δ18O of the water intake, either direct (drinking water) has gained a special value and importance through or indirect (food) [42]. the development of a new field of investigation which - Strontium isotopes 87Sr (Sr-87) and 86Sr (Sr- has proven to be unimaginably fruitful both in scope, 86) and their ratio (87Sr / 86Sr) is used to determine but also in the results it can offer to reconstruct the migration [40]. C (δ13C), N (δ15N), S (δ34S), because biological profile of a missing person and their social they provide information on a person’s diet, also allow and individual characteristics (age, sex, height, descent, for geolocation, the so-called “trophic level effect” old traumatic aspects, malformations, etc.) [39]. [43,44]. The ratio that is established between the The multi-isotopic (C, N, O, H, S, Sr, Pb) stable isotopes of the same element varies in different profiles are increasingly used; the same is true for the substances (e.g. water or food) or between different isoscapes obtained from several tissues: teeth (usually ecosystems (e.g. dry land/ sea, temperate/ northern from molar 1 if it is available), bones (rib, femur), skin climates, etc.). appendages (hair, nails) in order to determine a person’s Not only stable isotopes but their ratio also is region of origin, of residence, their diet or their recent incorporated into the human body through one’s way travel history [41]. of life, with variations according to the different tissues. As for the tissues and the variations of the It is thus possible to establish a link to the environment isoscapes in relation to them, the following could be and to place a person in a certain environment observed: (geolocation). On the other hand, isotopes enter our Hair and nails provide diet and residence tissues at specific times in relation to our ontogenetic information. Hair and nail keratin is often used to get a development, so identifying them and especially their geolocation of a person as well as information on their ratio can allow for very accurate dating of the duration eating habits (fingernails increase by about 2-3 mm/ of life and of the period from the present moment to month, toenails by 1mm/ month and hair by 0.4 cm/ the moment they were incorporated in the body under month) [45, 46].

33 G.C. Curcă and I. Diac

The ribs can provide information on one’s identified DNA in burned bones or especially in those residence and diet in the last 5-10 years of life while the subjected to complete cremation is drastically reduced femur from the last 20-25 years [41,47]. beyond the limit of 200 degrees Celsius [52]. Unlike the carbon isotopes from the bone Even if they are burned, sometimes up to collagen which is impregnated by the evolution of complete cremation, the bones have on their surface the proteins, the bioapatite (teeth) is formed from the various elemental substances that come either from the bicarbonate dissolved in the blood and as such gives bone structure (often Ca) or they are contaminating information on the consumption of carbohydrates, substances from the environment in which the burning lipids and proteins that are not used in the collagen took place (buildings, pits, etc.), their walls or from synthesis in the bones, thus reflecting one’s entire diet the different materials used either to start or keep the type [48]. fire burning or which are accidentally found in those In order to carry out the tests, however, the circumstances. The test that can identify the elemental samples must be converted into simple gases, e.g. H for substances from the bone’s surface or superficial H2, C for CO2, N for N2, O for CO, and S for SO2: layers is micro X-ray fluorescence (μXRF). The micro this way the isotopic ratios of the bio-elements can be X-ray fluorescence measurements let one map the measured using mass spectrometers that measure the composition of the substances found on the various isotopic ratio IRMS [49]. surfaces of the objects identified in the investigation On the other hand, the methods used to of the scene, the site where the human remains or the prepare a biological sample and to analyze it can have skeletal remains were found [53-58]. an impact on the resulting isotopic values. About half It should be highlighted that the μXRF method of the isotopic variability is due to differences in sample allows for the identification of elements with a higher preparation and the other half to analysis techniques: atomic number than that of the silicon. The EDX method that is why the laboratory which analyzes the samples is performed with SEM is used to identify elements with very important [49]. an atomic number lower than that of the silicon. The Decayed bones and especially decaying EDX also identifies the light elements from the category methods which include combustion and exposure of Al, Mg, Si, etc. The elemental composition identified to high temperatures with or without initiators of through μXRF must be corroborated with that identified combustion raise even more forensic problems, not through EDX (independent measurement performed only related to identification but also to taphonomy with SEM). and establishing the circumstances of death, sometimes The results of the micro X-ray fluorescence with critical value in judicial investigations. measurements are presented as tables that include An important issue in forensic medicine is of fluorescence energetic spectra, photographs of the course identifying a deceased person, especially when samples with the location of the examination area and their body has been subjected to the action of increased the quantitative elemental composition. temperature. One can search for the nuclear DNA, find The identification of a similar elemental a DNA profile and then identify it by comparing it with composition or even similar on different burned bone other profiles from that person’s relatives, using to this fragments, especially when there are rare elements purpose the maternal and paternal alleles in the nuclear that are not usually found in bones (e.g. Ti) or in a DNA; one can also search for mitochondrial DNA by natural environment, indicates similar taphonomic using maternal kinship. Any of these methods, however, circumstances. requires protein, and an increased temperature, bad A basic component of the bone is the weather conditions or bacteria create conditions that calcium phosphate called bioapatite. Subjected to the lead to a sometimes dramatically decrease in successful action of temperature, the bioapatite is converted to DNA testing[50]. hydroxyapatite, where hydroxyl groups replace some It is difficult to find DNA in bones that were carbon atoms and couple phosphate groups. As a subjected to high temperatures, that is, above 200- result, the burned bone presenting with hydroxyapatite 210 degrees Celsius, an aspect confirmed by many following the FTIR analysis of the collagen absorption researchers; according to some, it is even absent if the bands from the bone structure [58] is relatively easily bones burn at over 200 degrees for 45 minutes [51] or identified; it is possible to verify its age and also the when the skeletal remains are subjected to over 210 burning temperatures it was subjected to. degrees Celsius for 2 hours; thus the percentage of The burning temperatures, the postmortem

34 Forensic anthropology from individual identification to person identification interval [59], and the composition of the bones [60] to the reconstruction not only of their individual or or of the substances on the surface of the bones if physical elements, but even of the deceased person they appear to be organic substances are identified by itself, providing them in the end with a face, a name, the Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy method, a way of life and, finally, a model of consciousness. FTIR [61]. In other words, the stages described in the previous The structural volume analysis with X-ray section are not only historical stages in the development microtomography (XCT) is another very useful analysis of this specialization but a continuous process of its that allows for a detailed scan of bone fragments or development. skeletal remains, including burned ones, and for the In the development of forensic anthropology, identification, within them, of the regions where the concept of analysis of human remains has been collagen or proteins may still be present to be extracted expanded and it has gone from an analysis of the bone through microdissection [62]; they can then be tested fragments that are discovered to an anthropology of the for DNA or other particles which have judicial value missing body, then to the reconstruction of the person or can help with the identification or the taphonomic who is deceased and in the end, through abductive circumstances related to the death. The method allows reasoning, of the (taphonomic) circumstances in which not only for in-depth scanning but also for an often that person’s death occurred. spectacular 3D reconstruction of the bone fragments We thus leave behind the concept that and for the comparative analysis of several samples. forensic anthropology is a laboratory specialization The micro-scanner lets one scan with a spatial and now develop the concept according to which resolution below 20 microns/ pixel. This allows for a forensic anthropology is primarily an anthropological qualitative analysis through a visualization of all the specialization that tries to reconstruct the person of morphological details, the effects of the damage from the deceased, their way of life and the circumstances the burning and the possible perimortem trauma. of their death, using an abductive approach through a The quantitative analysis allows for the reconstruction from the moment the human remains dimensional and density evaluation of the elements were discovered to the moment of death, or even to the that constitute the bone fragments, and as such for the period before death. species diagnosis through the analysis of the Haversian From MY Ișcan’s definition of forensic systems of the bone. anthropology as “a science of a subfield of physical anthropology” (MY Ișcan, 1988, [6]) we have evolved The modern concept of forensic anthropology to a definition where “forensic anthropology involves The stages described here are of course applying principles used in the anthropological chronological; they mark a chronological succession subfields of archeology and physical anthropology to of the development of forensic anthropology, but also forensic investigations” (Dirkmaat and Adovasio, 1997 the need to have interdisciplinary teams and to broaden [49]), and then to a broader definition according to the expertise and competence in the specializations which “forensic anthropology is a science about life, that are called to work together to anthropologically death, and a person’s after life period as reflected in reconstruct the period that followed a person’s death, their skeletal remains and in the physical, forensic and how and in what circumstances that death occurred, legal context in which they are found” (Dirkmaat et al. and that person’s life beforehand. 2008, [63]). What is interesting to note is that the Even so, we acknowledge that the anthropological reconstruction process, which aforementioned definitions do not yet fully reflect generally focuses on a person’s skeletal remains, also the value and purpose of the forensic anthropological includes the persons who performed taphonomic approach. activities in relation to the subject of the study; We could define forensic anthropology as a so forensic anthropology in its modern meaning specialization that, at the request of the justice system, reconstructs not only a person’s death and life, but also aims to lead to the identification of human remains, data and information on others who may be either to reconstruct the deceased person or persons, the within the criminal field or outside of it. circumstances in which they lived and died and the Thus, we would no longer call forensic circumstances of their death. anthropology a physical specialization only; even if it In order to achieve these objectives, forensic is centered around one’s human remains, it will lead anthropology has been subdivided into a number of

35 G.C. Curcă and I. Diac subspecializations or subfields of activity: physical of combustion and those from other trauma [71], the anthropology, forensic taphonomy, forensic archeology, biological resistance of skeletal remains useful for forensic paleoanthropology and of course, forensic identification in the post-mortem period and in natural anthropology itself. conditions [72, 73], the taphonomic details regarding the The development of complex anthropological combustion process, such as combustion temperature, investigations and analyses allows for diagnoses that minimum and maximum temperatures, initiators, seemed inconceivable 20 years ago, even more so combustion location [74], duration of combustion 50 or 100 years ago. 123 years passed since professor [75], the examination of wet bones (with soft parts) Lacassagne, in 1889, found human remains wrapped and dry bones (without soft parts) and the presence of in a cloth bag and by anthropological identification traumatic injuries [76, 77], the structural changes in methods proved them to be Gouffé’s, to when the the bones due to exposure to high temperatures [78] skeletal remains found in a plastic bag were identified and to shrinkage and fragmentation under the action through the stable isotopes of fresh water drunk in the of temperature [79, 80], the discoloration of burned different places where she had resided in the last two bones at different temperatures up to calcination [80, years of her life as those of Nikola Bakoles. Nothing that 81], the presence of contaminants or initiators [82, 83, was useful 123 years ago is abandoned or useless today, 84], the DNA profile [85, 86] and their presentation so that it continues to be at the foundation of forensic as evidence in court or prepared for court [87], these physical anthropology. are all aspects of the anthropological examination of On the other hand, new technologies add today burned bones; we add to this the diet, the date they what was invisible yesterday to the eyes of professor switched to a diversified diet (if it is an infant), the place Lacassagne, the famous anthropologist of the 19th of residence, migrations, the probable date of death, the century. The integration of 4D platforms for a detailed social group they belong to, facial reconstruction, the anthropological and forensic investigation, especially of personality type; these are also aspects of the modern thermally exposed and burned skeletal remains, which anthropological examination of burned bones. combine the results from micro-XRF and micro-CT Forensic experts and anthropologists must methods in portable equipment that can be used while more and more often defend their results, opinions and on the ground can be seen as progress on the horizon conclusions in court and to the public. 20-30 years ago of current technology, as they save time during an forensic anthropology focused mostly on establishing investigation. individual and physical elements, such as the species, We are witnessing the transition from physical number of people, sex, age, height, date of death, anthropology to the modern, psycho-socio-physical perimortem organic or traumatic lesion pathology. one, from the identification of the individual to the Today the circumstances of death and its contextual identification of the person. structure, the reconstitution of the victim’s person In recent years, a series of studies involving and thus the anthropological recognition of the group the forensic anthropological examination of they are part of have gained a greater importance in thermally exposed and burned skeletal remains have order to explain their death but also to apply means of gained notoriety due to criminal cases, accidents, prevention of similar events. terrorist activities, natural disasters or calamities and The identification and the identity of a person catastrophes. The anthropological examination of the are important moments in recovering their individuality. burned skeletal remains raises additional problems Even if we can find out from the beginning their which are unfortunately still current, given the identity with the methods of molecular genetics, the increased incidence of terrorist attacks. forensic anthropological approach of reconstructing the circumstances of the person’s death and way of Thus the recovery of bone fragments and skeletal life is still mandatory. On the other hand, forensic remains, the chain of custody [64], the anthropological anthropology allows for the reconstruction of a person’s reconstruction [65], the bone recognition [66], the way of life and of the circumstances of their death even anthropological identification that precedes the DNA without knowing their identity. The approach is not examination [67] of gender, age, height, weight [68,69], only anthropological in order to provide information bone age, cause of death and perimortem pathological about a person, but it is also forensic in order to provide conditions [70], the perimortem trauma with judicial probative support on the circumstances of differentiation between lesions which occurred because committing an alleged crime.

36 Forensic anthropology from individual identification to person identification

Today, forensic anthropology and forensic 4. Minovici M. Putrefactia din punct de vedere medico-legal si medicine are by their nature involved in the prevention hygienic, Stabilimentul grafic IV Socecu, 1899. 5. Ișcan MY. Rise of forensic anthropology. Yearbook of Physical of terrorism, in a coordinated intervention in mixed Anthropology. 1988; 31:203–230. national and international multidisciplinary teams 6. Saiki RK, Scharf S, Faloona F, Mullis KB, Horn GT, Erlich that prevent escalation of violence and human rights HA, Arnheim N. Enzymatic amplification of b-globin genomic sequences and restriction site analysis for diagnosis of sickle cell violations and must be part of public structures that are anemia. Science. 1985; 230:1350–1354. able to intervene on behalf of the citizen. 7. Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579 In our opinion, anthropological experts must (1993), Justitia US Supreme Court, accessed in 22.02.2020 [https:// supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/509/579/]. know both aspects specific to forensic anthropology 8. Justice Blackmun delivered the opinion of the Court. and forensic medicine, and this can be offered by a William Daubert, et ux., etc., et al., Petitioners v. Merrell Dow solid curricular development within the specialization pharmaceuticals, Inc. on writ of certiorari to the United States Court of appeals for the ninth circuit [June 28, 1993], Legal Information of forensic medicine (as a classic approach) but can Institute, Cornell Law School, accessed in 22.02.2020 [https://www. also be obtained through different competences and law.cornell.edu/supct/html/92-102.ZO.html]. qualifications, either in stages of self-development of 9. Ellwood CA. Lombroso’s Theory of Crime. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 1912; 5 (2), accessed 20th April 2020 the anthropologists experts or via mixed teams. In any [https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent. competence scenario we acknowledge that mixed teams cgi?article=1128&context=jclc]. are always to salute because bring extra competencies and 10. Minovici M. Raport asupra Congresului de antropologie Criminală ținut la Geneva în 1896 adresat domnului Ministru de fresh ideas, whether they are made up of archaeologists, Interne de către dr. M. Minovici, Bucharest. National Printing Press. dental anthropologists, physicists, etc. 1896; 51: 30-31. Any detail which, if known, can lead from a 11. Minovici N. Şcoala antropologică Bertillon, 1900. 12. Stanescu I. Prof. dr. Theodor Vasiliu, 2012, Antropologia, criminological and victimological point of view [88] accessed in 22.02.2020 [https://www.e-antropolog.ro/2012/11/prof- to the prevention of a new crime is useful for both the dr-theodor-vasiliu/]. justice system and the society; as a result, these cases 13. Andrei MD. O personalitate prestigioasa in antropologie – dr. Cantemir Riscutia (1923–2003), Studii si Comunicari / DIS, vol. must be viewed not only statically, but also dynamically VIII, 2015. in their procedural development. 14. Rosu M, Curca GC. Obituary. Professor Viorel Alexandru Forensic anthropology emerges from the Panaitescu. Rom J Leg Med. 2017; (25): 242. ground centered on skull examinations which were 15. Adebisi S. Forensic Anthropology In Perspective: The Current Trend. The Internet Journal of Forensic Science. 2008; (4) 1: 3. told to give answers to all questions [89]. Identification 16. Kuhn T. The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago, IL: was the paramount task in front of any anthropologist. University of Chicago Press. 1970. Then the skeleton came into interest of the forensic 17. Dirkmaat DC, Cabo LL, Ousley SD, Symes SA. New Perspectives in Forensic Anthropology. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology. anthropologist as the inflicted trauma lesions 2008; 51:33–52. examination and taphonomy develops [90,91]. We may 18. Haglund WD, Sorg MH. Introduction to forensic taphonomy. conclude that today another paradigmatic change has In: Haglund WD, Sorg MH, editors. Forensic taphonomy: the postmortem fate of human remains. Boca Raton: CRC Press. moved anthropology with its tasks and methods from 1997:1–9. individual identification to person identification and 19. Gifford DP. Taphonomy and paleoecology: a critical review of this is to recover not just an identity but a human life, a archaeology’s sister disciplines. In: Schiffer MB, editor. Advances in archaeological method and theory. New York: Academic Press. 1981 person and circumstances of his/her death [90,91]. (4): 365–438. 20. Snow CC. Forensic anthropology. Annu Rev Anthropol. 1982; Conflict of interest 11:97–131. The authors declare that they have no conflict of 21. Dirkmaat DC. Reconsidering the scope of forensic anthropology: data collection methodologies prior to the laboratory [Abstract]. interest. Proc Am Acad Forensic Sci. 1998; 4:204. 22. Smith OC, Berryman HE, Symes SA. Changing role for the forensic anthropologist. [Abstract]. Proc Am Acad Forensic Sci. 1990. 42nd Annual Meeting. p 132. References 23. Symes SA, Berryman HE, Smith OC. Saw marks in bone: introduction and examination of residual kerf contour. In: Reichs 1. Gerald Quatrehommes. Traité d’anthropologie medico-legale. De KJ, editor. Forensic osteology. II. Advances in the identification of Boeck, 2015. human remains. Springfield, IL: CC Thomas.1998; 389–409. 2. The Mystery of the Corpse in the Burlap Sack. How Alexandre 24. Galloway A, Symes SA, Haglund WD, France DL. The role of Lacassagne, the “French Sherlock Holmes,” solved a grisly crime at forensic anthropology in trauma analysis. In: Galloway A, editor. the dawn of forensic anthropology. Sapiens. Accessed in 22.02.2020 Broken bones, anthropological analysis of blunt force trauma. [https://www.sapiens.org/body/alexandre-lacassagne-forensic- Springfield, IL: CC Thomas. 1999; 5–31. anthropology/]. 25. Smith O, Berryman HE, Lahren C. Cranial fracture patterns 3. Mina Minovici. Tratat complect de medicina legala, vol. 1 and vol. and estimate of direction from low velocity gunshot wounds. J 2, Bucharest, 1928. Forensic Sci. 1987; 32:1416–1421. 37 G.C. Curcă and I. Diac

26. Symes SA, Smith OC, Berryman HE, Peters CE, Rockhold LA, 43. Robbins CT, Felicetti LA, Sponheimer M. The effect of dietary Haun SJ, Francisco JT, Sutton TP. Bones: bullets, burns, bludgeons, protein quality on nitrogen isotope discrimination in mammals and blunders, and why. Workshop conducted for the American Academy birds. Oecologia. 2005;144:534–540. of Forensic Sciences [Abstract]. Proc Am Acad Forensic Sci. 1996; 44. Minagawa M, Wada E. Stepwise enrichment of 15N along food 2:10–11. chains: further evidence and the relation between δ15N and animal 27. Di Maio VJM. Gunshot wounds: practical aspects of fire- arms, age. Geochim Cosmochim Acta. 1984;48: 1135–1140. ballistics, and forensic techniques, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC 45. Saitoh M, Uzuka M, Sakamoto M. Rate of hair growth. In: Press. 1999. Montagna W, Dobson RL, editors. Hair growth: proceedings. 28. Hart GO. Fractural pattern interpretation in the skull: Beaverton (AL): Pergamon Press; 1969: 183–201. differentiating blunt force trauma from ballistics trauma using 46. Bowen GJ, Chesson L, Nielson K, Cerling TE, Ehleringer JR. concentric fractures. J Forensic Sci. 2005; 50:1276–1281. Treatment methods for the determination of δ2H and δ18O of hair 29. Tuller H, Hofmeister U, Daley S. Spatial analysis of mass keratin by continuous-flow isotope-ratio mass spectrometry. Rapid grave mapping data to assist in the reassociation of disarticulated Common Mass Spectrum. 2005;19: 2371–2378. and commingled human remains. In: Adams BJ, Byrd JE, editors. 47. Hedges RE, Clement JG, Thomas CD, O’Connell TC. Recovery, analysis, and identification of commingled human Collagen turnover in the adult femoral mid-shaft: modelled from remains. Totowa: Humana Press. 2008 : 7–30. anthropogenic radiocarbon tracer measurements. Am J Phys 30. Mayne Correia PM. Fire modification of bone: a review of the Anthropol. 2007; 133: 808–816. literature. In: Haglund W, Sorg M, editors. Forensic taphonomy: the 48. Tieszen LL, Fagre T. Effect of diet quality and composition on the postmortem fate of human remains. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. isotopic composition of respiratory CO2, bone collagen, bioapatite, 1997: 275–293. and soft tissues. In: Lambert JB, Grupe G, editors. Prehistoric 31. Mayne Correia PM, Beattie O. A critical look at methods for Human Bone. Berlin (Germany): Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 1993: recovering, evaluating, and interpreting cremated human remains. 121–155. In: Haglund WH, Sorg M, editors. Advances in forensic taphonomy: 49. Dirkmaat DC, Adovasio JM. The role of archaeology in the method, theory, and archaeological perspectives. Baton Rouge: recovery and interpretation of human remains from an outdoor CRC Press. 2002: 435–450. forensic setting. In: Haglund WD, Sorg MH, editors. Forensic 32. Schmidt CW, Symes SA, editors. The analysis of burned human taphonomy: the postmortem fate of human remains. New York: remains. Amsterdam: Elsevier Press. 2008. CRC Press. 1997: 39–64. 33. Tim de Chant. Stable Isotopes in Forensics. October 18, 2012. 50. Imaizumi K. Forensic investigation of burnt human. Nova. accessed in 22.02.2020 [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ Research and Reports in Forensic Medical Science, 2015 article/stable-isotopes/] accessed in 22.02.2020 [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ 34. Podlesak DW, Torregrossa A-M, Ehleringer JR, Dearing MD, ca1d/23dd5d5b9fb08b321bbb105132c50f0f2545.pdf] Passey BH, Cerling TE. Turnover of oxygen and hydrogen isotopes 51. Imaizumi K, Taniguchi K, Ogawa Y. DNA survival and physical in the body water, CO2, hair, and enamel of a small mammal. and histological properties of heat-induced alterations in burnt Geochimica et Cosmochima Acta. 2008; 72:19-35. Published, bones. Int J Legal Med. 2014;128:439–446. 01/2008. 52. Fredericks JD, Ringrose TJ, Dicken A, Williams A, Bennett 35. Ehleringer JR, Bowen GJ, Chesson LA, West AG, Podlesak P. A potential new diagnostic tool to aid DNA analysis from heat D, Cerling TE. Hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in human hair are compromised bone using colorimetry: a preliminary study. Sci related to geography. Proceedings of the National Academy of Justice. 2015;55: 124–130. Sciences USA. 2008; 105:2788-2793. Published, 02/2008. 53. Voglis P, Attaelmanan A, Engstrom P, Larsson S, Rindby A. 36. Chesson LA, Podlesak DW, Thompson AH, Cerling TE, Elemental mapping of bone tissues by the use of capillary focused Ehleringer JR. Variation of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen XRF. X-Ray Spectrometry. 1993; 22: 229-233. stable isotope ratios in an American diet: fast food meals. Journal of 54. Trombka JI, Schweitzer J, Selavka C, Dale M, Gahn N, Floyd S, Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2008; 56:4084-4091. Published, Marie J, Hobson M, Zeosky J, Martin K, McClannahan T, Solomon 03/2008. P, Gottschang E. Crime scene investigations using portable, 37. Ehleringer JR, Cerling TE, West JB, Podlesak DW, Chesson non-destructive space exploration technology. Forensic Science LA, Bowen GJ. Spatial considerations of stable isotope analyses in International. 2002; 129: 1-9. environmental forensics. 2008, pages 36-53. In R.E Hester and R.M. 55. Zieba-Palus J, Borusiewicz R, Kunicki M. PRAXIS-combined Harrison (eds.), Issues in Environmental Science and Technology μ-Raman and μ-XRF spectrometers in the examination of forensic volume 26. Royal Society of Chemistry Publishing, Cambridge. samples. Forensic Science International. 2008; 175: 1-10. Published, 07/2008. 56. Berendes A, Neimke D, Schumacher R, Barth M. A versatile 38. Woods B. After 12 years, police identify “Saltair Sally” remains. technique for the investigation of gunshot residue patterns of fabrics Deseret News. Aug. 7, 2012 and other surfaces: m-XRF. J Forensic Sci. 2006; (51) 5. 39. Latham KE, Miller JJ. DNA recovery and analysis from 57. Zieba-Palus J, Borusiewicz R. Examination of multilayer paint skeletal material in modern forensic contexts, Forensic Sci coats by the use of infrared, Raman and XRF spectroscopy for Res. 2019; 4(1): 51–59, Published online 2018 Oct 8. doi: forensic purposes. Journal of Molecular Structure. 2006: 286-292. 10.1080/20961790.2018.1515594, accessed in 22.02.2020 [https:// 58. Mamede AP, Gonçalves D, Paula M, Marques Luís M, Batista www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6474556/] de Carvalho AE. Burned bones tell their own stories: A review of 40. What is stable isotope analysis? Future learn, accessed in methodological approaches to assess heat- induced diagenesis. 22.02.2020 [https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/archaeology/0/ Applied Spectroscopy Reviews. steps/15267]. 59. Wang Q, Zhang Y, Lin H, Zha S, Fang R, Wei X, Fan S, Wang Z. 41. Bartelink EJ, Chesson LA. Recent applications of isotope analysis Estimation of the late postmortem interval using FTIR spectroscopy to forensic anthropology. Forensic Sciences Research. 2019; 4(1), and chemometrics in human skeletal remains. Forensic Sci Int. Published Online: 17 Feb 2019, https://doi.org/10.1080/2096179.20 2017; 281:113-120. 18.1549527, accessed in 22.02.2020 [https://www.tandfonline.com/ 60. Fredericks JD, Ringrose TJ, Dicken A, Williams A, Bennett doi/full/10.1080/20961790.2018.1549527] P. A potential new diagnostic tool to aid DNA analysis from heat 42. Ehleringer JR, Bowen GJ, Chesson LA, West AG, Podlesak DW, compromised bone using colorimetry: a preliminary study. Sci Cerling TE. Hydrogen and oxygen isotope ratios in human hair are Justice. 2015;55: 124–130. related to geography. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2008;105:2788–2793. 61. Fredericks JD, Bennett P, Williams A, Rogers KD. FTIR 38 Forensic anthropology from individual identification to person identification spectroscopy: a new diagnostic tool to aid DNA analysis from 76. Schurr MR, et al. The Analysis of Burned Human Remains, heated bone. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2012;6:375–380. 2nd Edition, ed. Christopher Schmidt Steven Symes, ISBN: 62. du Plessis A, Broeckhoven C, Guelpa A, le Roux SG. Laboratory 9780128004517, Academic Press. 2015: 105-118. x-ray micro-computed tomography: a user guideline for biological 78. Binford LR. An analysis of cremations from three Michigan samples. Gigascience. 2017;6(6):1-11. sites, Wisconsin Archaeol. 1963; 44: 98–110. 63. Dirkmaat DC, Cabo LL, Ousley SD, Symes SA. New perspectives 79. Stiner MC, Kuhn SL, Weiner S, Bar-Yosef O. Differential in forensic anthropology. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2008;Suppl 47:33- burning, recrystallization, and fragmentation of archaeological 52. bone, J. Archaeol. Sci. 1995; 22: 223–237. 64. Dirkmaat DC. Recovery and interpretation of the fatal fire 80. Fairgrieve SI. Forensic Cremation: Recovery and Analysis, CRC victim: the role of forensic anthropology, in: W.D. Haglund, M.H. Press, Boca Raton, FL. 2008. Sorg (Eds.), Advances in Forensic Taphonomy: Method, Theory, 81. Devlin JB, Herrmann NP. Bone color as an interpretive tool and Archaeological Perspectives, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 2002: of the depositional history of archaeological cremains, in: C.W. 451–472. Schmidt, S.A. Symes (Eds.), The Analysis of Burned Human 65.Grévin G, Bailet P, Quatrehomme G, Ollier A. Anatomical Remains, Academic Press, London. 2008: 109–128. reconstruction of fragments of burned human bones: a necessary 82. Mayne Correia PM, Beattie O. A critical look at methods for means for forensic identification. Forensic Sci Int. 1998;96(2- recovering, evaluating, and interpreting cremated human remains, 3):129-134. in: W.D. Haglund, M.H. Sorg (Eds.), Advances in Forensic 66. Curtin AJ. Putting together the pieces: reconstructing mortuary Taphonomy: Method, Theory, and Archaeological Perspectives, practices from commingled ossuary cremains, in: C.W. Schmidt, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 2002: 435–450. S.A. Symes (Eds.), The Analysis of Burned Human Remains, 83. McKinley J. The analysis of cremated bone, in: M. Cox, S. Mays Academic Press, London. 2008: 201–209. (Eds.), Human Osteology: In Archaeology and Forensic Science, 67. Ellis P. Modern advances in disaster victim identification. Greenwich Medical Media, London. 2000: 403–421. Forensic Sci Res. 2019;4(4):291-292. 84. Schmidt CW, Symes SA. The Analysis of Burned Human 68. Warren MW, Maples WR. The anthropometry of contemporary Remains, Academic Press, London. 2008. commercial cremation, J. Forensic Sci. 1997; 42 (3): 417–423. 85. Tsuchimochi T, Iwasa M, Maeno Y, Koyama H, Inoue H, Isobe 69. Bass WM, Jantz RL. Cremation weights in East Tennessee, I, Matoba R, Yokoi M, Nagao M. Chelating resin-based extraction J Forensic Sci. 2004; 49 (5): 901–904. of DNA from dental pulp and sex determination from incinerated 70. Cunha E. Pathology as a Factor of Personal Identity in Forensic teeth with Y-chromosomal alphoid repeat and short tandem repeats. Anthropology, in Forensic Anthropology and Medicine, ed. Aurore Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2002;23(3):268-271. Schmitt, Eugénia Cunha, João Pinheiro, Springer. 2006: 333-358. 86. Ye J, Ji A, Parra EJ, Zheng X, Jiang C, Zhao X, Hu L, Tu Z. A 71. Herrmann NP, Bennett JL. The differentiation of traumatic and simple and efficient method for extracting DNA from old and heat-related fractures in burned bone. J. Forensic Sci. 1999; 44 (3): burned bone. J Forensic Sci. 2004;49(4):754-759. 461–469. 87. Ubelaker DH. The forensic evaluation of burned skeletal 72. Symes SA, Rainwater C, Chapman E, Gipson D, Piper A. remains: A synthesis. Forensic Science International. 2008. Patterned thermal destruction of human remains in a forensic 88. Salheanu V, Dorian D, et al. Collectif Cahiers Vasile Stanciu (N°5 setting, in: C.W. Schmidt, S.A. Symes (Eds.), The Analysis of Burned 1992). Réflexions sur la Victimologie, séminaire franco-roumain, Human Remains. Academic Press, London. 2008:15–54. no.5, 1992. 73. Cattaneo C, Di Martino S, Scali S, Craig OE, Grandi M, Sokol 89. Baciu A, Diac I, Ispas AT. Two Romanian scientific personalities, RJ. Determining the human origin of fragments of burnt bone: Francisc I. Rainer and Mina Minovici – two collections of skulls, a comparative study of histological, immunological and DNA each unique in the world by their anthropological significance. Rom techniques. Forensic Sci Int. 1999;102(2-3):181-191. J Leg Med. 2020; 28: 86-95. 74. Wärmländer SKTS, Varul L, Koskinen J, Saage R, Schlager S. 90. Owe J. 5 Surprising Facts About Otzi the Iceman, accessed 26th April Estimating the Temperature of Heat-exposed Bone via Machine 2020, posted 18th October 2013. [https://www.nationalgeographic. Learning Analysis of SCI Color Values: A Pilot Study. J Forensic Sci. com/news/2013/10/131016-otzi-ice-man-mummy-five-facts/]. 2019;64(1): 190-195. 91. Hawass Z. King Tut’s Family Secrets. Sept. 2010, accessed 75. Holden JL, Phakey PP, Clement JG. Scanning electron on 27th April 2020 [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/ microscope observations of heat-treated human bone. Forensic Sci magazine/2010/09/tut-dna/]. Int. 1995;74(1-2):29-45.