Māori Sport and Māori in Sport
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ALTERNATIVE An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples VOLUME 6, NUMBER 3, 2010 CONTENTS Mana tamariki: Cultural alienation 187 Rawiri Taonui Identity, prejudice and healing in Aboriginal circles: Models of identity, embodiment and ecology of place as traditional medicine for education and counselling 203 Kisiku Sa’qawei Paq’tism Randolph Bowers Colonial sovereignties and the self-colonizing conundrum 222 Fiona McAllan Mäori sport and Mäori in sport 235 Tim McCreanor, Jenny Rankine, Angela Moewaka Barnes, Belinda Borell, Ray Nairn, Mandi Gregory and Hector Kaiwai Indexing (in)authenticity 248 Carine Ayélé Durand Time and eldership in Torrobo world view 261 Shelley Ashdown “I’m the son of the Oliero” 272 Jaroslaw Derlicki Book review 283 Reviewed by Shannon Speed Book review 285 Reviewed by Samantha Fox MÄORI SPORT AND MÄORI IN SPORT Mass media representations and Päkehä discourse Tim McCreanor* Jenny Rankine Angela Moewaka Barnes Belinda Borell Ray Nairn Mandi Gregory Hector Kaiwai Abstract Mäori players, coaches, administrators and audiences contribute to a wide range of sporting codes at all levels in Aotearoa/New Zealand and internationally. However, Päkehä media coverage, a representative sample of which we analysed in this project, presents Mäori participation and achievement as limited and aberrant. This paper reports our analysis of New Zealand newspapers’ sports coverage in which Mäori were represented. A database of 50 articles was created from 120 newspapers. This was examined using thematic and discursive methods to explore the nature of two overarching themes within sports stories. “Mäori sport” depicted Mäori as exotic and marginal to sporting life in Aotearoa/New Zealand, while “Mäori in sport” articles subsumed Mäori within monocultural sporting codes. The implications of these fi ndings are discussed in the context of a theoretical framework of Mäori self-determination and decolonization. *Whariki Research Group, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand Email: [email protected] 236 T. MCCREANOR ET AL. Introduction the nature of existing coverage, and highlight persistent inequitable framings. For more than 50 years many researchers have Sport is a central element of cultural identity examined mass media coverage of Mäori and in physical, economic and social life in Aotearoa/ Mäori issues (Abel, 1997; Hodgetts, Masters, & New Zealand (Bruce, Falcous, & Thorpe, 2007; Robertson, 2004; McCreanor, 1993; McGregor Edwards, 2007). Players, coaches, supporters & Comrie, 1995; Phelan, 2006; Spoonley & in schools, clubs and associations—at local, Hirsh, 1990; Thompson, 1953, 1954; Walker, national and international levels—generate a 1990). Mäori are widely understood to be wide range of activities that have created niches under-represented, negatively depicted, and for commerce, professions, scholarship and pol- less likely to fi nd stories that affi rm themselves icy-making. Edwards (2007) argues that sport or their communities. Our own pilot studies also provides validation and acknowledgement (Moewaka Barnes et al., 2005; Rankine et al., of personal identity for diverse individuals, 2008) have begun to consolidate these under- groups, players, supporters and followers of standings through analysis of content, theme and codes and competitions. discourse in media samples, which informs our Sports activity is represented as quintes- current project, Media, Health and Wellbeing in sentially meritocratic; selecting and rewarding Aotearoa. The research is grounded in the litera- physical and psychological skill, strength and tures of decolonization and self-determination fi tness on the basis of performance and success. (Huygens, 2006; Maaka & Fleras, 2000; Said, However, despite having bequeathed to poli- 1978; Smith, 2006; Smith, 1999), which chal- tics a metaphor of egalitarianism—the “level lenge established colonial states and argue for playing-fi eld”—sport is an intrinsically politi- the sovereignty and self-determination of indig- cal domain in which inclusion and reward are enous peoples. The research is set within a public infl uenced by socio-economic status, ethnicity health framework that theorizes mass media and gender. representations of Mäori and Mäori issues as a Like most sectors of the political economy, social determinant of Mäori health and wellbeing sport is a key focus for information and commu- (Nairn, Pega, McCreanor, Rankine, & Barnes, nications, as results, coverage and developments 2006). As such, it adopts critical approaches to are reported, analysed, debated and celebrated mass media performance around ethnicity (Hall, for wide public consumption (Chamberlain & Critcher, Jefferson, Clarke, & Roberts, 1978; Hodgetts, 2008). Media practices of selecting, Henry & Tator, 2002; Jakubowicz et al., 1994; framing and producing sports news and cover- Rankine & McCreanor, 2004; Spurr, 1993; Van age add a further, complex layer to the social Dijk, 1991) which regard Päkehä media as a representation and understanding of sport. As colonial institution with vested interest in main- Bruce, Falcous and Thorpe (2007, p. 147) note: taining the status quo of New Zealand society. “The relationship between sport and the media The project gathered a representative is highly signifi cant in how we understand the national sample of print, radio and television place and meaning of sport in New Zealand life.” news items, between November 2007 and April The deregulation of broadcast media in the 2008, as data for investigations that combine 1990s and the professionalization of key codes content analysis with a discursive approach. In has seen sports fi xtures, practices and timetables this paper we focus particularly on a discursive increasingly dictated and controlled by transna- analysis of print media items on sport, and tional media corporations such as Sky TV, and provide quantitative data on frequency, range, the abolition of live, free coverage of nationally and categories of items for the study of form, valued sports (Jackson & Hokowhitu, 2002). character and meanings. The aim is to explore Along with a weakening of “public good” MÄORI SPORT AND MÄORI IN SPORT 237 accountability in contemporary journalism history, emerged in the grand colonizing era practice (see PEW Foundation, 2005; Scammell of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries” & Semetko, 2000) and the aggregation of (Hokowhitu, 2003, p. 194). media outlets, journalistic professionalism has Evidence of the influence of this kind of become increasingly vulnerable to commercial, thinking in media representations of Mäori institutional and ideological editorial control and sport is provided by the pioneering studies (Rankine et al., 2008; Rosenberg, 2008). of Thompson (1954). His analysis describes a The launch of Mäori Television in 2004 theme in which Mäori are depicted as “natu- has made available daily programming about rally” athletic, as in this example: Mäori, including sport, from a Mäori view- point. Mäori viewers perceive this as valuable The Mäori is seldom a taught Rugby player. in showing Mäori diversity (Poihipi, 2007), pro- Usually his ability is instinctive, and the dis- moting te reo Mäori (the Mäori language) and cipline of coaching sits heavily upon him. tikanga (customs, traditions) (Stuart, 2003), This is why his game is so brilliant, and why and in utilizing more cooperative news val- it has a few weaknesses. Few Mäori players ues (Rankine et al., 2008). Unfortunately, the are complete footballers in that their defence broadcast range of Mäori Television remains is as strong as their attack. (The Star Sports, limited and so access and exposure to these May 6, 1950, cited in Thompson, 1954) alternative framings is less than it could be. Given the manifest importance of sport in Hokowhitu (2003; 2007) has argued that colo- society, in the context of ongoing colonial domi- nial discourse about the “physicality” of Mäori nation of Aotearoa/New Zealand (Nairn et al., (men in particular) has helped exclude them from 2006; Reid & Cram, 2005) the place of Mäori intellectual occupations in favour of labouring in relation to sport and sports coverage is a work, including sport. The curricula in native matter of concern and debate (Falcous & West, schools (Simon & Smith, 2001), public schools, 2009; Hokowhitu, 2003; Palmer, 2006, 2009). and even in specialist tertiary physical educa- There is a growing body of analysis and cri- tion training, has achieved what Hokowhitu tique of conventional representations of sport (2003, p. 200) refers to as the “physical edu- from the perspective of self-determination and cation of Mäori”. The forced mind/body split decolonization, particularly around the involve- has undoubtedly contributed to a gap between ment of Mäori and Pacifi c rugby union players integrated philosophical frameworks such as at the national level (Hokowhitu, 2003, 2007; kaupapa Mäori (Mäori ideology) (Smith, 1997) Hokowhitu & Scherer, 2008; Hope, 2002; or Whare Tapa Wha (unifi ed theory of health) Palmer, 2009; Ryan, 2007). Conventional dis- (Durie, 1994) and Mäori practices, including course is set fi rmly in a colonial understanding those surrounding sport and physical activity. of the physical, animalistic or even superhu- These outcomes are shared (with regional vari- man characteristics attributed to Mäori people ations) by indigenous people in other colonial (Ballara, 1986; Belich, 1986; Hokowhitu, 2008; settings such as Australia (Hartley & McKee, McCreanor, 1997; Salmond, 1997). Colonial 2000) and Canada (Paraschak &