ISTOCKPHOTO/MCCLISTER PHOTOGRAPHY urrent debates from Capitol ip, Duke of Edinburgh, UN Secretary point of religion endows the issue with Hill to Copenhagen sug- General Ban Ki-moon addressed the particular meaning, suggests specific gest political will to tackle delegates: “The world’s faith com- courses of action in response, and ani- Cclimate change is in short munities occupy a unique position in mates their voices in the cacophonous, supply. The public engagement that discussions on the fate of our planet evolving chorus on climate change, might undergird it is also thin.1 Yet and accelerating impacts of climate of which they are an increasingly action stirs in a seemingly unexpected change,” particularly given inescap- noteworthy but often little understood realm: In November 2009, preceed- able moral dimensions of the issue.3 part.5 In the , in particu- ing negotiations for a global agree- Noting stagnation among policymak- lar, this religious climate advocacy is ment to succeed the Kyoto Protocol, ers, he urged, “You can inspire, you swelling, and American evangelical two American evangelical pastors, Tri can provoke, you can challenge your leaders are playing a central role. Robinson and Ken Wilson, traveled political leaders, through your wis- In addition to giving American to the United Kingdom to launch an dom, through your power, through a presence at the Wind- action plan to combat climate change. your followers.” sor gathering, Robinson and Wilson (See sidebar on this page) They were Ban and Philip are two among a are both signatories to the Evangeli- joined by leaders from different faith growing ensemble of scholars and cal Climate Initiative (ECI)—argu- traditions around the world, all with practitioners who increasingly raise ably the most substantive example of similar commitments to action, who the prospect that religion could shift American evangelicals’ engagement filled the grand halls of Windsor Cas- the debate and propel action on cli- with the issue to date.6 In February tle with a colorful mélange of reli- mate change; Robinson, Wilson, and 2006, a group of 86 senior evangeli- gious vestments and reverberations their diverse compatriots are among cal leaders, including such high-pro- of prayer and song.2 Co-hosting the the religious leaders heeding the call file individuals as megachurch pastor interfaith gathering with Prince Phil- to engagement.4 For them, the vantage and author Rick Warren, launched the ECI with its defining statement, “Climate Change: An Evangelical Call to Action.”7 To the surprise of Who Are American Evangelicals? many, a full-page ad in The New York As used in this article, the term “evangelical” refers broadly to Times stated, “Our commitment to theologically conservative Protestants, including fundamentalists, Jesus Christ compels us to solve the evangelicals, Pentecostals, and charismatics.48 “Conservative” in global warming crisis,” and headlines this case refers to a theological rather than a political orientation, announced, “Evangelical leaders join as a full spectrum of political orientations exists among global warming initiative.”8 The ECI evangelicals. (See sidebar on page 49) American evangelicalism seeks to reframe the issue in evangeli- traces its roots back to the Protestant Reformation, but in the cal terms, to spread its message in the 18th century, its varied strains of influence—pietism, revivalism, public square, and to promote action Puritanism, and Wesleyanism—metamorphosed into a uniquely to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions American religion during revivals of the Great Awakening and and adapt to climate change impacts. under the influence of Jonathan Edwards, John Wesley, and Now more than 260 in number, sig- George Whitefield.49 natories to the “Call to Action” wield Numerous scholars have sought to identify the factors that significant public voice and political unite the diverse religious tradition that is evangelicalism, but influence, serving as prominent lead- D. W. Bebbington’s “quadrilateral of priorities” receives the ers within a growing and mobilized most support. He outlines four pillars of evangelical belief: (1) religious community that comprises conversionism, an emphasis on being “born again,” or having an 25 to 30 percent of the U.S. popula- individual life-changing experience of God’s grace; (2) activism, tion.9 They are part of an expanding a requisite concern for sharing the “good news” and offering group of moderate evangelicals who others a chance to be “saved”; (3) biblicism, the authoritative are broadening the evangelical right’s role given to scripture and paramount centrality of the Bible; agenda of “personal morality” issues and (4) crucicentrism, a stress on the crucifixion of Christ as to include social justice and creation the core of belief and sole source of salvation.50 Historian Mark care concerns, specifically climate Noll notes, “These evangelical traits have never by themselves change. (Like many religious adher- yielded cohesive, institutionally compact, or clearly demarcated ents, these leaders employ language groups of Christians. But they do serve to identify a large family of “creation care” rather than “envi- of churches and religious enterprises.”51 The multifaceted ronmentalism” because it expresses definitions of “evangelical” point to the tradition’s complexity and the theological basis of their concern patchwork nature but also denote a phenomenon that contrasts for the Earth as God’s creation.) In with other traditions and communities. so doing, they are challenging that issue’s traditional secular and lib-

48 ENVIRONMENT WWW.ENVIRONMENTMAGAZINE.ORG VOLUME 52 NUMBER 2 eral boundaries. (See sidebar on page 49) Their voices might be persua- sive among policymakers with whom American Evangelicals and Politics other environmental advocates hold In recent decades, of all the factions within American evangeli- less sway and among a segment of calism, the evangelical right has most visibly exerted its political the American public that mainstream power, particularly in partnership with the Republican Party. environmentalism has historically But we would be remiss to think all evangelical leaders deploy failed to engage but nonetheless has their influence to politically conservative ends—exclusively or at contributions to make as consum- all. An evangelical left and center accompany and often coun- ers and citizens.10 As such, the ECI terpoise the evangelical right; increasingly, a growing group of 52 signatories’ potential to shift partisan “freestyle” evangelicals display “political bivocality.” They may divides and to engender political will continue to hold traditional evangelical stances, disapproving of and public engagement is consider- abortion and homosexuality, but also advocate for conventionally able, meriting further exploration of progressive causes. Such evangelicals may have unique access evangelical climate care, including to and sway with policymakers, and can bring fresh perspectives its historical evolution, advocacy, and and advocacy to enduring issues, deploying their influence and challenges. resources in potentially transformative ways. Evangelical leaders’ influence is also intimately tied to their constituency—a robust and increasing body of believers. As A History of Evangelical with their leaders, the relationship of the evangelical public to Climate Care the political right varies, and a full spectrum of political orienta- tions exists among those who adhere to conservative theology. The ECI did not arise suddenly or ex Recent Pew data indicates that among the evangelical public, nihilo. Rather, it was born out of a 40- 50 percent identify as or lean Republican, 9 percent identify as year evolution of American evangeli- independent, and 34 percent identify as or lean Democratic; cals’ engagement with environmental similarly, 52 percent describe themselves as conservative, 30 53 issues.11 Initial evangelical attention percent as moderate, and 11 percent as liberal. (In both cases, to environmental concerns began in 7 percent of respondents did not know or refused to answer.) the late 1960s as a response to Lynn While these numbers suggest that evangelicals trend more White’s influential and controversial Republican and more conservative than their mainline Protes- article, “The Historical Roots of Our tant and Catholic counterparts, they are by no means monolithic Ecologic Crisis,” which blamed envi- in their political beliefs. ronmental degradation on the biblical doctrine of “dominion”12 drawn from Genesis 1:28: Creation care leaders transformed British evangelical Sir John Houghton these ecotheological precepts into and then Vice President of Govern- “God blessed them and said to them, advocacy in the early 1990s, found- mental Affairs for the United States- ‘Be fruitful and increase in number; ing the Evangelical Environmental based National Association of Evan- fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over Network (EEN) and establishing “An gelicals (NAE) Richard Cizik. There, the fish of the sea and the birds of the Evangelical Declaration on the Care Cizik experienced what he calls a air and over every living creature that of Creation,” which laid out a frame- personal “conversion” on climate 13 moves on the ground.’” work for and commitment to action.16 change.18 Later that year, Jim Ball The 1995–1996 Republican congres- of the EEN conducted a high-profile White’s indictment prompted sional assault on the Endangered Spe- “What Would Jesus Drive?” cam- evangelicals to come to Christian- cies Act thrust the burgeoning move- paign, driving a hybrid car through ity’s defense, primarily by reinterpret- ment onto the national policy stage, the heart of the Bible Belt. The tour ing Genesis as a call to responsible as members worked to defend what proved a resounding media success. stewardship. Rather than using God’s they called “the Noah’s Ark of our In 2004, capitalizing on energy creation profligately, human beings day.”17 As the decade came to a close, derived from the Oxford gathering, should tend it carefully, as Genesis the group began to turn its focus the EEN and two flagship evangelical 2:15 suggests: “The Lord God took to climate change. Simultaneously, organizations, Christianity Today and the man and put him in the Garden of creation care inched inward from the the NAE, co-hosted a creation care Eden to work it and take care of it.”14 periphery of the evangelical agenda conference for American evangelical During the 1980s evangelical scholars and gained traction in the center of the leaders. Houghton again served as the extended this response, developing a community. key climate science messenger, and robust body of ecotheology that laid In 2002, a forum at the University the resulting “Sandy Cove Covenant” foundations for subsequent engage- of Oxford facilitated conversations included the goal of reaching a “con- ment beyond the ivory tower.15 between preeminent climatologist and sensus statement” on climate change

MARCH/APRIL 201O WWW.ENVIRONMENTMAGAZINE.ORG ENVIRONMENT 49 S ON MM EDIA COEDIA M

The Evangelist Matthew Inspired by an Angel, by Rembrandt WIKI

50 ENVIRONMENT WWW.ENVIRONMENTMAGAZINE.ORG VOLUME 52 NUMBER 2 S ON MM EDIA COEDIA M WIKI In the mid-1990’s, creation care leaders sought to defend the Endangered Species Act on the national stage, calling the legislation “the Noah’s Ark of our day.” (Noah’s Ark, oil on canvas painting by Edward Hicks, 1846). in the next year.19 Also in 2004, the clout and credibility to the ECI in them indicates a religious or transcen- NAE Board of Directors approved evangelicalism, a Christian tradition dent dimension, expressed in evan- a statement, “For the Health of the that, in contrast to Catholicism and gelical terms. In other words, for Nation,” which laid out an evangelical mainline Protestantism, lacks institu- them climate change intersects with public policy agenda, including cre- tional hierarchy. their deepest beliefs and identity as ation care.20 This series of events that In a process typical of American Christians, both of which help the ECI both heightened and mainstreamed the evangelicalism, the organizers drew network cohere. issue paved the way for the ECI. on institutional connections, trusted With the Sandy Cove mandate in interpersonal relationships, and lead- hand, a core group of organizers— er-to-leader “witnessing” to cultivate Constructing Climate Ball, Cizik, David Neff of Christianity a new evangelical climate network.22 Change Today, and David Gushee, currently a Much like Cizik, a number of ECI professor of Christian ethics at Mercer leaders describe their own conversion The ECI’s “Call to Action” is the University in Atlanta—collaborated to the cause as an “epiphany,” “con- gravitational core of the group and to develop the nascent ECI’s “Call version,” or “spiritual awakening,” illustrates its particular construction of to Action” and to gather signatories elicited by such interactions and by climate change. A manifesto for action by working through preexisting net- complementary study of the social, on the issue, the document weaves works within American evangelical- scientific, and theological dimensions together science, theology, ethics, and ism, including the NAE itself, the of the issue.23 These leaders’ accounts policy to define the problem, touching relief and development community, suggest they experienced not just a on its anthropogenic causes, global and evangelical higher education.21 change of mind but also a change of consequences, normative dimensions, Signatories’ names lend necessary heart on climate change, which for and appropriate responses. The four-

MARCH/APRIL 201O WWW.ENVIRONMENTMAGAZINE.ORG ENVIRONMENT 51 part argument of the “Call to Action” Neighbor Care of creation and its care, the “Call to unfolds as follows: Action” casts Christians as actors who As asserted in the Gospel of Matthew, have agency to write the next chapter 1. Human-induced climate concerns about justice complement cre- through their actions. The biblical story change is real. ation care. Prompted by a query, in casts engagement with climate change 2. The consequences of cli- Matthew 22:39 Jesus cites the second with deep import and purpose, and the mate change will be signifi- commandment: “Love your neighbor as religious context gives ECI leaders a cant, and will hit the poor the yourself.” Later in the Gospel, he goes sense of divine direction and hope as hardest. on to express the gravity of this precept they pursue their advocacy. They talk 3. Christian moral convictions in Matthew 25:40: “I tell you in truth, about being “called” or “told” by God, demand our response to the whatever you did for the least of these fulfilling a divine “commission” or climate change problem. brothers of mine, you did for me.” Car- “mandate,” and finding a deep source ing for one’s neighbor—particularly the of optimism in “doing God’s work” and 4. The need to act now is most vulnerable—is a central Christian knowing they are ultimately in part- urgent. Governments, busi- responsibility and another key precept nership with God.27 In their eyes, this nesses, churches, and individ- of evangelical ecotheology. Given the theological dimension and the purpose uals all have a role to play in unjust effects of environmental degra- and hope it provides distinguish evan- addressing climate change— dation on the poor, the concept of neigh- gelical creation care from secular envi- starting now. bor care endows caring for creation with ronmentalism.28 Their advocacy aims In fleshing out these statements, a humanitarian dimension; environmen- to go beyond arresting environmental the document’s appeals to science and tal concerns become part of a holistic degradation; they endeavor to further policy are conventional, drawing on Christian vision of the sanctity of life. Christ’s redeeming work. consensus science from the Intergov- ernmental Panel on Climate Change Eschatology Negotiating the and promoting cap-and-trade as the key Evangelical Right legislative solution. Its unique contribu- Eschatology is theology concerned tion lies in the way it couches the mate- with “the last things” or end of the The ECI’s emphasis on climate has rial phenomenon of climate change world. Though evangelicals agree roused pointed opposition from the in a religious framework and gives it about the general trajectory of the bib- evangelical right. Led by E. Calvin meaning by drawing on biblical texts; lical narrative, they can hold quite Beisner and the Cornwall Alliance, although the argument begins with sci- different convictions about the “end with support from (of ence, theology provides the fundamen- times,” which shape their perspectives ), tal grounding of the “Call to Action” on the future and thus attribution of (of the Ethics and Religious Liberty and the ECI’s advocacy. meaning to the present.24 The Book of Commission of the Southern Baptist Three key themes run through this Revelation, the major biblical basis for Convention), and others, this group theology: these eschatological views, leaves open has repeatedly attempted to censure questions about how the Earth will fare Cizik, counter the ECI’s efforts to sway Creation Care in the end of days, with some passages policymakers, and keep climate change depicting the destruction of creation off the evangelical agenda.29 Echoing Genesis 1 offers an account of the and others suggesting its transforma- arguments of the secular, conserva- creation process and concludes with its tion from old to new. Drawing on the tive anti-environmental countermove- maker’s assessment, in Genesis 1:31: Book of Colossians and its emphasis ment, they dispute mainstream sci- “God saw all that he had made, and on all things—“things in heaven and ence, suggest that mitigation measures it was very good.” This passage sug- on earth”—as part of Christ’s redeem- would inflict vast economic damage, gests the Earth has intrinsic value as ing work, the ECI’s theology advo- and reject regulatory solutions, instead the created product of a creator God. cates continuity rather than disjunction favoring unhampered free markets According to Psalm 24:1, “The Earth between the material present and the to fuel economic growth that could is the Lord’s, and everything in it,” so future.25 This eschatology of renewal finance adaptation to “natural” climate damage to any aspect is an offense. envisions the redemption of creation change.30 These leaders also maintain On the other hand, these texts indicate rather than its destruction, thereby giv- the dominionist theology rejected by that caring for creation and its inhabit- ing the Earth another layer of value. the ECI. ants fulfills human beings’ God-given Through these theological concepts, Claims that climate change is divid- role as stewards and is an act of lov- the ECI engages contested questions ing the evangelical community suggest ing and honoring God. The message of values and ethics, establishing a that the underlying driver of these for evangelicals is that anthropogenic distinctive way of looking at climate arguments might be political.31 The environmental degradation is sinful, change that is inseparable from those ECI could irreparably undermine the and nature is more than a mere resource concerns.26 By locating climate change political power of the evangelical right, for human use. within an ongoing religious narrative which for three decades so successfully

52 ENVIRONMENT WWW.ENVIRONMENTMAGAZINE.ORG VOLUME 52 NUMBER 2 purported itself as speaking for Ameri- Engaging People pants expressed skepticism about the can evangelicalism in its entirety and in the Pews role of regulation in and the economic wielded the weight of that constitu- damage that would result from climate ency. Indeed, many of the ECI signa- mitigation. Concerns grounded in free- tories aim to break away from the old Perhaps a more significant challenge market ideology and distrust of gov- guard evangelical right and its political that ECI leaders face is to genuinely ernment seemed further heightened by collaborator, the GOP. They lament the engage the evangelical public in cli- skepticism about Democratic support evangelical–Republican alliance that mate care and to spread the movement for climate change solutions.41 Partici- they say has often trumped religious from a primarily grasstops phenomenon pants described attending to the issue as purpose and subordinated Christian into the grassroots. Quantitative sur- “political” and raised uncertainty about responsibility to party politics.32 These veys indicate that evangelicals’ opin- the agenda behind efforts to promote leaders hope to decouple evangelical- ions about climate change echo those ameliorative action. For some, Gore ism from politics, taking a “biblical” of the U.S. population as a whole— epitomized the link between partisan 36 approach instead.33 high awareness, low concern. But the politics and climate change and the lib- Climate change, then, is part of a surveys also suggest that evangelicals’ eral trappings of environmentalism. new evangelical politics that is less belief in the reality and human cause of, Third, many churchgoers’ perspec- partisan, extends beyond a narrow concern regarding, and support for com- tives seem shaded by questions of scale. Christian agenda, and takes a more bating climate change lags behind that In general, participants expressed very 37 global view (see sidebar on page 49). of the public at large. Still, evangeli- different attitudes toward both problems This revised approach—a divergent cals are by no means monolithic in their and solutions that are direct, immediate, trajectory of evangelical engagement opinions on the topic or a stridently small-scale, or individualized and those in the public sphere—engenders dif- opposed bloc; rather, they encompass a that are indirect, distant, large-scale, or ferent styles and modes of advocacy full spectrum of opinions. structural. As with evangelical perspec- and makes ECI leaders more open Focus group data on evangelical tives on racism—seen as a problem to collaboration and alliance-building. churchgoers offers further insight into “of individuals and individuals only”— They need not agree with their col- the opinion drivers at work and helps theologically grounded (1) accountable laborators on all issues, but they can gauge acceptance of or resistance to freewill individualism, (2) relational- work constructively together on areas the ECI.38 Results show that the theo- ism, and (3) anti-structuralism worked of mutual concern, in the interest of logical emphases on creation care and against a systemic understanding of the achieving a common purpose.34 For neighbor care generally resonated with complex causes and possible solutions example, Cizik, Wilson, and Joel Hunt- participants. They widely consented to to climate change.42 These religious er, senior pastor of Northland Church and often endorsed the notion of bibli- perspectives suggest that (1) individu- near Orlando, Florida, have partnered cal calls to care for the Earth and for the als act independently of structures and with scientists at Harvard’s Center for poor. On the specific matter of climate institutions with personal accountability Health and the Global Environment change, however, a gulf between many for their own actions; (2) immediate, to establish joint advocacy ventures: churchgoers and the ECI signatories interpersonal relationships are of utmost Evangelicals and Scientists United to remained. importance; and (3) emphasis on social Protect Creation, Creation Care for Three driving factors—(1) scientific structures undermines the individual Pastors, and the Friendship Collabora- skepticism, (2) conservative political and personal responsibility. Perspec- tive among them. By breaking down ideology, and (3) individualism in con- tives that resist structural thinking and the stereotypes and boundaries of what cert with antistructuralism—have pro- emphasize individualism inhibit under- is and what is not “evangelical,” these duced dissent and conflict on the issue. standing of an immensely complex, leaders hope to renew the integrity of First, with roots in the evolution– multilevel problem like climate change. their religion and increase its credibil- creation debate, a general culture of In sum, despite resonance of creation ity in broader society.35 scientific skepticism exists in many care and neighbor care, among this Although climate change is a fault- evangelical circles and hangs heavy portion of the American public, engage- line in contemporary evangelicalism, over evangelical discussions of climate ment with climate change is beleaguered as the ECI’s advocacy proceeds, the change. Distrust of scientists and a by ongoing scientific uncertainty, parti- evangelical right’s influence appears to “populist anti-science sentiment” trans- san political baggage, and resistance to be waning, as more leaders shift their fer easily from the former issue to the systemic thinking. (Interestingly, theo- stance on climate change. For instance, latter.39 In addition, many participants logical notions often blamed for Chris- in 2006 Pat Robertson declared him- subscribed to the conservative political tian anti-environmentalism were absent self “a convert” on climate change on movement’s notion of the “non-prob- from focus group discussions: eschatol- The 700 Club and in 2008 appeared lematicity” of climate change, arguing ogy, dominion readings of Genesis, and in advertisements with liberal Baptist that “the evidentiary basis of global associations of environmentalism with minister and civil rights activist Al warming is weak and even wrong.”40 paganism.)43 These factors complicate Sharpton for Al Gore’s Alliance for Second, and again echoing the con- and impede religion’s ability to foster Climate Protection. servative political movement, partici- public engagement on the issue.

MARCH/APRIL 201O WWW.ENVIRONMENTMAGAZINE.ORG ENVIRONMENT 53 In light of the urgency involved in efforts to ameliorate climate change, ECI leaders are grappling with the dual concerns of engendering political will and engaging the evangelical public. A grassroots constituency is necessary both to shore up evangelical leaders’ impact on climate politics and to exert direct influence as citizens on elected officials. At the same time and paradoxi- cally, generating necessary engagement among churchgoers could be impos- sible while maintaining an emphasis on climate change and regulatory solu- tions. Hence, the leaders face a strategic quandary that pits climate policy aims against broader creation care goals—a conflict between immediate impact and deeper but more distant shifts. Their human agency is running up against both biophysical and sociocultural real- ity, challenging what they can feasibly achieve. Thus, the present moment is a dynam- ic one for evangelical climate advocacy. While the events of recent years indicate a sea change among evangelical leaders, the full extent of its impact remains to be seen, as engagement among church- going constituents lags and, conse- quently, advocacy approaches remain

ER under development. How they decide MM to resolve strategic tensions will signifi- cantly shape the future of evangelical

ANCY BRA ANCY climate care. So, too, will the evolution N of broader dynamics in American evan- gelicalism, particularly given younger evangelicals’ increasing interest in cre- ISTOCKPHOTO/ ation care, and the growth of the evan- Discussion Among the ECI’s other target audi- gelical center, which has creation care ence, American policymakers, the cli- squarely within its agenda.45 Moreover, As an issue of concern, climate mate change discussion has never been while evangelical churchgoers are not change has penetrated evangelical lead- more necessary, with both domestic a lynchpin of public support at pres- ership among those on the left and in legislation and an international treaty ent, that reality does not render efforts the center quite successfully, but it has to succeed the Kyoto Protocol hang- to engage them irrelevant. The path of not taken root among the evangeli- ing in the balance. Debates within the climate change amelioration extends far cal public in the same way. While the United States and negotiations in the beyond this congressional session and ECI signatories clearly view climate international community reveal that the will likely be long and difficult. Greater change as a pressing matter, many of tremendously politically charged nature engagement among this quarter or more them express the concern that that the of climate change persists. Given these of the U.S. public might be important to topic can be an obstacle to their efforts circumstances, the voices of ECI sig- walking the path successfully, and cre- to engage churchgoers in creation care natories may be important. They have a ation care leaders persist in their com- more generally.44 Challenges to bringing growing capacity to speak across party mitment to stimulating public concern this audience onboard and the evident lines – to both liberal and conservative and action. baggage accompanying the issue pres- policymakers – and perhaps to contribute In any case, the ECI and its signato- ent a key concern: whether focusing on to greater bipartisan support for climate ries bring a rather unique voice to evolv- climate change could retard efforts to legislation, or at the very least reduced ing conversations about climate change, integrate creation care into the fabric of opposition to it. In other words, the call with their particular way of describing American evangelical life. to action on Capitol Hill is exigent. the issue—its causes, consequences, and

54 ENVIRONMENT WWW.ENVIRONMENTMAGAZINE.ORG VOLUME 52 NUMBER 2 solutions. They reframe climate change creation care advocates is being faith- religious, human/environment, and with an evangelical lens and biblical ful to and serving God. Also of note material/spiritual, which limit the way language, giving it meaning as a mat- to observers is the fact that evangeli- we conceive of issues and respond to ter of both private faith and public life cal attention to adaptation is growing. them. But, clearly, religion and environ- with inescapably ethical dimensions. As an idea, leaders view it as a way to ment are not inimical, nor are scientists In so doing, the ECI leaders inject their move past skepticism about the anthro- and evangelicals or political liberals and theology and morality into the climate pogenic nature of climate change and theological conservatives on definitively debates, which are typically dominated uncertainty about strategies for mitiga- opposing sides. Synergies between them by the language of science and policy. tion, while resonating with evangelicals’ are apparent and increasingly intersect Such constructions of climate change more established history of engagement on the issue of climate change. The very may prove essential to evangelical in relief and development work.47 Evan- existence of evangelical climate care efforts to move policymakers and the gelicals are likely to continue to play invites reconsideration of such binaries, public to ameliorative action.46 an important role in this area. More- lest they limit us to half-truths and half- Secular practitioners, scientists, and over, given the limited body of literature solutions. scholars, especially those looking to on the topic, opportunities for further coordinate or collaborate with evangeli- research are significant. cal efforts, would benefit from under- Katharine K. Wilkinson is a Rhodes Scholar and standing creation care as an increasingly Conclusion doctoral candidate in Geography and the Environ- influential perspective and area of advo- ment at the University of Oxford, where she is cacy, where alliances are feasible, and Ultimately, evangelical climate affiliated with the Environmental Change Institute where significant disagreements persist. advocacy challenges existing binaries and the Smith School of Enterprise and the Environ- in thought and action related to envi- ment. Her research explores climate change dis- Those outside the movement would do course, advocacy, and engagement among American well to remember that beyond engen- ronmental concerns. Pervasive dichoto- evangelicals, and she is currently working on a dering action on climate change, the mous thinking restricts us to such cat- book manuscript on the topic. She may be con- ultimate goal for ECI leaders and other egories as liberal/conservative, secular/ tacted at [email protected] HY P TER PHOTOGRA TER S LI C ISTOCKPHOTO/MC

MARCH/APRIL 201O WWW.ENVIRONMENTMAGAZINE.ORG ENVIRONMENT 55 uploads/2008/05/eci-calltoaction-booklet.pdf (ac- Anderson, interview by Sarah Pulliam, Christianity NOTES cessed 30 November 2009). Hereafter this document Today, 11 December 2008, http://www.christianityto- is called the “Call to Action.” day.com/ct/2008/decemberweb-only/150-41.0.html (accessed 30 November 2009); Richard Cizik, in- 8. L. Goodstein, “Evangelical Leaders Join Global 1. For literature about public engagement on cli- terview by Terry Gross, Fresh Air, National Public mate change, see: to see A. Leiserowitz, Public Warming Initiative,” , 8 Febru- Radio, 2 December 2008; S. Pulliam, “Richard Cizik Perception, Opinion, and Understanding of Climate ary 2006. For a copy of this ad, see http://preview. Resigns from the National Association of Evangeli- Change: Current Patterns, Trends, and Limitations christiansandclimate.org/pubs/2006.pdf (accessed 30 cals,” Christianity Today, 11 December 2008, http:// (New York: United Nations Development Pro- November 2009). www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2008/decemberweb- gram, 2007), http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/ 9. C. Hackett and D. M. Lindsay, “Measuring only/150-42.0.html (accessed 30 November 2009). hdr2007–2008/papers/leiserowitz_anthony.pdf (ac- Houghton led the IPCC’s Scientific Assessment cessed 30 November 2009); E. Maibach, C. Roser- Evangelicalism: Consequences of Different Opera- Working Group from 1988 to 2002. He embodies the Renouf, and A. Leiserowitz, Global Warming’s Six tionalization Strategies,” Journal for the Scientific Americas 2009: An Audience Segmentation Analysis Study of Religion 47, no. 3 (2008): 499–514. marriage of devout evangelicalism and expert science and has been the key scientific messenger to Ameri- (New Haven, CT and Fairfax, VA: Yale Project on 10. J. C. Dernbach, “Harnessing Individual Be- can evangelical leaders. Climate Change and the George Mason University havior to Address Climate Change: Options for Con- Center for Climate Change Communication, 2009); gress,” Virginia Environmental Law Journal 26, no. 1 19. “Sandy Cove Covenant and Invitation,” 2004, M. C. Nisbet and T. Myers, “Trends: Twenty Years (2008): 107–156; G. E. Hitzhusen, “Judeo-Christian http://www.creationcare.org/conference/covenant_ of Public Opinion about Global Warming,” Public Theology and the Environment: Moving Beyond sandy_cove04.pdf (accessed 30 November 2009). Opinion Quarterly 71, no. 3 (2007): 444–470. Skepticism to New Sources for Environmental Edu- 20. National Association of Evangelicals, “For the 2. The Celebration of Faiths and the Environment cation in the United States,” Environmental Educa- Health of the Nation: An Evangelical Call to Civic took place in Windsor, UK, 2–4 November 2009, and tion Research 13, no. 1 (2007): 55–74; S. C. Moser, was jointly organized by the Alliance of Religions “Toward a Deeper Engagement of the US Public on Responsibility,” 2004, http://www.nae.net/images/ and Conservation and the United Nations Develop- Climate Change: An Open Letter to the 44th Presi- content/For_The_Health_Of_The_Nation.pdf (ac- ment Program. For text of the action plans, see M. dent of the United States of America,” International cessed 30 November 2009). Colwell, V. Finlay, A. Hilliard, and S. Weldon, eds., Journal of Sustainability Communication 3 (2008): 119–132. 21. Jim Ball, former president, current senior direc- Many Heavens, One Earth: Faith Commitments to tor of climate campaign, Evangelical Environmental Protect the Living Planet (Bath, UK: Alliance of Re- 11. C. B. DeWitt, “The Scientist and the Shepherd: Network, in interview with the author, Duluth, GA, ligions and Conservation, 2009). The Emergence of Evangelical Environmentalism,” 13 May 2009; Cizik, note 18; David Gushee, pro- 3. Ban Ki-moon, speech, Celebration of Faiths and in R. S. Gottlieb, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Reli- fessor of Christian ethics, Mercer University, in in- the Environment, Windsor, UK, 3 November 2009. gion and Ecology, (Oxford, UK: Oxford University terview with the author, Atlanta, GA, 23 September Transcript available at: http://www.windsor2009.org/ Press, 2006), 568–587; D. Larsen, “God’s Gardeners: 2008; David Neff, editor-in-chief, Christianity To- ARC-UNDPWindsor2009-SpeechBanKi-moon.pdf American Protestant Evangelicals Confront Environ- day, in interview with the author, Carol Stream, IL, (accessed 30 November 2009). mentalism, 1967–2000” (PhD dissertation, Univer- 4 November 2008. sity of Chicago, 2001). 4. For an assortment of writings on religion’s role, 22. Ball, ibid.; Cizik, note 18; Alexei Laushkin, 12. L. White, “The Historical Roots of Our Ecolog- see G. Gardner, Invoking the Spirit: Religion and project manager, Evangelical Environmental Net- ic Crisis,” Science 155, no. 3767 (1967): 1203–1207. Spirituality in the Quest for a Sustainable World, work, in interview with the author, Arlington, VA, In addition to sparking debate among theologians, the Worldwatch Paper 164 (Washington, DC: World- 19 September 2008; Rusty Pritchard, former national White thesis also initiated a stream of social-scien- watch Institute, 2002); J. T. Houghton, Global Warm- director of outreach, Evangelical Environmental Net- tific studies to investigate the relationship between ing: The Complete Briefing, 3rd ed. (Cambridge, work, current president, Flourish, in interview with religion—specifically American Christianity—and UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 197–215; the author, Atlanta, GA, 23 September 2008. See also S. M. Johnson, “Is Religion the Environment’s Last environmental concern. For a review of those studies D. M. Lindsay, “Evangelicals in the Power Elite: Best Hope? Targeting Change in Individual Behav- and the current status of the debates, see Hitzhusen, Elite Cohesion Advancing a Movement,” American ior through Personal Norm Activation,” Journal of note 10. Sociological Review 73 (2008): 60–82. Environmental Law and Litigation 24, no. 1 (2009): 13. All Bible passages are from the New Interna- 119–164; M. Oelschlaeger, Caring for Creation: An tional Version. 23. Ball, note 21; Cizik, note 18; Tri Robinson, Ecumenical Approach to the Environmental Crisis senior pastor, Boise Vineyard, in interview with the (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994); J. G. 14. Evangelical scholar Francis Schaeffer authored author, Duluth, GA, 14 May 2009; Ken Wilson, sen- Speth, Red Sky at Morning: America and the Cri- the most notable of these defenses. See F. A. Schaef- ior pastor, Ann Arbor Vineyard, Ann Arbor, MI, in sis of the Global Environment (New Haven: Yale fer, Pollution and the Death of Man: The Christian phone interview with the author, 10 June 2009. University Press, 2004), 191–201; J. G. Speth, The View of Ecology (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House, Bridge at the Edge of the World: Capitalism, the En- 1970). 24. For more on eschatology and its relationship to vironment, and Crossing from Crisis to Sustainabil- environmental engagement, see J. M. Curry-Roper, 15. DeWitt, note 11; Larsen, note 11. For examples ity (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), “Contemporary Christian Eschatologies and Their of this ecotheological literature, see: W. Granberg- 199–216; E. O. Wilson, The Creation: An Appeal Relation to Environmental Stewardship,” The Pro- Michaelson, ed., Tending the Garden: Essays on the to Save Life on Earth (New York: W.W. Norton and fessional Geographer 42, no. 2 (1990): 157–169; H. Company, 2006). For more on the intersection of reli- Gospel of the Earth (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987); L. Wilkinson, ed., Earthkeeping: Christian O. Maier, “Green Millennialism: American Evan- gion and the environment, see R. S. Gottlieb, ed., The gelicals, Environmentalism, and the Book of Revela- Oxford Handbook of Religion and Ecology (Oxford, Stewardship of Natural Resources (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1980). For a recent treatment of evan- tion,” in D. G. Horrell, C. Hunt, C. Southgate, and UK: Oxford University Press, 2006); B. R. Taylor, F. Stavrakopoulou, eds., Ecological Hermeneutics: ed., Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature (London: gelical ecotheology, see S. Bouma-Prediger, For the Beauty of the Earth: A Christian Vision for Creation Biblical, Historical, and Theological Perspectives Continuum, 2005); M. E. Tucker, “Religion and (London: T&T Clark, forthcoming). Ecology,” in P. Clarke, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Care (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006). the Sociology of Religion (Oxford, UK: Oxford Uni- 16. R. J. Berry, The Care of Creation: Focusing 25. Colossians 1:15–20. This view contrasts versity Press, 2009), 819–835. On religion and social Concern and Action (Downers Grove, IL: InterVar- premillennial dispensationalism, an eschatological change, see C. Smith, ed., Disruptive Religion: The sity, 2000); Larsen, note 11. view many ECI leaders are consciously and actively Force of Faith in Social Movement Activism (New working against. It divides history into distinct eras 17. L. Kearns, “Noah’s Ark Goes to Washington: York: Routledge, 1996). or dispensations and suggests that the present epoch A Profile of Evangelical Environmentalism,” Social will end when worldly apocalypse hastens a secret 5. For a treatment of these “discordant voices,” Compass 44, no. 3 (1997): 349–366; P. Steinfels, rapture of saved Christians from the earth, in advance including religion, see M. Hulme, Why We Disagree “Evangelical Group Defends Laws Protecting En- of a seven year tribulation, subsequent second com- about Climate Change: Understanding Controversy, dangered Species as a Modern ‘Noah’s Ark,’” The ing of Christ, and establishment of his millennial Inaction, and Opportunity (Cambridge, UK: Cam- New York Times, 31 January 1996. bridge University Press, 2009). reign. Dispensationalism takes the arch of human 18. Richard Cizik, former vice president of gov- history to be in decline, embraces deterioration as 6. Bill McKibben has deemed the ECI perhaps ernmental affairs, National Association of Evan- foretelling the rapture, and urges believers not to im- “as important in the fight against global warming as gelicals, in phone interview with the author, 25 Sep- pede but to hasten that event. The prevalence of this any stack of studies and computer models.” See B. tember 2008. Cizik resigned from the NAE in 2008 belief and its impact on environmental concern have McKibben, “The Gospel of Green: Will Evangelicals following an interview on National Public Radio, but Help Save the Earth?” OnEarth, Fall 2006, 35. been overstated in recent years. According to John the NAE’s president, Leith Anderson, has explicitly C. Green, director of the Bliss Institute, “The notion 7. Evangelical Climate Initiative, “Climate stated Cizik’s comments on the environment were that an imminent Judgment Day absolves people of Change: An Evangelical Call to Action,” 2006, not the cause for his departure, and the organization environmental responsibility is now a ‘fringe’ belief” http://preview.christiansandclimate.org/wp-content/ maintains its commitment to creation care. See Leith (see Harden below). For more on dispensationalism,

56 ENVIRONMENT WWW.ENVIRONMENTMAGAZINE.ORG VOLUME 52 NUMBER 2 see R. E. Olson, The Westminster Handbook to Evan- 31. See letter from Dobson, Perkins, and others analysis, in addition to written questionnaires. gelical Theology (Louisville, KY: Westminster John to the NAE Board (1 March 2007): http://www. 39. A. Crouch, “Environmental Wager,” Christi- Knox, 2004), 170–173, 231–233, 243–244. For en- citizenlink.org/pdfs/NAEletterfinal.pdf (accessed 30 anity Today, 29 June 2005, http://www.christiani- vironmentalist critiques of this eschatology, see B. November 2009). tytoday.com/ct/2005/august/22.66.html (accessed Moyers (acceptance remarks, Global Environmen- 32. Cizik, note 18; Lyon, note 27; Brian McLaren, 30 November 2009); D. P. Gushee, “Faith, Science, tal Citizen Award, given by the Harvard University former senior pastor, Cedar Ridge Community and Climate Change” (presented at the annual con- Center for Health and the Global Environment, New Church, Emergent leader, in interview with the au- York, NY, 1 December 2004), http://chge.med.har- ference of the Christian Life Commission, Baptist vard.edu/events/documents/Moyerstranscript.pdf thor, Laurel, MD, 18 September 2008; Phelan, note General Convention of Texas, San Antonio, TX, 3–4 (accessed 30 November 2009); G. Scherer, “The 28; Sleeth, note 27. March 2008). Godly Must Be Crazy,” Grist, 27 October 2004, 33. Robinson, note 23. 40. W. R. Freudenburg, “Social Constructions http://www.grist.org/news/maindish/2004/10/27/ and Social Constrictions: Toward Analyzing the 34. Ball, note 21; Cizik, note 18; Gushee, note 21; scherer-christian/ (accessed 30 November 2009). Social Construction of ‘the Naturalized’ as well as Joel Hunter, senior pastor, Northland: A Church Dis- For critiques of such arguments, see John C. Green ‘the Natural,’” in G. Spaargaren, A. P. J. Mol, and F. tributed, phone interview with the author, 7 January quoted in B. Harden, “The Greening of Evangelicals: H. Buttel, eds., Environment and Global Modernity 2009; Wilson, note 23. Christian Right Turns, Sometimes Warily, to Envi- (London: Sage, 2000), 103–119; McCright and Dun- ronmentalism,” The Washington Post, 6 February 35. Cizik, note 18; Litfin, note 27. lap, note 30, 510. 2005; J. A. Simmons, “Evangelical Environmental- ism: Oxymoron or Opportunity?” Worldviews 13, 36. See note 1. 41. R. E. Dunlap and A. M. McCright, “A WidWid-- ening Gap: Republican and Democratic Views on no. 1 (2009): 40–71. 37. ABC News, Planet Green, and Stanford Uni-Uni- Climate Change,” Environment 50, no. 5 (2008): versity, “Fuel Costs Boost Conservation Efforts; 7 26. Hulme, note 5, 142–177; M. C. Nisbet, “Com-“Com- 26–35. munication Climate Change: Why Frames Matter for in 10 Reducing ‘Carbon Footprint,’” 9 August 2008, Public Engagement,” Environment 51, no. 2 (2009): http://abcnews.go.com/images/PollingUnit/1067a1E 42. M. O. Emerson and C. Smith, Divided by 12–23. nvironment2008.pdf (accessed 30 November 2009); Faith: Evangelical Religion and the Problem of ABC News, Time, and Stanford University, “Intensi- Race in America (New York: Oxford University 27. Ball, note 21; Dan Boone, president, Trevecca ty Spikes Concern on Warming; Many See a Change Press, 2000), 75. Nazarene University, phone interview with the au- in Weather Patterns,” 25 March 2006, http://woods. thor, 8 January 2009; Cizik, note 18; Duane Litfin, 43. See note 25. stanford.edu/docs/surveys/GW_Woods_ABC_Re- president, Wheaton College, interview with the au- lease_on_2006_GW_poll.pdf (accessed 30 Novem- 44. Boone, note 27; Sabin, note 28; Sleeth, note thor, Wheaton, IL, 31 October 2008; Jo Ann Lyon, ber 2009); Barna Group, “Born Again Christians Re- 27. general superintendent, Wesleyan Church, founder, main Skeptical, Divided about Global Warming,” 17 World Hope, in interview with the author, Duluth, 45. See forthcoming research from LifeWay ReRe-- September 2007, http://www.barna.org/barna-update/ GA, 14 May 2009; Robinson, note 23; Matthew search, Nashville, TN. Sleeth, executive director, Blessed Earth, in inter- article/20-donorscause/95-born-again-christians- 46. For more on the significance of environmental view with the author, Duluth, GA, 14 May 2009. remain-skeptical-divided-about-global-warming (accessed 30 November 2009); Barna Group, “Evan- language and discourse, see L. R. Cass and M. E. 28. Ball, note 21; Paul Corts, president, Council gelicals Go ‘Green’ with Caution,” 22 September Pettenger, “Conclusion:Conclusion: The Constructions of CliCli-- for Christian Colleges and Universities, interview 2008, http://www.barna.org/barna-update/article/13- mate Change,” in M. E. Pettenger, ed., The Social with the author, Washington, DC, 18 September culture/23-evangelicals-go-qgreenq-with-caution Construction of Climate Change: Power, Knowl- 2008; John Phelan, president and dean, North Park (accessed 30 November 2009); Ellison Research, edge, Norms, Discourses (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, Theological Seminary, in interview with the author, “Nationwide Survey Shows Concerns of Evangeli- 2007), 235–246; R. Cox, Environmental Communi- Chicago, IL, 5 November 2008; Scott Sabin, execu- cal Christians over Global Warming,” 8 February cation and the Public Sphere (Thousand Oaks, CA: tive director, Floresta USA, interview with the au- 2006 (prepared for the EEN), http://www.npr.org/ Sage, 2006); M. A. Hajer, The Politics of Environ- thor, Duluth, GA, 14 May 2009. documents/2006/feb/evangelical/newsrelease.pdf mental Discourse: Ecological Modernization and 29. D. P. Gushee, The Future of Faith in Ameri- (accessed 30 November 2009); Greenberg Quinlan the Policy Process (Oxford, UK: Oxford University can Politics: The Public Witness of the Evangelical Rosner Research, “America’s Evangelicals Ques- Press, 1995); S. C. Moser and L. Dilling, eds., Creat- Center (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2008), tionnaire,” 16 March–4 April 2004 (prepared for Re- ing a Climate for Change: Communicating Climate 175–197; P. G. Heltzel, Jesus and Justice: Evangeli- ligion and Ethics Newsweekly), http://www.pbs.org/ Change and Facilitating Social Change (New York: cals, Race, and American Politics (New Haven: Yale wnet/religionandethics/week733/questionnaire.pdf Cambridge University Press, 2007); Nisbet, note University Press, 2009), 127–159; B. McCammack, (accessed 30 November 2009); Maibach et al., note 26. “Hot Damned America: Evangelicalism and the Cli- 1, 27; Pew Research Center for the People and the 47. Ball, note 21; Colwell, note 2, 136–137; Rob- mate Change Policy Debate,” American Quarterly Press and Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, inson, note 23; Wilson, note 23. A direct outgrowth 59, no. 3 (2007): 645–668. On debates between the “Many Americans Uneasy with Mix of Religion and of the ECI, a coalition of relief and development ECI and its opposition on the evangelical right, see Politics,” 24 August 2006, http://pewforum.org/pub- groups recently formed the Evangelical Collabora- also L. Kearns, “Cooking the Truth: Faith, Science, lications/surveys/religion-politics-06.pdf (accessed tion for Climate Adaptation, which aims to influence the Market, and Global Warming,” in L. Kearns and 30 November 2009); Pew Research Center for the U.S. adaptation policy. See http://www.aerdo.net/ C. Keller, eds., EcoSpirit: Religions and Philoso- People and the Press and Pew Forum on Religion innerloop/ClimateChangeStatementApril2009.pdf phies for the Earth (New York: Fordham University and Public Life, “Religious Groups’ Views on Glo- (accessed 30 November 2009). Press, 2007), 97–124; J. C. Nagle, “The Evangeli- bal Warming,” 16 April 2009, http://pewforum.org/ cal Debate Over Climate Change,” University of St. docs/?DocID=238 (accessed 30 November 2009); 48. R. Balmer, Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory: A Thomas Law Journal 5, no. 1 (2008): 52–86; Sim- Public Religion Research, “Key Religious Groups Journey into the Evangelical Subculture in America, mons, note 25. Want Government to Address Climate Change and 4th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006); 30. For the Cornwall perspective, see E. C. Beis-Beis- Its Impact on World’s Poor,” 27 March 2009 (pre- M. A. Noll, American Evangelical Christianity: An ner, P. K. Driessen, R. McKitrick, and R. W. Spen- pared for Faith in Public Life and Oxfam America), Introduction (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 2001). http://www.faithinpubliclife.org/tools/polls/climate- cer, A Call to Truth, Prudence, and Protection of the 49. Noll, ibid.; Olson, note 25. Poor: An Evangelical Response to Global Warming change/ (accessed 30 November 2009). (Burke, VA: Cornwall Alliance, 2006); E. C. Beisner, 50. D. W. Bebbington, Evangelicalism in Modern 38. The author conducted focus groups in nine pre-pre- B. Duke, and S. Livesay, eds., The Cornwall Steward- Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s (Lon- ship Agenda (Burke, VA: Cornwall Alliance, 2008); dominantly white evangelical churches of different don: Unwin Hyman, 1989), 1–19. Cornwall Alliance, “The Cornwall Declaration on denominations in the southeastern United States, the 51. Noll, note 48, 13. Environmental Stewardship,” 2000, http://www. region in which a majority of American evangelicals cornwallalliance.org/docs/the-cornwall-declaration- live, between July 2007 and January 2008. Churches 52. Gushee, note 29; D. M. Lindsay, “Ties that on-environmental-stewardship.pdf (accessed 30 were selected on the basis of denominational affilia- Bind and Divisions that Persist: Evangelical Faith November 2009). For treatments of the anti-environ- tion and self-identification as evangelical. (For more and the Political Spectrum,” American Quarterly mental countermovement, see A. Austin, “Advanc- on standard methodology for researching evangeli- 59, no. 3 (2007): 883–909. John C. Green and Steve ing Accumulation and Managing Its Discontents: cals, see Hackett and Lindsay, note 9.) Focus groups Waldman developed the term “freestyle” evangeli- The US Anti-Environmental Countermovement,” averaged eight to ten volunteer participants with 82 cals to describe this growing trend, used in a variety participants in total. They were asked to read the Sociological Spectrum 22, no. 1 (2002): 71–105; A. of pieces published on http://www.beliefnet.com. M. McCright and R. E. Dunlap, “Challenging Glo- “Call to Action,” which then served to ground, spur, bal Warming as a Social Problem: An Analysis of the and guide discussion. Maintaining anonymity, these 53. T. Miller, ed., US Religious Landscape Survey Conservative Movement’s Counter-Claims,” Social discussions were audio recorded and transcribed 2008 (Washington, DC: Pew Forum on Religion and Problems 47, no. 4 (2000): 499–522. verbatim, producing 55,000 words of transcripts for Public Life, 2008).

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