The Journal of Undergraduate Neuroscience Education (JUNE), Fall 2016, 15(1):R19-R20

AMAZING PAPERS IN NEUROSCIENCE and Single-Word Processing

Jeffrey J. Sable Department of Behavioral Sciences, Christian Brothers University, Memphis, TN 38104.

Early research on language-related function article, he places the studies in their historical context (i.e., is useful for teaching cognitive neuroscience. In these models of language function based largely on case studies studies, researchers used relatively simple experimental of patients with brain lesions) and describes the methods designs in an attempt to break down complex cognitive and designs used in the research. He summarizes the processes. In addition, the hypotheses tested in these results and the main takeaways from the research and its studies were based on models derived from non-imaging practical implications for research and medicine in the observations, such as lesion studies. Thus, students at all future. This paper touches on many important features of levels may find the research accessible in its simplicity and cognitive neuroscience, as well as psychology and engaging in its attempt to test existing theories in novel neuroscience more broadly. It can serve as a springboard ways. Raichle (1996) describes a series of such studies into discussion of many topics in many course contexts. that used what were, at the time, novel applications of relatively young imaging methods to measure brain activity Key words: Cognitive neuroscience; language; fMRI; related to single-word processing. In a short, readable PET; neuroimaging; experimental methods.

Beginning in the 1980s, Marcus Raichle and his team at (1) watching a small fixation cross (from which activity Washington University in St. Louis conducted a series of during eyes-closed rest was subtracted), (2) silently studies in which they used non-invasive imaging methods viewing words, (3) reading words aloud, and (4) generating to examine brain activity related to processing single a verb to go with each noun. Some findings were not words. This work included some of the earliest surprising: All conditions involved the activation of visual applications of human neuroimaging to the study of areas, and motor areas became active when the psychological processes (thanks, in part, to the participants spoke. However, there were also unexpected involvement of psychologist, Michael Posner). In his findings: First, based on lesion studies, reading aloud was typical, engaging style, Raichle (1996) gives the main take- expected to elicit activity in Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas. home messages from this research, placing it within a It did not. These areas became active only during the historical context—looking forward, as well as back. verb-generation task. Second, the cerebellum was more Raichle (1996) begins with the lesion-based case active during the verb-generation task than the reading- studies of Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke from the late aloud task, suggesting involvement in cognitive aspects of 1800s, each of which involved identification of a language the task (since motor activity was similar in both tasks). processing area that now bears the discoverer’s name (i.e., Finally, reading aloud elicited bilateral activity in the insular Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area). Raichle immediately cortices within the Sylvian fissure. This activity was not points out the limitations of lesion studies that have seen in the verb-generation condition unless the task was nevertheless given rise to models of language processing made less effortful through practice. in the brain. He quickly moves to the late 1900s, when Raichle (1996) summarizes their findings with a two- non-invasive studies of brain structure and function route model of single-word processing: (1) A more became possible. He gives a brief but informative automatic one seen in the read-aloud task and when summary of positron emission tomography (PET; participants were very familiar with the words in the verb- specifically 15O labeling) and functional magnetic generation task, and (2) one that meets the demands of resonance imaging (fMRI) as each is used in functional novelty (possibly including inhibition of the other route) and brain imaging, followed by the use of the subtractive includes Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas. He then method—first in purely behavioral studies, then in concludes by addressing the limitations of various cognitive experimental functional neuroimaging research on neuroscience methods alone, and giving examples of the cognitive processes. benefits of combining methods (e.g., lesion studies and On these historical and methodological foundations, functional neuroimaging studies). These benefits apply in Raichle (1996) proceeds to the meat of the paper, in which both research and clinical settings. he summarizes a series of PET and fMRI studies of brain activity related to processing single words (specifically VALUE nouns). He focuses specifically on visual processing, Although published in a relatively obscure journal, this although the group also conducted studies with words paper is a wonderful resource for faculty teaching cognitive presented aurally. The research involved four conditions: neuroscience at all levels. It is short, well written, and JUNE is a publication of Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience (FUN) www.funjournal.org Sable Cognitive Neuroscience and Single-Word Processing R20 provides a springboard for discussion of many important details that are relevant to the topic (using the paper as a points in cognitive neuroscience—and more generally in resource for myself). However, in more advanced neuroscience and psychology. These points include undergraduate and graduate courses, the paper may be an organizational principles in the brain (e.g., networks vs. excellent reading assignment. isolated areas, plasticity with learning), limitations of various methods in science and in medicine and benefits of REFERENCES using multiple methods, the process of developing and Raichle ME (1996) What words are telling us about the brain. testing hypotheses, and advancements in neuroimaging Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 61:9-14. methods (e.g., more sophisticated comparisons, event- Sable JJ (2015) Hypothesis testing using a video of language related designs and analysis). A video is available that neuroimaging. In: Teaching neuroscience: practical activities for an engaged classroom (Birkett M, ed) pp 23-27. Retrieved from depicts some of the research described in the paper the Society for the Teaching of Psychology web site: (Module 8: Language Processing in the Brain, in Vattano, http://teachpsych.org/ebooks/teachingneuroscience. et al., 2000; http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window. Vattano FJ, Bennett TL, Butler M (2000) The mind: teaching html?pid=1615). Engaging activities in numerous courses modules (2nd ed., DVD). New York, NY: Worth Publishers. can be built around this video (e.g., see Sable, 2015).

Received July 29, 2016; revised August 01, 2016; accepted August 02, AUDIENCE 2016. For me, this paper has inspired class activities in courses Address correspondence to: Jeffrey J. Sable, Department of Behavioral ranging from general psychology to graduate seminars and Sciences, Christian Brothers University, 650 East Parkway South, in topical contexts ranging from an introduction to the Memphis, TN 38104. Email: [email protected]. psychology of language to the opening day of a seminar in cognitive neuroscience. In lower-level classes, I do not Copyright © 2016 Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience assign the paper to read, instead focusing on the video and www.funjournal.org