Library of Congress ISSN 1554-0391 RADIO AS PEACEBUILDER: A CASE STUDY OF RADIO OKAPI IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO
Michelle Betz University of Central Florida
By giving voice and visibility to all people - including and especially the poor, the marginalized and members of minorities - the media can help remedy the inequalities, the corruption, the ethnic tensions and the human rights abuses that form the root causes of so many conflicts. - United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan -
I. INTRODUCTION
An estimated one-quarter to one-third of United Nations member states are conflict-stressed states or emerging democracies and all of these are multi-ethnic states with racial and/or ethnic divisions. (Cholmondely, 2004). That means that these same countries are, at some point if not currently, going to be going through the process of nation building. One tool that can be used in this process is the media and radio has proven to be particularly adept.
Radio has long been seen as an important tool in the social, economic and political mobilization of developing countries. There have been volumes (Fardon & Furniss; Head Manoff; Wedell; Hyden, Leslie & Ogundimu) written about social development and the utility of radio in addition to how radio might be used in post-conflict and nation building scenarios. However, there has been little, if any, examination of a more holistic approach of how both these bodies of work might be melded together providing some insight into how media, and more specifically radio, might be used as a peacebuilder. This paper seeks to draw elements from both social development and conflict resolution theories, bringing them together to examine how radio could be used in post-conflict and conflict resolution situations. An examination of Radio Okapi in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC; former Zaire) will serve as a case study of the role radio can play as a post-conflict or peace-building tool. impact among people who may be II. USE OF RADIO IN mostly illiterate; it is the most readily SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT available of all media. As a result, radio can play an important Radio has long been used in sub- mobilizing role in developing Saharan Africa due to its countries (Mwakawago, Wedell). accessibility, low cost and high Indeed, radio can play an important
role in four areas: informing, suggests (A Thousand and One facilitating decision making, Worlds , 1992) in Myers in Fardon p. educating, and entertaining 95). However, Querre stresses that it (Mwakawago 1986, p.87). is up to the producers to “create the One of the longest standing right environment for broadcasting examples of the use of radio as a tool and a way of thinking familiar to for social development is that of the rural life. Dialogue will be genuine Food and Agriculture Organization and real. Concrete solutions to (FAO). Since the 1960s the FAO has concrete problems can be discovered been using radio as a means of together… They will preserve the assisting those in rural areas of cultural identity of their audience developing countries. The goal of and hand back to them their right to which was to assist rural workers so be heard.” they could come up with concrete solutions to the shared problems they Olorunnisola agrees. He faced together. Indeed, this has now writes that “the value of radio in become a model for much of reducing the stress attached to community radio in which it is used battling human, animal, and plant as an agent for social change; diseases, as well as the improvement perhaps it can even be examined in of housing and water supply was the context of nation-building or discovered” (1997, p.244). political development. Olorunnisola also suggests, however, that there may be some limitations There are other examples of with this view of broadcaster as radio’s ability to convey ideas and agent of social change. messages in basic education. The media were seen as crucial in the Olorunnisola (JRS 1997, p. UNESCO/UNICEF “Education for 243) discusses the social All” initiative taken at the Jomtien mobilization which radio may be conference in 1990. Some believe able to bring about, albeit with some UNICEF used the media effectively reservations. Indeed, he suggests for social mobilization in health and “the extent to which the social other basic education in a number of mobilization programs planned and developing countries. This was executed in rural Africa particularly effective in areas of [approximately 70% of the DRC’s conflict or former conflict where population is rural] have generally health and educational failed, may point to the likelihood infrastructures had broken down, and that, among other conjoint factors, where radio was one of the few radio’s potential as a viable medium sources of education as well as has never been fully tapped.” information. (Adam) Indeed, if radio’s potential As a result, this would has never been fully tapped, one suggest that the broadcaster is a must also ask how it could be. This development agent just as Querre author would suggest that if we can
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look at radio as a development agent, independently of one another. He can we then take this a step further further suggests that there are and ask, or try to find, a primarily two approaches taken methodology that looks at the when facing a post-conflict media broadcaster as peacemaking agent, or task. The first involves those who to assist in the maintenance of peace believe that to counter war and hate in a post-conflict thereby tapping propaganda in many post-conflict into radio’s full potential that situations, the IGOS had to create Olorunnisola suggests has not yet alternative media outlets that were, at been achieved. Can radio be used in least initially, under IGO control. attempts to manage conflict or The second approach, “fostered and promote nation-building? Indeed, encouraged more by NGOs than this is where conflict resolution IGOs, appears less controlling. It focuses on strengthening local, III. USE OF RADIO IN indigenous media outlets, POLITICAL particularly those that strike a new DEVELOPMENT: POST- voice, in the hopes of building a CONFLICT AND public sphere, a civil society, and the PEACEMAKING long-term machinery for peace and reconstruction.” What is interesting For many political scientists and to note here is the traditional international agencies freedom of mandate of NGOs has been apolitical communication is a measure of the and geared towards social, not reality of political liberalization and political, development, yet at the in such contexts radio and the media same time peace and reconstruction in general are seen as core elements can be construed as political terms. that enable democratization. (Daloz Even if not intentional, there is and Verrier-Fechette in Fardon p. clearly an overlap – a mandate that 181) If the media are crucial for becomes social and political. Price democratization then would it not concludes that there needs to be stand to reason that this process increasing coordination between would include conflict resolution and IGOs and NGOs. As will be particularly in post-conflict discussed, this is precisely what has situations? If so, what role can the happened in the case of Radio Okapi media play and who controls the where one (IGO) is more political or media in such situations? conflict-oriented while the other (NGO) is geared towards social In a background paper prepared development yet both are working for UNESCO, Price (2000) says both together towards peacebuilding in NGOs (non-governmental the DRC. organization) and IGOs (international governmental In addition to the actors involved organizations) need to be factored in political development there needs into political development, although to be further examination into the historically they have acted role the media play in conflict
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resolution. Robert Manoff, the transparency.” Heiber (CCR vol 7 director of the Center for War, Peace no..4 p.5) and the News Media at New York University, suggests that In addition to criteria “approaches that can loosely be legitimizing media intervention, grouped together under the rubric of there are also different types of ‘conflict resolution’ typically share a intervention. Howard (2002) greater interest in the potential suggests a model in which there are contributions of non-state actors and five types of media intervention might therefore be expected to varying largely on the stage of the provide a body of theory and practice conflict itself. Most pertinent to the more congenial to the development case at hand are types four and five. of media interventions.” (Manoff Type four is described as being Dec 1998) Manoff further suggests distinct from conventional numerous potential roles the media journalism and is rather a “pro-active can play in the prevention and media-based intervention, usually management of conflict including designed for a highly specific channeling communication between audience and purpose”. This type of parties, educating, confidence intervention is often the product of building, providing an emotional an outside actor such as a outlet, and framing and defining the peacekeeping force or NGO and is conflict – all elements of the conflict often used in a conflict or post- resolution process and traditionally conflict situation. Type five involves the role of diplomats. programming that is specifically intent upon transforming attitudes, Media and conflict experts from promoting reconciliation and around the world met at a 1998 reducing conflict and is usually conference in Geneva to examine the conducted by nongovernmental legitimacy of intervention for peace organizations. The content of the by foreign media in a country in programming in this case is conflict. They concluded media determined by its appropriateness to intervention during an open conflict fostering peace (Howard 2002, p.11). situation should meet certain criteria. Again, as will be discussed below, it These criteria included “receiving a is precisely these types of mandate from the international intervention that best describe Radio community to legitimize the Okapi. intervention and ensure that it occurs with other forms of assistance. Local However, simply having access staff need to be involved in regular to information that explains can have content reviews to make certain that a profound psychological effect in information broadcast is both situations where uncertainty and fear accurately and effectively portrayed reign. Heiber believes that providing to its audience. Strict impartiality is them with listener-friendly also crucial, as is complete information about their current environment can facilitate giving
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people a sense of control over their is here that we see the intersection of destiny. This, she suggests, is a social and political development – crucial step in helping defuse the where the need for a holistic model tension and chaos, which often is necessary to understand the fuller characterize countries at war. But implications not simply of Heiber further suggest that timing of community radio, but of the media in this intervention can be as crucial as general and their role in post-conflict the content. She suggests that such and peacemaking scenarios. interventions can be most effective once active conflict has ended. “By IV. THE NEED FOR A making available space or airtime for HOLISTIC MODEL OF the expression of grievances, media ANALYSIS is encouraging an essential part of the healing process. During the Historically, the disciplines of period of reconciliation and social development and conflict rehabilitation, media can also serve resolution (a part of political to empower groups which had development theory) were largely previously been voiceless.” Indeed, viewed independent of one another this is precisely what is happening in and most often had a clear beginning the case of Radio Okapi. (Heiber p. and end in and of themselves. 6-7) Instead, what is being suggested here is that there is a need for a holistic In discussing community radio analysis, the need to examine nation and rural communities, Olorunnisola building and conflict resolution in (1997 p. 247) asks an important the rubric of both social and political question: can members of a rural development – and to suggest that community with its own radio one should exist without the other is service find their voice, experience simply short-sighted and does a inclusion and participate actively in disservice to both practitioners and national affairs? Indeed, this is academicians. As a result, there is a important when considering the need to blend the theoretical areas of DRC’s large rural population, which social development and conflict is some 70% of the total population. resolution by combining sociology, It is also important in ascertaining political science and media studies. the effectiveness of a network such Examining Radio Okapi and using it as Radio Okapi. However, as a case study serves to illustrate Olorunnisola continues by this point and allows us to see how it suggesting that community radio brings together both social should play a role not simply in development theories and conflict “communal self-help and other resolution theories. developmental efforts” but that “there should be room for the There has been some indication sustenance of national unity through that this needed to be done, however, programmatic integration.” there was never any clear suggestion (Olorunnisola 1997, p.251) Indeed, it as to how. In his 1997 paper,
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Olorunnisola believed that at that Namibia, Rwanda, and Congolese time there was no room in the armed rebel groups, but sporadic current arrangement of African radio fighting continued. Kabila was networks for participation and power assassinated on 16 January 2001 and sharing in information dissemination. his son Joseph Kabila was named He went on to say that these were head of state ten days later. In two factors that were central to October 2002, the new president was community (i.e. social development) successful in getting occupying as well as nation building efforts. Rwandan forces to withdraw from More recently, however, at least eastern Congo; two months later, an one media development practitioner agreement was signed by all suggested precisely this need and its remaining warring parties to end the potential utility. “Initiatives such as fighting and set up a government of emergency relief, democratic national unity. development, health and education can recognize that media initiatives The media in the DRC reflect focused on conflict reduction this ongoing conflict in that the inevitably benefit them too. The government for most of the country’s potential for synergy is high.” post-colonial history has tightly (Howard et al) controlled them. Journalists are often harassed and jailed and V. THE DRC AND THE ongoing conflict simply gives the MEDIA LANDSCAPE government an excuse to impose even more severe restrictions under Since the mid 1990s, the DRC the guise of “national security”. has been rent by ethnic strife and civil war touched off by a massive Historically, radio was most influx in 1994 of refugees from often used as a propaganda fighting in neighboring Rwanda and instrument to secure loyalty and Burundi. More than three million support of the colonies during World Congolese have been killed in War II. In 1994, radio in the Great ongoing conflict. Lakes region of Africa was again in the headlines due to the Rwandan The government of former RTLM (Radio-Television Libre president Mobutu Sese Seko was Mille Collines). It is likely that not toppled by a rebellion led by Laurent since the Nazi propaganda machine Kabila in 1997 and his regime was has radio been used so effectively to subsequently challenged by a incite violence. In the case of Rwanda- and Uganda-backed Rwanda, an estimated 800,000 rebellion in 1998. Troops from people were killed, many at the Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia, Chad, hands of killers incited to violence and Sudan intervened to support the by the words heard on RTLM. Kinshasa regime. A cease-fire was Essentially, radio has had a legacy of signed in July 1999 by the DRC, divisiveness and hatred in this part of Zimbabwe, Angola, Uganda, Africa. But if radio can be used so
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effectively to promote hate, can it Canal Kin 2, and Radiotelevision not then also be used at least as Kin Malebo (RTKM). effectively to promote peace? This will be a point of discussion later in In 2001, the government this paper. reversed its position and banned foreign broadcasts. In 1999, Just as it is in many other privately owned radio and television African nations, radio in the DRC stations in DRC were ordered to remains the most popular medium cease transmissions of foreign due to the high cost of print broadcasts. The order was aimed at publications and low literacy rates. Elikya, a Catholic station which According to the United States rebroadcasts Radio Vatican, and Department of State, in early 2002, Raga FM, which broadcasts Voice of 10 radio stations operated in America (VOA), BBC World Kinshasa, including Radio Okapi, Service, and Deutsche Welle. In Raga FM, and Elikya. La Voix du 2001, however, Kikaya worked with Congo, the state controlled broadcast VOA to lift the ban. By early 2002, network is also available in the both VOA and BBC had resumed capital and throughout the country. broadcasts in Kinshasa. Until the launch of Radio Okapi, La Voix du Congo reached the largest Into this mix came Radio numbers of Congolese. Okapi, a radio network named after a rare African forest animal, related to Opposition parties continue the giraffe. Significantly, it has the to have difficulty gaining access to same name in all the languages of state-owned broadcasts, and private DRC and is considered to be a radio is consistently less critical of symbol of peace. the government than private Congolese newspapers. This may be VI. RADIO OKAPI related to the government’s ongoing threats to shut down private stations Set up in February 2002, Radio if they do not comply with the press Okapi is a joint project of MONUC law. As a result, Radio Okapi is (the United Nations Mission in the crucial for allowing different voices Democratic Republic of Congo) and to be expressed and heard. Hirondelle Foundation, a Swiss NGO. With a staff made up of There are seven television mostly native Congolese journalists stations broadcasting in Kinshasa, and broadcasters, Radio Okapi three of which are controlled by the produces news, music, and state. State-owned stations include information on MONUC activities; it RTNC, which offers terrestrial and has the goal of becoming the first satellite TV, and Television media outlet to provide national Congolaise, which is affiliated with coverage regardless of political RTNC. Private TV stations include affiliation reaching both Antenne A, Canal Z, Canal Kin 1,
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government- and rebel-held territory, Radio Okapi is the first radio on FM and shortwave. operation for which the UN Department of Peacekeeping In an interview with Radio Operations has partnered with an Netherlands, David Smith, NGO, perhaps in an effort to evolve MONUC’s Chief of Information, and develop new models. Equally, it explained what he believes is the could be an effort at sustainability, strength of Radio Okapi. “There is something UNTAC was not able to no single voice that unites all the achieve although it was not a part of Congolese people. This radio project its mission. will allow people in rebel held territories to speak to people in According to Radio Okapi, government-controlled territories for which has been on air for 3 years the first time since the war broke out. now, the regional stations have A big role of the radio will be to multiplied (there are now nine with convince people that it’s in their another one projected) and they interest to lay down their arms, and believe they have made the first steps either be repatriated to heir home towards reunification of the country country, if they come from by way of the only program somewhere else, or to find ways to broadcast across the frontlines in join civil society and leave the war both government- and rebel-held behind.” (Media Network, 2003) territory, on FM and shortwave. Their journalists have reported on The purpose of Radio Okapi the peace process, both steps forward is slightly different than UN radio and backward, successes and missions in the past. UNPROFOR’s failures, hopes and deceptions. (in former Yugoslavia) main mission was to operate a public information Another of the network’s program, the purpose of which was mandate is to explain what the to explain the mission’s mandate. United Nations is doing in the DRC UNTAG (Namibia) and UNTAC (in and the limits of that mandate, Cambodia) were different also in that something that has not always been their goal was to educate voters understood. Foreign combatants, about upcoming election processes. including many Rwandans, for In all of these cases, however, the whom the time of disarmament and radio mission was solely a part of the repatriation has come but who have United Nations peacekeeping not yet left are also addressed. Other operations. And at least in UNTAC’s programming is dedicated to health, case, the ultimate goal was simply to education, human rights, culture and provide an environment for free and music, the last of which is crucial in fair elections and once that was gaining the interest of Congolese completed the station closed -- there radio listeners. Radio Okapi also was unfortunately no intention of intends to collaborate with other ongoing intervention. media in the DRC, particularly with Congolese radio stations in terms of
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both production of content and Radio Okapi can fit into a model training. of radio as social developer in several ways. First, an NGO is The decision to broadcast in clearly involved, albeit in partnership the five major languages in the DRC with an IGO. Second, at least some (French, Lingala, Swahili, Tshiluba of Radio Okapi’s programming is and Kikongo) was very likely crucial dedicated to health, education, to the success of Radio Okapi. human rights, culture and music, Indeed, as Merrill and Fardon et. al. crucial as suggested by the past suggest one key issue for African successes of UNESCO and FAO. radio stations has always been that of Indeed, if Olorunnisola is correct language and in which language to than this type of programming can broadcast. Language is closely reduce the stress attached to the associated with the issue of culture simple day to day challenges of and the use of one language in living in a developing country which broadcasting to the exclusion of could then further lead to political others sends a message that one development. culture is being promoted and safeguarded while others are being But how does Radio Okapi then neglected. fit into a model of political development, conflict resolution and VII. RADIO OKAPI AND A peacebuilding? First, the mere fact HOLISTIC ANALYSIS that there is an additional station or network broadcasting different As suggested above, in voices adds some sense of discussing the role of media in democratization. In addition, as Price conflict and conflict-stressed states, suggests, there needs to be we rely on literature from a number collaboration between NGOs and of disciplines: communication, IGOs, precisely as is being done with political science and sociology and Radio Okapi. As a result, there tends to rely on only one of these bodies of to be politicization of the NGO work merely does a disservice and (Hirondelle Foundation) simply limits our understanding of the because it is associated with the IGO situations and thus the (MONUC). Indeed, in the case of implementation of future such Radio Okapi, the IGO is more projects. But how does Radio Okapi political and conflict-oriented while fit such a holistic model? By the NGO is geared towards social examining how aspects of both development, however, both are social development and political working towards the same end – development and peacebuilding fit peacebuilding, which must, as has the example of Radio Okapi will been noted, include social serve to further our understanding of development in the DRC. Radio the utility of such a model. Okapi also plays several of the roles Manoff suggests can be played by media in prevention and
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management of conflict including citizens of the country/ies in channeling communication between question. The UN on its own parties, educating and framing and may not be sufficient defining the conflict in addition to particularly in a region where simply providing information as to its mission may not be the current status of the political understood. environment. · We need to find some way to involve ordinary citizens and In addition, legitimization of the give them a voice. media intervention, as posited by · The use of several languages Heiber, is crucial and in fact this must absolutely be particular intervention is legitimized considered if a media in that it has received a mandate intervention is to succeed in a from the UN while ensuring that multilingual environment. others are actively engaged as well There is a desire to reach as (this would include Congolese who many people as possible thus work for the network in addition to the need to broadcast in the Swiss-based Hirondelle several languages – a task Foundation). that can prove daunting, yet not insurmountable. Clearly, the case of Radio Okapi · There must be long-term can be viewed as a multi-faceted planning. There needs to be a media intervention that begs to be balance between short-term examined more fully than under the (maintenance of order) and rubric of either social development long-term goals (building a theories or political development viable indigenous media theories; neither one nor the other is system. enough. It is essential that such work · There must be follow up. be more fully understood so that any Some view UNTAC radio future work (both practical and mission as a failure precisely academic) will be successful in because of the lack of follow assisting in what seems to be the up. Organizations, be they growing field of media and conflict IGO or NGO, cannot simply resolution. parachute in. There must be commitment for the media VIII. POLICY are not simply injectable; RECOMMENDATIONS there are no simplistic FOR FUTURE MEDIA solutions INTERVENTIONS · Given the complexities of such situations, the remedies The lessons taught by Radio Okapi must be transnational for we are many. live in an interactive, · There needs to be a myriad of transnational world. players and partners involved · Although there are significant including IGOs, NGOs, and challenges, there needs to be
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some way to measure the needs to be some mechanism effectiveness of such projects put in place so that local staff for how can one quantify the are trained and self-sufficient role that radio, or media in before foreign staff depart. general, plays in · Local partnerships are crucial peacebuilding. Indeed, what thus bringing diverse people are the measures used to together to work on a long- gauge peacebuilding? term, peacemaking project. · Priority needs to be placed on sustaining the impact of such training. Therefore there
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*Biographical Statement:
Michelle Betz is a lecturer in the Radio-TV Division where her specialties include broadcast journalism and broadcast performance. Betz also launched and continues to advise the campus radio station, WGKN. Her professional experience includes segment producing for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's network television morning news program. She also assisted with the coverage of the 1994 Winter Olympics in Norway and worked in London for Canadian Television (CTV). She continues to freelance for the Orlando Sentinel, Florida Today, The Toronto Globe
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and Mail and CBC Radio and has conducted training for National Public Radio's Next Generation Radio Projects. In 2002, Betz was awarded the Excellence in Journalism Education Fellowship by RTNDF and in 2003 was awarded a Knight International Press Fellowship and spent four months working in Rwanda. Betz was awarded a second Knight International Press Fellowship and will spend 5 months in 2005 in Morocco training journalists. Her research focuses on the role of the media in international conflict and conflict resolution.
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