WOMEN'S STUDIES QUARTERLY EDITORIAL Publisher Florence Howe

Editor Nancy Porter, Portland State University Transformations

Associate Editors: "Women have served all these centuries as looking-glasses possessing the magic Jo Baird , The Feminist Press and delicious power of reflecting the figure of man at twice its natural size" Virginia Susannah Driver, The Feminist Press Woolf wrote in A Room of One's Own. Woolf was writing about women and fiction , Dorothy Helly , Hunter College but her statement has a special resonance for the visual arts. For, as Ernst Gombrich Nancy Hoffman , University of Massachusetts has observed, "works of art ... share with mirrors that elusive magic of transfor­ Nellie McKay , University of Wisconsin Hanna Papanek, Boston University mation which is so hard to put into words." Though not a mirror, literally, the visual Domna Stanton, University of Michigan arts act as a looking-glass in which we look for and find transformed aspects of ourselves. Men have been in control of this transformation both in the history of art Guest Editors: (that is , in art during the course of its creation) and in Art History, the twentieth­ Thalia Gouma-Peterson, College of Wooster: century discipline that has imposed its own interpretation on the art of the past. Women and Art Nancy Schneidewind, SUNY! New Paltz and Art History is one of the most tradition-bound and conservative disciplines because Frances Maher, Wheaton College: Feminist art, at least since ca. 3000 B.C., has been used to reinforce the beliefs, wishes, and Pedagogy intents of the dominant male culture. Furthermore, the history of art (prior to the Nancy Cott, Yale University : Women and nineteenth century) as commonly taught by art historians is a history of the major History Emily Abel, UCLA : Women and Aging monuments, that is , the art created for and by those in power. More generally art, both public and private, has been created primarily by and for men and has rein­ Contributing Editors: forced the political and social ideologies current at the time of production. It has Anne Chapman, Western Reserve Academy, expressed the taste and beliefs of the political majority, the wealthy elite, or a pow­ Hudson, Ohio erful group of patrons. Therefore the discipline of Art History also has been elitist Barbara Christian, University of California / Berkeley and hence very slow to respond to new critical perspectives. Nancy Cott, Yale University The kingly , the heroic, the mythic, and the divine have been the most frequent Darlene Clark Hine, Purdue University subjects of official Western art from the pyramids, the Parthenon, the Hagia Sophia, Estella Lauter, University of Wisconsin/ Green and the Gothic cathedrals to Versailles, the Louvre, and the Metropolitan Museum Bay of Art. Woman has been introduced into this pantheon in the guise of the "other," Tobe Levin, University of Maryland/ European Division whether virgin , allegory, mother, monster, mistress, wife , daughter, or temptress. Peggy Mclntosh, Wellesley College Center for Her otherness is dramatically expressed when she becomes the exotic and fierce Research on Women Amazon, to be defeated by the male hero. Toni McNaron , University of Minnesota The heroic remains a male prerogative and woman, when in control of man's fate , Betty Schmitz, Montana State University Cynthia Secor, HERS/ Mid-Atlantic becomes a monster-the Gorgon who turned men into stone and whom Perseus Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, Morgan State University heroically decapitated (a favorite theme in art). Significantly, Perseus achieved this Mary Helen Washington, University of feat by looking into a mirror and not at the Gorgon herself. The monstrous woman Massachusetts/ Boston can be defeated only through gazing at her reflected image. It is this image that we need to transform by putting it into the context of female experience and woman's Advertising: Display ads are accepted for the Women's view of herself. Studies Quarterly. For information on sizes, The transformations presented in this issue range from theoretical approaches to rates, and schedules, please write to: more pragmatic ones. The former are based on a systematic reconsideration of gen­ Advertising Manager, Women's Studies der as a factor in the production and interpretation of art; on the questioning of the Quarterly, The Feminist Press at The City University of New York, 311 East 94 Street, objective voice of scholarship and one's own preconceptions; on the use of imagery New York, NY 10128. to document historical attitudes toward women; and on eliminating the hierarchical stratification of the arts. The more pragmatic approaches incorporate active student Circulation Manager: Pamela Barbell (continued on page 67) Production Manager I Computer Operations: Paula Martinac CALL FOR ESSAYS AND ORIGINAL SOURCES for 1988-89 WSQ issue on Cover design and layout by: recent developments in the theory and practice of teaching women's nontraditional Lucinda Geist literature-diaries, letters, oral histories, newly discovered writers, and other written or oral forms of women's expression. Essays should be about 12 manuscript pages, Typesetting by: Creative Graphics, Inc. theoretical essays somewhat longer. Bibliographies, book reviews, course descrip­ tions and syllabi are also solicited. Contributions international in focus or that use materials developed by third world women are welcome. Please mail submissions to Jo Gillikin, 380 Riverside Drive, 3F, New York, NY 10025 by March 19, 1988.

Copyright e> 1987 by The Feminist Press at The The Women's Studies Quarterly acknowledges with gratitude a grant from The Col­ City University of New York lege of Wooster's Henry Luce Ill Fund for Distinguished Scholarship to support the ISSN: 0732-1562 publication of this issue on teaching about women in the visual arts. CONTENTS

Editorial

IN THIS ISSUE

2 Women, Art, and Ideology: Questions for Feminist Art Historians Griselda Pollock 10 Feminist Art History and the Academy Norma Braude and Mary Garrard

IN THE CLASSROOM

17 Teaching about Women in the Visual Arts: The Art History Survey Transfigured Christine Hauice 21 Teaching Modern Art History from a Feminist Perspective: Challenging Conventions, My Own and Others Moira Roth 25 Recalling Womanhouse Miriam Schapiro 31 Being My Own Woman Faith Ringgold 35 Women of Sweetgrass, Cedar, and Sage Jaune Quick-to-See-Smith 42 The Artist Teaching Art l:' Ill Ruth Weisberg ..c ~ 45 Women in Art: Two Approaches to Teaching ..c:: Evelyn Tartan Beck and Josephine Withers :; '=./ 1'~, t .." a:: 51 Strategies for "Women in Art" "Independence Day" of the Future from Puck Joan Marter 54 Woman Perceived: On Teaching the Imagery of Women in Art Annie Shauer-Crande/1 56 Woman Image Now: Arizona State University Muriel Magenta 58 Women in Design-Will They Find Their Place in History? Sigrid W. Weltge

RESOURCES

62 Women and the Visual Arts: A Bibliographical Essay Ferris Olin and Barbara B . Miller 67 Newsbriefs

Women's Studies Quarterly XV : 1 & 2 (Spring/ Summer 1987) Feminist Art History and the Academy: Where Are We Now? Norma Broude and Mary D. Garrard

The purpose of this article is to describe the achievements or Rembrandt, Nochlin pointed out that women had lacked and concerns of feminist art history. It is meant to be an the educational experiences essential to the creation of art: informal, personal, and somewhat discursive retrospective early encouragement and apprenticeship, classical studies, look at the development of feminist theory in our discipline, and access to the nude model, which from the sixteenth as expressed in some important writings of the past fifteen through the early twentieth centuries was the foundation of years, set next to major landmarks in other disciplines, es­ the artist's development. Women's past exclusion from the pecially literature and history. We conclude with a consid­ hallowed circles of Great Art was thus a result of institu­ eration of the special characteristics of art history that both tional bias, and not of gender deficiency. complement and distinguish it from other disciplinary ap­ Nochlin went on to challenge the myth of the Great Artist proaches, and with an assessment of where we are now who is endowed with Genius, the golden nugget that, when and where, in our view , we ought to be going. found even in "Giotto, the obscure shepherd boy, and van Because ours has been a conservative discipline, art his­ Gogh with his fits, " would invariably surface and drive its torical feminist scholarship has yet to receive the kind of possessor to creative achievement and fame. The question acceptance and recognition that feminist scholarship has of artistic genius has loomed somewhat larger as a sine qua been accorded in other fields. In contrast to both history non in art and music than in literature, and Genius has and literature, for example, where lively dialogues between invariably gone hand in hand with Quality, as the twin blud­ feminists and others in the field are commonplace, feminist geons with which any artistic achievement may be elevated work in art history is rarely reviewed , rebutted, or even or dismissed . If the issue of quality, or value, has been more acknowledged in print. The field of literature is additive, pressing in the visual arts than in literature or music, it is tolerant: The traditional literary canon may be hotly de­ surely because the financial appraisal of the unique object, fended, but the MLA admits all comers to its plethora of created for or sold to a single paying patron, is inextricably sessions, whose numbers are multiplied to accommodate a entwined with its "pure" assessment. In any event, one of variety of points of view . A smaller discipline, art history the most significant ideas of feminist art history appeared in has been monolithic, slower to accept sweeping new ideas its Ur-text: the revelation that artistic geniuses were not born and methods, perhaps because it fears it can be trans­ but made, and that their makers were men, the direct be­ formed totally. Very few feminist art historians hold aca­ neficiaries of this apparently "natural" order. The feminist demic positions in the major Ph.D.-granting institutions, a reappraisal of the myth of artistic genius was extended by situation that has effectively limited the capability of feminist Carol Duncan (in a 1975 article called "When Greatness Is scholarship in art history to grow and perpetuate itself in a Box of Wheaties"), who exposed acerbically the extent to the normal academic manner. Things are changing in other which "greatness" has been a totally male-defined concept.2 fields: At Princeton, for example, recent appointments have In an essay of 1977, Alessandra Comini demonstrated the included Elaine Showalter and Sandra Gilbert in English relativity of standards of artistic "universality" in a witty jux­ literature and Natalie Davis in history. But in the male-dom­ taposition of the careers of Edvard Munch and Kathe Koll­ inated art departments of Princeton, Harvard, and other Ivy witz, showing that while Kollwitz , the supposedly minor League universities, the once reprehensible Marxists and artist, wept in her Expressionist art for all humankind, the still controversial but currently voguish semioticists are Munch's expressive grief was no larger than mere self-pity.3 now happily accommodated, and the feminist viewpoint is The other revelation in Nochlin's 1971 article, less em­ still not represented. phasized by the author but much more influential upon sub­ sequent scholarship, was the suggestion that women might It is worth noting that the first shots of feminist revision­ have been artists in greater numbers than previously sup­ ism were fired as early in art history as in any discipline. In posed. She cited by name a handful of "the small band of 1971, nearly simultaneously with the publication of Kate heroic women, who, throughout the ages, despite obsta­ Millett's earthshaking Sexual Politics, art historian Linda cles, have achieved pre-eminence, if not the pinnacles of Nochlin published an article that was to become the cor­ grandeur": Lavinia Fontana, Artemisia Gentileschi, Ange­ nerstone of feminist art history, entitled (with deceptive in­ lica Kauffmann , Mary Cassatt, Kathe Kollwitz , and more, nocence) , "Why Have There Been No Great Women concluding her essay with a long look at Rosa Bonheur. Artists?" 1 Nochlin's question was not her question but their With this stroke, Nochlin opened the way for the rediscov­ question , the one that had commonly been used by de­ ery and reinstatement of countless women artists, whose fenders of the patriarchal art world to fend off women's names were no longer familiar (thanks to beleaguered nine­ demands for equality within that world. While acknowledg­ teenth-century male critics and scholars, who had system­ 4 ing that there were no female equivalents for Michelangelo atically written women out of their art histories ) .

10 Women's Studies Quarterly XV: 1 & 2 (Spring/ Summer 1987) The virtually total exclusion of women artists from the fleets a consciousness of female imagery) ; and Charlotte ranks of "normal" artistic practice must be emphasized here, Rubenstein's encyclopedia-style American Women Artists for it accounts for our discipline's disproportionate focus (1982) . 9 The most recent addition to the women artists cat­ upon the amassing of women artists' names and biogra­ egory is the monumental Dictionary of Women Artists, ed­ phies as evidence of women's equality in the arts. By con­ ited by Chris Petteys, 10 which further exemplifies the trast, George Eliot, Jane Austen, and Virginia Woolf were ongoing reaction to the charge that there have been no in the canon of literary greats, and were taught and studied important women artists, as well as the immense scholarly along with male writers (if subtly unequally) long before effort that has been devoted to rediscovering and catalogu­ 1970s feminism . Women's historically easier access to writ­ ing women artists of the past. Despite this focus, however, ing than to painting or sculpting produced a proportionately very few modern monographs on women artists have been larger body of literature than other art and thus a greater written , and not all of these have taken a feminist perspec­ probability of female literary than artistic "geniuses," how­ tive . Only recently have we begun to see a new scholarship ever that term may be defined. on women artists that is culturally integrative; exemplary is In 1977, a major historical exhibition of work by women Whitney Chadwick's Women Artists of the Surrealist Move­ artists was created by Nochlin, in collaboration with Ann ment (1985) , which takes a group of women artists as the Sutherland Harris, and shown in four U.S . cities. The prin­ starting point for an exploration of their lives and artistic cipal effect of the show, Women Artists: 1550-1950, was imagery in relation to male Surrealists and to archetypal to demonstrate to the scholarly world that there had been ideas. numerous women artists of quality . 5 Harris and Nochlin presented impressive documentation of the careers of some So large has the basic issue of the neglect of women eighty-three women artists , combined with rich historical es­ artists loomed, both in the public and scholarly conscious­ says on the changing social and cultural context for women ness, that far less attention has been paid to the equally artists in the four-century period. Yet they did not question vigorous and parallel development of feminist theory in art prevailing concepts of quality, arguing (as period. Yet they history and to the feminist critique of male art history. It did not question prevailing concepts of quality, arguing (as was in the journals-especially the Feminist Art Journal, had Nochlin in 1971) that there were "no special visual published by Cindy Nemser and Chuck Nemser from 1972 characteristics" of works by women, no "mysterious es­ to 1977 -that an intense concern for the broader theoreti­ sence of femininity ." The same theoretical position-that cal aspects of the field was first seen. Nemser herself (FAJ, many women artists had, despite disadvantages and biases, 1972) addressed the sexism inherent in art's critical vocab­ managed nevertheless to create the same kind of art as ulary; her indictment of "phallic criticism" in art paralleled men , sometimes equally well (dangerously close to being a the broader analysis of Mary Ellmann (Thinking about female version of the golden nugget myth) -implicitly in­ Women, 1968) .11 The turbulence and ebullience of the formed the cluster of introductory books on women artists heady early years of the feminist movement is mirrored in published in the mid-1970s, by Eleanor Tufts (1974) , Karen the short but impassioned articles in FAJ (especially while Petersen and J. J. Wilson (1976) , and Elsa Fine (1978) , it was in newspaper format) , which dealt with such diverse although Fine, writing later than the others, was able to topics as whether there was a specifically female imagery reflect recent scholarship that presented new and more so­ (an issue for artists at least as early as 1972) , women in phisticated social histories of women, as well as to discern photography and film, black women artists, sex discrimi­ an occasionally distinct female perspective.6 nation , and affirmative action, by writers who were more In another bio-encyclopedic effort of 1979, Germaine often artists than art historians-Ann Sutherland Harris, Pat Greer weighed in with the opposite, though equally con­ Mainardi, but also Joyce Kozloff, Faith Ringgold, and servative, view that women artists had simply not been as Therese Schwartz. Much early feminist critical writing on good as men, a fact that wishing would not change, be­ art-particularly in FAJ, Art Workers' News, and Women cause of those famous "obstacles" to equal training that Artists' News-was political and activist, reporting and sup­ Nochlin had pointed out (though Greer neglected to ac­ porting the artists' public demands for equitable museum knowledge her work) . Greer, however, conceived the fe­ and gallery representation for women. 12 The activist con­ male disadvantage to be psychological as well as social: cerns of the early 1970s were later sustained in a variety of "You cannot make great artists out of egos that have been ways, by such writers as Lawrence Alloway, Lucy Lippard, damaged . . . "7 Her position is analogous to a major work and Thalia Gouma-Peterson, who have championed and of literary scholarship that appeared in the same year, San­ examined the work of contemporary women artists, and by dra Gilbert and Susan Gubar's Madwoman in the Attic, in the editors of anthologies (Judy Loeb, Georgia Collins, and that both acknowledged the debilitating psychological anx­ Renee Sandell) that present a wealth of essays and articles ieties experienced by women artists alienated from patriar­ under the general rubric of feminist art education.13 chal tradition . Yet while that recognition served for Greer Meanwhile, feminist art historians took up the analysis of to justify women's lack of achievement, for Gilbert and Gu­ misogynous stereotypes and distortions found both in male bar it was the point of departure for the discovery of an art and in art history itself. Nochlin , again , had provided alternative female expressive tradition , which might play off the keynote, in a memorable College Art Association (CAA) the "phenomena of 'inferiorization,' " yet still have an aes­ paper of 1972 (published in 1973) , a hilariously incisive thetic vitality of its own.8 Greer's book was the last to take exploration of erotic imagery in art as exclusively focused on the entire post-Renaissance tradition of women artists. on the female body to satisfy exclusively male needs, and More recent studies have had narrower scope. Eleanor of the crude reflection in such art of the power relationship Munro's Originals (1979) focused on major American between the sexes.14 This piece was closely followed , in women artists since Cassatt (a book which, like Fine's, re- 1973, by Carol Duncan's fuller examination of the female

Women's Studies Quarterly XV: 1 & 2 (Spring/ Summer 1987) 11 nude in avant-garde painting of the early twentieth century. uing in such independent ventures as Chicago's Dinner Duncan defined, in an essay with important implications for Party (1979) and Schapiro's "collaborations" with women's social history as well as art history, the close correspond­ traditional art and her "femmages," have served to educate ence between the brute assertion of virility and power (over all women in the arts in their rich female artistic heritage.21 women) on the part of artists like Kirchner and Picasso and While Chicago has celebrated the great women of history­ the pressures of the contemporary suffragist movement that Elizabeth I, Mary Wollstonecraft, Virginia Woolf-(The Din­ threatened masculine supremacy.15 Duncan's article offered ner Party) or archetypal female experience (The Birth Proj­ a model for the analysis of the interactive relation of art and ect), Schapiro has championed and embraced in her own society, as well as the wry recognition that "vanguard" or art the anonymous women, particularly of nineteenth-cen­ progressive art might in fact reflect regressive and reaction­ tury America, who produced the quilts and other needle­ ary social values. However, the danger of characterizing all work of domestic use and private exchange, objects whose images of women in male art as sexist was implied in a style and values gave art another level of meaning. CAA paper given by Norma Broude in 1975 (published in Art historical reevaluation of the female craft traditions 1977) , in which Broude demonstrated that the description accompanied the artistic reorientation of taste. In an im ­ of Degas as "misogynist" by his art critic contemporaries portant FAJ article of 1973 ("Quilts, the Great American resulted from their own sex-biased expectations, founded Art"), Patricia Mainardi defended quilting and other needle in masculine concepts of conventional female beauty, which arts as universal female genres, which offered qualities blinded the writers (and later art historians) to Degas's atyp­ equivalent to those of the "fine" arts-formal complexity ically sympathetic images of women as independent and and beauty, personal expression, social and communal sometimes vibrantly intellectual figures .16 Similarly, in 1982 meaning-and she questioned the devaluation of textile Svetlana Alpers pointed to images of women by Vermeer arts, their subordination to the fine arts and their exclusion that reflect a deeper acknowledgment of female humanity from art history. 22 The relation between the "high" and than was common in the seventeenth century.17 "low" arts was explored in the context of modern painting by Broude, who in an article of 1980 reexamined the mod­ A different line of exploration was taken up by those who ernist theoretical tenet that abstract art, because of its sig­ raised the question of whether there might be a separate nificant content, was superior to the decorative craft female aesthetic. (Elaine Showalter has characterized this traditions by which it was sometimes inspired . 23 Contrasting line as "gynocritics," the study of female creativity, contrast­ the efforts of Matisse and Kandinsky to discredit (even as ing it with the "feminist critique" of men's writing. 18) Among they exploited) folk art and craft with Miriam Schapiro's the first writers to look at art from this viewpoint were art deliberately created dialogue with women's folk and craft historian-critic Lucy Lippard and artist Judy Chicago traditions, Broude pointed out that feminist art, by virtue of (1973) , who focused upon contemporary, largely abstract its political and social content, could never be "merely dec­ art to express the view that "there is a definite and pervasive orative." Concern about the artificiality and bias of the "fine women's imagery based on women's biological and social arts vs . crafts" hierarchy has continued among feminists in experience" whose prevalent images are a central focus , the arts, as is exemplified by a recent project created by ovoid and circular forms, boxes, overlapping flowers , webs artist Charlotte Robinson, The Artist and the Quilt, which (Chicago), and a preference for a uniform density or overall sought to unify contemporary women's art with the older texture, repetition, layers, sensuous tactility , and looseness folk tradition , through the creation and museum display of of handling (Lippard) . 19 This bold embracing of a correla­ modern quilts designed by painters and executed by con­ tion between the female body and women's imagery in. art temporary quilters. 24 struck many as excessively reductionist and limiting , a form By the mid-1970s, some art historians began to discover of biological determinism that women were trying to es­ a female expressive sensibility in representational art of the cape. Yet the proposal that women might at least tend to­ past. Frima Fox Hofrichter, in 1975, showed that seven­ ward a different formal language from men has been given teenth-century Dutch painter Judith Leyster had, in a paint­ some reinforcement by psychological studies of gender dif­ ing called The Proposition, countered and critiqued the ferences, as Selma Kraft later observed (1983) , which dem­ traditional pictorial theme of the female procurer by pre­ onstrate that females respond to multiple visual stimuli senting a woman unreceptive to her masculine proposi­ simultaneously and contextually, scanning for order, while tioner. 25 Around the same time, Ruth !skin and Susan Yeh, males respond to one stimulus at a time, attending to ob­ working independently, initiated a feminist reexamination jects separated from their fields. Kraft thought that these of Cassatt's female images.26 In a review of the 1976 different perceptual tendencies might partly account for the Women Artists exhibition (1977) , Mary Garrard challenged prevalence of pattern art created by women, and for a the Harris-Nochlin position that women artists had more in greater object-focus and three-dimensional depth in men's common with male contemporaries than with other women, art-a suggestion well worth further investigation.20 observing that while this might be true in the realm of style, If there has developed no consensus on whether wom­ the disparity of social experience between the sexes sug­ en's art has betrayed, or must betray, gender-distinguished gested that women's different vision of the world might be formal tendencies, feminist artists and scholars alike have discerned if their art were examined iconographically.27 In agreed that women's art can be productively directed to­ two studies of themes treated by seventeenth-century ward the expression of female values. The leading spokes­ painter Artemisia Gentileschi (1980 and 1982) , Garrard women in the creation and definition of feminist art have presented evidence of a major female artist's replacment of been artists Miriam Schapiro and Judy Chicago, whose female stereotypes with credible, assertive , and even heroic writings no less than their own artistic projects, beginning images of women.28 These iconographic, or (in Showalter's with their joint creation, Womanhouse (1972) , and contin- term) gynocritical approaches to women's art paralleled in

12 Women's Studies Quarterly XV: 1 & 2 (Spring/ Summer 1987) theory the first feminist studies of women writers, namely, ists as part of the general art history of a period, especially Patricia Meyer Spacks's The Female lmagination \1975) and. \he modem -peimd, has b egun \o be moclest\y reflected in Ellen Moers's Literary Women (1976), and they parallel in certain texts such as Robert Rosenblum's Nineteenth-Cen­ date the ongoing gynocritical analyses of Sandra Gilbert, tury Art (1984). Nevertheless, more far-reaching analyses Susan Gubar, Annette Kolodny, and others. of the roles played by women, female values, and gender relationships, myths, and stereotypes in forming modern art Other feminist art historians have explored the social cir­ history have not yet found their way into the canonical pub­ cumstances that shaped the work of women artists, and the lications. 35 cultural roles played by women. For example, Josephine Withers (1976) studied the nineteenth-century association In many of these new directions, as we have seen, art of women with peripheral artistic accomplishment and men historians have paralleled investigation carried on in other with serious achievement in the context of art training, while fields , particularly in literature and history, but with major Christine Havice, among others, has looked at the excep­ differences that should be pointed out. As a discipline, art tional nature of women's education in art schools. 29 Women history is more aesthetically oriented than history and more have been examined as patrons of art; an exemplary study historically oriented than literary criticism . Art history is fur­ is that by Deborah Marrow of Marie de' Medici (though a ther distinguished from literary scholarship in the sense that modern feminist analysis of Isabella d'Este remains to be it takes far less time to see, even to absorb, an image, than written .)3° An important study of cultural roles played by it does to read a poem, a short story, or a book. This rel­ modern women is Women as Interpreters of the Visual Arts, ative swiftness of perception permits art historians to deal 1820-1979, by Claire R. Sherman with Adele H. Holcomb with a wider variety of images and has directed the natural (1981) , a book that makes a richly informative contribution course of an art historical investigation toward breadth of to the history of art history as well as to that of female scope and toward the analysis of the relationships between culture . To date, however, few feminist art historians have works of art rather than to the analysis of a single text. In produced ground-breaking social reconceptualizations com­ this , art history is closer to history, which is also more con­ parable to work by such historians as Carroll Smith-Rosen­ cerned with the interaction between forces and events than berg, Joan Kelly , or Natalie Davis. Old Mistresses, a useful solely with the events themselves. From this broader per­ recent book by British feminists Rozsika Parker and Griselda spective ensues the desire to discover pattern, sequence, Pollock , Marxist-socialist in approach, is concerned princi­ and development within a series of images, a concern that pally with the exposure of broad cultural ideologies. 3 1 It is distinguished in particular the earlier stages of our disci­ in articles by Carol Duncan that one finds the kind of prob­ pline . ing analysis of the interaction of art and culture in a given Structural analysis of this kind, in fact, has always been period that leads to a radically altered historical understand­ the basis of art history, if by it we mean analyzing to dis­ ing of that age .32 cover invisible relationships that underlie surface phenom­ The belief that a feminist perspective can lead to the re­ ena (i.e ., the disparate works of art of a period) . It is formulation of the entire history of art has by now per­ perhaps for this reason that many art historians have for meated our field, and we ourselves, along with Eleanor decades been confused by Structuralism as a "new" meth­ Tufts and Alessandra Comini, have been perhaps the most odology, because, like Moliere's gentleman who did not vocal proponents of this position. The call for reconcep­ know that he was speaking prose, we have been doing tualization of the discipline was heralded in an article by structuralist analysis all along. Our concern with patterns of Garrard ("Feminism : Has It Changed Art History?" Here­ style development, for example, goes back to Wolfftin in sies, Winter 1977-78) . Co mini , in a CAA convocation ad­ the nineteenth century. The earliest art historical studies of dress that was subsequently published (1980) , and Tufts, the medieval cathedral were efforts to sort out stylistic dif­ both in lectures and in writing (1981) , have each advocated ferences among the Romanesque regional schools (Arthur the reinvigoration of traditional art history through the in ­ Kingsley Porter) or to analyze changes in style and structure clusion of women .33 In an anthology published in 1982 from Romanesque to Gothic (Henry Focillon , Erwin Pan­ (Broude and Garrard, Feminism and Art History : Question­ ofsky) . What historians might have expected to see done ing the Litany) , we gathered what seemed to us the most first-e.g., the social and economic analyses of Gothic ar­ significant art historical essays and articles that had been chitecture by writers like Henry Kraus and Georges Duby­ written-studies that, taken collectively, sketch the new has come late in art history. 36 Structuralism was the hall­ form that an art history shaped by feminist insight might mark of our discipline in its infancy, and recent efforts to have. (For obvious reasons, many of those articles are men­ "modernize" art history by exploring the special relevance tioned in this essay.) In the early 1980s, the feminist call of semiotics, structuralism's visual stepchild, appear to grew louder for the inclusion of women artists in the art many, by contrast, to be narrow and simplistic. history textbooks-Jansen, Gardner, Hartt-a demand that As in other disciplines, today's semioticists in art history several publishers have now begun to heed 34 In our own are often more concerned with developing theories than view , however, the addition of women artists to a history with understanding works of art. Elaine Showalter has that remains in every other respect the same history is cos­ pointed to the proliferation of new methodologies in litera­ metic and insufficient. Since the early 1980s, we have proj­ ture and has suggested some possible reasons for this phe­ ected the writing of a new, thoroughly revisionist art history nomenon which are equally applicable, in our view , to art textbook, inclusive of the achievements but also the values history. She writes: of women , that reconsiders the narrow hierarchies of art history and places the attainments of men in a broader per­ The new sciences of text based on linguistics, computers, spective. The integrationist impulse to include women art- genetic structuralism, deconstructionism , neoformalism and

Women's Studies Quarterly XV: 1 & 2 (Spring/ Summer 1987) 13 deformalism, affective stylistics and psychoaesthetics, have torians, the attitudes and methods of the Marxist art histo­ offered literary critics the opportunity to demonstrate that rians , on the other hand, would seem to offer important the work they do is as manly and aggressive as nuclear clues to feminists who pay increasing attention to the social physics-not intuitive, expressive, and feminine , but stren­ function of art-i.e., the ways in which art is not personal uous, rigorous, impersonal, and virile Y but ideological, functioning in every historical period as a powerful social force . In many respects, we agree with the The elevation of this new "literary science," she further ob­ Marxists' concerns. But unlike the Marxists , who all too serves, is leading to the establishment of often seem to use works of art as illustrations of a narrow social theory, feminist art historians have retained a tradi­ a two-tiered system of "higher" and "lower" criticism , the tional focus upon art itself. The goal of feminist art histori­ "higher" concerned with the "scientific" problems of form ans-revolutionary in different terms-has been a renewed and structure, the "lower" concerned with the "humanistic" and expanded understanding of what art is and how it can problems of content and interpretation . And these levels, it function , for both genders, as a truly universal form of hu­ seems to me, are now taking on subtle gender identities and 40 assuming a sexual polarity ....38 man expression. In the early 1970s, the burning issue that faced feminist art historians was whether or not there had been women We can only agree with this assessment, and can point in artists of merit (there have) ; in the mid-1970s, the question our field to a similar tendency, fostered by the newer, more was whether there was a unique female expressive sensi­ "advanced" methodologies, for terminology to drown out bility (there is) ; in the late 1970s, the issue was how much content. Take, for example, a paper delivered recently at a a feminist perspective might alter the shape of history itself symposium held in conjunction with the exhibition , L'A­ (quite a lot). In the early 1980s, an old question has sur­ mour fou : Photography and Surrealism. This exhibition , faced to become the center of feminist debate: whether one must recall , dealt with a body of imagery in which im­ feminist scholars should remain separate.from or try to alter plied violence, eroticism, and female victimization are the the mainstream. frequent products of the male Surrealist's efforts to relieve We take exception to the direction of thinking among himself of subconscious fears and visions. One paper, pre­ feminist literary critics who see a growing separatism as the sumably generated by just such material, was described wave of the future . This position is supported by Showalter, synoptically as follows in the symposium agenda: who succinctly defines its premise: Surrealist activity worked to ironicize functionalism and the transparency of the modernist signifier, and took the very I do not think that feminist criticism can find a usable past apparatus and mechanisms of signification as its principal in the androcentric critical tradition . It has more to learn from women's studies than from English studies, more to subject matter. It was an example, par excellence, of a de­ constructive practice carried forward in diverse media, styles, learn from international feminist theory than from another contexts, and modes of signifying practice. It also was a seminar on the masters. It must find its own subject, its own 41 critique of, and represented the impossibility of, the ge­ system , its own theory, and its own voice . nealogical mythologies of "art history" and the tautologies of "art criticism. " This paper will discuss these issues in the There is much sense and promise for feminist scholars in light of contemporary critical discourse on postmodernism.39 this point of view. Yet is feminist scholarship our only goal? In the spirit of interdisciplinary dialogue, we dissent from We can also help to support Showalter's connection be­ this view, for we feel that women now have a larger re­ tween current intellectual fashion and sexual politics, for sponsibility and opportunity. Let us employ an optical met­ our period is not the first in the twentieth century to see this aphor. In the past, the world was viewed through a single phenomenon: a formalist disregard for content emerging lens, a lens that was male. Now, we humans have begun just when feminists are becoming sensitized to the sexist to take into account that we have two eyes-one male, the meanings, both covert and overt, of "universal" icons of other female. But these two eyes continue to see sepa­ "great art." The suffragette who, early in our century, rately, because the collective brain has not yet begun to slashed the Rokeby Venus in the· National Gallery in Lon­ integrate their individual perspectives. In the future, it is to don because, to her newly raised feminist consciousness, be hoped, humans may be able to apply our integrating Velasquez's sensuous but impersonal nude was an image faculty, and to have a new, whole, three-dimensional vision that now could be seen as insulting to women, was re­ of history and culture. sponding no differently to the content of patriarchal art than For if as feminists we dismiss the entire legacy of the her sisters were to do nearly three-quarters of a century patriarchy as tainted, we dismiss a significant portion of our later. Is there a connection, we might then ask, between own history as well, because we ignore not only the con­ the contemporaneous emergence of the formalist dialectic tributions women have made to culture, but also the reflec­ in the writings of such art critics as Roger Fry and Clive Bell tion of those specifically female elements within male and the suffragist movement in the years just before the first culture. A case in point is ancient Greece, whose art and World War, and the present-day emergence, promotion, myth reveal the survival of matrifocal values, and in their and survival of structuralism and semiotics in the acad­ juxtaposition with the ascendant patriarchal ideals, reflect a emy-both functioning as an unconscious means of com­ cultural balance between masculine and feminine that the bating a feminist scholarship and sensibility that stress Greeks themselves respected and preserved-though tra­ content and interpretation? ditional historians have more frequently seen fit to empha­ While the evasive and self-referential methodology of the size only Greece's masculinist traditions. It is a mistake, in semioticists may not be congenial to many feminist art his- our view, for feminists to equate all of received culture with

14 Women's Studies Quarterly XV: 1 & 2 (Spring/ Summer 1987) patriarchy. For even though the political and social institu­ of Women Painters and Sculptors from the Renaissance to the Twen­ tieth Century (Montclair, N.J. and London: Allenheld and Schramm, tions of Western civilization since ca. 3000 B. C . have indeed 1978) . been patriarchal, our literary and artistic traditions have re­ 7. Greer, The Obstacle Race: The Fortunes of Women Painters and flected a more equitable balance between masculine and Their Work (New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1979). See there­ feminine elements. view of this book, Norma Broude (Art Journal 41[Summer 1981]: Given the purposes of art and humanistic studies, it is 180-83) . not surprising that this should be so. A distinction made 8. Gilbert and Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination (New Haven: Yale long ago by art historian Erwin Panofsky is still relevant: University Press, 1979) , p. 50. "The ideal aim of science," he wrote, "would seem to be 9. Munro , Originals: American Women Artists (New York: Simon & something like mastery, that of the humanities something Schuster, 1979) ; Rubinstein , American Women Artists from Early In ­ like wisdom. "42 Within cultural history, it has been the arts dian Times to the Present (Boston: G. K. Hall and Avon Books, 1982) . and humanities that have sustained our species' memory, 10. Petteys, ed., Dictionary of Women Artists: An International Dictionary affirming its association with the earth and with nature, and of Women Artists Born before 1900 (Boston: G. K. Hall , 1985) . celebrating its rituals, traditions, contradictions, and beliefs. The principal bibliographic sources for scholarship in art history on By contrast, the more masculinist disciplines of the applied women are: A. R. Krasilowsky, "Feminism in the Arts : An Interim sciences have had as their purpose not only the under­ Bibliography," Artforum 10 (June 1972) : 72- 75; Donna G. Bach­ mann and Sherry Piland, Women Artists: An Historical, Contempo­ standing of man's relation to the earth, but also the con­ rary , and Feminist Bibliography (Metuchen, N. J .: Scarecrow Press, trolling, and, perhaps ultimately and inadvertently, the 1978) ; Lamia Doumato, "The Literature of Women in Art," Oxford destruction of it. We feminist women must not relinquish Art Journal3 , no. 1 (1980) ; and Paula L. Chiarmonte, ed., "Women our share of that larger whole, the central humanist tradi­ Artists : A Resource and Research Guide," ART Documentation 1, no. 5, Bulletin of the Art Libraries Society of North America (October tion of Western culture. Born into one sex, socialized and 1982): special section , A: 3 - 20. See also the review essays by Gloria educated in the ways of the other, and armed for the first F. Orenstein , "Art History," in Signs 1, no. 2 (Winter 1975): 505- time with an educated consciousness of culture's acute need 25; and H. Diane Russell, "Art History ," Signs 5, no. 3 (1980) . A for its female component, women can ill afford to retreat valuable new bibliographic publication for American art is Eleanor into specialized one-sex concerns at a time in history when Tufts, American Women Artists, Past and Present (New York: Gar­ land, 1984) . females may be uniquely equipped to assist our transition 11. The principal successor to FAJ is Woman's Art Journal, which began to genuine human universality . publication in 1980 with Elsa H. Fine as editor and publisher (7008 Retrospective judgment suggests that at each of the the­ Sherwood Drive , Knoxville, TN 37919) . Its articles are more scholarly oretical crossroads feminists have faced , their bolder in­ than those in FAJ, with a special strength in women artists of the past and an ongoing concern with theoretical issues. Heresies: A Feminist stincts have turned out to be the right ones. And the bolder Publication on Art and Politics is more radical and cross-cultural in claim at this juncture, we feel, is not separatist but centrist. outlook, and Woman Artists' News is contemporary in focus . Art his­ We part somewhat in this regard from Susan Gubar, who torical studies also appear (though not frequently enough) in such said, commenting on Princeton's new literary appoint­ interdisciplinary journals as Feminist Studies, Helicon Nine, and Signs. ments, "it means a commitment on the part of the institu­ 12. ART Documentation 1, no . 5 (October 1982) : A: 9-14, provides useful historical information on exhibitions of women's art: There were tion and the department to a fairly radical way .of looking three in the entire nineteenth century, six between 1900 and 1970, at the world."43 Let us suggest, instead, that it is a commit­ and between 1970 and 1982, sixty-seven major international exhibi­ ment, at long last, to a norma/ way of looking at the world . tions. Despite this recent explosion, women artists continue to be For if we persist in defining ourselves as radical, we will underrepresented in commercial galleries and in exhibition reviews (ART Documentation, p. A: 19) . See also Carrie Rickey, "Why remain forever on the distaff side. The core of the liberal Women Don't Express Themselves," Village Voice, 2 November 1982 arts is now ours to grasp-let us not be so modest. 0 (reprinted in Huepoints [Spring/ Summer 1983]: 5~6) , a scathing and penetrating indictment of the "post-feminists" (male and female) of contemporary Nee-Expressionism , who have once more suppressed NOTES or ignored the work of Expressionist women . 13. See, in particular, the catalogues of exhibitions organized by Gouma­ 1. Nochlin, "Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists?" Art News Peterson, Miriam Schapiro, A Retrospective: 1953-1980 (Wooster, 69, no. 9 (January 1971) : 22-39, 67-71, reprinted in Art and Sexual Ohio: The College of Wooster, 1980); and Faith Ringgold: Painting, Politics, ed. Thomas B. Hess and Elizabeth C. Baker (New York: Sculpture, Performance (Wooster, Ohio: The College of Wooster, Collier Books, 1973). pp. 1-39. 1985). See also Georgia Collins and Renee Sandell, Women, Art, 2. Duncan, "When Greatness Is a Box of Wheaties," Artforum 14 (Oc­ and Education, (Reston , Va.: National Art Education Association, tober 1975) : 60-64. Also important is Lisa Vogel, "Fine Arts and 1984). Feminism: The Awakening Consciousness," Feminist Studies 11, no. 14. Nochlin, "Eroticism and Female Imagery in Nineteenth Century Art," 1 (1974): 3-37. in Woman as Sex Object: Studies in Erotic Art, 1730- 1970, ed. 3. Comini , "For Whom the Bell Tolls: Private versus Universal Grief in Thomas B. Hess and Linda Nochlin , Art News Annual38 (New York : the Work of Edvard Munch and Kafhe Kollwitz," Arts Magazine (March Newsweek, 1973) . 1977) : 142. Reprinted, in expanded form , as "Gender or Genius? 15. Duncan , "Viri lity and Domination in Early Twentieth Century Van­ The Women Artists of German Expressionism," in Feminism and Art guard Painting," Artforum 12 (December 1973) : 30-39, revised and History: Questioning the Litany, ed. Norma Broude and Mary D. reprinted in Broude and Garrard, Feminism and Art History , pp. 293- Garrard (New York: Harper & Row, 1982) , pp. 271-91. 313. For a related discussion of the gender limitations displayed in 4. See M. D. Garrard, re-view of Laura M. Ragg , The Women Artists Picasso's art, see Broude, "Picasso: Artist of the Century (Late Nine­ of Bologna, in Women 's Art Journal} (Fall1980/ Winter 1981) : 58- teenth) ," Arts Magazine 55 (October 1980) : 84- 86. 64. 16. Broude, "Degas' 'Misogyny,' " The Art Bulletin 59 (March 1977): 5. Harris and Nochlin , Women Artists: 1550- 1950 (New York: Knopf, 97 -107; in Broude and Garrard, Feminism and Art History , pp. 247- 1976). 69. 6. Tufts, Our Hidden Heritage: Five Centuries of Women Artists (New 17. Alpers, "Art History and Its Exclusions: The Example of Dutch Art," York: Paddington Press, Two Continents Publishing Group, 1974) ; in Broude and Garrard , Feminism and Art History, pp . 183-99. Petersen and Wilson , Women Artists: Recognition and Reappraisal 18. Showalter, 'Toward a Feminist Poetics," in The New Feminist Criti­ from the Early Middle Ages to the Twentieth Century (New York: cism: Essays on Women, Literature, and Theory, ed. E. Showalter Harper Colophon Books, 1976) ; Fine, Women and A rt : A History (New York: Pantheon, 1985) , p. 128.

Women 's Studies Quarterly XV: 1 & 2 (Spring/ Summer 1987) 15 19. Lippard, writing in Women Choose Women, an exhibition organized Changing Art Education at the Turn of the Century," Art Journal42 by Women in the Arts, The New York Cultural Center, New York , (Spring 1982): 9-13. January 12-February 18, 1973. Chicago's views were expressed in 30. Marrow , The Art Patronage of Maria de' Medici (Ann Arbor: UMI her teaching, and later in Through the Flower: My Struggle as a Research Press, 1982) . See also David Wilkins , "Woman as Artist Woman Artist (New York: Doubleday, 1975). A selection of Lip­ and Patron in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance ," in The Roles pard's prolific, thoughtful criticism is reprinted in From the Center: and Images of Women in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, ed. Feminist Essays on Women's Art (New York: E. P. Dutton , 1976) . Douglas Radcliff-Umstead (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, In 1972, Pat Mainardi argued against the existence of a separate 1975) . feminist sensibility and in favor of the female artist's freedom to be 31. See the review of the book by Lawrence Alloway , WAJ (Fall 1982/ "sensitive and delicate or strong and bold," as male artists are free to Winter 1983) , and Griselda Pollock's essay, "Women , Art , and Ide­ be ("A Feminine Sensibility?- Two Views," FAJ 1, no. 1 (April1972) : ology: Questions for Feminist Art Historians," WAJ 4 (Spring/ Sum­ 4) . A similar stand was taken by women artists whose response to mer 1983) : 39-47; also, Ann Sutherland Harris's letter to the editor Nochlin appeared as "Eight Women Reply: Why Have There Been in response to both of these, and Pollock's reply, in WAJ 4 (Fall No Great Women Artists?" Art News 69, no. 9 (January 1971): 40- 1983/ Winter 1984): 53-54. 45. See also Cindy Nemser, "Stereotypes and Women Artists," FAJ 32. Duncan, "Happy Mothers and Other New Ideas in Eighteenth-Cen­ 1, no. 1 (April1972). reprinted in Loeb, Feminist Collage, pp. 156- tury French Art," Art Bulletin 55 (December 1973) : 570-83; in 66; and Ruth !skin , "Sexual Imagery in Art-Male and Female," Braude and Garrard, Feminism and Art History , pp . 201 - 19; and Womanspace Journal1 , no . 1 (1973) . "Fallen Fathers: Images of Authority in Pre-Revolutionary French Art, " 20. Kraft , "Cognitive Function and Women's Art ," WAJ 4 (Fall 1983/ Art History 4 (June 1981) : 186- 203. Winter 1984) : 5- 9 (paper delivered in the WCA/ CAA session 33. Tufts, "Beyond Gardner, Gombrich, and Janson: Toward a Total Art "Questioning the Litany Ill ," co-chaired by Norma Broude and Mary History ," Arts Magazine 55 (March 1981): 150- 54; Comini, "Art His­ D. Garrard, Philadelphia, February 1983) . tory, Revisionism , and Some Holy Cows," Arts Magazine (June 21. See Schapiro, "The Education of Women as Artists : Project Wom­ 1980) : 96- 100. anhouse," Art Journal (Spring 1972) , reprinted in Loeb, Feminist 34. The 1980 edition of Helen Gardner's Art through the Ages includes Collage, pp. 247 - 53; and Arlene Raven, "Feminist Education : A the work of seven women artists ; the 1985 edition of Frederick Hartt's Vision of Community and Women's Culture," Ms . (May 1975) , re­ Art: A History of Painting, Sculpture, Architecture includes some printed in Loeb, Feminist Collage, pp. 254-59. twenty-three, with several others mentioned, and the phenomenon 22. Mainardi, "Quilts: The Great American Art, " FAJ 2, no . 1 (Winter of women artists directly addressed. 1973): 1, 18- 23; and in Braude and Garrard , Feminism and Art 35. Lippard, "Sweeping Exchanges: The Contribution of Feminism to the History, pp. 331 -46. See also Rachel Maines, "Fancy Work: The Art of the 1970s," Art Journal (Fall/ Winter 1980): 362- 65. Archaeology of Lives ," in Loeb, Feminist Collage, pp. 78-82; C. K. 36. Kraus, Gold Was the Mortar: The Economics of Cathedral Building (London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) ; Duby, The Dewhurst, B. MacDowell, and M. MacDowell , Artists in Aprons: Folk Art by American Women (New York: E. P . Dutton , 1979); and An ­ Age of The Cathedrals: Art and Society, 980-1420 (Chicago: Uni­ thea Callen, Women Artists of the Arts and Crafts Mouement, 1870- versity of Chicago Press, 1981 ; first French ed. 1966- 67) . Heinrich 1914 (New York: Pantheon, 1979). Wiilfftin's Principles of Art History : The Problem of the Deuelopment 23. Norma Broude, "Miriam Schapiro and 'Femmage': Reflections on the of Style in Later Art was first published in 1915. 37. Showalter, Feminist Criticism, p. 140. Conflict between Decoration and Abstraction in Twentieth-Century 38. Ibid. Art," Arts Magazine (February 1980) : 83- 87; reprinted in Gouma­ 39. Donald Preziosi , "On signe ici: Tracing with a Pencil the Shadow of Peterson, Miriam Schapiro: A Retrospectiue, pp. 32-38, and in the Tracing Pencil," Symposium, L'Amour fou : Photography and Broude and Garrard, Feminism and Art History, 315-29. Surrealism , The Corcoran Gallery of Art, 22 September 1985. 24. Robinson , ed., The Artist and the Quilt (New York: Knopf, 1983) . On the Surrealist artist's vision of women, see Gloria Feman Or­ 25. Hofrichter, "Judith Leyster's Proposition-Between Virtue and Vice ," enstein, "Women of Surrealism," FAJ 2, no. 2 (Spring 1973) : 18- FAJ (Fall 1975): 22-26, reprinted in Braude and Garrard, Feminism 19, reprinted in Loeb, Feminist Collage, pp. 35-58. and Art History , pp. 173-81. 40. See also Broude and Garrard, review of Hugh Honour and John 26. !skin, "Cassatt and Her Oeuvre from a Feminist Perspective," Wom­ Fleming, The Visual Arts: A History , in WAJ 4 (Fall 1983/ Winter anspace Journa11 , no. 2 (1973) ; Susan Yeh , "Mary Cassatt's Images 1984) , especially 43-44. of Women," Art Journal 36 (Summer 1976): 359-63. 41. Showalter, Feminist Criticism, p. 247. 27. Garrard , " 'Women Artists' in Los Angeles," The Burlington Maga ­ 42. Panofsky, Meaning in the Visual Arts (Garden City , N. Y.: Double­ zine (July 1977) : 531-32. day/ Anchor Books, 1955) , p. 25. 28. Garrard, "Artemisia Gentileschi's Self-portrait as the Allegory of 43. Gubar, in "Princeton Fostering Women's Studies," New York Times, Painting," Art Bulletin 62 (March 1980): 97 -112; and Garrard, "Ar­ 15 June 1985. temisia and Susanna," in Braude and Garrard, Feminism and Art History , pp. 147-71. An iconographic approach was earlier used by Norma Broude is Professor of Art History at American Uni­ Madlyn Kahr to uncover persistent stereotypes of women in male versity, Washington, D. C. A specialist in nineteenth-cen­ artists' treatment of the Delilah theme (Madlyn M. Kahr, "Delilah," tury French and Italian painting, she is editor of Seurat in Art Bulletin 54[September 1972]:·282- 99, reprinted in Braude and Garrard, Feminism and Art History, pp. 121-45). Perspective (Prentice Hall, 1978), coeditor with Mary D. Some interesting analyses of female iconography include: Sheila Garrard of Feminism and Art History (Harper & Row, McNally , "The Maenad in Early Greek Art," Arethusa 2 (Spring and 1982), and author of The Macchiaioli: Italian Painters of Fall1978): 101- 35; Henry Kraus, "Eve and Mary : Conflicting Images the Nineteenth Century (Yale University Press, 1987). of Medieval Women," chap. 3 in The Liuing Theater of Medieual Art (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1967) , and in Broude and Braude was the first affirmative action officer of the Wom­ Garrard, Feminism and Art History , pp. 79-99; and Susan Waller, en's Caucus for Art and is currently a member of its Advi­ "The Artist, the Writer, and the Queen: Harriet Hosmer, Jameson, sory Board. Mary D. Garrard is Professor of Art History and Zenobia," WAJ 4 (Spring/ Summer 1983): 21-28. Much prom­ and Chair of the Art Department at American University , ising material in this vein was presented in two Women's Caucus for D.C. Art panels on "Self-portraiture by Women," held in 1984 and 1985, Washington, She collaborated with Norma Broude to moderated by Ann Sutherland Harris (1984) and Charlotte Rubin­ produce Feminism and Art History (1982). Her recently stein (1985) . completed book on the seventeenth-century Italian painter 29. Withers, "Artistic Women and Women Artists," Art Journal35 (Sum­ Artemisia Gentileschi will be published (1988) by Princeton mer 1976): 330- 36; and Havice, "In a Class by Herself: Nineteenth University Press. Garrard was the second national president Century Images of the Woman Artist as Student," WAJ 2 (Spring/ Summer 1981): 35- 40. See also JoAnn Wein , "The Parisian Train­ of the Women's Caucus for Art (1974-76), and she has ing of American Women Artists," WAJ 2 (Spring/ Summer 1981): served on the board of directors of the College Art Asso­ 40-44; and J . Diane Radycki , "The Life of Lady Art Students: ciation (1976-80) .

16 Women 's Studies Quarterly XV : 1 & 2 (Spring/ Summer 1987)