in a Wreath of Orange and Poppy: An Analysis of 19th and Early 20th Century Marriage Laws through the Lens of Literature and Traumatic Insemination by Teresa Sauer

Abstract: American marriage laws in the 19th and early 20th centuries promoted a culture of oppression which was inherently detrimental to women. In order to achieve a stable lifestyle and maintain their social standings, young women were expected to marry; yet the laws and customs in place required that they concede at all times to the expectations of their husbands. !is conciliatory behavior lent itself to the objecti"cation of women, which further propagated the culture of oppression. !e following paper is a multidisciplinary project which examines the e#ects of oppressive marriage laws on women through the lens of 19th and early 20th century literature and poetry as well as the reproductive strategy of traumatic insemination. !e two are compared both through in-depth literary analysis and a creative element. !e negative consequences of the institution of marriage during the period are explored from a perspective which does not romanticize human courtship behavior, but rather demonstrates the pitfalls of a system which required women to diminish themselves in order to obtain or else remain secure in their marriages.

Introduction !e subversion of female agency in the 19th In the natural world, the onus of attracting a century through strict marriage laws and social mate o$en lies with the male. Since the production oppression closely mirrors a reproductive tactic of viable egg cells requires more energy than the known as traumatic insemination, which has been production of sperm, females are selective in their observed in a number of arthropod . !is choice of a mate, which drives males to compete in alternative male reproductive tactic diminishes acts an energy-consuming and o$en highly elaborate of female selection, just as exploitative marriage laws courtship ritual (Freeman 467). !is phenomenon in the nineteenth century reduced the right of women of female choice and male competition in the natural to control their lives and reproductive output. A$er world contrasts with the historical treatment of approaching the female cautiously in a pseudo- women in marriages. In the 19th and early 20th mating dance, the male traumatic inseminator will centuries, women in Europe and America had little pierce the female’s abdomen and expel semen into to no agency in their own lives. Wives especially were her blood or ovaries directly. !is signi"cantly considered by the law to be, as written by the Seneca reduces the chances that any subsequent males Falls Convention of 1848, “civilly dead” (Stanton). with which she may choose to mate would be able In his 1869 essay, “!e Subjection of Women,” John to fertilize the eggs (Yong). While this reproductive Stuart Mill comments, “If married life were all that it strategy ensures the continuance of the male’s genetic might be expected to be, looking to the laws alone, line, it is highly costly to the female. !e insertion of society would be a hell upon earth” (Mill 32). !e the male’s genitalia into her abdomen causes massive law of the nineteenth century in most Western internal damage which can be fatal (Reinhardt et al.). countries dictated that a wife must “vow a lifelong Even so, despite the increased probability that his obedience to him [the husband] … She can do no mate will die due to injuries that he himself in%icted, act but whatever by his permission…She can acquire it is bene"cial to the male to continue mating no property but for him” (30). Although, as Mill in this way, because it ultimately maximizes his points out, most men did not exert the full force of reproductive success. In the same way, men of the the law upon their wives, the power it granted them nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were loath established a dynamic that made married women at all times subject to the whims of their husbands. to change the culture and laws which gave them full

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control over their wives and children, thus assuring the law giving him power to deprive her of her liberty, them reproductive success. While they enjoyed this and to administer chastisement” (Stanton). Married bene"t, the women they married su#ered. women were without rights and legal recourse for any !is essay will further examine the similarities abuse or mistreatment their husbands might in%ict between the overtly disturbing biological process of upon them. Yet despite the negative implications of traumatic insemination and the poor treatment of marriage, it was perceived not as a harsh inevitability young women preparing for and already in marriage for women, but touted as the culmination of their during the 19th and early 20th centuries which still lives, their “destinies” (Caird 78). In !e Young Bride’s impacts our discourse on marriage in the Western Book, an 1849 marriage manual by Arthur Freeling, world today. !rough the lens of a creative element he contends, “A woman’s happiness is essentially entitled Spiders in a Wreath of Orange Blossom and domestic—it is centered in the home” (Freeling Poppy (Figure 1), I will examine literature written iv). To be chosen by a man for marriage was to be during this period of women’s oppression and worthy of that happiness. However, women were also objecti"cation to illustrate the tremendous cost which entirely dependent on their husband for resources, marriage and society posed to women. Ultimately, given the limited availability of jobs for women. I will argue that the institution of marriage which !ey were also reliant on the social position which required women—both "nancially and socially—to marriage a#orded them, as unmarried women were cede much of their identities to their husbands gave o$en expelled from high society. !is forced women rise to a toxic male perception of love as possession, to defer to her husband regardless of the cost to her dignity or sense of self. Women were compelled a perception which was inherently damaging to to enter into these problematic unions because, as women. already mentioned, they o$en had no acceptable social or "nancial substitute for marriage. Mill wrote that marriage was “the destination appointed by society for women, the prospect they are brought up to, and the object which it is intended should be sought by all of them” (Mill 29). Women were taught not only that marriage was something which should be anticipated with excitement, but also that the failure to marry was a failure of character. Any woman who failed to marry became a woman of lesser repute or even immoral character. In her essay, “Why Women Are Ceasing to Marry,” Ella Hepworth Dixon observes, “A strictly brought-up person was not supposed to have the only woman’s privilege, the privilege of saying ‘No’” (Dixon 84). When a man of the appropriate social standing proposed to a woman, she was expected to say yes, since he Figure 1. Creative element entitled Spiders in a Wreath of was in many ways validating her place in society and Orange and Poppy. ful"lling her socially prescribed purpose. If a woman did remain unmarried, she had A Harsh Inevitability few alternatives available to her, and no means !roughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, of maintaining a high social standing. In Edith the law treated married women as property rather Wharton’s !e House of Mirth, the protagonist Lily than people. As Elizabeth Cady Stanton wrote in Bart re%ects on her position in her social circle, “Declaration of Sentiments,” the famous Seneca saying, “I’ve been about too long—people are getting Falls document, “In the covenant of marriage, she is tired of me; they are beginning to say I ought to compelled to promise obedience to her husband, he marry” (Wharton 10). Published for the "rst time becoming, to all intents and purposes, her master - in 1905, Wharton’s story of Lily—an unwed woman

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desperately seeking marriage to maintain her place !e prevalence of “mercenary marriages” in in society—is a commentary on the expectations which the woman actively sought out a proposal set upon women of the nineteenth century. Lily is or accepted one in order to maintain her social or permitted to participate in the activities of the luxury "nancial position precludes the notion that marriage class only so long as she is a prospect for marriage. was based on mutual a#ection and love; instead, it When insinuations of impropriety from characters was a strategy of survival (Caird 78). In a similar who are secure in their own social positions along way, females of those species which reproduce with a rapidly accruing debt make any possibility of through traumatic insemination must engage in a a marriage proposal inconceivable, Lily is promptly dangerous mating ritual with males in order to ful"ll relegated to the working class, where “society… the female’s biological imperatives to reproduce. dri$ed by, preoccupied and inattentive, letting her My creative project element, Spiders in a Wreath of feel, to the full measure of her humbled pride, how Orange Blossoms and Poppy, encapsulates this notion completely she had been the creature of its favor” of intentional participation in a detrimental ritual. In (225). Society did not permit a high station to a the center are two sadistica spiders, a male woman who failed to ful"ll her purpose of being a and a female. !e female, laying vulnerable below wife. Instead, women who remained unmarried were the male, is decorated with excerpts of Freeling’s cast aside and forgotten, just as Lily was in the novel. marriage manual, which exemplify the expectation In the nineteenth century and early twentieth placed on young women to enter into marriage. centuries, marriage was o$en a requirement for a Just as the H. sadistica female permits the in%iction woman’s survival. As with Lily Bart, many women of damage on her body to successfully reproduce, of the period were brought up only to be wives and women entered into marriages to ful"ll their socially were not taught the skills to pursue even the limited and "nancially prescribed imperative to marry, an job options available to women. Prior to her exile imperative which they then had to protect regardless from the luxury class, Lily Bart re%ects on marriage of the cost to their identities. with Selden, her closest con"dant throughout the novel, saying, “Ah there’s the di#erence—a girl must, Necessary Lies a man may if he chooses…We are expected to be !e necessity of marriage for women’s survival pretty and well-dressed till we drop—and if we can’t and secure social status meant that there was keep it up alone, we have to go into partnership” signi"cant pressure on them to remain as desirable as (13). Without some other source of income, whether possible to their husbands. In !e Young Bride’s Book, it was an inheritance, the good grace of relatives, or Freeling writes “…let your husband once believe that other more improper sources, women were forced your a#ections are on the decline, and you lose the to marry. !e necessity of marriage for women can "rmest hold upon his. Gentleness, good humor, be seen again in A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen. tenderness, and attention, will secure the a#ection of First performed in 1879 in Denmark, Ibsen’s play every sensible man” (17). It was more advantageous sparked great controversy not only because the for a wife to be complacent to her husband so that female protagonist—Nora—is openly unhappy in he remained tolerant of her than it was to express her marriage, but because she decides to leave her her true opinions. !is manual, marketed towards husband, which is the ultimate rejection of a woman’s purpose. Just as with Lily, the women in Ibsen’s play women entering marriage, dictated that a woman perceive marriage as a means of survival. Towards must deliberately change her behavior, or conceal the beginning of the play, Nora’s friend Kristina says it, to lessen the probability that her husband would of her own marriage proposal, “My mother was still become angry with her. !is disregard for the alive; she was bedridden and helpless, and I had my woman’s opinions and individuality was rooted in two younger brothers to look a$er—I didn’t feel I the power which the law granted husbands and was could reject his o#er” (Ibsen 157). Desperate for propagated by the reliance wives had on the integrity income, Kristina married solely for the prospect of of their marriages. alleviating "nancial strain. !is distortion of a woman’s identity as a means of appeasing a man is demonstrated by Wharton in

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Lily Bart’s interactions with Percy Gryce, one of her have been far more detrimental to her psychological more promising marriage prospects at the beginning health and sense of self, so she elects to take the risk. of the novel. In the pursuit of a marriage proposal, A parallel can once again be drawn between Lily aligns herself entirely with Percy’s dull and women forced to concede at all times to their narrow interests. Wharton writes, “she resolved to husbands and the females in species which identify herself with her husband’s vanity that to reproduce through traumatic insemination. Both gratify her wishes would be to him the most exquisite experience trade-o#s between resources gained and form of self-indulgence” (45). In order to ensure that damage incurred. In the latter instance, the longer her husband, as she assumes at that time Percy will the male’s reproductive organ remains inside the become, will freely give her those material objects female, the more ejaculate she receives from him. which she struggles to acquire from her own meager !is ejaculate can be used as a source of nutrition income, Lily attempts to sacri"ce a part of herself while she cultivates the fertilized eggs. However, so that she is more attractive to him, and therefore longer mating sessions also cause the female injury. more secure in their relationship. !is attempt is !e females must balance between the bene"ts and unsuccessful, however, as the thought of “landing” risks so that she maximizes the amount of ejaculate Percy becomes an “unpalatable reward” (27). Lily she can receive while minimizing the damage to her receives no proposal, because she acted according own body (Yong). In humans, a woman secured to her own interests rather than continuing the resources for survival and reproduction by being pretense that she cared about his. !is choice is the submissive and accommodating. !e cost of doing "rst of many which leads to Lily’s eventual expulsion so was depression, anxiety and other psychological from New York society and her untimely death. disorders, all of which were grouped into the singular !e nineteenth century woman’s con%ict between diagnosis of hysteria throughout the 19th and early securing a marriage proposal and preserving a 20th centuries (Wood). sense of independence and identity is seen again in A Doll’s House. When, at the end of the play, Nora A Love of Possession declares that she must leave her husband Torvald !e laws established in the nineteenth century and their children, he asks how he has wronged her, dictated the life of a woman should be “one of duty to which she replies, “You arranged everything to and service” to their husbands (Caird 78), and this, suit your own taste, and so I came to have the same in conjunction with the compulsory appeasement tastes as yours…Or I pretended to…perhaps a bit of of husbands by their wives, established a society in both” (Ibsen 226). In order to maintain their “lovely which men valued their wives not as partners, but as happy home” (161), Nora aligned her views to those extensions of themselves. Since women were taught of her husband out of necessity, so that when she to be passive and obedient to their husbands, they looked back at their marriage, she found that they became that much more easily objecti"ed until they had never once “sat down…to get to the bottom of were little more than, as Nora would put it, “doll- a single thing” (225). It was impossible for husband wives.” and wife to have earnest conversations because Nora !e male attitude of possession is prevalent in had reasonable incentive to always concede to her the tone and subject of many male-authored works husband’s point of view, which negated the need of literature and poetry in the nineteenth century. for discussion of any kind. Nora remained Torvald’s In Gustave Flaubert’s 1856 novel, Madame Bovary, conciliatory skylark and Nora in turn was secure the perspectives of newlywed protagonist Emma and in his a#ection for her, until the point when she her husband Charles Bovary are in stark contrast: realized she must endeavor to become more than a Charles feels the elation of ownership while Emma “doll-wife” (226). When Nora resolves her con%ict by has begun to bear the burden of being owned. In asserting her independence, her losses include not Charles’ mind, “he now possessed, for always, this only social status but also the basic resources needed pretty woman whom he so loved. !e universe, for for physical survival: reliable access to food, shelter, him, did not extend beyond the silky contour of her clothing, and protection. However, staying would underskirt; and he would reproach himself for not

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loving her more” (Flaubert 30). Marriage has allowed highlight the toxic nature of the male narrator’s Charles to "nally lay claim over Emma. His marriage desires while Baudelaire uses grotesque imagery is not a symbolic claim of partnership and mutual to depict the speaker’s desire to possess his lover. admiration with Emma, but rather a validation of his Browning’s poem describes in detail the insane ownership over her appealing physical form. narrator murdering his vivacious lover, Porphyria, In contrast to Charles, Emma re%ects, “Before so that she may become to him “mine, mine, fair…” her marriage, she had believed that what she was (line 36). !e poem ends with the gruesome image experiencing was love; but since the happiness that of the speaker sitting with the corpse, demonstrating should have resulted from that love had not come, the disturbing notion of what the love of a woman she thought she must have been mistaken” (30). should be. !is same problematic notion of love is !e happiness which Emma had been brought seen in Baudelaire’s poem, in which the speaker says up to believe came with marriage, the ful"llment of the woman he worships, “I rise to your attack… of a woman’s destiny, remains elusive to her. !e Crawling like a host of worms that gormandize/ contrast between husband and wife in the novel Some rotting corpse” (lines 7-8). Selections of these clearly demonstrates that Charles’ love is rooted not poems, as well as Rossetti’s “!e Portrait” adorn the in mutual partnership or contentment, but in his sides of the male in the creative element of possession of her. my project to highlight the toxic nature of this type Nineteenth-century poetry also elucidates the of “love.” Just as the narrators of these poems take tendency of men to love of women as possessions delight in the possession of their dead lovers, so rather than people. Dante Gabriel Rossetti, a too is the male H. sadistica compelled to spear the member of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood of abdomen of his mate despite the tremendous injury artists, consistently portrayed women in paintings in%icted on her. and poetry not as man’s equal, but rather as mysterious objects of beauty which the artist might !e Cost of Objecti"cation seek to possess in his representation of her form. In It is important to note that the women of the his sonnet, “!e Portrait,” Rossetti writes, “let this nineteenth century were not passive actors in their my lady’s picture glow/Under my hand to praise her oppression; the women’s su#rage movement that name…Let all men note / !ey that would look on began in America at the Seneca Falls convention in her must come to me (lines 2-3, 12, 14). Rossetti seeks 1848 as well as the social New Woman movement to capture his subject in a manner which captures both called for a shi$ in the social and legal power her whole being. While this notion alone may not dynamic which made women so vulnerable to the be sinister in intention, Rossetti’s "nal statement powers of men. However, the call for change and its makes the painter’s intentions disturbingly clear; he full implementation throughout society did not occur has painted his muse not only to memorialize her simultaneously. Women who shirked convention beauty or capture her “inner glow,” but rather to by refusing to marry, leaving their husbands, or possess her identity so completely that anyone who demanding real partnership within their marriages sought to understand her would have to look at his had few options. As previously discussed, there was interpretation of her being rather than ascertaining no “reasonable alternative” to marriage at the time the details from her themselves. !e painter has (Caird 78), which was precisely why it had become become the possessor of his muse’s identity, just as such a powerful oppressive force in the "rst place. a man became the possessor of his wife’s identity as !ough the need for women’s legal and social soon as they were married. liberation had been recognized, there were not yet Other nineteenth-century poems that exemplify pathways by which that liberation could be pursued the male attitude of possession towards the by the masses. As Mona Caird notes, “We cannot ask women they claimed to love are Robert Browning’s every woman to be a heroine and choose a hard and “Porphyria’s Lover” and “I Worship You” by Charles thorny path…” (78). If such a thing were possible, all Baudelaire. Browning uses situational irony to liberation movements throughout history would be easily won.

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!is powerful social moment in the late clear in her work and the work of Christina Rossetti, nineteenth century saw women recognizing and Dante Gabriel Rossetti’s sister. reacting against oppression without yet being Rossetti was more focused more on capturing successful in freeing themselves. !is brought forth the beauty of his muse than he was with actually a plethora of poets and authors whose stories clarify understanding her. In her poem, “In An Artist’s the condition of women as property. Kate Chopin Studio,” Christina Rossetti writes, “He feeds upon her lived from 1850 to 1904, just as challenges to the face by day and night/ And she with true kind eyes social restrictions of marriage were beginning to looks back on him…Not as she is, but was when hope emerge. She was known for confronting the social shone bright; Not as she is, but as she "lls his dream” expectations which made women an extension of (Rossetti). !e poem was a scathing renunciation their husbands. In her short story, “!e Story of an of Rossetti’s treatment of Siddall as his muse. !at Hour,” Chopin demonstrates that though a woman Gabriel Rossetti “feeds upon” Siddall’s beauty implies may love her husband, the institution of marriage an inherently exploitative relationship, and one in was a source of anguish because it required her to which Rossetti values Siddall not for her character, forfeit her free will. When Louise Mallard, the subject but for her beauty. Gabriel’s painting showing “her of the story, is told that her husband is dead, she is true kind eyes,” from when “hope shone bright” also overcome by the realization that “there would be no implies that there was a time in which, believing still powerful will bending hers in that blind persistence that marriage would yield happiness, Siddall was which men and women believe they have a right to content to sit as a model for Rossetti in order to ful"ll impose…” (Chopin 5). Without her husband, Louise his whims and secure his a#ection. Siddall herself is no longer subject to his whims, nor does she have re%ects on this love in her poem “!e Passing of to face the consequences for attempting to impose Love,” writing, “Love help me joyful through the day her will onto him. !at freedom, Chopin contends, / And dreaming ever through the night…” (Siddall is far more important than any a#ection which lines 13-14). In the poem, Siddall acknowledges is shared between a husband and wife. She writes, that though she had at one time felt great love for “What could love, the unsolved mystery, count for Rossetti, that time quickly passed. in face of this possession of self-assertion…” (5). As !e resentment which Siddall felt for Rossetti’s soon as she believes she is free from the oppressive objecti"cation of her and its ill e#ects is re%ected institution of marriage, Louise "nds that her own both in her life and her work. Sick for many years free will is far more important than the mysterious prior to her death, in 1862 Siddall succumbed to and transient emotion which had kept her bound to her addiction to laudanum (Marsh 9). As with “!e Mr. Mallard in the "rst place. Passing of Love,” her poems focus on the falsehood Another example of the cost of a marriage based and transience of love, as well as the harm which on possession is Elizabeth Siddall. Known as “the wife it in%icted upon her. In “Worn Out” she writes, “I and muse” of Dante Gabriel Rossetti (Trowbridge 7), cannot give to thee the love / I gave so long ago / !e she was from the onset a victim of objecti"cation and love that turned and struck me down…” (Siddall). possession by her lover and later husband, the same Again, she admits that she once had great love for man who wrote the sonnet “!e Portrait.” Although Rossetti, but it was a love which betrayed her. She she was a painter and “poet of great promise” even renounces Rossetti’s worship of her beauty in (Orlando 616), Sidall’s work never achieved the same “Love and Hate,” demanding, “Li$ thy false brow fame as Rossetti. She is, as Trowbridge points out in from out the dust…And turn away thy false dark the introduction to her anthology of Siddall’s work, eyes” (Siddall). !e love which brought Rossetti My Lady’s Soul, a woman “represented purely by her and Siddall together was tainted by his desire to face” (7). Rossetti successfully possessed her image, capture and possess her beauty. Siddall was not thereby controlling the way which society perceived Rossetti’s partner, but instead was a “…constructed her, a perception which was antithetical to Sidall’s "gure who bolster[ed] her husband’s reputation and own perception of her identity. !e distinction [was] a signi"er for his status and power…erected between Siddall and her controlled image becomes on the negation of the female model’” (Trowbridge

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8). Rossetti’s treatment of Siddall during the creation condemned by more progressive authors like of his 1865 painting Beata Beatrix exempli"es his Chopin, Wharton, and Flaubert. exploitation of her. In Orlando’s essay, “!at I May not Faint, Die or Swoon,” she points out “…an Conclusion unfortunate rumor had it that Rossetti propped up Phenomena like traumatic insemination are Lizzie’s corpse on her deathbed while he painted perceived today as nothing more than “nature Beata Beatrix. Urban legends of this sort—coupled taking its course,” isolated entirely from the civil with the uncomfortable fact of Rossetti’s exhumation and ordered world which we as humans have of Siddall’s body—cement her status as a woman created. Yet, as I have argued through the literary whose beauty was exploited, in death as in life, in the and symbolic elements of my project, the treatment name of art” (Orlando 622). Just as in Browning and of women in the nineteenth and early twentieth Baudelaire’s poems, Rossetti was perfectly willing centuries in regard to marriage is not unlike the to worship the corpse of his lover and wife, because ways in which traumatic inseminators exploit that is the aspect of her which he considered to be females to ensure their reproductive success. Just as valuable and worthy of love. H. sadistica females are driven to mate to ful"ll their !e circumstances of Siddall’s actual death are biological imperatives, so too were women driven replicated time and again in the deaths of women by their social and "nancial situations to enter into in the literature of the period. Emma Bovary dies the oppressive union of marriage. Just as H. sadistica a$er overdosing on arsenic, while Lily Bart dies females risk greater injury to themselves in order to from an overdose of sleeping draught (Wharton obtain as much nutrition as possible from the male 276). !ese women, disillusioned with the myth ejaculate, so too did women concede to the desires of marriage, femininity, and societal ful"llment, and opinions of their husbands to remain secure in died from overdosing on drugs meant to sooth and their marriage. Finally, just as the H. sadistica male placate those who take them. In both stories, it is a is driven to pierce the female in order to ensure that male character who provides commentary on their it is his o#spring which she bears, so too were men corpses: Charles Bovary and Lawrence Selden, driven to marry and possess the women who were respectively. In the creative element of my project motivated to appear to them at all times perfect. I have surrounded the pair of H. sadistica with a !e literature and poetry which I have examined wreath of orange blossoms and ripened poppy fruits. above demonstrate a cultural moment in which !ese are representative of the dichotomy between society promoted the political and social oppression the expectations and realities of marriage during the of women. !e culture which shaped that literature, nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. During though in"nitely more dynamic than that which that era, orange blossoms were o$en woven into the dictates the social interactions of spiders, was de"ned hair of brides on their wedding day (Powell). On the by the same drive to ensure success no matter the other hand, poppy fruit is the source of the drugs detriment to anyone else. In species like H. sadistica like laudanum and opium which are associated with which reproduce through traumatic insemination, the deaths of Elizabeth Siddall and Lily Bart. !e females evolve strategies to deter males from inclusion of both symbols in my creative element in%icting injury like stomach barbs or thicker highlight the di#erence between the societal illusion abdominal exoskeletons. So it was in the nineteenth of marriage and its stark reality. Women bound by century. What else was the social rebellion of women the social and legal restraints of marriage found the and the "rst women’s rights movement but a tactic to condition to be intolerable because they were treated overcome the intolerable and injurious institution of as prized possessions or objects of beauty rather than marriage which had been thrust upon them by the human beings. !at the death of women through men in power? overdosing or despair became a trope in nineteenth- century literature implies a persistent despair within Works Cited the female population, a despair that was fetishized Baudelaire, Charles. “I Worship You.” Flowers of Evil by male authors like Rossetti and Baudelaire and and Other Works, edited by Wallace Fowlie, Dover Publications, 1992, pp. 32.

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Browning, Robert. “Porphyria’s Lover.” Poetry Spiders.” Proceedings: Biological Sciences, vol. Foundation, www.poetryfoundation.org/ 276, no. 1668, 2009, pp. 2697-2701. poems/46313/porphyrias-lover. Accessed 9 Dec. 2019. Rossetti, Christina. “In an Artist’s Studio.” Poetry Foundation, www.poetryfoundation.org/ Caird, Mona. “Marriage.” !e Fin de Siécle, edited by poems/146804/in-an-artist39s-studio. Accessed Sally Ledger and Roger Luckhurst, Oxford UP, 9 Dec. 2018. 2000, pp. 77-79. Rossetti, Dante Gabriel. “!e Portrait.” Pre- Dixon, Ella H. “Why Women are Ceasing to Marry.” Raphaelite Poetry: An Anthology, edited by Paul !e Fin de Siécle, edited by Sally Ledger and Negri, Dover Publications, 2003, p. 7. Roger Luckhurst, Oxford UP, 2000, pp. 83-88. Siddall, Elizabeth. “Love and Hate.” Lizzie Siddal, Flaubert, Gustave. Madame Bovary: Provincial www.lizziesiddal.com/portal/love-and-hate/. Ways. Penguin, 2012. Accessed 9 Dec. 2018.

Freeling, Arthur. !e Young Bride’s Book: An Siddall, Elizabeth. “!e Passing of Love.” Lizzie Epitome of the Domestic Duties and Social Siddal, www.lizziesiddal.com/portal/the- Enjoyments of Woman, as Wife and Mother. passing-of-love/. Accessed 9 Dec. 2018. Wilson and Company, Brother Jonathan Press, 1849. Siddall, Elizabeth. “Worn Out.” Lizzie Siddal, http:// lizziesiddal.com/portal/worn-out/. Accessed 9 Freeman, Scott, et al. Biological Science. 6th ed., Dec. 2018. Pearson, 2017. Stanton, Elizabeth Cady. “Declaration of Ibsen, Henrik, and Peter Watts. A Doll’s House and Sentiments and Resolutions.” !e Elizabeth Cady Other Plays. Penguin Books, 2003. Stanton & Susan B. Anthony Papers Project. Accessed 8 Dec. 2018. Marsh, Jan. !e Legend of Elizabeth Siddal. Quartet Books, 1989. Trowbridge, Serena. My Lady’s Soul: !e Poems of Elizabeth Eleanor Siddal. Victorian Secrets, 2018, Mill, John Stuart. !e Subjection of Women. pp. 7-19. Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer, 1878. Wharton, Edith, and Elizabeth Ammons. !e House Orlando, Emily. “‘!at I May not Faint, or Die, or of Mirth: Authoritative Text, Backgrounds and Swoon’: Reviving Pre-Raphaelite Women.” Contexts, Criticism. W.W. Norton & Company, Women’s Studies, vol. 38, no. 6, 2009, pp. 611-646. 2018.

Powell, Cornelia. “To Gather Orange Blossoms - Wood, Ann Douglas. “‘!e Fashionable Diseases’: History of Wedding Flowers Bouquets.” Women’s Complaints and !eir Treatment in Victoriana Magazine. Nineteenth-Century America.” !e Journal of Interdisciplinary History, vol. 4, no. 1, 1973, pp. Reinhardt, Klaus, et al. “Copulatory Wounding 25-52. and Traumatic Insemination.” Cold Spring Harbor Biological Perspectives, vol. 7, no. 5, 2015. Yong, Ed. “Traumatic Insemination–Male Spider Pierces Female’s Underside with Needle-Sharp Řezáč, Milan. “!e Spider Harpactea Sadistica: Penis.” National Geographic, 28 Apr. 2009. Co-Evolution of Traumatic Insemination and Complex Female Genital Morphology in

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