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Social and Spatial Mobility Along the Kuiseb River in the Namib Desert

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Social and Spatial Mobility Along the Kuiseb River in the Namib Desert SOCIAL AND SPATIAL MOBILITY ALONG THE KUISEB RIVER IN THE NAMIB DESERT, NAMIBIA by U. DENTLINGER B.A.(Hons.) 1983 UniversityPresented for ofthe CapeDegree of Town M.A. (Social Anthropology) at the UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University of Cape Town ABSTRACT This study seeks to explain the unusually high rate of circulation of individuals between local domestic units of the rural settlements along the Kuiseb River as well as between these and domestic units in the closest urban centre. It is argued that these movements form part of a general state of flexibility of personal relationships, which subsequently affects household composition. An explanation for this flexibility is suggested in terms of one strategy of survival pursued by relatively poor indi­ viduals, which involves the sporadic attachment by poorer individuals to relatively more economically stable relatives. As these attachments, whether residential or not, are of short duration, they produce rapid and unpredictable changes to the composition of existing households. Material is presented of three areas of social life illustrating these sporadically shifting alignments. These areas are sub­ sistence relations, conjugal relations and parent-child relations. These examples of sporadic shifts of domestic alignments are contrasted with a few examples where households were seen to show facets of cyclical changes in their social composition. Evidence suggests that these few households were headed by economically secure individuals, who also reflect a considerable stability in their residence. The question is raised whether a cyclical development of domestic groups can be recorded in situations as flexible and variable as those along the Kuiseb River. This in turn raises the issue of the usefulness of a framework postulating such a development. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT LIST OF MAPS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF DIAGRAMS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND ORTHOGRAPHIC NOTE CHAPTER 1 THE PROBLEM AND DIVISION OF THE THESIS 1 CHAPTER 2 : HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 6 1. The People . 6 2. 'Traditional' Resources . 9 3. The Wars of Jonker Afrikaner . .. .... .. .. .. .... .. .. 15 4. Development of Walvis Bay . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... ... 22 5. The German Colonial Period . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 31 CHAPTER 3 : THE PRESENT SITUATION 36 1. Preliminary Considerations . .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .... .. 36- 2. Population Settlements and Townships . .. .. .. .... .. 39 2.1 The River 42 2.2 The Delta 46 2. 3 Walvis Bay 49 3. Subsistence Economics . 50 4. Religion and Belief . 61 5. Present Political Issues .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 67 6. Present Political Channels . .. .... .... .. .. .. .. .. .. 72 CHAPTER 4 RESIDENCE AND SETTLEMENT: THE CHANGING COMPOSITION OF HOUSEHOLDS 75 1. Definition of 'Household' and its Cyclical Development . 75 2. A Synchronic View of Households . 84 (a) The Administrative Centre ............... 84 (b) The Privately-Owned Business Enterprises . 86 3 • A Diachronic View of Households. 89 Administrative Centres and Privately- Owned Business Enterprises ............... 89 4. Households in the Self-Generated Settlements: A Synchronic View ............................... 96 5. Households in the Self-Generated Settlements: A Diachronic View 6. Conclusion 113 CHAPTER 5 : SHIFTING ALIGNMENTS AND SUBSISTENCE 116 1. Kinship Morality, Reciprocity & Alignments .. ..... 116 2. Shifting Alignments and Employment . 131 3. Shifting Alignments and Harvesting of the !Nara Melon . 135 4. Movements of Pensioners and Their Assistants . .... 138 5. Shifting Alignments and Stock-Farming .. .. .. .. .. .. 141 6. Conclusion . 145 CHAPTER 6 : WOMEN, MARRIAGE AND SHIFTING ALIGNMENTS 146 1. Formal versus Informal Marriage . 146 2. Shifting Conjugal Alignments . 161 3. The 'Female Kindred' and the 'Domestic Network' 166 4. Shifting Affinal Alignments and Household Composition . l 70 5. Female-Households and Their Composition .. .. .. .. .. 174 6. Conclusion . l 77 CHAPTER 7 THE FOSTERING OF CHILDREN AND SHIFTING ALIGNMENTS l 79 1. Kin Rearing and Fostering: Goody's Model .. ... 179 2. Kin Rearing and Fostering Along the Kuiseb River . 185 3. Reasons for Fostering .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 189 4. Certain Features of Topnaar Fostering . .. .. .. .. .. 192 5. Shifting Fostering Alignments . 196 6. Conclusion . 204 CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION 205 APPENDIX 1: Fieldwork Orientation & Experiences 210 APPENDIX 2: Description and Diagram of Swartbank 216 APPENDIX 3 -: Further Population Tables 217 BIBLIOGRAPHY 220 LIST OF MAPS 1. Namibia 2. Settlements along the Kuiseb River. LIST OF TABLES 1. Age and Sex Distribution of Population along the River: July/August 1976 2. Distribution of Population in Settlements along the River. 3. Distribution of Population of Settlements in the Delta. 4. Stock-holdings: June/July 1978 5. Sizes of Herds of Goats: June/July 1978. 6. Range of Income from !Nara Harvests: Summer 1977/1978. 7. Sources of Income of Adult Men and Women: July/August 1978. 8. Number of Sources Exploited: July/August 1978. 9. Levels of Education of Total Adult Population along the River and Delta and 35 Adults of the Urban Sample. 10. Distribution of Population in Households in the Administrative Centres. 11. Breakdown of Population in Self-Generated Settlements. 12. Marital Status of Household Heads in the Self-generated Settlements. 13. Social Composition of Households in the Settlements. 14. Incidence of Kin Rearing and Fostering. LIST OF DIAGRAMS/FIGURES 4.1 Spatial Lay-out and Social Composition: Gobabeb: 1978/1979/1981. 4.2 Ideal Spatial Lay-out of Homesteads in Self-generated Settlements. 4.3 Spatial Lay-out and Social Composition: Oswater: 1978/1979/1981. 4.4 Spatial Lay-out and Social Composition: Homeb: 1979/ 1981. 4.5 Spatial Lay-out and Social Composition: #Natab: 1979/1981 5.1 Diagram of Potential "Hands". 5.2 Shifting Alignments for !Nara Harvest 5.3 Shifting Alignments of a Pensioner. 5.4 Shifting Alignments of a Stock-Farmer. 7.1 Shifting Fostering Alignments. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A study of this nature does not come about without the assistance of a number of people and institutions. Perhaps I owe the greatest debt to the people who have shared their personal lives and homes with me during the period of field­ work. They have contributed towards making the eight months of fieldwork an extremely meaningful t 1me in my life. It would be impossible to mention al 1 tho.sea wl,o were in­ volved, yet I would like to single out the residents of Sout Rivier (particularly Johanna Fischer, Gert #Naraseb, Tebe Barn and Alwina Engelbrecht) and Swartb~nk (particularly Sina Herero, the late Abadnikos Herero, Annatjie Animas and Elli Riet). They have shown me extreme generosity and care; and I hope I have not disappointed them in the extent to which I have reciprocated nor in the way in which I have portrayed aspects of their lives. In Rooibank Lydia Swart- booi, (Suster) Elfriede and many others have devoted much of their time to help me. It is due to their goodwill that the thesis exists. The old headman, Esau Kootjie, gave me permission to work amongst his people;and the rest of his family, particularly his wife and second-eldest son, have been very hospitable and helpful. I wish to thank them for this. At the same time I would like to thank other residents along the river for their assistance given. Firstly, the Andreas ·family offered me accommodation in a desperate situation. Secondly, the Department of Nature Conservation and Tourism granted permission for me to work in the park and its officials, as well as the director of the Research Institute at Gobabeb, Dr. Mary Seeley, provided the use of certain facilities. The Human Sciences Research Council and the University of Cape Town (particularly the Centre for African Studies) have been very generous in supporting me during some of the rather expensive fieldtrips and the time of writing. I wish to thank these two institutions for their financial assistance. My parents showed unlimited understanding for my pursuit of a goal which they themselves did not believe in. I wish to express my gratitude and appreciation for their support in spite of our differences in this regard. Prof. Martin West, my supervisor, showed the correct propor­ tion of drive and patience in a situation which has by no means been easy. I would like to express my appreciation for this. Staff members and fellow students of the Department of Social Anthropology at UCT and elsewhere have commented critically on certain aspects of the thesis, for which I am grateful. Many friends and my family stood by me during the long process of writing. I owe Marika and Chris, Helen, Maus and Hans a special debt; Marika for adding a particular professional touch to the study with her diagrams and Hans for moral (and other) support. I would also like to thank Father G. Ruffell for editing the final manuscript and Ellen for her assistance with the proof-reading. ORTHOGRAPHIC NOTE The new Nama orthography as devised by the Bureau for Indigenous Languages in Windhoek has been used as far as possible. I was assisted by the following members of staff of this institution: Mr. Boois transcribed Nama terms and expressions; Pastor
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