Is That A Fact? Language And Fact In Greek And Constructions by Jerome Moran

(Teacher): ‘But how do you know it is LB: Taylor, Latin Beyond GCSE real or actual result. This is a mistake. a fact?’ GG: Morwood, Oxford Grammar I am not sure what the use of the (Student): ‘The writer uses the indicative, Of Classical Greek infinitive tells us — I don’t think that not the infinitive, and the book says the LG: Morwood, A anybody is sure. But I am sure (a) that indicative is used for facts.’ the Greek infinitive cannot assert (I have actually had such an anything, just as the indicative when used exchange, and more than once.) Greek Consecutive Clauses in a statement cannot fail to assert something; (b) that we cannot tell from It is true that Greek and Latin writers ‘When the result actually occurs, the result the use of the indicative alone that the use the indicative to assert a fact. This is clause has an ordinary indicative verb.’ result was a real or actual result, or that not to say that what Greek and Latin (GT2, p. 30) the writer knows that it was. For all we writers assert by means of the indicative is ‘result clauses … commonly have know it may not have happened. For all a fact. This distinction is central to this their verb in the indicative if the result is we know the writer may know or suspect article.1 There is widespread (in many one that actually occurs.’ (GT2, p. 116) that it did not happen. All we know for grammar and course books)2 (The italics are mine, as they are sure is that the writer says that it was an misunderstanding (or at least misleading throughout unless otherwise indicated.) actual result. explanation) of the information conveyed The verb in a Greek consecutive The same is true of the writer’s use by the forms of certain Greek and Latin clause may be in the indicative or of the infinitive — actually more constructions. The misunderstanding infinitive. I don’t believe that anybody has common than the use of the indicative. seems to be the result of a failure to properly understood (as an ancient Greek Whatever kind of result it signifies, again distinguish between a fact and the writer’s would have understood, presumably) the all we can say is that the writer says that attitude to a fact; between what is the case difference of meaning signified by the what is asserted in the main clause was and what the writer says or implies is the indicative and infinitive, in particular the such as to have a result of this kind.4 case; between what can and cannot be meaning(s) conveyed by the infinitive Whether it did or not we have no way of deduced about what the writer knows and (though sometimes it seems as if there is knowing solely on the evidence of the does not know about the facts in question no difference).3 This has no doubt way the writer expresses himself — nor, from the way in which the writer expresses contributed to the misleading of course, whether the writer knew or himself. The misunderstanding affects explanations that we find in the grammar didn’t know. more constructions in Latin than in Greek. and course books. Let us suppose that the infinitive is I shall begin with the Greek constructions. It seems to be supposed — it is used to signify a natural, likely or to-be- My examples are taken mainly from actually asserted in some books (see the expected result, and that the writer does the course books of John Taylor and the quotations from Taylor above) — that not use the indicative because he does not grammar books of James Morwood, but the indicative denotes a real or actual wish to state that such a result actually they can be found in others too. The result as opposed to a ‘natural result’ (or occurred. The writer may be mistaken on following abbreviations are used: some such expression) denoted by the both counts: such a result may have infinitive. There is often an implication actually occurred, and it may have been a GT2: Taylor, Greek To GCSE Part 2 that the writer is showing by his use of highly unnatural, unlikely and unexpected GB: Taylor, Greek Beyond GCSE the indicative that he knows that it was a result. But we have no way of knowing

The Journal of Classics Teaching 18 (36) p.20-24 © The Classical Association 2017. This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits Downloaded20 from https://www.cambridge.org/corenon-commercial re-use, distribution,. IP address: and170.106.33.22 reproduction, on 27 in Sep any 2021 medium, at 01:18:56 provided, subject the to original the Cambridge work is Core unaltered terms ofand use, is available properly at cited. The written https://www.cambridge.org/core/termspermission of Cambridge. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631017000186 University Press must be obtained for commercial re-use or in order to create a derivative work. whether it occurred and what type of verb of saying or thinking is suppressed an endorsement of what X said, i.e. ‘just as result it was solely by the writer’s choice and must be ‘understood’ by the reader. X said’, or as a simple reference to what of verb form. We do not know the facts; This is the only reason for the optative. X said, i.e. ‘according to what X said’, but we only know the writer’s attitude to the One should not read into the use of the perhaps with an implication that what he facts, and this is all that his words convey. optative an ‘alleged’ cause as opposed to said was mistaken. One may end up with a Note too that the tense of the an actual or real cause expressed by the translation that suggests the opposite of infinitive denotes aspect not time. The indicative. In fact the opposite may be the what the Greek says. infinitive is a verbal noun, used to denote a case, and the writer may know or suspect type of action/occurrence, not an actual that this is so. The use of the indicative action/occurrence, and it cannot be used does not indicate a real or actual cause Greek Conditional Sentences in Greek to assert anything. This can cause and one known to be real or actual by the ambiguity about the time location (if we writer. The indicative should not be taken ‘In the fifth sentence [a Past Unreal can talk of the time location of something as a guarantee of actuality. It merely sentence] we are in the area of the unreal that may not have occurred) of the indicates a cause given by the writer rather or impossible.’ (Morwood GG, p.183) consecutive clause. Since the tense of the than one attributed by the writer to ‘If X had happened, Y would have infinitive is time-neutral, the time location someone else. As I said, the real cause happened [Taylor’s italics] (but X did not in of the expected/likely result cannot be may be the latter: the writer may be fact happen, so Y did not happen either).’ shown by the form of the verb. How does mistaken. But there is nothing mistaken (Taylor GT2, p.139). [my italics] See also in Greek express unambiguously ‘He was so about his choice of verb moods, and the same paragraph the statements about spendthrift that he is (likely to be) short of whether or not the cause was as stated is ‘known fact’ and ‘known not to be true’. money’? As far as the grammar of the irrelevant to the writer’s choice of mood. (To be fair to Taylor, he does go on to say sentence is concerned, it could just as well (Incidentally, the tense of the optative about the apodosis ‘would have (implying mean ‘He was so spendthrift that he was indicates time not aspect. And an original but in fact did not)’. The important word (likely to be) short of money ‘. If context past tense (aorist) indicative assumed to here is ‘implying’ (see below). did not supply the (?correct) time location, have been used by the person to whom In the case of conditions the time-specific adverbs or other aids to the cause is attributed may be represented misunderstanding affects the whole understanding could be used. by the aorist optative. This is an exception sentence: the main clause (the apodosis) to the ‘rule’ that after a historic main verb and the subordinate clause (the protasis). a past tense indicative in a subordinate Certain types of conditional sentences are Greek Causal Clauses clause in direct speech must remain in the a minefield of misunderstanding. indicative in the corresponding It is difficult to talk about Although the same constructions in subordinate clause in indirect speech conditional sentences at all, because of Greek can be used for assigning causes to (or, as here, virtual indirect speech). the number of different names given to events and for ascribing reasons to agents, If the main verb is in a primary tense, the different types of conditions, the nobody (I think) seems to think it the optative may not be used, whatever same writer not infrequently giving necessary to distinguish a cause from a the tense of the indicative in the assumed different names to the same type of reason, though ‘reason’ is not normally original causal clause. But the same condition.5 With apologies for adding to (it is sometimes, rightly or wrongly) used distinction may be made by the writer, these, I use the names used by Woodcock as a synonym of ‘cause’. (There is no using other means. The writer may use æj in A New Latin Syntax, pp. 147-148, viz. agreement among philosophers as to (or ¤te or oŒa) with a to ‘Open’, ‘Ideal’, ‘Unreal’ (the second two what either of them is, except that they indicate an attributed cause, and a also used by Gildersleeve and Lodge, are not usually the same thing, or the participle alone for a cause given by who curiously use ‘Logical’ for ‘Open’). same sort of thing; and there is himself. Again, we should not regard the It is important at the outset to disagreement about whether a reason may latter as a real or actual cause, and we understand the differences between the in fact be a cause of human agency.) should not suppose that the writer knows different types of condition. One must ‘Causal clauses denoting a fact regularly this to be so. remember too that the protasis and take the indicative …’ (Smyth, A Greek Causes may also be stated by means apodosis may be in different tenses and Grammar, §2241). And in the next section he of a preposition such as di£ or ›neka be of different types. There is more says ‘causal clauses denoting an alleged or and the articular infinitive: ‘because of/on scope for misunderstanding conditional reported reason’. There does seem to be the account of X-ing’. The use of the sentences than consecutive or causal suggestion here of a distinction between an infinitive, and the fact that the tense of clauses. And three moods of the verb actual cause and an erroneously alleged cause: the infinitive signifies aspect, not time, (indicative, subjunctive, optative) are that we can tell what the actual cause was make it less likely that the verb form is involved rather than two (counting the from the mood of the verb used. taken as denoting an actual cause as infinitive here as a mood, which it is not, When the main verb is in a historic opposed to one suggested by the writer. since, as I said earlier, it is a verbal noun). tense (including the historic present) the A common way in an English Actually, the sort of verb in the causal clause may be in the translation to convey an attributed cause misunderstanding of conditional optative rather than the indicative. This is is to insert the words ‘as X said/thought’ sentences that I am concerned with here because the clause is in effect an instance as a parenthesis. This is infelicitous is more or less confined to the type of of ‘virtual oratio obliqua’: the introductory because ambiguous. It could be taken as condition that I call ‘Unreal’. The ‘Open’

Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address:Is 170.106.33.22That A Fact? ,Language on 27 Sep And2021 Fact at 01:18:56 In Greek, subject And Latin to the Constructions Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 21 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631017000186 and ‘Ideal’ conditions do not cause the (Goodwin, followed by Dickey, calls as the Greek infinitive is unclear, since same problems. As far as Open Unreal conditions ‘contrary to fact’ or what kind of result the infinitive conditions are concerned (those which ‘contrafactual’ (Dickey), which is represents is unclear. Woodcock (surely use the indicative, or subjunctive for unfortunate since it gives the impression still the best guide in English to actual future open and present/future that the implication is a fact and that we Latin usage) says (A New Latin Syntax, indefinite), nobody is tempted to mistake can tell that the condition was not in fact p. 122) that the imperfect is used to show the supposition of a fact for a fact — the fulfilled.) the ‘logical connexion’ between a cause supposition of a fact is clearly different ‘If he had done that then he would (stated in the main clause) and an effect from the assertion of a fact. It is the have done wrong.’ Can we tell from the (stated in the result clause), which assertion, or apparent assertion, of facts form of this conditional sentence that suggests that the effect/result is treated as that get converted into facts. In the case the condition was not fulfilled? Suppose a necessary one, while the use of the perfect of Ideal conditions (those which use the this is a mother speaking about an errant subjunctive denotes a merely contingent optative, also used for past indefinite) we offspring to an irate neighbour. She may effect/result.7 If this is really what Roman are well removed from the realm of facts know full well that he (bound to be a writers supposed that they were doing, in any case, since these conditions are son, of course) did it, while implying that then both they and Woodcock were concerned with obviously hypothetical he did not do it, thus seeking to protect mistaken. The truth is that there is no future contingencies. (Philosophers the offspring, and mollify the neighbour, logical connection between facts, only question whether one can talk by evasion (in the protasis) and between propositions and the terms of meaningfully of future facts.) agreement and acceptance of propositions. Also, there are no such facts It is the third type of condition, the responsibility (in the apodosis). But as necessary facts (though there are ‘Unreal’ one, that causes the problems. again, all we have to go on is what the necessary truths), and, as David Hume These are of two kinds, Present Unreal of speaker actually says. The mother (and showed, there is no necessary connection the form ‘If he were (now) doing X, he offspring) must hope that the neighbour between a cause and its effect. Ironically, would (now) be doing Y’, and Past Unreal is similarly in the dark. So here the if Woodcock were right and the imperfect of the form ‘If he had done X, he would opposite is the case from what the denoted a necessary result, it would surely have done Y’. Both use the indicative, but speaker implies. What the speaker have been used of an actual result, which are distinguished from Open Conditions implies is no guarantee of the actuality is what the perfect subjunctive is by the presence of ‘n’ in the apodosis. of the implication — and anyway an supposed to represent. For in what sense They are called ‘Unreal’ because the implication is not an assertion. can an effect be necessary but not actual? possibility that the condition was fulfilled I conclude that we still don’t know exactly or is being fulfilled is treated by the writer what kind of result the Latin imperfect as an unreal one — which does not rule subjunctive (or the Greek infinitive) out the possibility that the condition was Latin Consecutive Clauses represents. in fact fulfilled or is being fulfilled. Again, (Note that the difference, whatever it the writer may be mistaken — or lying.6 Seemingly paradoxically, in certain is, marked in Latin by the use of the It is maintained erroneously that one instances the verb in the consecutive clause perfect and imperfect subjunctive, refers can tell from the way in which the writer may be in a past tense while the verb in the to results in past time only, unlike the expresses himself that the opposite of main clause is in the present tense. The Greek use of the infinitive, even though a what is supposed in the protasis and result clause may refer to present and result clause can be used of present and apododis was/is the case. First, it is said future time as well as past time. So any future time. Apart from the fact that a that the writer states that X and Y did not tense of the subjunctive may be used, result in the future cannot be an actual occur or is not now occurring. The writer including the periphrastic future -urus sim one from the perspective of the present, does not state it, he implies it. The sentence and ‘future in the past’ subjunctive -urus this is a consequence of the Latin choice can thus be unpacked as ‘If he had done essem — and the potential ‘would have …’ to mark the difference by tense rather X (it is implied that he did not in fact do in - urus fuerim/fuissem. than mood: there is only one present X), he would have done Y (it is implied The commonest tenses used, subjunctive for present time.) that he did not do Y)’. The error is to however, are the imperfect and perfect The use of the Latin perfect mistake an implication of a fact for a subjunctive. The distinction does not subjunctive tends to be thought of in the statement of a fact, and a statement of a usually correspond to that of the same way as the Greek indicative, i.e. as a fact for a fact. We cannot tell from the imperfect and perfect (aorist perfect) guarantee of the actual occurrence of an grammar of the sentence what the facts in indicative, a common misconception action or event rather than as an expression the case are. The grammar of the (shared by Morwood, LG, p. 99, to judge of the writer’s attitude to the facts. sentence merely indicates the writer’s from the examples he gives and his Similarly with the imperfect subjunctive attitude to the facts. The writer may be remark ‘the tense is dictated by the sense’. (on the part of those who are aware that it mistaken in his implication; he may know See also Taylor at LB, p.16). The perfect is not generally used with the same sense as that he is mistaken in his implication. seems to be used where Greek uses the the imperfect indicative), we can know He may be lying. So, for all that we know, indicative (Gildersleeve & Lodge §513 what kind of result it is from the way in i.e. for all that we know from what the NOTES -1 seem to think it replaces the which the writer expresses himself. There sentence actually tells us, our subject may Greek infinitive). Whether the imperfect is disagreement, however, on what kind of have done X and he may have done Y. is used to suggest the same kind of result result this is — as well there might.

Downloaded22 from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.33.22Is That A Fact?, on Language 27 Sep 2021 And at Fact 01:18:56 In Greek, subject And to Latin the CambridgeConstructions Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631017000186 clause is likely to be the case or not. This In Latin if the verb conveys a fact (as Latin Causal Clauses second distinction is not often come in the second meaning above), it is across in grammar and course books, or is naturally in the indicative, since it is true. If ‘A causal clause indicates the reason why not well explained if it is. One result of the verb makes an imaginary (i.e. untrue) something happens. The logic of the this is that users of such books encounter comparison (as with the first meaning indicative is that it states a factual reason: instances of verbs which appear to be in above), it is in the subjunctive. Comparisons there is no doubt about the cause and effect the ‘wrong’ tense according to the (only) are much more likely to be untrue than true.’ relationship …’ (Taylor, LB, p.36) rule they have been given. The sequence [end of quotation] (Taylor does not say whether the absence of tenses rule they are usually given fails The writer (and the senators) might of doubt is that of the writer or reader, to account for the actual usage of Latin have been unaware that the enemy were but in either case he is not in a position writers.8 already at the gates of Rome. As for the to say this.) So, if the writer wishes to suggest second sentence, the writer might have that an imaginary situation X was not/is been mistaken on several counts. ‘… to contrast a rejected reason with not/will not be the case, he expresses this Factual comparisons compare what a true one’ (p.36) in the form of the protasis of a past is stated in the main clause with an alleged unreal condition, present unreal condition fact stated in the subordinate clause of ‘A causal clause states a reason why and periphrastic ‘future in the past’ comparison. The alleged fact may not be a something happens’ (p. 37) (If ‘cause’ and subjunctive respectively, preceded by a fact at all. The comparison may be false. ‘reason’ are interchangeable, does this comparative word such as tamquam, velut The writer may know that it is false. Even mean anything more than that a causal or one of the myriad of other the main clause may be false. Imaginary clause states a cause?) comparative expressions. (The periphrasis comparisons compare what is stated in As with Greek, Latin distinguishes a is used instead of the form of the protasis the main clause with an imaginary cause given by the writer from a cause of an ideal condition because the latter situation hypothesised by the writer, attributed by the writer to someone else. (present subjunctive) would indicate either implied to be unlikely or with no As usual, Woodcock’s account (A New present not future time (under the such implication, especially if the main Latin Syntax, p. 196) is the clearest and sequence of tense rule used to suggest a verb is in a primary tense, as explained fullest in English — but even Woodcock likely situation), and would not convey the above. Again the main clause may be false. confounds ‘cause’ and ‘reason’. The suggestion of unlikelihood.) Because the Often an imaginary comparison may difference between Greek and Latin is comparative clauses have the form of not only be true (pace Morwood et al.), the that in Greek the distinction made by the unreal conditions, with the same speaker may actually imply that it is true. indicative and the optative can only be (assumed) implication that X was not or is The sentence ‘You’re talking as if you made if the main verb is in a historic not the case, there is a tendency to assume know something about it’ may, in a certain tense. In Latin the distinction made by the that the opposite of what is said in the context, imply that the addressee does indicative and subjunctive can be made if comparative clause was or is a fact, as with know something about it — and in fact he the main verb is in a historic or primary actual unreal conditions in Greek (and does. (It may of course, in context, imply tense. Latin too). And, of course, as we shall see, the opposite — and be mistaken.) In There is the same tendency with the particularly from the extract from certain situations Latin can resolve, or at Latin construction as with the Greek: to Morwood that follows, factual least reduce, the ambiguity of English by treat the cause given by the writer in the comparisons using the indicative are taken means of the tense of the subjunctive indicative as an actual cause as opposed to to be facts rather than the writer’s used: scires in our example above would an ‘alleged’ (erroneously) cause in the expression of his attitude to the facts, an imply the addressee was ignorant; scias subjunctive. attitude that may be mistaken and known would carry no such implication. What by the writer to be mistaken. Latin cannot do, what no language can do, Morwood’s (attempted) explanation except in the case of certain verbal (LG, p. 128) of the distinction between a paradoxes, is to self-certify its truth or Latin Comparative Clauses factual and an imaginary comparative falsehood by means of the forms it clause is probably the best example I have assumes. Comparative clauses may be factual (a come across of the confounding of a fact loaded term!) with a verb in the indicative with the statement of a fact.9 It needs to or imaginary (another loaded term!) with a be quoted in full (the italics are mine): verb in the subjunctive. Other terms than ‘The senators were terribly afraid, as Latin Concessive Clauses ‘factual’ and ‘imaginary’ may be found to if the enemy were already at the gates of denote the difference. (See below for the Rome.’ Concessive clauses, like comparative difference between a factual and an ‘The general was rewarded as his clauses, may be factual or imaginary. But imaginary comparison.) Also, the tense of courage deserved.’ the basis of the indicative/subjunctive the subjunctive used after a primary main In the first of these sentences, the distinction does not apply to concessive verb differs depending on the writer’s comparison is untrue. The enemy were not at clauses, as factual concessions have their attitude to the facts, in this case whether the gates of Rome. In the second verbs in the subjunctive (in the appropriate the writer wishes to suggest that the sentence, the comparison is true. The general’s tense) after quamvis, licet, cum and qui. situation envisioned in the comparative courage did deserve to be rewarded. (quamvis may also be used to introduce

Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address:Is 170.106.33.22That A Fact? ,Language on 27 Sep And2021 Fact at 01:18:56 In Greek, subject And Latin to the Constructions Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 23 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631017000186 imaginary concessions, and is more often same types of conditions in Latin as in what is stated is a fact) and state what is a fact used in this way.) Greek — what I call ‘Open’, ‘Unreal’ and (which does entail that what is stated is a fact). Imaginary concessive clauses ‘Ideal’. Again as with Greek, it is with the 2Actually, the older and bigger grammars such introduced by compounds of si, i.e. etsi, Unreal conditions that there appears to be as Goodwin and Smyth usually show etiamsi, tametsi, have the forms of the misunderstanding, and for the same awareness of the distinctions, though they do protases of unreal and ideal conditions. reasons. To repeat, assuming that the not comment on them explicitly, no doubt This is not the case with quamvis (see writer is implying (he is not stating) that X because they did not think it necessary to do Taylor’s comment in LB, p.37). Factual and Y did not happen/are not happening, so. It has become necessary since then. concessions introduced by compounds of he may be mistaken in his implication in 3 si have the forms of the protases of open either case (perhaps he is not in a position Smyth in particular gets hopelessly tied up in conditions, with verbs in the indicative in to know) or he may be lying. If he is, then knots in his various attempts at an explanation. the appropriate tense, like quamquam. it is not a fact that X and Y did not 4I am not sure that ‘result’ is the right word to Concessions that have the same happen/are not happening. denote what is expressed by the infinitive. One forms as the protases of unreal conditions reason for confusion here is that the word are liable to the same misinterpretations as ‘result’ itself suggests something that did unreal conditions (q.v.): an implication is Conclusion occur, so that it seems contradictory to say that taken for a statement and a statement for a a result was only a likely or expected one, or fact. Concessions that have the same that a result did not occur. Ever since Saussure (or, going back much forms as the protases of open and ideal earlier, ever since proponents of certain 5See the list of them given by Eleanor Dickey conditions are not likely to be forms of Idealism), there has been a in Appendix E (pp. 211-12) of An Introduction to misinterpreted in this way. tendency in philosophy to maintain that the Composition and Analysis of Greek Prose (2016). Concessions may also be expressed language and thought do not represent in the form of consecutive sentences (ita 6I haven’t tested this — I’m not sure it can be (extra-mental) ‘reality’; or that if they do … ut/ut non … or ut/ut non … tamen …), tested — but if it is I’m prepared to wager then we cannot know that they do: there comparative sentences (ut … ita …) and that one would come across a number of are not ideas of and words for things, and the simple iussive subjunctive. None of such instances of what I call ‘evasive things. (The more orthodox view that implication’ — implying by the form of an these is likely to be misunderstood in this they do is called ‘Foundationalism’.) Unreal condition that what one knows or way either. While not wishing to go as far as this, I am believes is false is true — if one trawled sure that we cannot know what reality is through the corpus of fourth century Athenian political and forensic oratory. from the form of the language that Latin Conditional Clauses purports to represent it. At about the 7Regarding Woodcock’s assimilation of same time as Saussure, the earlier ‘result’ to ‘effect’, and the main clause of ‘The things supposed may be either ones Wittgenstein posited a close a consecutive sentence to a causal clause, which did not happen, are not happening correspondence between certain forms a consecutive sentence does not have the now …’ (Morwood, Writing Latin, p. 91) and usages of language and the world of same meaning as a causal one. If a cause is best understood as the necessary and sufficient ‘A past closed condition says if X had facts; but he did not confuse the two. conditions of its effect, the same cannot be Oscar Wilde observed that the English happened, Y would have happened [Taylor’s said of a result as of an effect: results of italics] (but in fact neither did)’ [my italics] are always degrading truths into facts. He actions or occurrences do not have necessary ‘A present closed condition says if X could just as well have observed that and sufficient conditions. There is not the were happening now, Y would be happening many of us (and not just English people) same kind of (logical) relationship between [Taylor’s italics] (but in fact neither is)’ [my are often upgrading facts, or rather a cause and its effect and an action or italics] (LB, p. 48) statements of facts, into truths. occurrence and its result. ‘The notion of impossibility comes 8So a primary main verb is followed by a from the irreversible character of the Past Jerome Moran is a CA Tutor and a pluperfect (rather than perfect) and imperfect Tense.’ (Gildersleeve & Lodge §597) retired teacher of Classics and (rather than present) subjunctive. This What is impossible to reverse, of course, Philosophy. He is also the student distinction can only be made if the main verb is not a feature of a verb but an action or mentioned at the beginning of this is in a primary tense. If the main verb is in a historic tense, the distinction between a event. Even allowing for hypallage, there article. likely/unlikely situation cannot be made, as is a conflation here of language with [email protected] what language represents: as we have the forms of the subjunctive are the same in both cases: pluperfect, imperfect, periphrastic seen, a common slippage between one ‘future in the past’. and the other. Much the same applies to conditional 1‘State a fact’ is ambiguous between state that 9Actually, what Morwood says in Writing Latin, clauses in Latin as in Greek. We find the something is a fact (which does not entail that p. 102, is a good example too.

Downloaded24 from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.33.22Is That A Fact?, on Language 27 Sep 2021 And at Fact 01:18:56 In Greek, subject And to Latin the CambridgeConstructions Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631017000186