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The Development of Iraqi Shi'a Mourning Rituals In The Development of Iraqi Shi’a Mourning Rituals in Modern Iraq: The ‘Ashurā Rituals and Visitation of Al-Arb‘ain by Faraj Hattab Hamdan A Thesis Presented In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts Approved November 2012 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: Souad Ali, Co-Chair Shahla Talebi, Co-Chair Abdullahi Gallab Joel Gereboff ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY December 2012 ABSTRACT This thesis argues that the mourning rituals of ‘Ashurā and the Forty Day Visitation Zyarat Al-Arb‘ain contribute to the social or individual life of Iraqi Shi’a. They also make significant contributions through creating a symbolic language to communicate for the community, as well as communicating with their essential symbolic structure. Second, the Forty Day Visitation Zyarat Al-Arb‘ain is one of the most significant collective mourning rituals, one that expresses unity and solidarity of the Iraqi Shi’a community, and helps them to represent their collective power, and maintain their collective existence. This study uses two of Victor Turner’s tripartite models. For ‘Ashurā the rite of passage rituals is used, which consists of the separation, margin, and re- aggregation phase. Through this process of entering and leaving time and social structure, it helps in changing the social status of the participants. The other model used for Al-Arb‘ain is pilgrimage as a social process, which includes three levels of communitas: existential, normative, and ideological communitas. The Shi’a in Iraq are holding a position similar to Turner’s notion of communitas since they are living within a society that is Muslim and yet even though they are a larger population of the society, they still become marginalized by the Sunni population socially, economically, and politically. Social relations and links play a significant role for Shi’a in ‘Ashurā and Al-Arb‘ain as a reflection between their social status as an undefined communitas and the general structure of Iraqi society. i DEDICATION In remembrance of my father, Hattab Hamdan, 1924-1999 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many people have provided unforgettable support throughout the different stages of writing this Master’s Thesis that would never have been possible without the help of my professors, friends and family. I offer my deepest gratitude, sincerest thanks, and appreciation to my mentors, the co-chairs of this Thesis: Dr. Shahla Talebi and Dr. Souad T. Ali for the invaluable effort they exerted in directing my research, their patience throughout the time of completing my work, and their important guidance that eventually helped me center my own ideas. My sincere appreciation also goes to Dr. Joel Gereboff for his support and guidance especially with regard to theoretical notions and thoughts. My sincere appreciation equally goes to Dr. Abdullahi Gallab for his support, assistance and invaluable advice. I would like to also extend my thanks to all of my professors and instructors in the Religious Studies Department at Arizona State University for their support. Special thanks go to all those who helped me during my field study in Iraq. Particularly, I would like to thank journalists Emad Jasim and Basim Jihad whose support was vital to completing this study. Thanks also to journalist Haider Al- Salamy who provided me with important information and references. My thanks further go to all the colleagues in the Media Section in Husseinite shrine and Abbasid shrine, especially Sayid Hashim Al- Mosawey in the ‘Department of Husseinite Mawakib and Committees in Iraq and Islamic World’ for providing me with information that greatly enriched this research. iii I would like to express my gratitude and respect for the religious authorities Ayatollah Sayid Mohammed Taqi Al- Mudarrisy and his head office Sayid Hussein Al- Radawy, and Ayatollah Sayid Mohammed Baqir Al- Airawany for their time of interviews and answers to my many questions. I would like also to thank the office of Ayatollah Al- Shirazi in Karbala, office of Grand Ayatollah Al- Hakim in Najaf, especially Sayid Ala’ Al- Hakim and Sayid Muhanad Mahboba for their support. My thanks also go to Sheikh Mohammed Sad Al- Makhzoomy for their cooperation and warm reception. My deep gratitude goes to my colleague Jalal Hasan who generously read the draft of this Thesis and provided valuable remarks and feedback during our conversations through the many stages of this study. I would like to offer my gratitude to all those who helped me complete this research; I cannot convey my gratitude in words. Mohsen Beni Saeed, to begin with, Dr. Ibrahim Al- Haydari, researcher Ala’ Hameed, Dr.Nadia Faydh, Diana Coleman, Jafr Martin, Mohammed Qasim, Ala’ Fadhil, Dr. Naseer Ghadeer, researcher Mohammed Qasim Abbas, Sheikh Basim, Ahmed Hattab, Ahmed Noori, Muna Noori, and all the Iraqi people that assisted me and for any reason my memory could not remember their names. Finally, my gratitude and love are reserved to my wife Ahlam and my daughter Rose for their effort in reading the research. My deep gratitude goes to my family whose patience and support were essential to overcome all the hardships and smoothening the difficult path of researching. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………...............................x LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS……………………………………………………....xi PREFACE……………………………………………………………………..... xii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………...1 Statement of Purpose…………………………..………….1 Significance of Study………………………..…………….3 The Position of Al-Hussein in Islam…………...………….5 Research Limitations…………………………………..….9 Scope of Study…………………………………………...10 Terminologies…………………………………………....13 Mourning Rituals……………………...…………13 Rituals of ‘Ashurā………………………………..13 Rituals of Al-Arb‘ain…………………………….14 Mourning Council (Majilis Al-‘Aza)………….....15 Processions of Al-Hussein (Al-Mawakib Al-Husseiniyya………………………………….15 Visitation (Ziyara)..…...…………………………16 Visitation of ‘Ashurā (Ziyarat ‘Ashurā)…..……..17 Visitation of Al-Arb‘ain (Zyarat Al-Arb‘ain)…....19 Methodology…………………………….……………….22 Structure of Study………………………………………..24 v CHAPTER Page 2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND……………...………………...28 Introduction……………………….……………………...28 The Beginnings of Shi’a Islam…………………………..29 The Shi’a- Sunni Split…………………………....29 Shi’a Groups……………………………………..37 Twelver Shi’a (Ithna Ashariyya)……..………….43 Karbala…………………………………………………..47 Al-Hussein Goes to Iraq………………...………..47 Martyrdom of Al-Hussein and His Family…........51 Shi’a in Kufa and their Stand toward Karbala…...57 The Rise and Development of Mourning Rituals………..59 The Umayyad Era (661 C.E. - 750 C.E.)..…..…...59 The Abbasid Era (750 C.E.- 1258 C.E.)………....61 The Buyid Era (934 C.E.- 1055 C.E.)……………63 The Safavid and Qajar Eras (1501 C.E. - 1925 C.E.)…………………...….... 66 The Ottoman Era (1299 C.E. - 1922 C.E.)…....…68 The British Mandate and Hashemite Monarchy Era (1920 C.E. - 1958 C.E.)………….70 The Republican Era (1958 C.E. - 1968 C.E.)…....73 The Baath Era (1968 C.E. - 2003 C.E.)………….74 The Development of Al-Hussein’s Shrine Visitation…....78 vi CHAPTER Page Conclusion……………………………………………….83 3 MOURNING: A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK…………….85 Introduction…………………………………….………...85 Mourning: Psychological Perspective…………….……...86 Mourning: Anthropological and Sociological Perspectives………………………………………….…...92 Mourning in Sunni Islam………………………………...97 Mourning in Shi’a Islam…………………………..……101 Literature Review…………………………………..…...104 Conclusion………………………………..…………….119 4 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS OF ‘ASHURĀ RITUALS……………………………..………………………...121 Introduction………………………………...…………...121 Reception Ceremonies of ‘Ashurā…………..………….125 Early Preparedness to Reception of ‘Ashurā…...125 Ceremony Flag Changing: A New Phenomenon 130 Mourning Councils (Majalis Al-‘Aza)…………….……134 Public Majalis……………………….………….135 Performance of Majalis…………..……………..137 Female Majalis…………………..……………...143 Processions of Al-Hussein (Al-Mawakib Al-Husseiniyya)..............................................................148 vii CHAPTER Page Processions of Service (Mawakib Al-Khidmah) 150 Processions of Mourning (Mawakib Al-‘Aza)....151 Processions of Back Chain-Lashing (Mawakib Al-Zangeel)………………….151 Processions of Head Lacerating (Mawakib Al- Tatbir)………………….…………...153 Processions of Chest Beating (Mawakib Al- Latm) ……….………………..…….153 Performing Passion Plays (Tashabih)……..…..………..154 Passion Plays on the Tenth Day of ‘Ashurā….....156 Short Tashabih and Symbols……….…………..157 The Tenth Day (‘Ashurā Day) …...………..…………...158 ‘Ashurā Visitation (Ziyarat ‘Ashurā)...…………160 Processions of Head Lacerating (Mawakib Al-Tatbir)………………………………….……162 Reciting Al-Hussein’s Death Story (Al- Maqtal)………………………………….....165 Tweareej Run (Rakdhat Tweareej) …………….167 Tent Burning……………………..……………..169 Burial Day (Yawm Al-Dafn)………………..………….172 Conclusion………………………………..…………….173 viii CHAPTER Page 5 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS OF VISITATION OF AL- ARB‘AIN (ZIYRAT AL-ARB‘AIN)…………………...….…………..175 Introduction……………………………………...……………...175 Walking to Karbala………………………..……………………179 The First Day: Safar 15, 1433 A.H (January 9, 2012 C.E.)………………………………….180 The Second Day: Safar 16, 1433 A.H (January 10, 2012 C.E.)....……………………………..190 The Third Day: Safar 17, 1433 A.H (January 11, 2012 C.E.) ...………………………….…..201 Confrontation of the Participants and Security Forces in 1977………………………………..…206 The Fourth Day: Safar 18, 1433 A.H (January 12, 2012 C.E.) …...…………………………...210 Rituals of Al-Arb‘ain Visitation in Karbala……...……….…….216 Conclusion……………………………….……………….…….219 6 CONCLUSION…………………………………………………..……..222 Overview of Mourning Rituals…………………..……………..222
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