By Submitted in Accordance with the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR of LITERATURE and PHILOSOPHY in the DEPARTMENT of LING
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LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE AND SHIFT IN THE GREEK COMMUNITY OF JOHANNESBURG by ALLISTAIR JAMES McDULING submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROF. L.A. BARNES FEBRUARY 2014 i DECLARATION Student Number: 0754-400-6 I declare Language maintenance and shift in the Greek community of Johannesburg is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. __________________ 24 February 2014 ii In loving memory of my mother and father, who would have wanted to share this day with me. iii There is no nation in world history, who for so many centuries, and in so many spheres, has influenced the history of human thought, actions and feelings as the Ancient Greeks, through the creative achievements of their intellectual life. Furthermore, from its origin in the second millennium B.C., despite extensive changes and adaptations, the Greek nation and culture and its language have been perpetually sustained and, in essence, remained the same. Prof. G. van N. Viljoen, Rector of Rand Afrikaans University, cited in Toerien Dec. 1977 – Feb. 1978, Page 9 (Translated by: A. McDuling) iv ABSTRACT This thesis explores the phenomenon of language shift and maintenance in the Greek community of Johannesburg, which is the largest Greek community in South Africa. The main aim of the study is to provide an account of the factors which assist in maintaining the Greek language which is under pressure from English, the dominant official language in the country. This study draws on the theoretical and methodological frameworks established in the many studies conducted on the Greek communities in the USA and Australia. The Greek community has played a significant role in assisting to shape the development of South Africa. Up until the 1980s, they were subject to discrimination from the host society; consequently, many immigrants lived together in certain suburbs and founded their own churches, clubs and schools. These factors contributed greatly to the retention of their language and culture. Since the late 1980s, the discriminatory attitude of the host society toward the immigrant communities has decreased notably, and subsequently, there has been an increased integration and assimilation into the host society. The process of assimilation has resulted, inter alia, in an increased use of English, the dominant language of the host society, consequently the retention of the mother tongue has declined. A number of factors were identified as playing an important role in the maintenance of Greek: education, religion, family, language loyalty and socio-cultural activities; and, to a lesser extent, media and overseas visits. Education has played a key role in maintaining the language, in particular through the establishment of Greek day and afternoon schools. Despite a preference for bilingual church services, the Greek Orthodox Church continues to play a vital role in the maintenance of Greek. The family, loyalty towards the language and culture and a notable pride in being Greek, and participation in socio-cultural activities contribute significantly to the maintenance of the Greek language. Despite a marked shift towards English in the younger generation, the future of Greek in South Africa may be characterized by relatively stable bilingualism, provided that current trends continue. Key words: bilingualism, code-switching, Greek immigrant communities, Greek language, Greek school, identity, language loyalty, language maintenance, language shift, minority language, sociolinguistics, sociology of language v Σύνοψη Η παροφςα μελζτθ πραγματεφεται το φαινόμενο τθσ αλλαγισ και διατιρθςθσ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ ςτθν ελλθνικι κοινότθτα του Γιοχάνεςμπουργκ, θ οποία αποτελεί τθν μεγαλφτερθ κοινότθτα ςτο Γιοχάνεςμπουργκ. Ο κφριοσ ςκοπόσ τθσ διατριβισ, είναι να παρουςιάςει τουσ παράγοντεσ που ςυμβάλλουν ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ, θ οποία καταπιζηεται γλωςςικά από τθν Αγγλικι, τθν κυρίαρχθ και επίςθμθ γλϊςςα τθσ χϊρασ. Η μελζτθ αυτι αντλεί τουσ κεωρθτικοφσ και μεκοδολογικοφσ τθσ άξονεσ από τισ διάφορεσ μελζτεσ που ωσ αντικείμενό τουσ ζχουν τθν μελζτθ των ελλθνικϊν κοινοτιτων ςτισ Ηνωμζνεσ Πολιτείεσ και ςτθν Αυςτραλία. Η Ελλθνικι κοινότθτα ζχει παίξει ςθμαντικό υποβοθκθτικό ρόλο ςτθν πορεία τθσ εξζλιξθσ τθσ Νότιασ Αφρικισ. Μζχρι το 1980 ιταν αντικείμενο φυλετικισ διάκριςθσ από τθ χϊρα υποδοχισ με αποτζλεςμα πολλοί μετανάςτεσ να ηουν ομαδικά ςε ςυγκεκριμζνεσ περιοχζσ, ιδρφοντασ τισ δικζσ τουσ εκκλθςίεσ, ςυλλόγουσ και ςχολεία. Οι προαναφερόμενοι παράγοντεσ ςυνζβαλαν αιςκθτά ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ γλϊςςασ και του ελλθνικοφ πολιτιςμοφ. Από τα τζλθ του 1980, θ πολιτικι διακρίςεων λόγω φυλετικισ καταγωγισ από τθ χϊρα υποδοχισ προσ τισ μεταναςτευτικζσ ομάδεσ ζχει μειωκεί αιςκθτά ενϊ μετζπειτα παρατθρείται μια αυξθμζνθ ενςωμάτωςθ και αφομοίωςθ ςτθν χϊρα- οικοδεςπότθσ. Η διαδικαςία ενςωμάτωςθσ ςυντζλεςε, inter alia, ςτθν αφξθςθ τθσ χριςθσ τθσ αγγλικισ γλϊςςασ, τθν κυρίαρχθ γλϊςςα τθσ χϊρασ υποδοχισ με αποτζλεςμα να μειϊνεται θ διατιρθςθ τθσ μθτρικισ γλϊςςασ. Αναγνωρίςτθκε ζνασ αρικμόσ παραγόντων με ςθμαντικό ρόλο ωσ προσ τθ διατιρθςθ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ: θ παιδεία, θ κρθςκεία, θ οικογζνεια, θ αφοςίωςθ ςτθ γλϊςςα και οι κοινωνικό- πολιτιςμικζσ δραςτθριότθτεσ ενϊ ςε μικρότερο ποςοςτό, τα μαηικά μζςα και οι διεκνείσ επιςκζψεισ. Η εκπαίδευςθ ζχει παίξει ςθμαντικό ρόλο ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ γλϊςςασ ιδιαίτερα μζςω τθσ ίδρυςθσ ελλθνικϊν θμεριςιων και απογευματινϊν ςχολείων. Η Ελλθνικι Ορκόδοξθ Εκκλθςία ςυνεχίηει να παίηει ουςιϊδθ ρόλο ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ γλϊςςασ παρότι υπάρχει μια προτίμθςθ για τισ δίγλωςςεσ εκκλθςιαςτικζσ λειτουργίεσ. Η οικογζνεια, θ αφοςίωςθ ςτθν γλϊςςα και ςτον πολιτιςμό, θ εμφανισ υπερθφάνεια ωσ προσ τθν ελλθνικι ταυτότθτα και θ ςυμμετοχι ςε κοινωνικό- πολιτιςμικζσ δραςτθριότθτεσ επίςθσ ςυμβάλλουν αιςκθτά ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ. Παρόλο το φαινόμενο τθσ γλωςςικισ αλλαγισ προσ τθν αγγλικι γλϊςςα από τθ νεότερθ γενεά, το μζλλον τθσ ελλθνικισ ςτθ Νότια Αφρικι μπορεί να χαρακτθριςτεί από μια ςτακερι διγλωςςία, υπό τθν προχπόκεςθ ότι κα ςυνεχιςτοφν οι τρζχουςεσ τάςεισ. Λζξεις Κλειδιά: διγλωςςία, εναλλαγι κωδικϊν, κοινότθτεσ Ελλινων μεταναςτϊν, ελλθνικι γλϊςςα, ελλθνικό ςχολείο, ταυτότθτα, πιςτότθτα γλϊςςασ, διατιρθςθ γλϊςςασ, γλωςςικι αλλαγι, μειονοτικι γλϊςςα, κοινωνιογλωςςολογία, κοινωνιολογία τθσ γλϊςςασ vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1. All my accomplishments have been possible through faith and the grace of God. Praise and thanks to God Who has given me the health, strength and knowledge over the past few years, to have achieved what I set out to accomplish. Si Dieu n‟existait pas, il faudrait l‟inventer If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent Him Voltaire 2. To my parents, for years of continuous support and encouragement to achieve my dreams. I think of my mother and father who would have wanted to share this occasion with me. Thanks to my loving mother for infinite support and encouragement on this journey. The support and love of a mother cannot be measured by any amount of monetary value or expressed sufficiently by words. “I shall never forget my mother, for it was she who planted and nurtured the first seeds of good within me. She opened my heart to the impressions of nature; she awakened my understanding and extended my horizon, and her precepts exerted an everlasting influence upon the course of my life” Immanuel Kant 3. To my supervisor, Prof. L. Barnes. I extend my heartfelt thanks and appreciation for everything you have done for me on my academic journey. Over many years, you have invested much time in me, assisting me and guiding me, by sharing your knowledge with me, so that I may achieve my goals. I will always be indebted to you for all your guidance and wisdom. Thank you for all your time and interest. “I am indebted to my father for living, but to my teacher for living well” Alexander the Great 4. To Prof. A. Coetzee, who initiated my interest in and passion for Sociolinguistics. You have always been an exemplary role-model. 5. To cherished, life-long friends who, over many years, initiated and encouraged my interest in the Greek culture and way of life and all things Greek: Anna Charalambus- Stylianides, Zoe Nicholaou-Lourenco and Steven Poulitsis. You are forever dear to me. 6. To all the people and/or organizations who made themselves available for interviews, assisted with interviews or with the provision of information: Rand Afrikaans University (University of Johannesburg): Professors B. Hendrickx & Thekla Sansaridou-Hendrickx; Mrs Piperides-Triandaffillou; Prof. N. Fourie; Mrs Barbara Leeuwner. vii The University of the Witwatersrand for assisting with statistics: Prof. G. Olivier and Mrs. Findeiro. SAHETI School: Mrs S. Krystallidis; Mrs Tonia Papazoglou-Krystallidis. The Pretoria Church/Community and afternoon school teachers: thank you to Basil who assisted me with arranging interviews. The Germiston Church/Community: Mrs. Roy Eustace, who assisted me with the completion of questionnaires; Mr Dimitri Zamanis. The Alberton Church/Community: Mrs Anastasia Kehagia De Gouveia The Bedforview Church: Father Petros Parginos, who assisted me greatly. Thank you so much. The Greek Consulate: Mrs Plakidou Gauteng Department of Education: Mr. Willie Venter Independent Examinations Board: Mrs Francis Kerr-Phillips The New Pan-Hellenic Radio Station: Renos Spanoudes and Tulla Critsotakis Doctors Cosmas and Victoria Giannakopoulos