Jharkhand Journal of Development and Management Studies XISS, Ranchi, Vol. 17, No.3, September 2019, pp. 8159-8174 DIMENSIONS OF TRIBAL EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT IN : LINKAGE OF EDUCATIONAL LEVEL AND INDUSTRIAL CATEGORY Vijay Kumar Baraik1

The literacy and education have always been at the central stage of discussion in the process of development of tribal people (Scheduled Tribes or STs) of Jharkhand, since it is directly related to employment and upward mobility in the ladder of socio-economic progress meeting the final goal of well-being. However, there are many contradictions in the State. The most modern establishments of education and employment avenues exist in the State where primitive groups are a reality even today. Though the Census of India 2011 has shown a decline of main workers and a decline of workers from higher educational levels. In the group of cultivators and agricultural labour still major employment migration of youth from the State are reported. There seems to be lack of synergy between education and employment among tribes due to which educated tribal youth have to come back to the primary sectors or take the route of various cities or States to be domestic help or manual labour; and thus education more often fails to manifest its demonstration effects of its benefits.

In the above background, this paper examines the situation of tribal education and employment in Jharkhand is the period 2001-2011. In examining the educational status, regional, social and gender disparity, attainments and challenges have been taken into consideration. The association of education with pattern of urbanization, per capita income and levels of development has also been attempted. The study is mainly based on secondary data primarily from the Census of India and other sources.

Keywords : Literacy, Tribal Education, Employment, Capabilities, Opportunities, Levels of Development, socio-economic Progress.

Introduction and rationale

Jharkhand is the 28th State of India carved out of Bihar on 15th November 2000 as a result of prolonged aspirations and struggle. The State has the intermingling population, where people from different ethnic and linguistic origins coexist all over the space. According to the 2011 Census, total population of the State is 32988134, where the share of tribal population is 26.2 per cent. The Scheduled Tribes are one of the prominent social fabrics of the State who give a separate identity to the State. The major concentration of tribal population is in the districts of Khunti, Simdega, Gumla, Pashchimi Singhbhum,

1 Associate Professor of Geography, School of Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi- 110068. Email: [email protected], mobile: 9968655685

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Lohardaga, Latehar, Dumka, Pakur, Ranchi, and Saraikela- Kharsawan, where roughly 64 per cent of tribal population of Jharkhand resides (Khunti-73.3, Simdega-70.8, Gumla-68.9, Pashchimi Singhbhum-67.3, Lohardaga- 56,9, Latehar- 45.5, Dumka- 43.2, Pakur-42.1, Ranchi-35.8, Saraikela Kharsawan-35.2, Jamtara- 30.4, Sahibganj-26.8, Purbi Singhbhum-28.5, Godda-21.3, Ramgarh- 21.2, Garhwa-15.6, Bokaro-12.4, Deoghar-12.1, Giridih-9.7, Palamu- 9.3, Dhanbad-8.7, Hazaribagh-7.0, Chatra-4.4 and Kodarma-1.0). There has been a decline in the share of tribal population in the last decade. ST population in 1991 was 32.58 per cent, which has continuously been declining and became 26.3 per cent in 2001 and 26.21 per cent in 2011. This decline was observed in the districts of Dumka, Pakur, Ranchi, Saraikela-Kharsawan, Jamtara, Sahebganj, Godda and Deoghar (mostly in the districts of Santhal Parganas). 32 communities have been notified as Scheduled Tribes, out of which nine are identified as Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) or Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) (Asur, Birhor, Birajia, Korwa, Parahiya (Baiga), Sabar, Mal Paharia and Souriya Paharia). Numerically the major tribal groups are Santhals, Oraons, Hos, and Mundas. The major languages spoken are Hindi, Sadri/Sadani/Chotanagpuri, Kurukh, Mundari, Ho, Santhali and Kharia.

Jharkhand is a region of vast physical and cultural diversity alongwith wide disparity. The region possesses of contradiction in development with coexistence of glaring paradoxical situations. Roughly 40 per cent of the mineral resources of the country are in the State and some of the minerals of the country are found only in Jharkhand. Yet the poverty level is one of the highest among all States in the country. More than 70 per cent main workers are engaged in primary activities and large unemployed population exist despite the presence of well known Asia’s first iron and steel industry, world’s one of the few heavy engineering establishments of that time, India’s automobile giant-Tata Motors, and many other industries with mining activities in the State. Large number of villages remains illiterate (85 villages in 2011 Census) amid most modern educational establishments in the State. Vast potential of manpower and human resources are available but end up wasted due to lack of opportunity. Large area and number of villages are inaccessible and villages are still like cul-de-sac forcing people to live in isolation and considerably behind the rest of the population. Very poor living conditions of the PVTGs are hard realities. The State is characterized with indigenous people and realized due to their longstanding demand for separate State, but aspirations remained to be remote hope. There is a lack of forward and backward bearings (infrastructure without outcome, education without jobs, local resources without employment generation, etc.). Amid this situation, employment Dimensions of Tribal Education and Employment in Jharkhand 8161 in the State for educated tribal youth is a distant dream and thus weakened employability of education exists among them. Stranded tribal youth in considerable number including sizeable educated ones are opting for out migration in search of employment and livelihood despite adverse and often harsh movement/outmigration and working conditions outside the State.

In the above background, this paper examines, primarily based on the secondary data, the situation of tribal education and employment in Jharkhand. It also attempts to look into the attainments and challenges in this direction. In doing this, the situation of each tribal community has also been attempted to gauge their educational status and progression towards expanding their capabilities in terms of literacy at micro level. It has various sections viz introduction, objectives, data and methods, literature review, findings and conclusion. Findings includes three major sub-sections: education (literacy, association with pattern of urbanization, per capita income and levels of development; educational deprivation: some explanations and challenges), employment situation, and education and employment.

Objectives

The objective of this paper is to examine the dimensions tribal education and employment situation in Jharkhand. It also explores the attainments and challenges in education and employment and the association of employment with education.

Database and methods

The study is primarily based on secondary data from the Census of India and other sources. Simple statistical and cartographic methods have been used for statistical analysis and cartographic data representation in the paper.

Literature Review

Education is primarily for acquiring knowledge and skill and exploration of truth, self transformation and changing mindset with gradual exposure to knowledge. It is also to get liberated from darkness of ignorance and many evils. However, it is also very important to widen opportunities by up scaling capabilities and have better life through employment and earnings. The first human development report highlights that the human development is a process of enlarging peoples’ choice and education is one of the engines of human development and enhancing capabilities (UNDP, 1990). The report of the 71st Round 8162 Baraik of National Sample Survey says, “The foundation of the society is based on education. It brings economic and social prosperity. One can appositely say, a strong nation can be built by ensuring that each citizen of that nation is educated (NSSO, 2015, p. 1).” Studies also highlight that there is direct linkage of level of education and employment.

Dreze and Sen (1995) has highlighted five ways of freedom lead by education along with health- intrinsic importance, instrumental personal roles, instrumental social roles, instrumental process roles and empowerment and distributive roles. Instrumental personal roles say that education along with health help a person in not only being educated and healthy, but also in are important for getting a job and making use of economic opportunities resulting in expansion of freedom. Education is a great driver of social change and upward mobility as well. Income is not the end but is the means to attain other factors of expansion of human capabilities. It is further strengthened by the employment as a means for income and employment opportunities are widened by education. Therefore, it is as important as other factors. “Skilled, healthy and well-educated people are in a better position than others to take their lives into their own hands. They are generally more likely to find employment and earn better wages (HDR, 1990, p. 26).” In tribal regions, after attaining good level of education, if a person has to go back to the avenues where one cannot have better access to other contributing factors (food and nutrition, health services, education, water and sanitation, etc.) resulting in low level stagnation forcing into circular or cumulative causation. It is examined by other studies also (Singh & Ojha, 2019, p. 46).

Findings and Discussions: Education (Literacy)

The literacy rate among STs in Jharkhand in 1991 was 27.52 per cent where female literacy was 15.41 per cent. All the districts of Santhal Pargana region and Giridih had ST female literacy of less than 10 per cent and it was below 6 per cent in Deoghar and Giridih. In 2001 the ST literacy was 40.7 per cent and the total literacy rate in the State was 53.56 per cent in the State. The highest tribal literacy was in Ranchi+ closely followed by Gumla+Simdega. The other districts with relatively better literacy among tribal were Purbi Singhbhum+Saraikela-Kharsawan, Lohardaga and Harzaribagh+ Ramgarh). The districts at the lower strata in tribal literacy were Pakur, Sahibganj, Giridih, Garhwa, Godda, and Deoghar- mainly Santhal region. The districts with medium level of literacy were Dhanbad, Paschimi Singhbhum, Bokaro, Chatra and Dimensions of Tribal Education and Employment in Jharkhand 8163

Palamu+Latehar. The irony is that the industrial districts like Dhanbad and Bokaro had low level of tribal literacy. Female literacy was further poor (27.2 per cent). It is also remarkable that better female literacy was observed in primarily tribal dominated districts and poorest literacy was in the districts of Giridih, Garhwa and Pakur- first two mostly non-tribal districts. Tribals are primarily rural and, therefore, the total literacy and rural literacy have less visible differences except few industrialized districts. Moreover, there is disconnect between the development and tribal education in the State.

The total literacy rate of Jharkhand is not very far from the total literacy of the country in 2011 with literacy rates of 66.4 and 74.04 per cent respectively (Table 1). However, within the state, there is a wide gap in literacy rates between STs and non-SCSTs (non- Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes) in Jharkhand with literacy rates of 57.1 and 72.3 per cent respectively. Further, there is a large male- female difference in literacy rates among STs (Male-68.17%, Female- 46/2%). The ST-non-SCST gaps are large in the districts of mining and industrial activities.

Table-1. Literacy Rates in India and Jharkhand, 2011

India/Jharkhand Total Male Female India 74.04 82.14 65.46 Jharkhand 66.4 76.8 55.4 STs (Jharkhand) 57.1 68.17 46.2 Non-SCSTs (Jharkhand) 72.3 82.2 61.6

Source: Census of India, 2011

The data on individual tribe given by 2001 Census suggests that the literacy rate was very poor among many groups. Lowest literacy among Tribes (2001) were recorded as 12.6% among Paharia, Korwa (14.3%), Baiga (17.3%), Birhor (17.5%), Savar (18.1%), Mal Paharia (20.9%), Sauria Paharia (21.7 %) and Banjara (23.5 %). Among females, it was further grimmer as in 2001 Census, out of 32, 22 tribes had less than 25 per cent female literacy where Paharia and Korwa had merely 5.5 and 6.45 per cent female literacy; and 15% literacy was among the females of Baiga, Savar, Birhor, Sauria Paharia, Mal Paharia, Banjara, Kharwar and Asur. In 2011, the situation has improved with the lowest literacy of 33.1 per cent among Paharia, which was 12.6 per cent in 2001. However, comparatively, tribes like Paharia, Savar, Birhor, Biaga, Korwa, Mal Paharia and Sauria Paharia are still towards the deprivation side. 8164 Baraik

Levels of Education The table 2 reflects that the share of literates below middle level of education is 78.04 per cent among STs as against 68.32 per cent among non-SCSTs in 2011. The share of graduate and above is 3.52 per cent among STs and 8.32 per cent among non-SCSTs. It clearly shows that higher percentage of STs is in lower level of education, i.e. upto middle level and very low share in the higher level, i.e. graduate and above indicating very high drop outs. The higher percentage of non-SCSTs is from matric or secondary levels. Therefore, the higher education is still far away from the ST communities. Amid this, the percentage of share at the lower level below middle has, however, increased for both social groups during the period 2001-2011. Table-2. Educational Level of STs and Non-SCSTs in Jharkhand, 2001 and 2011 2001 Educational ST NON SCST Gap between Levels Total Male Female Total Male Female Non-SCST and ST Literacy without 2.99 3.01 2.95 2.56 2.45 2.76 -0.43 Educational Level Below Primary 30.57 28.65 34.41 24.84 22.34 29.22 -5.73 Primary 28.58 28.69 28.36 25.25 23.72 27.95 -3.33 Middle 17.73 18.42 16.35 15.82 16.26 15.06 -1.91 Matric/Secondary 12.09 13.0 10.26 16.03 17.35 13.72 3.94 Higher Secondary/ 4.43 4.48 4.32 6.97 7.76 5.59 2.54 Intermediate/ Pre-University/ Senior Secondary Non-technical 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.09 0.12 0.04 0.08 diploma or certificate not equal to degree Technical diploma 0.10 0.12 0.06 0.19 0.28 0.03 0.09 or certificate not equal to degree Graduate and above 3.49 3.6 3.26 8.23 9.72 5.60 4.74

Non-technical 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 -0.01 diploma or certificate not equal to degree 2011 Educational ST NON SCST Gap between Levels Total Male Female Total Male Female Non-SCST and ST (Total) Literate without 5.39 5.36 5.44 3.94 3.83 4.09 -1.46 educational level Below primary 27.67 25.29 31.15 22.20 19.85 25.64 -5.47 Primary 28.94 28.96 28.91 25.46 24.23 27.25 -3.48 Middle 17.35 18.42 15.79 16.73 17.12 16.14 -0.63 Matric/Secondary 10.61 11.59 9.18 14.33 15.24 13.00 3.72 Dimensions of Tribal Education and Employment in Jharkhand 8165

Higher secondary/ 6.27 6.49 5.93 8.45 9.26 7.28 2.19 Intermediate Pre- University/Senior secondary Non-technical 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.15 0.16 0.14 0.14 diploma or certificate not equal to degree Technical diploma or 0.22 0.26 0.16 0.39 0.59 0.11 0.17 certificate not equal to degree Graduate & above 3.52 3.58 3.42 8.32 9.69 6.32 4.81 unclassified 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 Source: Census of India, 2001 and 2011. Educational Disparities: Regional, Social and Gender There exists the regional, social and gender disparity in education in the state. There is wide inter-district or interregional disparity in the state. The erstwhile still leads in the literacy rate (Table 3). And most of the districts of Santhal Parganas along with Garhwa, Giridih and Koderma fall at the bottom of this ladder. The paradox are observed in this pattern also as Simdega having highest literacy rates has very weak association with employment avenues and the Giridih and Koderma districts having mining activities are at the bottom in terms of literary in the state.

Table-3. District-wise Literacy Rates among Scheduled Tribes in Jharkhand, 2011 Total Rural Urban Name P M F P M F P M F Jharkhand 57.1 68.2 46.2 55.2 66.6 43.9 75.4 83.2 67.8 Garhwa 52.1 62.7 41.2 52.0 62.7 41.0 63.9 70.1 57.1 Chatra 57.2 65.6 48.4 56.6 65.0 47.9 77.3 84.9 68.1 Kodarma 39.4 49.4 28.3 36.1 46.3 24.5 65.4 74.6 56.3 Giridih 46.1 58.5 33.3 45.7 58.3 32.9 70.0 77.3 62.2 Deoghar 48.3 61.9 34.4 47.8 61.6 33.8 64.7 73.2 56.3 Godda 43.7 55.3 32.3 43.4 55.1 31.9 75.4 83.5 68.0 Sahibganj 40.0 48.8 31.2 39.2 48.1 30.5 71.9 78.7 64.9 Pakur 41.7 51.4 32.3 41.5 51.3 32.1 70.4 72.1 68.8 Dhanbad 56.2 69.4 42.8 54.1 67.9 40.2 67.4 77.3 57.1 Bokaro 56.3 68.1 44.2 51.1 63.3 38.5 68.6 79.4 57.7 Lohardaga 63.0 73.3 52.8 61.8 72.5 51.2 83.1 88.1 78.6 Purbi Singhbhum 59.7 71.9 47.6 56.1 69.0 43.3 72.6 82.3 63.1 Palamu 55.8 67.1 43.9 55.3 66.7 43.3 78.1 82.6 73.6 Latehar 57.4 68.1 46.7 57.1 67.9 46.3 69.5 76.0 63.2 Hazaribagh 58.7 68.7 48.9 55.6 66.1 45.2 80.6 87.3 74.3 Ramgarh 60.4 71.0 49.4 57.4 68.3 46.1 67.8 77.6 57.7 Dumka 52.9 64.6 41.5 52.7 64.5 41.3 73.5 79.5 66.9 Jamtara 55.1 67.9 42.4 54.8 67.6 42.1 77.0 86.4 67.3 Ranchi 67.9 77.5 58.4 63.6 74.4 52.8 80.8 86.9 74.8 Khunti 61.3 71.6 51.2 60.1 70.7 49.6 84.9 89.5 80.6 Gumla 63.8 73.4 54.3 63.0 72.8 53.2 86.8 91.6 82.3 Simdega 68.8 76.0 61.6 67.9 75.5 60.5 84.8 87.6 82.3 Pashchimi Singhbhum 53.4 66.4 40.8 52.1 65.3 39.2 74.5 83.1 66.0 Saraikela-Kharsawan 57.3 70.9 43.8 56.9 70.7 43.1 62.5 73.4 51.5 Source: Census of India, 2011 8166 Baraik

There are gaps in literacy between non-SCST and ST (Table 3, 4 and 5). There is 15.2 percentage points gap in literacy between non- SCST and STs in Jharkhand. The largest gap is found in the district of Kodarma followed by Dhanbad, Purbi Singhbhum, Giridih, Deoghar and Bokaro- mostly the districts with mining and industrial activities. It is to be noted that why the tribes are lagging behind in terms of literacy in these districts. In the non industrial tribal dominant districts, like Simdega, Gumla, Lohardaga, Chatra, Khunti, Pakur, etc. the gaps are small. In fact in these districts, the female literacy among tribes are higher than non-SCST groups, which makes a very important point for policy making.

Table-4. District-wise Literacy Rates among Non-SCSTs in Jharkhand, 2011

District Total Rural Urban T M F T M F T M F Jharkhand 72.3 82.2 61.6 66.2 78.2 53.6 85 90.4 78.9 Garhwa 65.3 77.6 51.9 64 76.8 50.3 80.9 88.2 72.8 Chatra 68.5 78.7 57.6 67 77.6 55.8 84.7 90.4 78 Kodarma 69 82 55.4 65.7 79.9 50.8 81.3 89.3 72.5 Giridih 66.8 80.5 52.2 65.1 79.7 49.6 82.1 87.7 75.9 Deoghar 69 80.6 56.3 64.3 77.6 49.8 86.7 91.9 80.9 Godda 61.2 72.4 48.8 59.6 71.2 46.9 83.3 88.5 77.4 Sahibganj 57 64.7 48.7 53.1 61.2 44.5 73.7 79.7 67.1 Pakur 54.2 61.1 47.1 52.4 59.6 45 66.3 71 61.4 Dhanbad 79.2 87.5 69.9 73.5 85.3 60.6 82.5 88.7 75.5 Bokaro 76.4 86.3 65.6 68.1 81.1 54.2 83.8 90.9 75.9 Lohardaga 74.2 83 65.1 70.5 80.6 60 86.8 90.7 82.6 Purbi Singhbhum 82.7 89 76 70.7 81.2 59.7 87.8 92.2 83 Palamu 70.3 81 58.7 67.7 79.3 55.2 83.9 89.9 77.3 Latehar 71.2 81.3 60.3 68.5 79.4 56.9 85.7 91.3 79.3 Hazaribagh 73.2 83.4 62.4 70 81.4 58 87.7 92.2 82.7 Ramgarh 78.4 87 68.8 71.7 82.7 60 85.5 91.4 78.8 Dumka 68.4 80.2 55.9 66.1 78.7 52.7 85.9 90.9 80.2 Jamtara 70.2 81.6 57.9 67.9 80.1 54.8 84.5 90.4 77.8 Ranchi 81.7 88.7 74.1 72.9 83.5 61.8 88.9 92.9 84.5 Khunti 72.9 82.4 63 69.8 80.2 59.1 84.9 90.6 78.7 Gumla 71 81 60.6 68 79 56.9 89.1 93.1 84.7 Simdega 69.5 79.2 59.3 65.8 76.5 54.9 87.7 91.9 82.8 Pashchimi Singhbhum 69.4 80.6 57.9 60.9 74.6 47.2 86.5 92.1 80.4 Saraikela-Kharsawan 74.5 84.2 64.1 69.7 81.7 57 83.8 88.9 78

Source: Census of India, 2011 Dimensions of Tribal Education and Employment in Jharkhand 8167

Table-5. Districtwise Gaps in Literacy Rates among STs and Non-SCSTs in Jharkhand, 2011

District Total Rural Urban T M F T M F T M F Jharkhand 15.2 14.0 15.4 11.0 11.6 9.7 9.6 7.2 11.1 Garhwa 13.2 14.9 10.7 12.0 14.1 9.3 17.0 18.1 15.7 Chatra 11.3 13.1 9.2 10.4 12.6 7.9 7.4 5.5 9.9 Kodarma 29.6 32.6 27.1 29.6 33.6 26.3 15.9 14.7 16.2 Giridih 20.7 22.0 18.9 19.4 21.4 16.7 12.1 10.4 13.7 Deoghar 20.7 18.7 21.9 16.5 16.0 16.0 22.0 18.7 24.6 Godda 17.5 17.1 16.5 16.2 16.1 15.0 7.9 5.0 9.4 Sahibganj 17.0 15.9 17.5 13.9 13.1 14.0 1.8 1.0 2.2 Pakur 12.5 9.7 14.8 10.9 8.3 12.9 -4.1 -1.1 -7.4 Dhanbad 23.0 18.1 27.1 19.4 17.4 20.4 15.1 11.4 18.4 Bokaro 20.1 18.2 21.4 17.0 17.8 15.7 15.2 11.5 18.2 Lohardaga 11.2 9.7 12.3 8.7 8.1 8.8 3.7 2.6 4.0 Purbi Singhbhum 23.0 17.1 28.4 14.6 12.2 16.4 15.2 9.9 19.9 Palamu 14.5 13.9 14.8 12.4 12.6 11.9 5.8 7.3 3.7 Latehar 13.8 13.2 13.6 11.4 11.5 10.6 16.2 15.3 16.1 Hazaribagh 14.5 14.7 13.5 14.4 15.3 12.8 7.1 4.9 8.4 Ramgarh 18.0 16.0 19.4 14.3 14.4 13.9 17.7 13.8 21.1 Dumka 15.5 15.6 14.4 13.4 14.2 11.4 12.4 11.4 13.3 Jamtara 15.1 13.7 15.5 13.1 12.5 12.7 7.5 4.0 10.5 Ranchi 13.8 11.2 15.7 9.3 9.1 9.0 8.1 6.0 9.7 Khunti 11.6 10.8 11.8 9.7 9.5 9.5 0.0 1.1 -1.9 Gumla 7.2 7.6 6.3 5.0 6.2 3.7 2.3 1.5 2.4 Simdega 0.7 3.2 -2.3 -2.1 1.0 -5.6 2.9 4.3 0.5 Pashchimi Singhbhum 16.0 14.2 17.1 8.8 9.3 8.0 12.0 9.0 14.4 Saraikela-Kharsawan 17.2 13.3 20.3 12.8 11.0 13.9 21.3 15.5 26.5

Source: Census of India, 2011

There exists three fold deprivations among females in Jharkhand- physical access, cultural and linguistic seclusion and gender related specific deprivation due to functional characteristics of females in the society (household chores, child rearing, cultivation and other primary activities at home, etc.). The male-female literacy gap among tribes in Jharkhand is 22.0 percentage point as male literacy is 68.2 per cent and female literacy is 46.2 per cent (Table 3). The large gaps (more than 25 percentage points) are found in Deoghar, Saraikela-Kharsawan, Dhanbad, Pashchimi Singhbhum, Jamtara and Giridih, mainly the districts with mining and industrial activities except Jamtara. These districts have low share of tribal population as well. The gaps ranging 20 and 25 are in the districts of Purbi Singhbhum, Bokaro, Palamu, Dumka, Godda, Ramgarh, Garhwa, Latehar, Kodarma, Lohardaga 8168 Baraik and Khunti. The gaps between 17 and 20 are in the districts of Hazaribagh, Gumla, Ranchi, Pakur, Sahibganj and Chatra. Simdega has the lowest gap (14.4). It is observed that the gaps are small mainly in the districts with predominant tribal population. This seeks greater examination of reasons for the proper intervention to bridge the gap.

Association with Pattern of Urbanization, Per Capita Income and Levels of Development

There is an observation that roughly the development indicators follow the urbanization patterns with few exceptions like Simdega and Gumla in overall and female literacy; and Pakur and Sahebganj in Per Capita Income. In these exceptions there are factors like extensive missionary activities related to education in Gumla and Simdega in case of literacy and maybe emerging small scale industry in case of Pakur and Sahebganj in per capita income. Literacy rates and levels of development follow the pattern of Urbanization. Urbanization follows the pattern of Industrialization and mining activities except Ranchi and Deoghar. Per Capita Income also follows the pattern of urbanization, industrialization and mining activities. Urbanization seems to be the stimulator/ accelerator of development. The spatial associations are illustrated in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Regional comparison of various spheres of development in Jharkhand Dimensions of Tribal Education and Employment in Jharkhand 8169

Source: i) Census of India, 2011, ii) Computed from Sectorwise Gross District Domestic Product (GDDP ) for the year : 2005-06 at Current Prices table published by the Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Dept of Planning and Development, Govt. of Jharkhand, http:// desjharkhand.nic.in/stateincom.html (accessed on 2nd April 2019), iii) Development index computed from indicators- Sex Ratio, Literacy, Female Literacy, Percentage of Main Workers, Workers in Non Primary Activities (Household Industry and Others), Per Capita Income, PHC and Sub-Centre Per Lakh Population, % Villages Electrified, %age of Electrified Households, %age Households with Laterine Facility, %age Households with Laterine Facility (ST), Any ANC, Full ANC, %age Villages within 5 kms from PHC, Full ANC, TT Injection, AF Tab/Syrup, Percentage of women who had institutional delivery, safe delivery, Full Vaccination, Vitamin A supplements, ARI Treatment and IMR.

Educational Deprivation: Some Explanations and Challenges

There is a threefold educational deprivation amongst the tribes in the state. These are physical access, cultural and linguistic seclusion, and gender related deprivation due to functional characteristics of females in the society (household chores, child rearing, cultivation and other primary activities at home). Like all tribal regions, Jharkhand also poses challenges of its rugged terrain and undulated physiography with forest and scattered settlements creating difficult access to the facility points. Further, the tribes are rural and tribal habitations are primarily located in the more difficult terrain with remote accessibility. As per Census of India 2001, 36.5 per cent villages had primary schools within 1-5 kms, whereas 8.1 per cent villages had primary schools located beyond 5 kms of distance. Similarly, 53.6 per cent villages had upper primary schools located at a distance of 1-5 kms, 25.9 per cent villages had these schools at a distance of 5-10 kms and 8.1 per cent villages had upper primary schools at above 10 kms of distance. As far as the locations of colleges are concerned, 77.6 per cent villages had colleges located at more than 10 kms. In 2011 Census, still the children of 15.9 and 1.9 per cent villages had to travel upto 5 kms and 5-10 kms for primary schools respectively. Similarly, the children of 14.2 per cent villages had to travel 5-10 kms for upper primary school and still the distance of nearest college for 77.6 per cent villages was more than 10 kms. The study conducted by ICSSR on the tribal education (Bara & Baraik, 2016) shows that the major modes of travel are walking and bicycle. Negotiating distance round the year is a big challenge due to distance, connectivity, accessibility and seasonality (especially during rainy season). 8170 Baraik

The other issues and challenges are related to seclusion resulted to physical and cultural distance. Cultural incompatibility has been continuing since the beginning of education among the tribes in Jharkhand. Bara (2011) says that there were many impediment like availability, if available there was no motivation, if willing to attend the schooling, there was loss of work and working hand, if admitted, they faced the problem of language and culture in educational content and providers from alien world, even if educated, there no jobs for them, and so on. The findings of ICSSR project (Bara & Baraik, 2016) suggests that there are linguistic barriers as medium of instruction is hindi but only 5.2 per cent households were having Hindi as mother tongue and a very high percentage of teachers at primary/upper primary level are with Hindi as mother tongue with a huge language and cultural gap between students and teachers. Diverse tribal mother tongues like Kurukh, Munda, Santhali, Ho, Kharia, Paharia, Sadri, etc. in the State also is a challenge in translating and providing books for all classes and continuing for higher education or even at initial stage.

The other challenges are specific tribal economy associated with primitive and low level of agricultural practices along with other Primary activities, which requires more manpower but always underemployed. The community has still been facing the incidence of high poverty, which creates the issue of affordability to education in various forms. Women are more deprived due to their responsibility in the society. Outlook towards tribal society has mostly been negative also in the field of education. Due to employability, the orientation of villagers is such that they lack motivation about the immediate benefits of education.

Regional, social and gender disparities in the State also need to be addressed for balanced and overall progress of the State in terms of region, all social groups and gender.

The challenge related to institutional is that in 2001, 1315 villages had the literacy rates below 10 per cent. 323 inhabited villages with zero literacy in 2001 mostly in the tribal areas (Sahibganj) and Chatra District. Through it has decreased to 85 villages in 2011, it is beyond imagination to have such a situation in the 21st Century. In 2001, a total of 184 large villages out of 323 illiterate villages contain tribal population ranging between 99 to 100 per cent. The weakest region in this regard is Santhal Parganas. The other challenges are low literacy among various tribal groups and very low literacy among the females of some of the groups mentioned earlier in the paper. Dimensions of Tribal Education and Employment in Jharkhand 8171 Drinking water and sanitation is an important issue as poor water quality is the source of many diseases. As per the Census of India, 2001, 86 per cent villages had the access to the sources of safe drinking water facilities, where Sahibganj had only 56.2 villages had this facility. At the household level, access to the sources of safe drinking water was 53.5 per cent among STs. Hygiene was very poor as 77.0 per cent ST households did not have latrine facility which was highest in the country.

Employment Situation

Table 6 suggests that the total workers are more among STs because of their economic situation. Due to the lack of other opportunities like education and very low level of income, more people need to be engaged in various low paying activities. They are mostly engaged in primary activities with a very high level of disguised unemployment. Percentage of cultivators is more, and percentage of total workers in primary sectors is very high among STs with a large difference vis-a-vis non-SCST. On the other hand, main workers are more among the non-SCSTs. It suggests that the tribes are mostly engaged in marginal activities due to the lack of avenues and have very low participation in the non- primary sector. Government of Jharkhand (2007) also recognizes that the Current Daily Status (CDS) unemployment is higher in Jharkhand. Most of the workforce is engaged in primary activities like agriculture, wage labour, major and minor forest produce-based livelihood, animal husbandry, household industry, and mining and quarrying. Regular service based employment is largely confined to the urban and industrial areas. During the period 2001-2011, it is observed that there is not much change in total workers, drop in main workers, significant drop in primary activities, and significant rise in non-primary activities.

Table-6. Distribution of Main Workers in Jharkhand, 2001-2011 Activity 2001 2011 ST Non-SCST ST Non-SCST Total Workers 46.3 33.8 46.9 36.7 Main Workers 59.4 67.5 46.2 56.9 Cultivators 61.9 34.1 49.1 22.9 Agricultural Labour 17.9 12.1 10.4 14.4 Workers in Primary Sectors 79.8 46.2 59.6 37.3 Workers in Non-Primary Sectors 20.2 53.8 40.4 62.7 Source: Census of India, 2001 and 2011.

Education and Employment The 2001 Census reflects that 79.9 per cent main workers were in primary sector out of which 17.9 per cent workers were engaged as 8172 Baraik agricultural labourers. Among main workers, cultivators form the largest group, but agriculture labour was the mainstay for marginal workers. Among illiterates, there was a large female-male difference in both main and marginal workers groups. In all other educational levels females had significant lower work participation. There are large gaps in ST and non-SCST agricultural labourers as well. The lack of opportunity is so much that 21.2 and 27.0 per cent technical diploma or certificate and graduate and above workers respectively were cultivators. Technical diploma holders and graduate and above were also cultivators and agricultural labourer in significant proportions (Table 4).

There is a major shift in 2011 as the percentage of cultivators among the main workers declined from 61.0 per cent in 2001 to 49.1 per cent in 2011. The decline has been in all educational levels with more than 10 percentage points except in the group of technical degree or diploma equal to degree or post-graduate degree where the decline was just of 1 percentage point. In contrast the proportion of agricultural labourers among the main workers increased by 4.6 percentage points from 17.9 per cent in 2001 to 22.5 per cent in 2011. More shift has been observed in the educational levels upto martric/secondary levels. It is observed that the main workers have shifted from cultivation to agricultural labour and other works. There is 9.0 percentage point growth in other works where highest share is seen among the workers with technical diplomas or certificates.

Table-4. ST Main Workers Classified by Industrial Category and Educational Level, 2001-2011 Educational Level Year P/M/F Total Illiterate Literate Literate below but Matric/secondary Matric/ secondary butbelowgraduate Technical diplomaor certificate not Graduate andotherthan above technicaldegree degree Technical equaldiplomaor to degreepost-graduate or degree

2001 P 62.0 63.3 59.9 65.0 52.6 21.2 27.0 5.1 M 61.8 63.3 60.2 64.2 54.6 25.6 30.5 7.3 F 62.4 63.4 58.4 70.0 41.9 7.8 12.4 2.5 2011 P 49.1 52.6 45.9 51.3 39.5 8.3 16.7 4.1

Cultivators M 50.1 54.7 47.2 51.7 41.6 10.7 19.7 5.8 F 47.1 50.1 41.4 50.0 31.5 3.3 8.7 2.5

2001 P 17.9 21.7 11.9 14.1 7.0 2.9 2.4 0.3 M 16.7 20.8 12.2 14.3 7.5 3.6 2.6 0.5 F 20.6 23.1 10.3 12.9 4.7 0.9 1.2 0.1 2011 P 22.5 27.9 17.5 21.1 11.3 2.3 3.7 1.0 Labourers Agricultural M 19.9 24.5 17.0 20.2 11.4 2.6 4.1 1.4 F 27.6 32.0 19.1 24.3 11.2 1.6 2.7 0.7 Dimensions of Tribal Education and Employment in Jharkhand 8173

2001 P 3.2 3.8 2.3 2.6 1.6 0.9 0.8 0.5 M 2.8 3.3 2.3 2.6 1.6 1.2 0.9 0.7 F 4.1 4.6 2.1 2.6 1.2 0.0 0.6 0.4

Industry 2011 P 2.4 2.8 2.0 2.2 1.5 0.7 0.9 0.4 Household M 2.0 2.2 1.8 2.0 1.5 0.7 0.9 0.5 F 3.2 3.6 2.5 3.0 1.7 0.6 0.8 0.4

2001 P 17.0 11.2 25.9 18.3 38.8 75.1 69.8 94.1 M 18.7 12.7 25.3 18.9 36.3 69.7 66.0 91.5 F 13.0 9.0 29.2 14.5 52.3 91.2 85.9 97.1 2011 P 26.0 16.6 34.7 25.4 47.7 88.8 78.8 94.4 M 28.0 18.6 34.0 26.2 45.5 86.1 75.3 92.4

OtherWorkers F 22.0 14.3 37.0 22.7 55.5 94.5 87.8 96.4

Source: Census of India, 2001 and Census of India, 2011, Special Tables for Scheduled Tribes.

Conclusion

Education in tribal regions particularly in the context of Jharkhand needs to be linked with employment. The tribal children or students somehow attain the secondary school level due to missionary schools, but there is a very high level of drop out resulted from unavailability, accessibility and affordability issues. It happens for those also who attain the graduation level. They are compelled to come back to their primary activities due to the lack of avenues, which creates very high level of disappointment and demotivating attitude towards education. The 2011 census data reflects of improvement in the form of major shifts of educated labours from the group of agricultural labour and also a marked decline in the group of cultivators, it is the matter of further investigation that the shift is taking place in gainful and positive direction. Though income is not the end, as has been shown by the Human Development Reports, a basic threshold level of affordability to minimum basic needs for a decent standard of living with enhancement of capability and widening opportunity in this kind of society seems to be inevitable. Hence, the backward and forward bearings need to be strengthened. Quality and orientation of education in Rural Jharkhand also needs to be improved so that the tribal students do not have problem in competing with others or tribals of other regions. The forward bearings are the avenues for employment and income generation where diversification may be helpful to address this issue. Finally, education among tribes has been a major driving force for their empowerment and well-being, and hence, need to be properly linked with its backward and forward bearings. 8174 Baraik

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