Gajah 38 (2013) 44-63

Recent Publications on Asian

Compiled by Jennifer Pastorini

Anthropologisches Institut, Universität Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland Centre for Conservation and Research, Rajagiriya, Sri Lanka E-mail: [email protected]

If you need additional information on any of the in nutrient density over lactation undoubtedly articles, please feel free to contact me. You can limits maternal water loss, reducing the volume also let me know about new (2013) publications of milk necessary to support the calf. © 2012 on Asian elephants. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. F.N. Abbondanza, M.L. Power, M.A. Dickson, J. Brown & O.T. Oftedal E. Albayrak & A.M. Lister Variation in the composition of milk of Asian Dental remains of fossil elephants from Turkey elephants ( maximus) throughout Quaternary Internat. 276-277 (2012) 198-211 lactation Abstract. Turkey is at the crossroads of Africa, Zoo Biology 32 (2013) 291-298 Asia and Europe, and occupies an important Abstract. We investigated milk nutrient position for the migration of such composition from three Asian cows as elephantids. Nonetheless, there has been over the first 3 years of lactation, including two no detailed study of fossil elephants from consecutive lactations in one cow. Body mass Turkey. In this study, elephant remains from gain is presented for three calves during the first five localities were examined. Mammuthus year. Milk samples (n = 74) were analyzed for dry meridionalis, Mammuthus trogontherii, Elephas matter (DM), fat, crude protein (CP), sugar, ash, maximus and probably Palaeoloxodon antiquus calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K); were identified. M. meridionalis remains from gross energy (GE) was calculated. Concentrations Yukarısöğütönü have some primitive features of most nutrients changed over lactation: DM, compared to typical meridionalis of the Upper fat, CP, Ca, P, and GE were positively correlated Valdarno, which is consistent with the age of to calf age; sugar was negatively correlated to the locality. M. trogontherii was identified from calf age. GE doubled between birth (1 kcal/g) Suluova and Dursunlu. Most of the and 2 years of age (2 kcal/g). After accounting remains from Dursunlu have features of typical for calf age, GE, fat, Ca, and P concentrations trogontherii, but some have ‘primitive’ features differed among the cows. Milk composition also evoking meridionalis. E. maximus was identified differed between two lactations from the same from Gavur Lake Swamp, but these remains cow. When milk nutrients were expressed on a were collected from agricultural areas by local mg per kcal basis, the pattern changes: CP, Ca, people so there is no information about their and P remained relatively constant over lactation exact location. However, new radiocarbon dates on a per energy basis. Calf mass quadrupled indicate that at approximately 3500 BP, the over the first year of life; mass gain was linear range of extended as far west at 0.9 kg/day. Asian elephant milk composition as south-east Turkey. The E. maximus remains is variable, both across lactations and between are mostly similar to recent Asian elephant in cows, complicating efforts to determine appearance and metrics, but some specimens representative values for comparative studies and show unexpected characters that might signal for the formulation of elephant milk formulas. a distinct, now extinct population. Although The fact that CP, Ca, and P were all relatively remains of E. maximus include isolated teeth, constant when expressed on a per energy basis skulls, mandibles and post-cranial bones, this may be of biological significance. The increase study focused on only teeth.

44 L. Atkins, J.-C. Zong, J. Tan, A. Mejia, S.Y. K.K. Bonia & B. Dutta Heaggans, S.A. Nofs, J.J. Stanton, J.P. Flanagan, Comparative serum biological constituents of L. Howard, E. Latimer, M.R. Stevens, D.S. captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) Hoffman, G.S. Hayward & P.D. Ling Indian J. of Sciences 82 (2012) 715-717 Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus 5, Abstract. none. a newly recognized elephant herpesvirus associated with clinical and subclinical A.L. Brandt, Y. Ishida, N.J. Georgiadis & A.L. infections in captive Asian elephants (Elephas Roca maximus) Forest elephant mitochondrial genomes Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 44 (2013) reveal that elephantid diversification in Africa 136-143 tracked climate transitions Abstract. Elephant endotheliotropic herpes- Molecular Ecology 21 (2012) 1175–1189 viruses (EEHVs) can cause acute hemorrhagic Abstract. Among elephants, the phylogeographic disease with high mortality rates in Asian patterns of mitochondrial (mt) and nuclear elephants (Elephas maximus). Recently, a new markers are often incongruent. One hypothesis EEHV type known as EEHV5 has been described, attributes this to sex differences in dispersal but its prevalence and clinical significance remain and in the variance of reproductive success. unknown. In this report, an outbreak of EEHV5 We tested this hypothesis by examining the infection in a herd of captive Asian elephants coalescent dates of genetic markers within in a zoo was characterized. In February 2011, elephantid lineages, predicting that lower a 42-yr-old wild-born female Asian elephant dispersal and lower variance in reproductive presented with bilaterally swollen temporal success among females would have increased glands, oral mucosal hyperemia, vesicles on the mtDNA relative to nuclear coalescent dates. We tongue, and generalized lethargy. The elephant sequenced the mitochondrial genomes of two had a leukopenia and thrombocytopenia. She was forest elephants, aligning them to mitogenomes treated with flunixin meglumine, famciclovir, of African savanna and Asian elephants, and of and fluids. Clinical signs of illness resolved woolly , including the most divergent gradually over 2 wk, and the white blood cell mitogenomes within each lineage. Using fossil count and platelets rebounded to higher-than- calibrations, the divergence between African normal values. EEHV5 viremia was detectable elephant F and S clade mitochondrial genomes starting 1 wk before presentation and peaked at (originating in forest and savanna elephant the onset of clinical illness. EEHV5 shedding in lineages, respectively) was estimated as 5.5 trunk secretions peaked after viremia resolved Ma. We estimated that the (African) ancestor and continued for more than 2 mo. EEHV5 trunk of the mammoth and Asian elephant lineages shedding from a female herd mate without any diverged 6.0 Ma, indicating that four elephantid detectable viremia was detected prior to onset lineages had differentiated in Africa by the of clinical disease in the 42-yr-old elephant, Miocene–Pliocene transition, concurrent with indicating reactivation rather than primary drier climates. The coalescent date for forest infection in this elephant. Subsequent EEHV5 elephant mtDNAs was c. 2.4 Ma, suggesting viremia and trunk shedding was documented in that the decrease in tropical forest cover during the other five elephants in the herd, who remained the Pleistocene isolated distinct African forest asymptomatic, except for 1 day of temporal gland elephant lineages. For all elephantid lineages, swelling in an otherwise-healthy 1-yr-old calf. the ratio of mtDNA to nuclear coalescent dates Unexpectedly, the two elephants most recently was much greater than 0.25. This is consistent introduced into the herd 40 mo previously shed with the expectation that sex differences in a distinctive EEHV5 strain from that seen in dispersal and in variance of reproductive success the other five elephants. This is the first report would have increased the effective population to document the kinetics of EEHV5 infection in size of mtDNA relative to nuclear markers in captive Asian elephants and to provide evidence elephantids, contributing to the persistence of that this virus can cause illness in some . incongruent mtDNA phylogeographic patterns.

45 © 2012 Reproduced with permission of John some traditional mitigation techniques, we argued Wiley & Sons, Inc. much on understanding peoples’ perception to explore some sustainable mitigation measures to K. Buranaamnuay, S. Mahasawangkul & K. ensure the interest of both human and elephant Saikhuna and also to safeguard ecological integrity. © 2012 The in vitro quality of frozen-thawed Asian Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. elephant (Elephas maximus) spermatozoa in semen supplemented with Equex STM paste K. Chelliah, H. Bukka & R. Sukumar and oxytocin during and after cryopreservation Modeling harvest rates and numbers from age Reproductive Biology 13 (2013) 169–171 and sex ratios: A demonstration for elephant Abstract. The effects of Equex STM paste populations (Equex) and oxytocin (OT) on the in vitro Biological Conservation 165 (2013) 54–61 quality of frozen-thawed Asian elephant sperm Abstract. Illegal harvest rates of wildlife were investigated in the study. The viability of populations are often unknown or difficult to frozen-thawed sperm was significantly higher in estimate from field data due to under-reporting the Equex-treated (1 and 2%) groups than in the or incomplete detection of carcasses. This is control group. There were no differences in the especially true for elephants that are killed for examined sperm parameters among the control or in conflicts with people. We describe a and OT-treated (0.05–5 IU) groups. © 2013 method to infer harvest rates from coarse field Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. data of three population parameters, namely, adult female to male ratio, male old-adult to K. Chakraborty & J. Mondal young-adult ratio, and proportion of adult males Perceptions and patterns of human–elephant in the population using Jensen’s (2000) 2-sex, conflict at Barjora block of Bankura district density-dependent Leslie matrix model. The in West Bengal, India: insights for mitigation specific combination of male and female harvest and management rates and numbers can be determined from the Environment, Development and Sustainability 15 history of harvest and estimate of population size. (2013) 547-565 We applied this technique to two populations of Abstract. Human–elephant conflict is an issue of elephants for which data on age structure and great concern regarding the growing competition records of mortality were available— a forest- between people and wildlife for food and shelter dwelling population of the Asian elephant (at throughout Asia and Africa. The situation the Nagarahole, India) and an African savannah Asian elephant faces is much critical. According elephant population (at Samburu, Kenya) that had to IUCN (Big hopes for endangered Asian experienced male-biased harvest regimes over Elephants, News Release, Gland, 2006), one 2–3 decades. For the Nagarahole population, the of the prime factors to the decline of elephant recorded numbers of male and female elephants population in India is the increasing trend in killed illegally during 1981–2000 were 64% human–elephant conflict. Barjora block of and 88% of the values predicted by the model, Bankura district in West Bengal is one of the respectively, implying some non-detection or severe conflict prone zones in West Bengal, where incomplete reporting while for the Samburu elephant raid in every year has now become population the recorded and modeled numbers an inevitable phenomenon. As a result, crop of harvest during 1990–1999 closely matched. damage, infrastructural damages, disturbances of This technique, applicable to any animal daily activities, occurrence of human death and population following logistic growth model, can injuries have no doubt annihilated and frustrated be especially useful for inferring illegal harvest the social fabric of life. This paper is an empirical numbers of forest elephants in Africa and Asia. attempt to address various consequences of © 2013 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. human–elephant encounters which have an adverse impact on social, economic as well as E.R.C. Davidar, P. Davidar, P. Davidar & J.-P. the cultural life of the people. Instead of pursuing Puyravaud

46 Elephant Elephas maximus Linnaeus nature. It argues that scholars of international (: ) migration paths political economy (IPE) need to engage more in the Nilgiri Hills, India in the late 1970s fully with the role of nature in driving forward Journal of Threatened Taxa 4 (2012) 3284-3293 the logics of neoliberalism. Most scholars view Abstract. The study presented was carried out nature as a source of accumulation or as an in 1978 with the support of the Asian Elephant object of governance, but this paper uses the Specialist Group (AsESG) of the International neoliberalisation of nature debate to extend our Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) understandings of neoliberalism. In particular, Species Survival Commission (SSC). Its global tourism has targeted and opened up new objective was to investigate the impediments frontiers in nature, which serves to expand to elephant movement in the Nilgiri Hills, in and deepen neoliberalism to a wider range of the Western Ghats of India, in an attempt to biophysical phenomena. This paper uses the case suggest positive steps to encourage movement of elephant tourism to demonstrate how tourism through the provision of corridors. The report is not just reflective of neoliberalism, but is in was left unpublished, but given its importance fact a key driver of it, acting as an environmental as a reference document for the conservation fix for capitalism. Further, this paper takes up of the Asian elephant in the Nilgiris, in 2011 the challenge of research on ‘actually existing the last two authors decided to publish it. The neoliberalisms’ via engagement with locally process of habitat fragmentation has been going specific contexts and emerging forms of socio- on ever since man started agriculture. But this nature in the Thai tourism industry. It reveals how problem has, of late, become much more acute neoliberalism redraws the boundaries of access to due to mounting pressure on land. The corridor nature, thereby shifting the distribution of costs concept applied to wildlife is the provision of a and benefits. Hence, nature is one of the primary free and, as far as possible, unimpeded way for ways in which neoliberalism is constituted, albeit the passage of wild animals between two wildlife in a highly differentiated way. This reminds us zones. A corridor’s more important function is not to reify neoliberalism and accord it a greater to prevent wild animals from getting isolated in degree of power and coherence than it really has. small pocket-like islands. Maintaining elephant © 2013 Taylor & Francis. habitat connectivity in and around the Nilgiris rests upon the understanding that elephant R.C. Dunkin, D. Wilson, N. Way, K. Johnson & populations of the several protected areas of T.M. Williams the now Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve must remain Climate influences thermal balance and water active. The first author surveyed the Nilgiris on use in African and Asian elephants: physiology foot and on elephant back for several months in can predict drivers of elephant distribution 1978. It was concluded that four areas (the Nilgiri Journal of Experimental Biology 216 (2013) north slopes and Deccan Plateau, the south and 2939-2952 southeastern slopes, the Gudalur Plateau, and the Abstract. Elephant movement patterns in upper plateau) harboured together 10 corridors relation to surface water demonstrate that they that needed to be maintained, or restored, or even are a water-dependent species. Thus, there has partially restored. © 2012 The Authors. been interest in using surface water management to mitigate problems associated with localized R. Duffy elephant overabundance. However, the The international political economy of physiological mechanisms underlying the tourism and the neoliberalisation of nature: elephant’s water dependence remain unclear. Challenges posed by selling close interactions Although thermoregulation is likely an important with animals driver, the relationship between thermoregulation, Review of International Political Economy 20 water use and climate has not been quantified. (2013) 605-626 We measured skin surface temperature of and Abstract. This paper examines the inter- cutaneous water loss from 13 elephants (seven relationships between neoliberalism, tourism and African, 3768±642 kg; six Asian, 3834±498 kg)

47 and determined the contribution of evaporative or even outcrops of all sizes. The digital files of cooling to their thermal and water budgets the models produced in this paper are included. across a range of air temperatures (8–33°C). The results demonstrate that production of We also measured respiratory evaporative water digital models from specimens for research or loss and resting metabolic heat production on a archival purposes is available to anyone, and subset of elephants (N=7). The rate of cutaneous it is hoped that an increased use of digitisation evaporative water loss ranged between 0.31 techniques will facilitate research and encourage and 8.9 g min−1 m−2 for Asian elephants and collaboration and dissemination of digital data. 0.26 and 6.5 g min−1 m−2 for African elephants. © 2012 Palaeontological Association. Simulated thermal and water budgets using climate data from Port Elizabeth, South Africa, A.A. Farouq, D.K. Abdullah, N. Abdullah & F. and Okaukuejo, Namibia, suggested that the Hooi-Ling 24-h evaporative cooling water debt incurred in Cellulase enzyme production from warm climates can be more than 4.5 times that lignocellulosic substrates by individual and incurred in mesic climates. This study confirms consortium of new fungi isolated from Asian elephants are obligate evaporative coolers but elephant (Elephas maximus) dung. suggests that classification of elephants as water Journal of Enzyme Research 3 (2012) 34-38 dependent is insufficient given the importance Abstract. One of the major challenges of of climate in determining the magnitude of this cellulosic bioethanol production is cellulase dependence. These data highlight the potential for enzyme which is used in the hydrolysis of a physiological modeling approach to predicting cellulose to sugars for fermentation to bioethanol. the utility of surface water management for Commercial cellulase enzyme preparations are specific populations. © 2013 The Company of very expensive. Fungi are recognized for their Biologists Ltd. ability to produce a large variety of extracellular enzymes. In this study, the potential of two new P.L. Falkingham native fungi (T. aureoviride UPM 09 (JN811061) Acquisition of high resolution three- (UPMC 389) and F. equiseti strain UPM 09 dimensional models using free, open-source, (JN811063) (UPMC391) isolated from Asian photogrammetric software elephant (E. maximus) dung to pro- duce cellulase Palaeontologia Electronica 15 (2012) 15.1.1T enzymes from rice husk (RH), rubber wood Abstract. The 3D digitisation of palaeonto- saw dust (RW) and oil palm empty fruit bunch logical resources is of tremendous use to (EFB) using solid state cultivation (SSC) and the field, providing the means to archive, submerged cultivation (SMC) was investigated. analyse, and visualise specimens that would From the results of the statistical analysis, there otherwise be too large to handle, too valuable is no significant difference (P>0.05) in cellulase to destructively sample, or simply in a different production between the two methods for all the geographic location. Digitisation of a specimen three substrates. However, there is significant to produce a 3D digital model often requires difference (P<0.05) between the two fungi in the use of expensive laser scanning equipment cellulase enzyme production both SSC and SMC or proprietary digital reconstruction software, among the three substrates used. The result, making the technique inaccessible to many therefore, indicates that any of the two fungi can workers. Presented here is a guide for producing be used for cellulase production. In addition, high resolution 3D models from photographs, the type of substrate is influential in cellulase using freely available open-source software. production by the fungi. The two new fungal To demonstrate the accuracy and flexibility of strains may serve as good candidates for cellulase the approach, a number of examples are given, production in the cellulosic bioethanol industry. including a small trilobite (~0.04 m), a large However, consortium of the two fungi produced mounted elephant skeleton (~3 m), and a very relatively slightly higher cellulase enzyme in large fossil tree root system (~6 m), illustrating each of the methods than each when used alone. that the method is equally applicable to specimens © 2012 The Authors.

48 M. Feldman, R. Isaza, C. Prins & J. Hernandez risks associated with in the Point prevalence and incidence of USA. © 2013 Taylor & Francis. Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in captive elephants in the United States of America A. Gall & A. Palser Veterinary Quarterly 33 (2013) 25-29 An elephantine viral problem Abstract. Background: Captive elephants Nature Reviews Microbiology 11 (2013) 512 infected with tuberculosis are implicated as an Abstract. none. occupational source of zoonotic tuberculosis. However, accurate estimates of prevalence and A. Granados, R.B. Weladji & M.R. Loomis incidence of elephant tuberculosis from well- Movement and occurrence of two elephant defined captive populations are lacking in the herds in a human-dominated landscape, literature. Studies published in recent years the Bénoué Wildlife Conservation Area, contain a wide range of prevalence estimates Cameroon calculated from summary data. Incidence Tropical Conservation Science 5 (2012) 150-162 estimates of elephant tuberculosis in captive Abstract. Increasing human settlement and elephants are not available. Objective: This study disturbance adjacent to protected areas have estimated the annual point prevalence, annual intensified competition between people and incidence, cumulative incidence, and incidence wildlife for resources and living space. In density of tuberculosis in captive elephants northern Cameroon, over 60,000 people live within the USA during the past 52 years. Animals in villages surrounding Bénoué National Park. and methods: We combined existing elephant In that same area, as in other parts of Africa, census records from captive elephants in the savanna elephants damage crops, homes, water USA with tuberculosis culture results obtained provision infrastructures, and grain stores. Using from trunk washes or at necropsy. This data almost 1000 satellite-derived positions for two set included 15 years where each elephant was matriarch female elephants from 2007 to 2009, screened annually. Results: Between 1960 and movement patterns were analyzed with respect to 1996, the annual point prevalence of tuberculosis a highway, secondary roads, unpaved park roads, complex mycobacteria for both species was rivers, and villages through the use of log linear 0. From 1997 through 2011, the median point modeling. More than half of all locations and core prevalence within the Asian elephant population areas occurred outside the park, while seasonal was 5.1%, with a range from 0.3% to 6.7%. The and individual differences in home range size incidence density was 9.7 cases/1000 elephant and distribution were found within the protected years. In contrast, the annual point prevalence area. Elephant occurrence within approximately during the same time period within the African 7 to 9 km of villages showed a decreasing trend elephant population remained 0 and the incidence with proximity. The highway appeared to act as a density was 1.5 cases/1000 elephant years. barrier to movement for one elephant herd, while Conclusions: The apparent increase in new cases the other did not come within 11 km of it. On noted after 1996 resulted from a combination of the other hand, elephants remained close to the both index cases and the initiation of mandatory Bénoué River and secondary roads. Our findings annual tuberculosis screening in 1997 for all the show that in the Bénoué Wildlife Conservation elephants. This study found lower annual point Area, perennial water availability and human prevalence estimates than previously reported in disturbance from the presence of villages can the literature. These discrepancies in prevalence influence elephant spatial distribution in the estimates are primarily due to differences in protected area, and overlap of villages with terminology and calculation methods. Using the elephant home range indicates a high potential same intensive testing regime, the incidence of for human-elephant conflict. This highlights the tuberculosis differed significantly between Asian need for more effective land use planning to and African elephants. Accurate and species reduce such conflict and for additional research specific knowledge of prevalence and incidence into movement patterns of the Bénoué National will inform our efforts to mitigate occupational Park elephant population. © 2012 The Authors.

49 S. Gubbi, H.C. Poornesha & M.D. Madhusudan being used in protected area monitoring and Impact of vehicular traffic on the use of habitat suitability studies. In this article, Erdas highway edges by large mammals in a South Imagine’s Expert Classifier tool was used to Indian wildlife reserve assess the specific trajectories of habitat suitability Current Science 102 (2012) 1047-1051 change during 1994–2007 in the Sonitpur Abstract. India’s phenomenal economic growth elephant habitat, India. Sonitpur has been over the last decade has been accompanied by witness to increasing human–elephant conflict in a much-needed expansion and improvement in the past decade. The suitability analysis took into transport and other infrastructure networks. While account information relating to forest type and there are legally mandated assessments of the density, elevation, slope, source of water, human potential ecological impacts of such infrastructure activities in terms of settlement, agriculture, projects prior to implementation, rarely are there tea plantations, roads, and railways. Satellite post-implementation assessments of their real imagery, data from topographical maps, digital ecological impacts. In this communication, we elevation data, and global positioning system present results of a preliminary study examining readings formed the major data inputs that were the impact of vehicular traffic on the usage of incorporated into a GIS. Various decision rules road edges by large mammals along a highway were created and confidence levels assigned to passing through Nagarahole Tiger Reserve, the input layers to generate high, medium, and southern India. We estimated large low habitat suitability. The area witnessed a encounter rates at remotely triggered camera sharp decline in suitability from 63% in 1994 to traps on two consecutive sections of the same less than 38% by 2007. The high-suitability area highway – one closed to vehicular traffic and the declined by more than 50% during this period. other open to vehicles only during daytime. We The unique natural protected areas of Sonitpur, observed lower encounter rates of chital, gaur which are a mix of reserved forests, wildlife and elephants at camera traps in the highway sanctuaries, and a national park, urgently need to segment with higher vehicular traffic density, be protected from further habitat degradation. © suggesting that these species avoided busy 2013 Taylor & Francis. highways. Based on our findings, we emphasize the importance of continued ecological impact S. Hedges, A. Johnson, M. Ahlering, M. Tyson, assessments of development projects to identify L.S. Eggert, B. Ibler & R. Pankow and mitigate unforeseen impacts. Further, an Accuracy, precision, and cost-effectiveness approach to development planning that integrates of conventional dung density and fecal DNA conservation concerns, especially where based survey methods to estimate Asian development projects coincide with ecologically elephant (Elephas maximus) population size critical areas, is urgently needed in India. and structure Biological Conservation 159 (2013) 101–108 G.S. Hayward Abstract. Non-invasive DNA-based capture– Conservation: clarifying the risk from mark–recapture (CMR) methods have been herpesvirus to captive Asian elephants developed to estimate population size and Veterinary Record 170 (2012) 202-203 other parameters and have the advantage that Abstract. none. samples can be collected without the need to see or disturb the animals. There are, however, R. Hazarika & Anup Saikia few comparisons of DNA-based CMR estimates The pachyderm and the pixel: an assessment of animal population size with estimates from of elephant habitat suitability in Sonitpur, non-genetic methods. We compared the results India of a dung-density based survey of an Asian International Journal of Remote Sensing 34 elephant (Elephas maximus) population with a (2013) 5317-5330 simultaneous fecal DNA-based CMR survey Abstract. Remote sensing and geographic of the same population. We found 545 dung- information systems (GISs) are increasingly piles along 116 line transects, converted dung-

50 pile density to elephant density using rates of Effect of pre-freeze semen quality, extender defecation and dung disappearance, and derived and cryoprotectant on the post-thaw quality a population estimate of 141 elephants. We of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) collected 267 fecal samples during three CMR semen sampling sessions: 215 (81%) yielded sufficient Cryobiology 66 (2013) 52-59 genotypic information for analysis and gave Abstract. Semen cryopreservation and artificial an estimated population size of 132 elephants, insemination (AI) are potentially valuable closely matching the estimate produced by methods for supporting the breeding management the dung-density method but with greater of like the Asian elephant. precision. The DNA-based method also provided Cryopreservation of Asian elephant semen has information on population structure. We conclude however proven problematic with respect to that DNA-based CMR methods provide more maintenance of both adequate semen quality and precise abundance estimates, and more data fertility post-thaw. In this study, nine ejaculates about population structure and dynamics, than from three adult bulls were used to compare the dung density-based methods. Fecal DNA-based influence of extender (TEST versus INRA96®) CMR methods also require less time in the field and penetrating cryoprotectants (3% glycerol, and can be used when dung density methods are 5% glycerol and 4% methylformamide) on post- impracticable. Finally, fecal DNA based CMR thaw semen quality. We demonstrate that not only methods are now cheaper than dung density the freezing process, but also the quality of the based methods when line transect survey costs semen before freezing, significantly influences are approximately equal to CMR survey costs the freezability of Asian elephant semen. Pre- and dung decay rate monitoring costs are greater freeze motility, viability, semen volume, semen than laboratory costs (which will usually be the pH, sperm concentration and the incidence case). © 2012 Reprinted with permission from of sperm mid-piece and tail abnormalities all Elsevier. significantly (p < 0.05) affected post-thaw semen quality. While extender and cryoprotectant B. Ibler & R. Pankow did not significantly affect any of the above Data on the sleep in the herd of Asian Elephants semen quality parameters post-thaw, the skim- (Elephas maximus) at Berlin Zoological milk based extender (INRA96®) preserved Garden DNA integrity better (p < 0.05) than the egg Der Zoologische Garten 81 (2012) 239–245 yolk extender (TEST). Considerable between- Abstract. Due to the night observations during ejaculate variation in all post-thaw semen quality the gravidity of the Asian elephant “Pang Pha” parameters was also noted. It is concluded that in 2005 it was possible to receive data on strict criteria for semen quality is essential for the sleeping behavior of 1.3 Asian elephants the selection of Asian elephant bull ejaculates (Elephas maximus) at Berlin Zoological Garden. suitable for cryopreservation; stricter initial These elephants were the breeding bull “Victor” selection should improve the mean post-thaw (born 22.10.1993 at Zoological Center Ramat quality. © 2012 Reprinted with permission from Gan), “Pang Pha” (born 1987 in Thailand), Elsevier. “Drumbo” (born 1970) and “Iyoti” (born 1974 in India). Elephant “Pang Pha” slept only one P.S. Jothish and a half hour, whereas the two older cows lay Frugivory and seed dispersal of woody species nearly four hours. The bull lay longest. © 2012 by the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. [Main a mid-elevation tropical evergreen forest in text in German] India Journal of Tropical Ecology 29 (2013) 181-185 P. Imrat, P. Suthanmapinanth, K. Saikhun, S. Abstract. Frugivory and seed dispersal by the Mahasawangkul, E. Sostaric, P. Sombutputorn, Asian elephant, Elephas maximus, in a mid- S. Jansittiwate, N. Thongtip, A. Pinyopummin, elevation tropical evergreen forest in India was B. Colenbrander, W.V. Holt & T.A.E. Stout studied by dung analysis and conducting seed

51 germination trials on ingested and control seeds. devise a sperm cryopreservation protocol for this A total of 384 dung piles were observed during the endangered species. Because seminal plasma period February 2007 to December 2008. Fruits/ influences sperm function and physiology, seeds and seedlings of 27 woody species were including sperm motility, the objectives of observed from the dung piles. Seed germination this study were to characterize the chemistry experiments showed that seeds from dung were and protein profiles of Asian elephant seminal viable and germination time of ingested seeds plasma and to determine the relationships was significantly lower than that of control seeds. between seminal plasma components and It was observed that 43.6% of the seedlings in semen quality. Ejaculates exhibiting good sperm the dung piles established as saplings. The study motility (≤65%) expressed higher percentages suggests that the Asian elephant is a legitimate of spermatozoa with normal morphology seed disperser in tropical forests in its range. © (80.3±13.0 vs. 44.9±30.8%) and positive 2013 Cambridge University Press. Spermac staining (51.9±14.5 vs. 7.5±14.4%), in addition to higher total volume (135.1±89.6 vs. K. Karthik 88.8±73.1 ml) and lower sperm concentration Tuberculosis goes wild: Emphasis on elephants (473.0±511.2 vs. 1313.8±764.7x106 cells ml-1) J. of Veterinary Advances 2 (2012) 534-538 compared to ejaculates exhibiting poor sperm Abstract. Tuberculosis being a slow spreading motility (≤10%; P<0.05). Comparison of seminal disease has almost let its roots into all animal plasma from ejaculates with good versus poor species. It does not have any discrimination sperm motility revealed significant differences between wild and domestic animals. Even though in concentrations of creatine phosphokinase, science has extended its view towards various alanine aminotransferase, phosphorus, sodium, aspects of TB yet it has to find out a solution chloride, magnesium, and glucose. These to break the chain of TB spread. Mycobacteria observations suggest seminal plasma influences even though a minute organism it strikes hard the semen quality in elephants. One- and two- mammoth. Even the elephants have no excuse to dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis revealed TB. Now there are lots of case reports about the largely similar compositional profiles of seminal occurrence of TB in elephants especially in zoos. plasma proteins between good and poor motility From these elephants it spreads to the elephant ejaculates. However, a protein of ca. 80 kDa was handlers, thus playing a significant role in the abundant in 85% of ejaculates with good motility, zoonosis of TB. This article mainly deals with and was absent in 90% of poor motility ejaculates the historical aspect of TB in elephants, zoonotic (P<0.05). We used mass spectrometry to identify and epidemiological aspects. This article also this protein as lactotransferrin, and immunoblot emphasis on the diagnosis and the treatment analysis to confirm this identification. Together, aspects of tuberculosis in elephants. Research in these findings lay a functional foundation for the zone of tuberculosis in elephants is required understanding the contributions of seminal in order to save the elephants and also to prevent plasma in the regulation of Asian elephant sperm the spread of TB to humans and other animals. motility, and for improving semen collection and storage in this endangered species. W.K. Kiso, V. Selvaraj, J. Nagashima, A. Asano, J.L. Brown, D.L. Schmitt, J. Leszyk, A.J. Travis E. Lee, Y. Lee, S. Moon, N. Kim, S. Kim, M. & B.S. Pukazhenthi Yang, D. Choi & M. Han Lactotransferrin in Asian elephant (Elephas The identification of elephant ivory evidences maximus) seminal plasma correlates with of illegal trade with mitochondrial cytochrome semen quality b gene and hypervariable D-loop region PLoS ONE 8(8) e71033 Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine 20 Abstract. Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) (2013) 174-178 have highly variable ejaculate quality within Abstract. DNA analysis of elephant ivory of individuals, greatly reducing the efficacy of illegal trade was handled in this work. The artificial insemination and making it difficult to speciation and geographical origin of nine

52 specimens of elephant ivory were requested by P.D. Ling J.G. Reid, X. Qin, D.M. Muzny, R. the police. Without national authorization, the Gibbs, J. Petrosino, R.S. Peng, J.-C. Zong, S.Y. suspect had purchased processed ivory seals from Heaggans, & G.S. Hayward January to May, 2011 by Internet transactions Complete genome sequence of elephant from a site in a neighboring country. The DNA endotheliotropic herpesvirus 1A of decalcified ivory evidences was isolated with Genome Announcements 1 (2013) e00106-13 QIAGEN Micro Kit. The total 844–904 base pair Abstract. Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus sized sequences of mitochondrial cytochrome 1A is a member of the Proboscivirus genus and b and D-loop region could be acquired using is a major cause of fatal hemorrhagic disease in direct sequencing analysis. They were compared endangered juvenile Asian elephants worldwide. with the sequences registered in GenBank. It Here, we report the first complete genome was confirmed that most specimens were likely sequence from this genus, obtained directly from from African forest elephants (Loxodonta necropsy DNA, in which 60 of the 115 predicted cyclotis), one from African savanna elephant genes are not found in any known herpesvirus. © (Loxodonta africana) and one from Asian 2013 Ling et al. elephant (Elephas maximus). Analysis of the mitochondrial hypervariable D-loop region A.M. Lister, W. Dirks, A. Assaf, M. Chazan, P. sequence of elephants verified that one African Goldberg, Y.H. Applbaum, N. Greenbaum & savanna elephant might be from South Africa L.K. Horwitz and one Asian elephant from Laos. Cytochrome New fossil remains of Elephas from the b and D-loop region located in the mitochondrial southern Levant: Implications for the DNA resulted in the successful determination evolutionary history of the Asian elephant of elephant DNA from nine processed ivory Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeo- specimens. © 2012 Reprinted with permission ecology 386 (2013) 119-130 from Elsevier. Abstract. We describe new fossil remains of elephant (Elephas cf. hysudricus) from J. Li, Y. Hou, Y. Li & J. Zhang archaeological sites in the Levant: Ma’ayan The latest straight-tusked elephants Baruch (Israel) and ‘Ain Soda (Jordan). Both (Palaeoloxodon)? “Wild elephants” lived 3000 sites date to the Middle Pleistocene based years ago in North China on stone artefacts typical of Levantine Late Quaternary International 281 (2012) 84-88 Acheulian assemblages. The elephant remains Abstract. Large quantities of archeology and show ‘primitive’ dental features reminiscent of literature records indicate that during the Shang E. hysudricus from the Plio-Pleistocene of the Dynasty and a part of the Zhou Dynasty of Chinese history, about 2000 BC to 1000 BC, there once were wild elephants living in North China. For a long time, it was believed that all of these elephants belonged to the species Elephas maximus. Many scholars suggested that this phenomenon could show a much higher temperature at that time. However, as the research of Chinese historical climate has already indicated, even in the Mega- thermal Maximum, most of the parts of North China were still controlled by the climate of the Warm Temperate Zone, not the Subtropic Zone. This paper presents evidence suggesting that the so-called “wild elephants” in North China during that time belonged to Palaeoloxodon sp., not E. maximus. © 2011 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. Minneriya National Park (Sri Lanka)

53 Siwaliks (northern India), the species thought the study area. © 2013 Triveni Enterprises. to be ancestral to Asian elephant E. maximus. Reproduced with permission. Regionally, the new fossils are chronologically intermediate between an earlier (ca. 1 Ma) H.S. Mumby, A. Courtiol, K.U. Mar & V. record of Elephas sp. from Evron Quarry Lummaa (Israel), and Holocene remains of E. maximus Climatic variation and age-specific survival in from archaeological sites in NW Syria, Turkey, Asian elephants from Myanmar Iraq and Iran. It is unclear at present whether Ecology 94 (2013) 1131–1141 this represents continuity of occupation or, more Abstract. Concern about climate change has plausibly, independent westward expansions. © intensified interest in understanding how climatic 2013 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. variability affects animal life histories. Despite such effects being potentially most dramatic K.K. Mohapatra, A.K. Patra & D.S. Paramanik in large, long-lived and slowly reproducing Food and feeding behaviour of Asiatic elephant terrestrial mammals, little is known of the (Elephas maximus Linn.) in Kuldiha Wild Life effects of climatic variation on survival in those Sanctuary, Odisha, India species. Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) are J. of Environmental Biology 34 (2013) 87-92 endangered across their distribution, and inhabit Abstract. The feeding behaviour of Asiatic regions characterized by high seasonality of elephant (Elephas maximus) with food reference temperature and rainfall. We investigated the was studied in Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuary in effects of monthly climatic variation on survival Odisha during 2007 to 2009. Though the study and causes of death in Asian elephants using area houses a good number of plant species only a unique demographic dataset of 1024 semi- 71 species were identified as elephant fodder captive longitudinally monitored elephants from plants. The food trail of elephant was observed four sites in Myanmar between 1965 and 2000. as twig breaking, bark peeling, branch breaking, Temperature had a significant effect on survival stem twisting uprooting and flower plucking in in both sexes and across all ages. For elephants different regions of study area during different between 1 month and 17 years, maximal survival seasons. Alteration of predominantly browsing was reached at around 24ºC and any departures strategy with that of grazing around the year from this temperature increased mortality, whereas was related to seasonal variation of food plants. neonates and mature elephants had maximal Consumption of tree species (56%) was highest survival at even lower temperatures. Although as compared to shrubs (20%), herbs (14%) and males experienced higher mortality overall, climbers (10%). A high degree of variation in sex differences in these optimal temperatures dicot monocot ratio (61:10)) was marked during were small. Because the elephants spent more identification of elephant fodder plant by direct time during a year in temperatures higher than observation. Microscopic analysis of dung 24ºC than in temperatures below it, most deaths showing a high degree of variation in average occurred at hot (temperatures over 24ºC) rather dicot monocot ratio suggested that the food plant than cold periods. Decreased survival at higher selection of elephant was highly opportunistic temperatures resulted partially from increased and seasonal. The elephants extensively fed deaths from infectious disease and heat stroke, on the plant species like Careya arborea, whilst the lower survival in the coldest months Kydia calycina, Helicteres isora, Mallotus is associated with an increase in non-infectious philippinensis, Aegle marmelos, Zizyphus diseases and poor health in general. Survival was mauritiana, Bauhinia racemosa, Bauhinia also related to rainfall, with the highest survival vahlii, Mimosa pudica, Asparagus racemosus, rates during the wettest months for all ages and Smilax zeylanica and Diosporea species. They sexes. Our results show that even the normal- were fond of Madhuca indica (Mahula) flowers range monsoon variation in climate can exert large in winter and fruits of Mangifera indica (Mango) impact on elephant survival in Myanmar leading in summer. They were never found feeding on to extensive absolute differences in mortality: Tectona grandis and Eucalyptus maculate inside switching from favorable to unfavorable climatic

54 conditions within average years doubled the African (Loxodonta africana) elephants exhibit odds for mortality. The persistence of a long- characteristics of endotheliochorial placentation, term trend towards higher global temperatures, which is common in carnivore species and combined with the possibility of higher variation is associated with modest maternal to fetal in temperature between seasons, may pose a transplacental antibody transfer. However, it challenge to the survival of species such as Asian remains unknown whether the bulk of passive elephants. © 2013 Ecological Soc. of America. immune transfer in elephants is achieved prenatally or postnatally through ingestion of F. Nocete, J.M. Vargas, T.X. Schuhmacher, A. colostrum, as has been documented for horses, Banerjee & W. Dindorf a species whose medical knowledgebase is often The ivory workshop of Valencina de extrapolated for elephants. To address this issue, la Concepción (Seville, Spain) and the we took advantage of the fact that many zoo identification of ivory from Asian elephant on elephants are immunized with tetanus toxoid and/ the Iberian Peninsula in the first half of the or rabies vaccines as part of their routine health 3rd millennium BC care, allowing a comparison of serum antibody Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) levels against these antigens between dams and 1579–1592 neonates. Serum samples were collected from 3 Abstract. During excavations in the huge newborn Asian elephant calves at birth (before ditched enclosure of Valencina de la Concepción ingestion of colostrum); 2-4 days after birth; and (Seville, Spain), the main centre from the 2-3 months of age. The findings indicate that the first hierarchical framework-settlement in the newborns had anti-tetanus toxoid and anti-rabies Guadalquivir Valley, a pit with remains of a titers that were equivalent to or higher than the context for producing ivory artefacts, dating titers of their dams from birth to approximately from the first half of the 3rd millennium BC, was 3 months of age, suggesting that the majority of discovered in the large metallurgical nucleate maternal-to-fetal transfer is transplacental and workshops. Scientific (Optical Microscopy, higher than expected based on the architecture of FIRT and Raman Spectroscopy, C/N Isotope the Asian elephant placenta. © 2013 Reprinted Ratio Mass Spectrometry) analyses revealed with permission from Elsevier. that the ivory belonged to Asian elephants and the archaeological study, which was made in a G. Nogge specialized workshop context. In this paper we Elefantenhaltung in Europa und Indien – ein present the archaeological context, the study of Vergleich the ivory artefacts and the state of research on Elephant keeping in Europe and India – a ivory in the Lower Guadalquivir Basin during comparison the 3rd millennium BC. In a parallel way, this Der Zoologische Garten 81 (2012) 231-238 paper discusses the significance of this workshop Abstract. In none of the countries of origin context in the configuration and function of the Asian elephants are taken any more from the long distance circulation of raw material and the wild. Instead breeding stations arise. In India specialized craft areas in the first political centres. the methods of keeping elephants have become © 2012 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. subject of scientific investigations. As a result elephants in the long run will be allowed to S.A. Nofs, R.L. Atmar, W.A. Keitel, C. Hanlon, be held only in forest camps. The concepts of J.J. Stanton, Jie Tan, J.P. Flanagan, L. Howard, elephant husbandry are discussed and developed P.D. Ling, R.P.V.J. Rajapakse, M. Iwagami, S. also outside the countries of origin. Under Wickramasinghe, S.M. Walker & T. Agatsuma consideration of their biological, ecological and Prenatal passive transfer of maternal immunity social requirements elephants have to be managed in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in groups. It is the author’s opinion that protected Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology contact will be the method of the future. © 2013 153 (2013) 308-311 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. [Main Abstract. Asian (Elephas maximus) and text in German.]

55 B.L. Ong, Y.F. Ngeow, M.F. Razak, Y. Yakubu, there is also evidence that exposure to humans Z. Zakaria, A.R. Mutalib, L. Hassan, H.F. Ng & positively influences the ability of both wild and K. Verasahib domesticated animals to follow these same cues. Tuberculosis in captive Asian elephants Here, we test the performance of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Peninsular Malaysia (Elephas maximus) on an object choice task Epidemiology & Infection 141 (2013) 1481–1487 that provides them with visual-only cues given Abstract. A cross-sectional study was conducted by humans about the location of hidden food. from 10 January to 9 April 2012, to determine Captive elephants are interesting candidates the seroprevalence of tuberculosis (TB) of all for investigating how both domestication and captive Asian elephants and their handlers in six human exposure may impact cue-following locations in Peninsular Malaysia. In addition, as they represent a non-domesticated species trunk-wash samples were examined for tubercle with almost constant human interaction. As a bacillus by culture and polymerase chain reaction group, the elephants (n = 7) in our study were (PCR). For 63 elephants and 149 elephant unable to follow pointing, body orientation or handlers, TB seroprevalence was estimated a combination of both as honest signals of food at 20·4% and 24·8%, respectively. From 151 location. They were, however, able to follow vocal trunk-wash samples, 24 acid-fast isolates commands with which they were already familiar were obtained, 23 of which were identified by in a novel context, suggesting the elephants hsp65-based sequencing as non-tuberculous are able to follow cues if they are sufficiently mycobacteria. The Mycobacterium tuberculosis- salient. Although the elephants’ inability to specific PCR was positive in the trunk-wash follow the visual cues provides partial support samples from three elephants which were also for the domestication hypothesis, an alternative seropositive. Conversely, the trunk wash from explanation is that elephants may rely more seven seropositive elephants were PCR negative. heavily on other sensory modalities, specifically Hence, there was evidence of active and latent olfaction and audition. Further research will be TB in the elephants and the high seroprevalence needed to rule out this alternative explanation. © in the elephants and their handlers suggests 2013 Plotnik et al. frequent, close contact, two-way transmission between animals and humans within confined R.P.V.J. Rajapakse, M. Iwagami, S. workplaces. © 2011 Cambridge University Press. Wickramasinghe, S.M. Walker & T. Agatsuma Morphology and surface topography of the J.M. Plotnik, J.J. Pokorny, T. Keratimanochaya, schistosome Bivitellobilharzia nairi from the C. Webb, H.F. Beronja, A. Hennessy, J. Hill, Asian elephant (Elephas maximus maximus) V.J. Hill, R. Kiss, C. Maguire, B.L. Melville, in Sri Lanka V.M.B. Morrison, D. Seecoomar, B. Singer, J. Journal of Helminthology 87 (2013) 348–355 Ukehaxhaj, S.K. Vlahakis, D. Ylli, N.S. Clayton, Abstract. Bivitellobilharzia nairi was first J. Roberts, E.L. Fure, A.P. Duchatelier & D. Getz recorded from an (Elephas Visual cues given by humans are not sufficient maximus) in Berlin. Infections with this parasite for Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) to find have become increasingly important in E. hidden food maximus maximus populations in Sri Lanka. The PLOS ONE 8 (2013) e61174 present work is the first morphological description Abstract. Recent research suggests that of this schistosome from Sri Lanka. A number of domesticated species – due to artificial selection adult worms were recovered from a dead Asian by humans for specific, preferred behavioral elephant near the elephant orphanage, Pinnawala, traits – are better than wild animals at responding in Sri Lanka. The observed clinical features of the to visual cues given by humans about the location infected elephant included emaciation, subventral of hidden food. Although this seems to be oedema and anaemia. Post-mortem results supported by studies on a range of domesticated indicated that the liver was enlarged and adult (including dogs, goats and horses) and wild schistosomes were found in the blood vessels (including wolves and chimpanzees) animals, of the liver parenchyma. The total number of

56 worms recovered from a portion of the liver was species differences in olfactory discrimination 129,870, which is an average of 22 worms per capabilities. In contrast, we found a positive 100 g of liver. The present study uses both light correlation between the number of functional microscopic and scanning electron microscope olfactory receptor genes and the proportion of (SEM) techniques for the morphological and discriminable enantiomeric odor pairs. Taken topographical characterization of this parasite together, the results of the present study support and to permit comparison with other species of the notion that the sense of smell may play an schistosomes. Morphologically, these worms important role in regulating the behavior of Asian correspond very well to the description of B. elephants. © 2012 The Authors. nairi by Dutt & Srivastava (1955). Moreover, it is clear that B. nairi is a distinctive species easily M.F. Rowe, G.S. Bakken, J.J. Ratliff & V.A. differentiated from other schistosomes. The SEM Langman study of the tegument of male worms shows that Heat storage in Asian elephants during the surface of B. nairi is smoother than in other submaximal exercise: behavioral regulation schistosomes. © 2012 Cambridge Univ. Press. of thermoregulatory constraints on activity in endothermic gigantotherms A. Rizvanovic, M. Amundin & M. Laska Journal of Experimental Biology 216 (2013) Olfactory discrimination ability of Asian 1774-1785 elephants (Elephas maximus) for structurally Abstract. Gigantic size presents both related odorants opportunities and challenges in thermoregulation. Chemical Senses 38 (2013) 107-118 Allometric scaling relationships suggest that Abstract. Using a food-rewarded two-choice gigantic animals have difficulty dissipating instrumental conditioning paradigm, we assessed metabolic heat. Large body size permits the the ability of Asian elephants, Elephas maximus, maintenance of fairly constant core body to discriminate between 2 sets of structurally temperatures in ectothermic animals by means related odorants. We found that the animals of gigantothermy. Conversely, gigantothermy successfully discriminated between all 12 odor combined with endothermic metabolic rate and pairs involving members of homologous series activity likely results in heat production rates that of aliphatic 1-alcohols, n-aldehydes, 2-ketones, exceed heat loss rates. In tropical environments, it and n-carboxylic acids even when the stimuli has been suggested that a substantial rate of heat differed from each other by only 1 carbon. With storage might result in a potentially lethal rise all 4 chemical classes, the elephants displayed in core body temperature in both elephants and a positive correlation between discrimination endothermic dinosaurs. However, the behavioral performance and structural similarity of odorants choice of nocturnal activity might reduce heat in terms of differences in carbon chain length. The storage. We sought to test the hypothesis that animals also successfully discriminated between there is a functionally significant relationship all 12 enantiomeric odor pairs tested. An analysis between heat storage and locomotion in Asian of odor structure–activity relationships suggests elephants (Elephas maximus), and model the that a combination of molecular structural thermoregulatory constraints on activity in properties rather than a single molecular feature elephants and a similarly sized migratory dinosaur, may be responsible for the discriminability of Edmontosaurus. Pre- and post-exercise (N=37 enantiomers. Compared with other species tested trials) measurements of core body temperature previously on the same sets of odor pairs (or on and skin temperature, using thermography were subsets thereof), the Asian elephants performed at made in two adult female Asian elephants at least as well as mice and clearly better than human the Audubon Zoo in New Orleans, LA, USA. subjects, squirrel monkeys, pigtail macaques, Over ambient air temperatures ranging from 8 South African fur seals, and honeybees. Further to 34.5°C, when elephants exercised in full sun, comparisons suggest that neither the relative ~56 to 100% of active metabolic heat production nor the absolute size of the olfactory bulbs was stored in core body tissues. We estimate appear to be reliable predictors of between- that during nocturnal activity, in the absence of

57 solar radiation, between 5 and 64% of metabolic followed viz (i) twelve trails were surveyed 42 heat production would be stored in core tissues. times covering different seasons to record the Potentially lethal rates of heat storage in feeding sign of elephant and (ii) another six active elephants and Edmontosaurus could be trails were laid for vegetation sampling to know behaviorally regulated by nocturnal activity. the abundance and distribution of different food © 2013 Reproduced with permission from the plant on the habitat. A total of 36 quadrats each Journal of Experimental Biology. with 10 x 10m were plotted at every 500 meter interval of each trail. The vegetation data (food S. Sadhu, P.K. Ghosh, T.K. De, T.K. Maiti plants) was processed using computer programs Optimization of cultural condition and Biodiversity Pro and EstimateS 8.0. Species synergistic effect of lactose with Carboxy- diversity, evenness, spatial distribution, and methyl cellulose on cellulase production by similarity matrix were calculated. The study Bacillus sp. isolated from fecal matter of found that the Asian elephant selected 46 species elephant (Elephas maximus) of plant as food belonging to 26 families. Plant Advances in Microbiology 3 (2013) 280-288 family Arecacea (Calamus sp.) was selected Abstract. A cellulase producing bacterium more as food followed by Moracea (Artocarpus, (E3 strain) was isolated from fecal matter of Ficus species). Although only 18% food plants elephant and identified as Bacillus sp. using 16S show significant random distribution (out of 77% rDNA sequenced based molecular phylogenetic species random distribution) and most of the food approach. While studying the effect of substrates plants seem to have scattered distribution. The like Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), avicel, relative abundance of the food species consumed starch, maltose, sucrose, glucose, fructose, by elephant appeared to be on an average only galactose and lactose on cellulase production, 0.8 % (SE = 0.3) of the total number of tree it was found that CMC was best carbon species found in the sampled region. This random source induced cellulase production followed distribution and relatively low abundance of by lactose in this bacterial strain. A positive food species may result in wider movement or synergistic effect of lactose with CMC was distribution of elephants in search of food plants. also observed with enhancement of 5 - 6 times in cellulase production. The optimum cellulase W. Schaftenaar production was recorded with 1% CMC and Delayed postpartum fetotomy in an Asian 1% lactose when added individually in the elephant (Elephas maximus) Omeliansky’s medium. The results showed that J. of Zoo and Wildlife Med. 44 (2013) 130-135 addition lactose with CMC greatly enhances Abstract. A 37-yr-old Asian elephant (Elephas the production and activity of various cellulase maximus) started parturition after 640 days of enzymes. The optimal fermentation conditions pregnancy but no fetal parts entered the birth for the biosynthesis of cellulase by this strain canal. Despite veterinary intervention, the were found to be temperature: 37̊C, pH 7.0. The calf was not delivered. After 13 mo calving nitrogen source NH4Cl at 0.15% was optimum resumed and a full-term dead calf advanced into for cellulase production by this bacterium. © and lodged within the vagina. With standing 2013 The Authors. xylazine tranquilization, the dam received a vagino-vestibulotomy to permit total fetotomy P. Sarkar, S. Verma & V. Menon of the calf, which presented with bilateral carpal Food selection by Asian elephant (Elephus arthrogryposis. Severe infection of the caudal maximus) in Kameng Elephant Reserve in vaginal vestibulum complicated wound healing, Northeast India and over the following year two corrective The Clarion 1 (2012) 70-79 surgeries were performed, which resolved the Abstract. A study was conducted to find out fistula 3 mo after the second debridement. The the food selection by Asian elephant (Elephus elephant not only survived the procedures but also maximus) in Kameng Elephant Reserve (KER) resumed normal estrous cycles, as demonstrated during 2001-05. For this, two methods were by blood progesterone concentration monitoring.

58 A.F. Sitompul, C.R. Griffin , N.D. Rayl & T.K. the remotely sensed enhanced vegetation index Fuller (EVI), and distance to roads and rivers. Overall Spatial and temporal habitat use of an Asian home range size was 97.4 km2 for the minimum elephant in convex polygon (MCP), and 95.0 km2 for the Animals 3 (2013) 670-679 95% fixed kernel (FK), estimator. There were no Abstract. Increasingly, habitat fragmentation relationships between average monthly elephant caused by agricultural and human development home range sizes or movement distances with has forced Sumatran elephants into relatively rainfall. Distances to rivers and ex-logging roads small areas, but there is little information on how had little effect on elephant locations, but EVI, elephants use these areas and thus, how habitats an index of canopy photosynthetic capacity, did can be managed to sustain elephants in the future. correspond with elephant locations, occurring Using a Global Positioning System (GPS) collar predominately in forests with intermediate and a land cover map developed from TM imagery, canopy cover versus closed canopy forests. we identified the habitats used by a wild adult Consistent food and water availability in the female elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus) lowland forests of the SECC in combination with in the Seblat Elephant Conservation Center, high human development surrounding the center Province, Sumatra during 2007–2008. probably affect the small home range size. The marked elephant (and presumably her 40–60 herd mates) used a home range that contained N.M. Srinivasaiah, V.D. Anand, S. Vaidyanathan more than expected medium canopy and open & A. Sinha canopy land cover. Further, within the home Usual populations, unusual individuals: range, closed canopy forests were used more Insights into the behavior and management of during the day than at night. When elephants Asian elephants in fragmented landscapes were in closed canopy forests they were most PLoS One 7 (2012) e42571 often near the forest edge vs. in the forest interior. Abstract. Background: A dearth in understanding Effective elephant conservation strategies in the behavior of Asian elephants (Elephas Sumatra need to focus on forest restoration of maximus) at the scale of populations and cleared areas and providing a forest matrix that individuals has left important management issues, includes various canopy types. particularly related to human-elephant conflict (HEC), unresolved. Evaluation of differences in A.F. Sitompul, C.R. Griffin & T.K. Fuller behavior and decision-making among individual Sumatran elephant ranging behavior in a elephants across groups in response to changing fragmented rainforest landscape local ecological settings is essential to fill this International Journal of Biodiversity and gap in knowledge and to improve our approaches Conservation 5 (2013) 66-72 towards the management and conservation of Increasingly, habitat fragmentation by elephants. Methodology/Principal Findings: We agricultural and human development has hypothesized certain behavioral decisions that forced Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus would be made by Asian elephants as reflected in sumatranus) into relatively small areas; yet, there their residence time and movement rates, time- is no information on the movements and home activity budgets, social interactions and group range behaviors of elephants on Sumatra. Using dynamics in response to resource availability and a GPS collar, we estimated the home range sizes human disturbance in their habitat. This study of an adult female elephant (one of a herd of 40 is based on 200 h of behavioral observations to 60) in the Seblat Elephant Conservation Center on 60 individually identified elephants and a (SECC), Bengkulu Province of Sumatra in 2007 184-km2 grid-based survey of their natural and to 2008. We assessed the level of autocorrelation anthropogenic habitats within and outside the among elephant locations, and used correlation Bannerghatta National Park, southern India and logistic regression analyses to examine during the dry season. At a general population relationships between elephant movements and level, the behavioral decisions appeared to monthly rainfall, and elephant locations with be guided by the gender, age and group-type

59 of the elephants. At the individual level, the EEHV4 in Asia and the second case of this strain observed variation could be explained only by to be identified in an elephant worldwide. the idiosyncratic behaviors of individuals and that of their associating conspecific individuals. J.J. Stanton, J.-C. Zong, C. Eng, L. Howard, J. Recursive partitioning classification trees Flanagan, M. Stevens, D. Schmitt, E. Wiedner, for residence time of individual elephants D. Graham, R.E. Junge, M.A. Weber, M. Fischer, indicated that the primary decisions were taken A. Mejia, J. Tan, E. Latimer, A. Herron, G.S. by individuals, independently of their above- Hayward & P.D. Ling mentioned biological and ecological attributes. Kinetics of viral loads and genotypic analysis Conclusions/Significance: Decision-making by of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus-1 Asian elephants thus appears to be determined infection in captive Asian elephants (Elephas at two levels, that of the population and, more maximus) importantly, the individual. Models based on J. of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 44 (2013) 42-54 decision-making by individual elephants have Abstract. Elephant endotheliotropic the potential to predict conflict in fragmented herpesviruses (EEHVs) can cause fatal landscapes that, in turn, could aid in mitigating hemorrhagic disease in juvenile Asian elephants HEC. Thus, we must target individuals, in (Elephas maximus); however, sporadic shedding addition to populations, in our efforts to manage of virus in trunk washes collected from healthy and conserve this threatened species, particularly elephants also has been detected. Data regarding in human-dominated landscapes. the relationship of viral loads in blood compared with trunk washes are lacking, and questions S. Sripiboon, P. Tankaew, G. Lungka & C. about whether elephants can undergo multiple Thitaram infections with EEHVs have not been addressed The occurrence of elephant endotheliotropic previously. Real-time quantitative polymerase herpesivrus in captive Asian elephants chain reaction was used to determine the kinetics (Elephas maximus): First case of EEHV4 in of EEHV1 loads, and genotypic analysis was Asia performed on EEHV1 DNA detected in various J. of Zoo and Wildlife Med. 44 (2013) 100-104 fluid samples obtained from five Asian elephants Abstract. Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus that survived detectable EEHV1 DNAemia on at (EEHV) is a type of herpesvirus that causes acute least two separate occasions. In three elephants hemorrhagic disease in Asian elephants (Elephas displaying clinical signs of illness, preclinical maximus) and is often fatal, especially in calves. EEHV1 DNAemia was detectable, and peak This study describes the postmortem evaluation whole-blood viral loads occurred 3–8 days after of two captive-born Asian elephants (2 and 3 yr the onset of clinical signs. In two elephants of age, respectively) diagnosed with EEHV in with EEHV1 DNAemia that persisted for 7–21 Thailand. Both elephants presented only mild days, no clinical signs of illness were observed. depression, lethargy, and anorexia before death Detection of EEHV1 DNA in trunk washes peaked within 24 hr of symptom onset. Necropsies were approximately 21 days after DNAemia, and viral performed, and tissue samples were tested for genotypes detected during DNAemia matched EEHV viral presence using polymerase chain those detected in subsequent trunk washes from reaction. Molecular and phylogenetic evidence the same elephant. In each of the five elephants, illustrated two types of EEHV, which were closely two distinct EEHV1 genotypes were identified in related to EEHV1A in Case 1 and EEHV4 in whole blood and trunk washes at different time Case 2. Pathologic findings differed between the points. In each case, these genotypes represented cases. More specific organ tropism was found in both an EEHV1A and an EEHV1B subtype. Case 1, where mainly the cardiovascular system These data suggest that knowledge of viral loads was affected. In contrast, in Case 2, hemorrhages could be useful for the management of elephants were noted in most organs, including in the before or during clinical illness. Furthermore, gastrointestinal, respiratory, and cardiovascular sequential infection with both EEHV1 subtypes systems. This report is the first to document occurs in Asian elephants, suggesting that they do

60 not elicit cross-protective sterilizing immunity. for treatment of C. difficile infection, was 0.125- These data will be useful to individuals involved 4.0 μg/ml and 0.125-2.0 μg/ml, respectively. in the husbandry and clinical care of Asian Moreover, MIC50 and MIC90 for metronidazole elephants. were 0.75 and 1.5 μg/ml while vancomycin was 1.0 and 2.0 μg/ml. There was no evidence of N. Stephens, L. Vogelnest, C. Lowbridge, A. resistance to these antimicrobials. These results Christensen, G.B. Marks, V. Sintchenko & J. might be a preliminary data for further study of McAnulty animal C. difficile. Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) to S.J. Sugumar & R. Jayaparvathy a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and humans in An early warning system for elephant an Australian zoo intrusion along the forest border areas Epidemiology and Infection 141 (2013) 1488-97 Current Science 104 (2013) 1515-1526 Abstract. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is Abstract. Man–animal conflict has been on the primarily a pathogen of humans. Infections rise in the forest border areas with herds of wild have been reported in animal species and it is pachyderms straying into human habitation. The emerging as a significant disease of elephants in surveillance and tracking of elephant herds are the care of humans. With the close association difficult due to their size and nature of movement. between humans and animals, transmission can In this article, we present an analytical procedure occur. In November 2010, a clinically healthy to study the behaviour of elephants along Asian elephant in an Australian zoo was found to forest border areas by taking migration data be shedding M. tuberculosis; in September 2011, into consideration using a three-state Markov a sick chimpanzee at the same zoo was diagnosed chain. The migration data over the whole year is with tuberculosis caused by an indistinguishable divided into four different periods for the study. strain of M. tuberculosis. Investigations included We also develop an intrusion detection system staff and animal screening. Four staff had to detect the intrusion of herds of wild elephants tuberculin skin test conversions associated with from the forests into the human habitation and to spending at least 10 hours within the elephant send an early warning through SMS to the forest enclosure; none had disease. Six chimpanzees had officials to take necessary action. We validate suspected infection. A pathway of transmission the analytical results in comparison with the data between the animals could not be confirmed. obtained from the Forest Department. We also Tuberculosis in an elephant can be transmissible present a multi-class classification algorithm to people in close contact and to other animals for providing zero false alarm rate. Species more remotely. The mechanism for transmission classification accuracy percentage is found to be from elephants requires further investigation. © 91.25. 2013 Cambridge University Press. S. Sulandari & M.S.A. Zein N. Sthitmatee, T. Warinrak & W. Wongkalasin Mitochondrial DNA variation of the Sumatran Susceptibility of Clostridium difficile isolated elephant populations in Sumatera, from healthy captive Asian elephants to Biotropia 19 (2012) 92-102 metronidazole and vancomycin Abstract. Genetic analysis of Mitochondrial Thai J. of Veterinary Med. 43 (2013) 313-316 DNA diversity in Sumatran elephant (Elephas Abstract. Susceptibility to metronidazole and maximus sumatranus) was conducted. A 630 bp vancomycin, drugs of choice for Clostridium segment of mitochondrial DNA was amplified difficile infection, of 15 C. difficile isolates from 105 different Sumatran elephant samples from 6 healthy Asian elephants was determined. from 5 locations in Sumatera (Bentayan, Sugihan, All of the isolates belonged to only 1 ribotype Bukit Salero Lahat, Seblat, Way Kambas) using pattern and carried both toxin A and B genes. a set of primers: MDL3 (5’-CCCACAAT- The Minimal inhibitory concentration range of TAATGGGCCC-GGAGCG-3’) and MDL5 metronidazole and vancomycin, drugs of choice (5’-TTACATGAATTGGCAGCCA-ACCAG-

61 3’). The objectives of this study were to generate Abstract. Communities in the Lao People’s mitochondrial DNA D-loop sequences for all Democratic Republic (PDR) have been utilizing available Sumatran elephant samples and to captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) define haplotypes and nucleotide sequence for centuries. The elephant handler (mahout) diversity of the different Sumatran elephant profession has remained fundamentally populations. The nucleotide sequence of a total of unchanged. Captive elephants, however, are 105 PCR products were successfully determined no longer necessary in roles where they were with an average length of 616 bp. However, once considered vital, particularly the logging mitochondrial DNA fragments for this analysis industry. To gauge mahout demographics used the first 601 bases. Six different haplotypes and assess problems associated with elephant (BP, BT, BS, BR, BX and BY) were identified in industries, we surveyed 133 mahouts in the Lao Sumateran elephant populations. The majority of PDR. We found that mahoutship is an aging the sampled individuals carried haplotype BT. BX industry with a vanishing family association. and BY are most likely novel derived haplotypes. Contrasts between logging and tourism mahouts All haplotypes, except for the haplotype BP were apparent when observing family tradition, belong to the Sumatera clade. The haplotype finances, and industry-related experiences. BX was derived from the haplotype BT, and the Logging mahouts rely on tourism to provide haplotype BY was derived from the haplotype them with future employment; however, tourism BS by one transversion, respectively. All the cannot currently employ elephants on a scale other substitutions identified in this network similar to that of logging operations. The need were transitions. The haplotype BP is widely for the traditional mahout and a large population distributed from Sri Lanka, Sumatera, Peninsular of captive elephants may have reached its finality Malay and China. Although reported to be in Laos. © 2013 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. distributed in Sumatera and Peninsular Malay the haplotype BU was not detected among the G.S. Wilkie, A.J. Davison, M. Watson, K. Kerr, S. samples analysed in this study. Genetic distances Sanderson, T. Bouts, F. Steinbach & A. Dastjerdi within populations in Bentayan, Bukit Salero Complete genome sequences of elephant Lahat, Seblat, Sugihan and Way Kambas ranged endotheliotropic herpesviruses 1A and 1B from 0.0000 - 0003, and the genetic distance determined directly from fatal cases between the populations that is 0.0000 - 0.0022. Journal of Virology 87 (2013) 6700-6712 The distance between haplotypes of different Abstract. A highly lethal hemorrhagic Sumatran elephant populations was shown to be disease associated with infection by elephant low. The diversity of haplotypes and nucleotides endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) poses in Sumatera Island were low, the highest diversity a severe threat to Asian elephant husbandry. was found in elephants sampled in the region of We have used high-throughput methods to Bukit Salero Lahat and the lowest was found in sequence the genomes of the two genotypes elephants from Bentayan and Sugihan. Overall, that are involved in most fatalities, namely, the results of analysis of Fu and Li’s F*test EEHV1A and EEHV1B (species Elephantid statistic indicates that the population of Sumatran herpesvirus 1, genus Proboscivirus, subfamily elephants in Sumatra is -0.78871, which suggests Betaherpesvirinae, family Herpesviridae). The that there is no inbreeding. However, the results sequences were determined from postmortem are not significant (P>0.10) and additional studies tissue samples, despite the data containing tiny are required to confirm this finding. proportions of viral reads among reads from a host for which the genome sequence was not I.C. Suter, M. Hockings & G.S. Baxter available. The EEHV1A genome is 180,421 bp in Changes in elephant ownership and employ- size and consists of a unique sequence (174,601 ment in the Lao PDR: Implications for the bp) flanked by a terminal direct repeat (2,910 elephant-based logging and tourism industries bp). The genome contains 116 predicted protein- Human Dimensions of Wildlife 18 (2013) 279- coding genes, of which six are fragmented, and 291 seven paralogous gene families are present.

62 The EEHV1B genome is very similar to that use. We conclude that while no significant effects of EEHV1A in structure, size, and gene layout. of L. camara were seen at the level of an entire Half of the EEHV1A genes lack orthologs in reserve, at a finer scale and in specific habitats other members of subfamily Betaherpesvirinae, negative effects of this invasive plant on elephant such as human cytomegalovirus (genus habitat use were observed. © 2013 Cambridge Cytomegalovirus) and human herpesvirus 6A University Press. (genus Roseolovirus). Notable among these are 23 genes encoding type 3 membrane proteins S. Yasui, A. Konno, M. Tanaka, G. Idani, A. containing seven transmembrane domains (the Ludwig, D. Lieckfeldt & M. Inoue-Murayama 7TM family) and seven genes encoding related Personality assessment and its association type 2 membrane proteins (the EE50 family). with genetic factors in captive Asian and The EE50 family appears to be under intense African elephants evolutionary selection, as it is highly diverged Zoo Biology 32 (2013) 70-78 between the two genotypes, exhibits evidence of Abstract. Elephants live in a complex society sequence duplications or deletions, and contains based on matrilineal groups. Management of several fragmented genes. The availability of the captive elephants is difficult, partly because each genome sequences will facilitate future research elephant has a unique personality. For a better on the epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, understanding of elephant well being in captivity, and treatment of EEHV-associated disease. © it would be helpful to systematically evaluate 2013 American Society for Microbiology. elephants’ personalities and their underlying biological basis. We sent elephant’ personality G. Wilson, A.A. Desai, D.A. Sim & W.L. questionnaires to keepers of 75 elephants. We Linklater also used 196 elephant DNA samples to search The influence of the invasive weed Lantana for genetic polymorphisms in genes expressed in camara on elephant habitat use in Mudumalai the brain that have been suggested to be related to Tiger Reserve, southern India personality traits. Three genes, androgen receptor Journal of Tropical Ecology 29 (2013) 199-207 (AR), fragile X related mental retardation protein Abstract. Invasive weeds like Lantana camara interacting protein (NUFIP2), and acheate-scute have a range of effects on animals such as homologs 1 (ASH1) contained polymorphic elephant. These plants are not edible by the Asian regions. We examined the association of elephant (Elephas maximus). They also compete personality with intraspecific genetic variation in for space with elephant food plants and take 17 Asian and 28 African elephants. The results over large areas of elephant habitat. We tested suggest that the ASH1 genotype was associated whether the addition of L. camara to a model with neuroticism in Asian elephants. Subjects with consisting of measured environmental variables short alleles had lower scores of neuroticism than improved predictions of habitat use by elephant those with long alleles. This is the first report of in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, India. Elephant an association between a genetic polymorphism dung density was used to assess elephant habitat and personality in elephants. © 2012 Reproduced use from 62 line transects 1-km in length. Results with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. indicated that habitat and impact of human settlements significantly influenced elephant habitat use at a landscape scale. However, we found no evidence for the hypothesis that the addition of L. camara significantly predicted elephant habitat use at the landscape level. We then tested the association of L. camara on elephant habitat use in the dry deciduous forest (DDF) where there was a significant interaction between DDF and L. camara. In the DDF, L. camara significantly predicted elephant habitat Wild elephants waiting to be fed (Sri Lanka)

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