Converging Technologies. Selected Papers from the Edtech '90 Conference of the Austrnlian Sociaty for Educational Technology (Sydney, Australia, July 4-6, 1990)

ED 323 968 IR 014 613

AUTHOR Hedberg, John G., Ed.; And Others TITLE Converging Technologies. Selected Papers from the EdTech '90 Conference of the Austrnlian Sociaty for Educational Technology (Sydney, Australia, July 4-6, 1990). INSTITUTION Australian Society of Educational Technology, Adelaide. REPORT NO ISBN-0-646-01132-2 PUB DATE Jul 90 NOTE 228p. AVAILABLE FROMAJET Publications, PO Box 772, Belconnen, ACT, Australia 2616 (A040.00 plus $10 postage). PUB TYPE Collected Works - Conference Proceedings (021) -- Viewpoints (120) -- Reports - Research/Technical (143)

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS *Computer Assisted Instruction; *Delivery Systems; *Distance Education; *Educational Technology; Electronic Mail; Elementary Secondary Education Expert Systems; Foreign Countries; Higher Education; Hypermedia; *Instructional Development; *Interactive Video; Keyboarding (Data Entry); Microcomputers; Multimedia Instruction; Optical Data Disks; Telecommunications IDENTIPIERS Intelligent CAI Systems

ABSTRACT This collection contaihs 30 selected papers and abstracts of six additional papers from the 1990 Conference of the Australian Society for Educational Technology. Titles and authors of the papers are as follows: (1) "Interactive Media into the Millenium" (Clark); (2) "Open Learning Centre Network Project and the Preparatory and Remedial Education Project for Higher Education in Queensland" (Gooley et al.); (3) "Teaching with Telematics" (Conboy); (4) "Computer Based Training and the RAN" (Triantos);(5) "Computerised Out-of-Class Exercises" (Phelan); (6) "The Impact of High Touch in the High Tech World of Education" (Bollet, Cornell); (7) "The Use of the Satellite and Teleconferencing in Real Estate Distance Education" (Harrison, Trowbridge); (8) "Divergence" (Forsyth); (9) "D-I-Y Publishing for the Production of Distance Education Courseware" (Kemp);(10) "Keyboarding, Touch Typing and Computers" (McKinnon, Nolan); (11) Starting Think-Keying" (Carnegie); (12) "Developing a HyperCard Training Package" (Sparles, Hall); (13) "HyperCard Workshop" (Dickenson); (14) "SIULLEQ--A Multimedia Database about Greenland" (Looms); (15) "The Cooperativs Development Process of the Agency for Instructional Technology" (Nelson); (16) "Rural & Remote Learning Centres" (Kirk); (17) "Electronic Mail" (Russell); (18) "Developmental User Groups for Ongoing Computer Training" (Hughes); (19) "Microcomputer Implementation in the Primary School" (Kershaw, Cousins); (20) "The Convergence of Teaching and Production in Media Centers" (Ramsay); (21) "Developing Guided Self-Study Materials for Higher Education" (Fox);(22) "'Chronic Blood Transfusion': A Video and Resource Book..." (Lewis, Green); (23) "Interactiveyideotape and Videodisc Language Packages" (Lobb, Cartwright); (24) "The Use of Interactive Video Cmferencing in Education and Training" (Jamieson, Rees); (25) "Developing Instructional Videos in Indoaesia" (Jolliffe); (26) "Educational Technology in Malaysia" (Hedberg); (27) "Developing an Intelligent Tutoring System" (Hall); (28) "Expert Systems and Education" (Gedgovd); (29) "A Computer-Based System for Developing Expertise in the Diagnosis and Remediation of Common Error Patterns in the Domain of Fractions" (Mason, Martin); and (30) "Using CD-ROM and Multi-Media for Eftication and Training" (Shaw, Standfield). An author index is proVt01.1, (DB) U.& DEPARTMENT OfEMCATSOM Offic of Educadonal Reesanli and Improvement EDUCATIONAL REIOURCESINFORMATION GEM ER (ERIO KThis documant has beenreproduced as recanted from the perm,or organization onginating it 0 Minor changss hew beanmade to improve rOrOduction Outlay.

Points of Hew Or opinionsMated in true dome mant do not necessarilyreoresent official OEM Position of policy ?CR SOCO WSIRP.UPS4 PO50APC1 5:k)CP:WONP61.1EC040i.09\742.'11431connen?'616 ikuslIcgcl

Conte%01,, -1990 '90 no\lee` cioWcit, E.dlecbEduc eCettsVP°Pels 4-6 ator110°T0. PAToto, d SO-101, Seditel ot kOietstV

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE T)1IS MATERIAL IN MICROFICHE ONI.Y HAS BEEN GRANTED SY John Hedberg

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (EBICIP . ,

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Converging Technologies

*-1 Selected Papers from EdTech '90 7990 Conference of the Australian Society for Educational Technology University of Sydney Australia 4-6 July 7990

Edited by _ John G Hedberg, James Steele and Mary Mooney

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This work is copyright. Apart from any use permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced without the permission In writing of the Australian Society for Educational Technology and the author or authors

Additional copies are available for AUS40 from AJET Publications, PO Box 772, Belconnen ACT Australia 2616

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Converging Technologies Contents

Preface John Dawkins Minister for Employment, Education and Training

Interactive Multimedia into the millenium: it's time to simplify 1 David R Clark Ph.D Director, University of London Audio-Visual Centre Open learning centre network project and the preparatory and remedial education project for higher education in Queensland 4 Anne Gooley Open Learning Centre Network, Brisbane Steve Towers and John Dekkers University College of Central Queensland

Teaching with Telematics: It's not as hard as it looks, or is it? 14 Ian Conboy Ministry of Education, Victoria

Computer Based Training and the RAN: Shipboard Training 24 Maria Triantos HMAS Cerberus

Computerised out-of-class exercises 27 Dan Phelan Chisholm Institute of Technology

The impact of high touch in the high tech world of education: An issue revisited 30 R.M. Bonet and RA. Cornell University of Central Florida

Collected Abstracts of other presented papers.. 35 Authors included David Lee; Patricia Youngblood; Margaret Allan; Sue McNamara; Trevor Cole; and James Strain.

The use of the satellite and teleconferencing in real estate distance education 39 David Harrison and Kay Trowbridge

Divergence 42 Ian Forsyth TAFECOM New South W ales

J D-I-Y publishing for the production of distance education courseware: What have we learnPd? 47 Neale Kemp Division of Dis ance and Continuing Education University College of Central Queensland Keyboarding, touch typing and computers: What students think 59 David H McKinnon Charles Sturt University Nfitchell Patrick Cj Nolan Massey University, New Zealand Starting Think-Keying 69 Uni Carnegie South Australian College of Advan:ed Education Developing a HyperCard training pachige: Legal Systems 72 Anne Sparks and Neil Hall University of Wollongong

HyperCard Workshop 81 Roger Dickinson University of Western Australia SIULLEQ - a multimedia database about Greenland 82 Peter Olaf Looms Danmarks Radio (The Danish Broadcasting Corporation)

The cooperative development process of the Agency for Instructional Technology 91 John E. Nelson Agency for Instructional Technology Rural & remote learning centres: The point of convergence for the provision of further education by alternative delivery systems 97 John Kirk Adelaide College of TAFE

Electronic mail: Is it intrusive or invisible? 108 Anne Russell Deparnment of Communication and Resource Studies Queensland University of Technology

Developmental user groups for ongoing computer training 116 Chris Hughes University of New South Wales Microcomputer implementation in the primary school: The effect on teachers attitudes and perceptions 125 Lorraine Kershaw and Judith Cousins Western Australian College of Advanced Education

6 The convergence of teaching and production in media centres 135 Grahame Ramsay Univerty of Western SydneyNepean

Developing guided self-study materials for higher education: The Curtin experience 141 Robert Fox Curtin University CHRONIC BLOOD TRANSFUSION: A video and resource beok to facilitate teamwork in the treatment of patients requiring chronic blood transfitsion 152 Justus H.Lewis, Chisholm Insti:ute of Technology Ralph E. Green, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology

Interactive videotape and videodisc language packages 158 Warwick H. Lobb and William E. Cartwright Victoria University of TechnologyRMIT Campus The use of interactive video conferencing in education and training: Recent developments in Victoria Peter Jamieson and Keith Rees Victorian TAFE Off-Campus Network Developing instructional videos in Indonesia Alan Jolliffe Box Hill College of TAFE Educational technology in Malaysia: The resource centre as a unififing concept 177 John G Hedberg University of New South Wales Developing an intelligent tutoring system Neil Hall The University of Wollongong Expert systems and education: An Innovation in Grad Dip Ed (Computer Education) George Gedgovri University of Technology, Sydney A computer-based system for developing expertise in the diagnosis and remediation of common error patterns in the domain of fractions 205 Rod Nason and Christopher Martin Queensland University of Technology Carseldine Using CD-ROM and multi-media for education and training 212 Neal A Shaw and G J Standfield Footscray Institute of Technology Author Index 218 Preface John Dawkins Minister for Employment. Eduodtion ond Trtining

In 1938, it Was utypleasuree *attend the ht4 natiOal- -A9,1***:'*: the Aus#41MA Society f(4934#409nal Techfiblogyi rand I ain-,,delighttid to renew our acqu4intince inthis way for the 1990 conference. Development of the arts and sciences of educational- technology forms an. important _part'. of Our ,national educational endeavour. InnoVations in educational media, coniput#Oased instruction, educationatteleylakkind educational telecommUnOaticins, .pecially those which eXPlore'their convergence,- are essential if we Wish to create a trulymodern, effedive, and cost-efficient means of delivering high

quality instruction. . I commend the work of the Australian Society for Educational Technology in fostering these innovations through activities such as the natione conference and the ASET Aivards Sterne, and wish the Society and its sponsors every success for your 1990 gathering in Sydney.

8 Interactive Multimedia into the millenium: it's time to simplify Davla R Clcrk Ph.D Director, University of London Audio-Visual Centre

This is a most exciting time for is no doubt that everybody will agree Interactive Multimedia. There is just a when asked that the tool for the job chance that soon we will discover must be fit for its purpose. But the con- what the word means. After some 10 sequences of the ready acceptance of years in the field, I am at last begin- the proposition for the multimedia in- ning to understand the realities behind dustry are striking. The first and most the rhetoric that I and others have been obvious is the removal of CD-ROM peddling. from consideration as a ser!ous delivery system for interactive multimedia. As a Keynote Speaker it is my respon- It has always been clear from theoreti- sibility to try and set you you off in the cal analysis that CD technology is, by right direction. The trouble is that virtue of its low data late, unsuitable what I have to say may not be exactly for the delivery of images. As is usual, what you want to hear. For almost the however, practical demonstrations are whole of its short and eventful life, our required before most people will be- industry has been driven by technol- lieve theoretical conclusions. (This is ogy: the needs of any prospective users perhaps a definition of education have scarcely been considered, so sure the more educated you are, the less have we been that with the gizmos to you need the practical demonstration hand all their wishes and more could of a theoretical idea to believe and be fulfilled. We saw no real need to understand it.) One only has to see the stop and ask. painful lurchings and grindings as im- To add to the distortion that this atti- ages are dragged from the CD-ROM in tude has imposed on the marketplace, response to the slick click of a mouse the driving technologies have been to realise that the constraints on the continually changing. Worse still, these rhythm and flow of the user's thoughts changes have themselves had no ne- that the drive imposes render the sys- cessity from the point of view of the tem useless in all but the most con- tasks in hand. strained and artificial systems. And that's just for still images. With mov- It is a good idea to step back and re- ing pictures things are hopeless, and view the systems that we have at our no amount of clever coding will get disposal in order to assess their suit- over the fundamental limitations im- ability for the tasks that now seen to be posed by the intrinsic data rate of the paramount. In the assessment that I standard CD. shall give, I pay particular attention to the origins of the technologies and Of course, the reason for the CD-ROM their relationship to the wider world of hype is not far to find. The unprece- communications. In all this there is a dented consumer acceptance of CD- key concept: fitness for purpose. There DA has brought the price of a drive down to $45 and the pressing plants

9 2 Converging Tec.hnologies have some spare capacity for short run the concept of programme design from productions. As the requirements of that of programme delivery. It must be CD-ROM are electronically simpler very galling to Sony and Philips to feel than CD-DA (only error correction, not that in order to sell one of their prod- additional error concealment, is re- ucts, they must also see sold a com- quired) a high mar& computer pe- puter that costs almost twice as much ripheral is just money for old rope. as their product. Both these companies Thing to remember is that CD technol- have tried to ameliorate the problem ogy was highly optimised for just one by making computers of their own, purpose fooling the ear. The with no success. The real truth is that a exacting requirements of human general-purpose PC is no good for de- hearing set the sampling depth and livering interactive multimedia. The rate and the level of error fidelity. The Macintosh, the Amiga and the promulgation of this as a universal Archimedes have potential as engines standard is excellent for audiophiles for creating interactive programmes, but, just as your electric toaster is no where simultaneously there must be use as a washing machine, CD's editors for programs and pictures, the precise fitness for its purpose has controlof peripherals suchas rendered it unfit for the task of fooling videodisc players and overlay boards another of our senses our eyes. and the necessary modelling tools to Many thousands of man-years have construct and test the interactive pro- already been devoted to that task and grammes. The final result of these the result is video. labours needs none of these things and can be delivered with its own fit-for- Analogue video, in its old as well as its purpose delivery engine. The specifi- new incarnations as HDTV, is a beauti- cation of this delivery engine has been fully optimised system for a particular my prime concern for the last 3 years. task. One of the tragedies of the past decades has been the complete failure As is always the case, the 'broad pic- of those deeply involved in digital ture' is nothing but the sum of its fine computation properly to appreciate details. If the details are not to hand the significance of the analogue video the solution to the problem will be im- system. If it ain't broke, don't fix it, as possible The solution will always be they say in America, would have been particular; there is no such thing as a a good maxim for all those who spent generic solution. In your kitchen you so much time trying to make pictures are unlikely to have the generic cook- out of digits. There are undoubtedly ing tool, and those expensive devices some occasions when having an image that claim to do lots of wonderful in digital form is useful, but for the things to your food at the press of a overwhelming majority of visual tasks switch are often to be found on the top this is not the case. The marriage of shelf gathering dust. Similarly, when computers, an essentially minority in- you call for the plumber he doesn't terest, with the premier communica- have in his bag a universal plumbing tions medium on the planet has been tool; he has a very strange collection of very unhappy. The tail has tried to things, each of which is precisely fit for wag the dog. a particular plumbing purpose. We must not forget this lesson when we Another aspect of the problems con- try to understand the needs of those fronting the multimedia industry is the who suspect the our interactive mul- failure by the practitioners to separate timedia tools may be of some use to

LO, 3 them in the solution of their problems. chines with their tiers of wings and Not only must the hardware be fit for improbable engines. When I see the purpose, but the programme too must piles of gear on the stages, the pairs of reflect precisely those features that the video projectors, the LaserDisc and CD customer requires. One of the factors piayers "and MIPS by the gross and the in the overwhelming consumer resis- almost inevitablecollapse of the deny), tance to acceptance of aie new tech- often after a promising start, I realise nologies is that they heretofore have that we are in the very early phase of required an unacceptable high degree the media revolution. I'm (almost) of compliance by the customer to the done with these extravaganzas because artificial restrictions imposed by the I have discovered that all the essential technology. attributes of full interactivity can be delivered with no computer at all. As Looking back over the last decade is always, the si.nple sohltions are the not unlike looking again at those won- best. derful old pictures of early flying ma-

t Open learning centre network project and the preppratpry and remedial educatiOn prolOt for highev educafion in Queensland

Anne Gooley Open Learning Centre Network. Brisbane Steve Towers and John Dekkers University College of Central Queensland

The provision of distance education using study centresor open learning centres aq integral components of student support systems have considerable application, particularly in the highly decentralised regions of Australia. The use of study centres is not new in Australia. However, this paper details two of the projects funded by the Queensland State Government for the establishment of an open learning centre network for the delivery of distance education that \is shared by all the higher education institutions and TAFE in Queensland. The paper also addresses the development cf preparatory and remedialcourses that have been funded specifically to take advantage of sucha network.

Considered are the roles of technology and the roles of anopen learning centre in fulfilling the needs of community members, students and institutions providing distance education courses.

For some years there has been concern eaucational awareness/promofion about theaccessibilityof and participation in higher education, availability of preparatory and pardcularly by those people who live brid0g programs in remote areas of the State. This issue was addressed by the Government, overcoming geographical and other Committee of Inquiry into Higher forms of isolation Education Places in Queensland (known as the Sherrin Committee, 1989). This flexible entry requirements committee subsequently allocated $4 million in the 1988/89 State budget to course design pilot a decentalised State-wide system for higher education delivery. available and emerging communication technology The main goals of this State-wide system are to increase access, equity exedit transfer capabilities and participation. Achieving these goals was seen to depend upon a k, quota management number of factors:

ta Anne Gooley, Steve Travers and John Dekkeis

It was decided that a State plan should management, and related studies be based on the nemis of the student as ($1.0 million) the central startillg point and that the expenditure of the grant should be Development and delivery of aimed at taking some steps towards courseware for remote area increasing accessibility. This can be Aboliginal and Torres Strait best achieved through the cooperative Islander Teacher Education development of propexly designed Programme in North Queensland distance education programs which ($0.6 million) can be delivered throughout the State, andbeyond,usingavailable Development of 'Project communication technologies. Pathways", a course information service ($150 000) The State plan has been developed to ensure thai people throughtmt the A number of smaller projects were also State would have access to all the funded. resources of all education ploviders through on-campus and off-eampus There is an acknowledgez,ent that studies as far as practicable. The two electronic technologies using audio, basic elements of such a plan are: video and computer-based systems interaction can contribute to the Cooperative establishment, quality of education for both on- maintenance and management of a campus and off-campus students. This network of open learning centres use of technology can provide new which effectively use a range of forms of flexibility and extends human communication technologies for and other resources for the creative education, information and course development anddeliveryof delivery; education. The projects now in progress have Cooperative design, development taken a relatively cautious approach to and deliver/ of courses through the network of open learning centres the use of new and emerging technologies. The first steps towards a and tertiary institutions. State-wide system are being based on Five major projects are being funded sound experience, affordable systems over a two year period. Namely: and the pervasiveness of the carriers. By using the existing terrestrial Development and implementation telephonesystemforaudio of the Queensland Open Learning teleconferencing, electronic mail and Centre Network (OLCN) ($1.0 facsimile and the postal service, it will million) be possible to reach almost everyone in the State. The projects have been Development and delivery of mindful that they should not exclude courseware for preparatory studies people through decisions to use and remedial courses (PREP) with technology not widely available. special reference to science and However, some experimentation with mathematics ($0.5 million) emerging technologies is to take place for courseware being developed for Development and delivery of use. courseware for tourism, hotel

la. 6 Converging Technologies

The challenge of the projects is for activities and information through a courseware designers to ensure that decentralised educational network. the advantages of the interactive power of these technologies are built By the end of 1990, there will be 35-40 into the programs and that their use is Open Learning Centres throughout appropriate both in terms of the media Queensland. Already 25 Centres have and the educational objectives. These been established and Co-Ordinators technologies have the power to appointed to manage them and act as facilitate interaction between students local advocates for higher education and lecturers in ways not previously and the TAFE sector. possible and should improve the The successful operation of the Centres overall educational quality and access depends on the management and to programmes. dedication of the Co-Ordinator Thisdocumentaddressesthe appointed, the equipment placed in development and implementation of the Centres, financial support based on the Open Learning Centre Network a user-pays system and the local Project and the Preparatory and community giving its full support to Remedial Education Project. Centres and the Open Learning Centre Project.

Open Le arning Centre Networkagect Alms of tIlnAleteawork The network has two main aims during 1989-1991: Background Open learning has been adopted in a to provide links between the general wide range of countries including community and institution in order Canada, Britain, Hong Kong, Thailand, to foster and promote participation India and Bangladesh. In Australia, in higher education Queensland leads the way with its to provide a support mechanism Open Learning Proje and service for persons in regional Theuseofcommunications communities seeking to undertake technologies is an important aspect of education programs. an open learning model as it provides a range of learning opportunities to meet the needs of students wherever Needs and Roles of an Open they live and an infrastructure for Learning Centre <,ducationalproviderstoshare The role of the OLC faulity and the resources. For this to occur, there Centre Co-Ordinator is shaped from needs to be a basis for cooperation and the needs of four user groups: coordina cion. The Open Learning Community members, students, Centres will provide this basis by instituti3ns and the management enabling all the higher education committee. The interaction between institutions and TAFF to deliver these groups and the OLC is shown in programmes and other educational the following diagram.

14 Anne Gook. Sieve Towers and John D &kers 7

Community Needs Student Needs - advocacy setvices -access to HE Mudy -training -resoumes for study -in service -counsdling continuing education -course advice, etc.

OLC Network Institution Needs helarsasenest Committee Needs -infomuttion & rekrral centre support fadlity - managemeid coonlinatk n for students of network - community - network services utilis 1ion & application

Education Providem

Higher Education Institutions, TAR, Schools, Other Institutions

In the above figure, community refers facilitator for training and to commerce, industry, community continuing educa'don courses groups, teachers, parents, secondary school students and private providers. facilitator and organiser of Community needs for the OLC are as community events, e.g., career week follows: activities, orientation and graduation function Centre Facility facilitator for consultancy services information and referral centre for available from institutions education courses linking of community needs to display and advertising of activities, institutional facilities. etc. The Co-ordinators role is also to assist training and in-service facility people in the community in setting up and using communication technology. teleconferencing centre For example, they will be able to train new users in how to access and use consultancy service provided by electronic mail facilities. higher education institutions Studentsenrolledintertiary Centre Co-Ordinator institutions and TAFE Colleges are able to use a centre for activifies such career and course information and as: referral-advocate role take part in lectures delivered by information source for higher communication technolVes education and TAFE

15 C.:merging Technologies

" meet with local students and telephone lines for teleconferencing, visiting lecturers E-Mail and Fax services. use Centre for quiet study Courses to be developed by PREP and other projects will contain a variety of fax assignments to their institutions delivery options including print-based materials, computer-based courseware, gain 24 hour access to computers audio visual materials and other learning/teaching aids. access study resources

access on-line library catalogues Use ot Centres obtain course and career Studentsundertakingdistance information for all institutions in education courses will be able to access Australia institutional services directly from the Open Learning Centre and to contact sit for examinations. lecturers and administrative and personnel secdons. For those tasks, where a phone call during office hours Centre communications and is necessary, the Co-Ordinator will be acimuter equipment able to follow through issues on behalf of students thus reducing the Theuseofcommunication timelapse sometimes experienced as technologies and computers is a way lecturersand studentstryto of bridging the communication gap communicate. and improve information access to communities. In particular, the use of "Project Pathways", an on-line course interactive electronic technologies such information service, will be available as audio, audiographic and computer to all people in the community who basedlearningsystemswill are seeking information on all considerably improve the quality of accredited higher education courses, and access to education in isolated and including postgraduate courses and remote communities. TAFE courses. It is envisaged that the Open Learning Centre will have an Thus the following equipment will be important role for course and career placed in each OLC: information for students and other members of the community. On-line computer hardwareprinter and links will ultimately be provided to modem CES offices and other government services to action information at an video player and monitor Open Learning Centre. audio teleconferencing system In order to maintain the currency of information and to include any fax machine improvements, it will be necessary to providetwoupdatesofthe telephone answering machine information disks at centres per year. Open Learning Centres have been established to serve the needs of

6 Anne Goo ley, Steve Tovxrs and John Dekkers 9 communities. Community groups will Community facilitiesto provide be able to use these facilities for accommodation. Thus the network participation in multipoint will be operating in a range of physical communications. Thus, an Open settings. Centre Co-Ordinators have a Learning Centre may be used by key role to play to ensure the proper different professional groups in a local functioning of each centre. area to communicate with another area or to participate in State-wide training Co-Ordinators have to be well trained programs or for the delivery of to do their work efficiently and to feel inservice programs and regional comfortable with the communication meetings of special interest groups. technology praiMed in the centres so they in turn can train the students and Inservice and training programs forothersinthe community. Co- education and industry can also beOrdinators must also be skilled in delivered to Open Learning Centres handlingstudentsWho have via communication media for a difficulties with their courses and they fraction of the cost of face-to-face neeu to have a very broad knowledge delivery. The cost advantages and ease of 0311VA and career information so of use should increase the support that they can help students and the services and network strengths in community. In addition, the Co- remote areas. Ordinators need regular or on-going support as they are very much At the present time a number of working in isolation and to be able to professionalorganisations(e.g. feel that they can be in daily contact AustralianLaw Society)and with the main officer of the Open community groups such as Rotary and Learning Centre Network in Brisbane Jaycees are expressing interest in using if necessary. They must also be made centres as communication bases. Also to feel they are important staff Government departments such as members at each of tne three Distance Education,Police and Primary Education Centres. In the past, tertiary Industries are seeing value in the institutions, without realisingit, concept and are potential users of the tended to keep 'Liaison Officer' network. asthey were called,relatively uninformed. Lack of communication caused liaison officers many problems Some Problem Areas including a feeling that they were Finding a location for the OLC has making little contribution to the caused a number of difficulties. The operation of the Centres. State Government grant is,J establish To ensure that all Co-ordinators are the basic technology requirements that able to effectively fulfil their roles they have been identified to drive the are provided with an intensive training network and to pay for Co-Ordinators programme as a group. This training to manage the centres on a part-time focuses on the development of skills basis. No funding was provided for a needed to manage and operate the physical location, so the Project has centre; becoming competent in the use had to rely on the gemrosity and of the technology available_ at each cooperative spirit of TAFE Colleges, centre; and learning about the courses HigherEducationInstitutions, and other aspects of higher education Education Centres, Schools and Local and TAFE. The group training also is 10 ConvtrgingTechnologin an opportunity for the Co-ordinators resources for students in these to better get to know each other. locations will be more limited than is the case for students in cities and Isolation, that can be experienced by towns. all Co-Ordinators, is overcome by weekly repircs on activities mcurring In the future, it Wintended to broaden throughout the whole network, the scope of OLCs to in'clnde other monthly newsletters, a 008 number to sectors of edti4tiOn. ,envisaged ensure constant contact and-feedback that over the twO year, tialj,Te1d, an on problents, an answering machine in overall, State-y '4* Oirn:: of the main office in Brisbane, monthly management *M axusation vill be teleconferences linking Arp all the Co- worked out.-tiiiii Will include the Ordinators in Queensland and the development and -intsocinctinn_of a Management Committee. There Will user-payssysfena to qnsure t.$4.1.onger also be regular once a year training term viability, and,extension of the workshops for all Co-Ordinators. network fUnctiOns and capabilities.lf a proper User-pays Systent can be developed arid,aspects ot :the OLC Future Prospects NetWork cin becomerc1aliaed, the systems:cot-rid lieCOMe sellsieUnding. Initially, all OLCs and participating Tilt; is deemed pOisible1partiCid;i4 if higher education institutions and funding support is Provided from TAPE will have the capacity to use commerce, industry and government electronic mail/computerauthorities who ute the Centre conferencing, audio teleconferencing Network for, the delivery:: and andfacsimile.Subsequently, promotion of courses for:tralning.and Queensland satellite television system upgrading course actIvityv At -preSent (Q-NET-TSNII) will be incorporated there is a strong sense of cooperation, so that the full range of media delivery shared iroerest, and: determinatinty:hy options can be available. There is institutions and comniunity groumto indicatioA of industry involvement, ensure that the network will succeed in therefore, private providers of training its endeavours. will become the major users Of the network. Finally, it is likely there will be integration with overseas institutions, The use of technology in education especially institutions in countries should facilitate communication 'with close to Australia. Bk communication students and between campuses and with open learning universities, htithe institutions. However, it must be Asian-Pacific, countries, 'the 'Open acknowledged that it may never be Learning CentreNetwork cOuld set up possible tO make available to all sharing arrangernents for langUage students the same type and level of edircation middle-management communication and resources. For courset and, training in the use- of instance,studentsatremote communicatiOn technologies for open homesteads and isolated farming and learning. mining communities could have fewer opportunities.fOr face-to-face contact with inititntional staff 'and other students.Thustherangeof communkation options and access to

1_8 Anne Cooky, Steve Towers and John Dekkas ii

Based on the above the courseware Preparatory and Remedial design will: Education Pro ect lx flexible enough to meet the The Preparatory and Remedial individualneeds of the learners in Education Project (PREP) concerns the the selection of modules and the development and implementation of a requirements of the course they range of preparatory studies and wish to enter remedial courses with particular emphasis on science and mathematics. * use a variety of communication Materials to be developed are to make technologies for the efficient creative use of alternate modes of delivery and administration of the delivery and, in particular, will be program available for students through the Open Learning Centre Network make use of the OLCN for (OLCN). The steps in the overall promotion and delivery of program project include: be developed within a 'cooperative' community and institutional needs model through the participation of analysis for preparatory and all Queensland higher education remedial courses institutions.

identification and evaluation of existing offerings at higher Technology education institutions and TAFE. As previously mentioned, the Open identification of appropriate modes Learning Centre Network will provide of delivery; content/scope; the delivery system for enhancing technology used; and audience open learning. One of the main targeted for each of the courses features of the courses developed by PREP that distinguishes them from building upon the present program previous preparatory and remedial to meet the needs identified in the courses is that they can take full first point advantage of the communication options offered by the OLCN. With developing inter-institutional this in mind the instructional design infrastructure for offering of and management models developed preparatory studies and remedial for the project will ensure that course courses in mathemaPcs, writing teams integrate a variety of communications and science. :hese learning options into the courses.

implementing appropriate Although the courses to be developed by PREP will be primarily print-based technologies such as the computer and telecommunications technology (as print is the most accessible medium for the majority of students), there are for the delivery and admiristration number of learning-mode options to of the preparatory stud1e6 and bridging courses through the OLCN supplement and enrich the student's and other settings. learning experience. Some of the learning options such as audio tapes, video tapes and teleconferencing will -

12 Converging Techno highs

be available to the students at their to ensure quality assurance procedures homes whereas electronic mail, for courseware development. This was facsimile machines and Computer seen as being vital because courseware Aided Learning (CAL) will be is to be developed by a number of available at the local Open Learning institutions throughout the State. The Centre. CAL protocols are being developed by a number ofhigher education Computer Aided Learning is seen as institutions in Queensland and focus one ofthe innovative Lsesof on all aspects of instruction design, technology for this project. Because of includingscreenspecifications, the nature of preparatory, bridging authoring templates and training. and remedial courses it was decided to use a software and hardware platform The Authorware Professional software that offered maximum flexibility for facilitates the development of learning the intended targut audience. The materials because the WYSIWYG authoring language 'Authcrware environmentavoidscomplex Professional' running on a Macintosh programming and makes CAL more CX was selected as the CAL standard accessible to writers, designers and for the project. This software and other materials development team hardware combination offers the members. student a variety of stimuli for learning, for example, sophisticated video graphics, colour graphics, Th6 Future animation, quality typographical layout and digital stereo sound. In At this time PREP will be fully addition, components produced in a developing subjects in Mathematics varietyof media and software and Communications/Studies Skills as applications are easily integrated into well as developing supplementary Authorware (without loss of quality) packages for Chemistry and Physics. and provide users with a consistent The instructional design strategy is interfaceacrossavarietyof integrated within a framework that applications. It is also 70ssible to facilitates cooperation between various export courseware produced in higher education institutions. It is Authorware Professional to an IBM PC intended that this is the first phasc of or clone (with some loss of features). the project and more materials will be developed as funds become available. It is envisaged that the variety of In the second phase of the project, stimuli and user friendliness will through the OLCN, PREP will develop provide students with a highlymore preparatory and remedial motivating learning environment. The courses and investigate the use of use of windows, icons and a mouse Computer Managed Learning systems. allows students to complete many learning tasks without using a keyboard, minimising the need for Bibliography computer literacy and extensive keyboard skills. Dekkers, J., Kelly, M.E. and Sharma, R.D. (1988)The Cost and Usage of Study PREP hasinvestedsubstantial Centres inDistanceEducation. resources to develop appropriate CAL Rockhampton: Capricornia Institute of Instructional Systems Design protocols Advanced Education.

201.-3 Anne Cooky, Steve Towns and John Dekkers 13

Board of Advanced Education (1989) Directors and Principals Working Party Queensland Access to Higher Education: on External Studies and the Australian On the mai to Open Learning (Report of Distance Education Consortium, the Working Party on Decentralised Canberra, 16 June 1988. Toowoomba: DeliveryofHigher Education: Darling Downs Institute of Advanced Queensland. Education. Lundin, R. (1988) Communication and Information Technologies in Business Address kw cotrespondence and Education report on a professional experience program in North America, Anne Gooley, Open Learning Centre 28 February, 1987 to January, 1988. Network, Brisbane, Queensland, Brisbane:BrisbaneCollegeof 4000. Advanced Education. Steve Towers and John Dekkers, Towards a Student Support System for University College of Central Distance Education (1988). Proceedings Queensland, Rockhampton, of a workshop organised under the Queensland, 4702 auspices of Australian Committee of Teaching with Telernatics: It's notas hard as it looks, or Is it?

lan Conboy Ministry of Educption, Victoria

Teacher attitudes and their level of professional preparation playa:0u* role in rthether an innovation is taken up in eduation. With* theivritat One D'Cruz Report, 1990, an evaluation of a project touse tOnnirunketion 'technology (referred to as telematics or midiwrophic technology' *Victoria)to a- pond curriculum choice in rural post priffrary schirofsirffictorieut orderto encourage students to stay longer at schork (Resiostr0 AfreeMint 3' Country Student Participation), an examinatioreis loMeteacher attitudes. Clecrly practical issues have been hnportank.influenceoon the relatively small number of teachers who have used" commUnications techs.ology. If communications technology is to be mainatramedinto education delivery where the need exists, then muchmore Mennen:las to be given to teacher preservice education in communications technology and their continuing professional development.

Teacher attitudes play a crucial role in in Victoria to equip them with com- whether an innovation is taken up in munications equipment, software and education. Surprisingly, little attention courseware. Schools were expected to seems to have been given to the nature form into dusters across Victoria and of the classroom environment and how use communications technology to teachers integrate educational change share scarce teaching resources: The into what are relatively firmly estab- project required a significant departure lished educational procedures. This from teachers' established teaching paper examines some thinidng about procedures for them to use communi- what influences teachers to accept or cation technology to teach students in reject change and it then looks at some neighbouring pchools in a distance ed- teacher attitudes to a project to use ucation mode. An evaluation Of the communicati.in technology (referred to project was commissioned in 1989 (The as telemaEcs or audiographic technol- D'Cruz Report, 1990), and this paper is ogy in Victorin) to expand curriculum one of a series which will hithlight is- choice in rural post primary schools in sues which have been highlisSed Victoria in order to encourage students the report. Why someteachers chose to to stay longer at school (Resource become involved with communicafion Agreement 3 Country Student technology and some did not may Participation). This joint provide valuable guidelines for im- Commonwealth and State Government plementing similar innovations else- project allocated $3.1.5D1 to seventy-nine where. small, relatively isolated rural schools Ian Canboy 15

teacher education institutions in Practical considerations in Victoria, to provide an adequate in- determining teachey attitudes service education in a range of deliv- to new technology ery systems, including telematics; and to take full advantage of telemat- Educational systems while notionally ics to deliver courses where appro- appearing to be bureaucracies function priate, in a much less coordinated way. Teachers, particularly in Victoria have and Recommendation 11 states a large amount of classroom auton- that, as a miler of some urgency, the omy. Rarely if at all is their work su- Ministry encourages teacher educa- pervised in the classroom by another tion institutions in Victoria to pro- educator. Generally, the classroom vide pre-service education in a range door is usually closed and only on in- of delivery systems including telem- frequent occasions is it opened to visi- atics through their Diploma of tors. Teaching strategies such as team F.ducation courses. teaching have not been taken up universally partly for this reason. The importance of effective profes- Nevertheless, new communication sional development on teachers' atti- technology with its audio, video and tudes towards using communication computer conferencing capability technology in education is conveyed in opens the classroom door and places the report. Sixty-one per cent of teachers' work under more scrutiny teacher respondents involved in the from their peers. One would expect project indicated that they had taken that this technology would be more part in a professional development ac- successful in those locations where tivity and nearly fifty per cent of them their educational need is readily indicated that their training had some apparent, and where teachers are able impact on their participation in project to develop close working relations and initiatives. Conversely, nearly eighty mutual cooperation to implement per cent of the respondent teachers these delivery modes. Such conditions sampled in the evaluation study and are more likely to be found in small who have not been actively involved rural schools rather than large in project initiatives indicate that they metropolitan schools. had not received formal training in the use of communication technology One important practical consideration (telematics). influencing whether teachers use communications technology is their In relation to the content of profes- level of preparation. The D'Cruz sional development courses, there was Report highlighted the importance of a plea from respondents that those preservice and inservice professional conductinginserviceeducation development in a range of delivery courses should include experienced systems as well as taking full advan- telematics teachers as facilitators. They tage of telematics (communications also felt that there should be an em- technology). Recommendation 7 of the phasis on the development of confi- report states that dence and self esteem amongst teachers in the practical use of equipmen't. the Ministry further encourages its Contextual issues such as the notion of own relevant professional develop- sharing in a rural environment and ment and other agencies, and the

2,3 16 Converging Technologies links between technological changes in and professional competence are ac- society and education should also be quired by a process of trial and error included in professional development and assimilated into existing classroom courses. Respondents suggested that practice. They seem to add on new inservice workshops that went beyond elements rather than reconstruct cur- 'wires and switches' to include riculum patterns (Wright, 1987). curriculum based issues were very desirable. Clearly, access to training Teachers describe their work in indi- which extends beyond practical issues vidualistic terms which reflects the is crucial. Practical issues should be uniqueness of each classroom; they seen in the context of an educational tend to be concerned with immediate framework which in the case of outcomes and this is reflected in their Victoria's Resource Agreement -,,as the concern for student outcomes rather need to expand curriculum choice for thaii long term gaols. Their decision rural students. making is oriented towards the concrete and procedural rather than the Apart from the level of teacher prepa- abstract and general. The complexity ration, the nature of the innovation of classroom often makes a mockery of process in schools is determined partly prior educational trials in "controlled by circumstances (e.g. access to exper- settings". Innovations which ignore tise, available finance PTA support) the classroom setting and how teachers and partly by any innovation's capac- behave in that setting generally fade ity to persuade teachers of its real away usually when funding starts to worth in terms of the need for it, its in- taper off. In other words, teachers are nate worth and its practicality (Wright, practical individuals largely governed 1987). Teachers need to see a purpose by the contingencies of having to teach to any innovation in a way which large groups of non-volunteer students ascribes a place for them and a func- over long periods of time. tion. Both the need for and innate worth of an educational innovation The notion of practicality for teachers tend to be subject and context specific. is largely influenced by three criteria: However, teachers' notions of what is instrumentality, congruence and cost practical for classroom use and how (Doyle andPonder,1977-78). this leads them to view an innovation Instrumentality relates to how well an are far more transferable between in- innovation is described in concrete novations and worthy of detailed procedural terms as well as general study. goals. Doyle and Ponder suggest that teachers often complain that new in- Their willingness to adopt new ideas novations are seldom communicated has something to do with the way they clearly and this appears to be directly are implemented and the practical na- related to the absence of procedural ture of teaching as well as the nature of content in the description. Congruence educational organisations and teacher describes the extent to which the pro- orientation to change. Teacher be- posed change is similar to teachers' haviour tends to be influenced by what own perceived situations. It tends to be is practical in the classroom (Doyle determined by three things. Firstly, and Ponder, 1977-78). They tend to how closely the procedure proposed modify new innovations to fit their fits in with the current way the teacher classroom procedures; they adapt teaches la his or her classroom. rather than adopt. Technical expertise Seconcily, the origins of the proposal

4 Ian Conboy 17 and finally, the compatibility of the equipment or the software. In one proposal with teachers' self image and sense, the technology is like a stamp preferred mode of relating to students. collection with adherents vying for the The cost measured as the rate of return latest equipment or softwaie. On the from a given amount of investment is other hand, some teacheis maybe be- the final factor determining the practi- mused and completely disenchanted cality of an innovation for teachers. by the rapid change. They might cor.- This issue is far more complex than sider learning how to use it futile in might appear in the first instance. the light of rapid advances or use the There is some evidence that teachers ploy of postponing any investment in wia adopt innovations despite some terms of money and time until a new scepticism about its personal cost if improved version becomes available. there is some reward for innovation. Administrators might be reluctant to This does not necessarily have to be investin equipment which can monetary remuneration. Recognition through a technical development, sud- from peers and administrators and denly depreciate at an alarming rate or student enthusiasm for the innovation becompletely superseded. may be sufficient (Stephens, 1974). Notwithstanding the rapid improvements in communication technology, Educational innovations in schools in- the educational requirements of teach- volving technology are different are ers often outstrips the capacity of tech- different in some respects to other nology to provided them. Teachers' curriculum innovations. Inevitably, lack of understanding of the technical they tend to be more costly; teachers as problems involved in trying to meet a group may have a lower knowledge their requirements may lead to disillu- base at the beginning of the innova- sionment and frustration with technol- tion, some students are likely to be ogy. Very little technology is designed well informed about some of the tech- solely for educational markets and nology particularly computers and often 'instant solutions' are not avail- there may be some negative sodal and able. Introducing technology in a cultural attitudes about technology school situation can often be a tenuous generally which may not be part of process of trial and error. other curriculum innovations. In discussing the factors which influence Organisational characteristics of teacher responsiveness to change in schools have a big influence on teacher educeitional technology, Kefford sug- attitudes towards using teciinology. gests three: the uncertainty which ex- Schools which are prepared to change ists regarding the development and class times to coincide with timetables evaluation of new educational tech- in other schools can smooth che way nologies; the organisational character- for teachers to use comirunication istics of the school in which the teacher technology to teach students in neigh- works and the teacher's perception of bouring schools. his or her role (Kefford, 1983). However, Kefford suggests that the Seemingly endless rapid technological most critical element is the teacher's innovation can have a number of di- own perception of role in relation to verse effects on teachers and adminis- technology. Gilcher and Johnstone trators. It can act as a stimulant to that surveyed nine major tertiary users of relatively small minority of teachers audiographic communication systems who either become interested in the in the US and Canada including

P5 18 Conveging Tedosologies

Knowledge Network in Vancouver, One means of overcoming at least University of Calgary, Utah State some of the above concerns is to in- University and Boston University volve teachers themselves in the plan- School of Medicine in relation to ning process. Naisbitt refers to this as teachers' perceptions of audiographic the high tech/high touch approach technology (communication technol- (Naisbitt, 1982). Most technology in- ogy) and concluded novations are introduced by 'high tech' people in the sense that they have It is not surprising that faculty a strong interest in the field. High members who volunteer to teach on touch techniques are interpersonal ac- an audiographic system are more tivities gcal setting, self evaluation, satisfied and more successful than group meetings and so on. For a suc- faculty who are assigned to teach on cessful introduction of technology in the system. It is also the case that the schools, there should be a balance be- volunteers who are given greater tween the high tech and high touch amounts of preparation time seem to approaches. feel better about their performance than those with less time. Other critical variables that affect the in- Teacher Involvement In structors' attitudes include: avail- implementing Victoria's ability of on-going technical assis- resource agreement 3 tance, help in "translating" their ation courses into distance modes, prior practice on the system, good quality Teacher involvement in the project was audio equipment, administrative or nct mandatory. It was left to individ- peer recognition for their efforts and ual clusters of schools to identify their the level of training that the student curriculum needs and then approach users of the system have had. the teachers in the duster to see if they (Gilcher, Kay W. and Sally M. were agreeable to use communications Johnstone (date unknown)). technology to teach students in neigh- In a revealing case study, one US bouring schools as well as students in teacher documented a range of con- their own school. Initially in the pro- cerns about computers (Office of ject, individual teachers in the Mallee Technology Assessment, Congress of Cluster were consulted about what the United States). Inservice education technology they would require to programs delivered too fast and ac- teach effectively in the hub-class-to- companied by confusing manuals; remote-student distance mode and deep scepticism about the purpose of were strongly involved in final choices computers "What's it for?"; a desire (Loddon, Campaspe, Melee Regipnal to preserve the "performing" aspect of Technology Group, 1987). One of the the job and seeing computers interven- main facton5 governing the operation ing between teachers and students to of the project was the participation of teachers and Principals in setting goals prevent this; a concern that teachers re- linquish their instructor role to become and directions for the program within mere facilitators and a concern that their local districts. At the outset, students will lose valuable feedback planners were determined that schools from teachers if they resort to large would decide how they could use scale drill-and-practice sessions pro- technology in their own settings. While vided by computers. alternatives such as using satellite to

2 6 s

Ian Conboy 19 mass educate rural students were the- ways. Some preferred to plan their orefically available, they were rejected 'blackboards' in advance and save on the ground that they would disen- them on computer disk. These teachers franchise schools and teachers from naturally worked particularly hard key decisions about how they would during their first year of using the sys- apply technology. It was also felt th tem. Others preferred simply to treat at this time in the Ministry's develop- the mode as they would a normal class ment, teachers and students requited environment and use the graphics low cost technology which they could tablet to explain visually a point they use and learn on themselves. One of were making during the lesson. They the characteristics of computer tech- would then invite students to join nology is the willingness of many them in using the 'blackboard' to teachers to teach themselves (Grundy modify or embellish the work already et al, 1987). The teachers indicated that on the screen. they required voice, document and a remote electroldc blackboard links. They sought to create when teaching Teacher use of telematics for students in another school, a teaching Instruction some environment as close as possible to observations their normal working situation. Even though, for the majority of teachers One of the crucial questions facing using the technology, dedsions about planners of Victoria's use of communi- the equipment and software to be used cation technology in rural schools were made centrally, some advice was project is whether after nearly three obtained from them about the perfor- and half years of use teachers as a mance of the equipment chosen. Voice group see a need for telematics and if and facsimile links were provided they think it has innate worth and are readily as proprietary products existed convinced of its practicality. on the market. However, creating an electronic blackboard which allowed Whether teachers as a body in rural both the teachers and their students in schools see the need for comntuntca- neighbouring schools to 'write' on it tion technology is in part determined proved much more difficult to achieve by their perceptions of other Ministry (Elliott, 1989). Macintosh computers policies such as district provision. were selected as the most appropriate Using communication technology is vehicle because of their graphics ca- seen as one of several strategies to be pacity and relative ease of use. used by small rural schools to provide Graphics tablets and modems were at- a richer choice of curriculum. Other al- tached to the computers and a variety ternatives include travelling teachers, of software was tested to determine flexible staff deployment within what would combine reasonably legi- schools, composite classes at lower ble images with an adequate speed of levels and so on. In addition, the loca- transmission and ease of use. Towards tion of the equipment in small store- the end of the third year of operation, room type locations has tended to rel- the problem was resolved. egate the use of communications technology in instruction to the periphery Approximately fifty teachers used the of school activity. Certainly, percep- audiographic links to teach or tutor tion of need is a crucial factor deter- students in cluster of schools during mining involvement. When a sample 1989. The system was used in two of non-involved teachers was asked for - ,

20 Converging Tethnologies reasons for not being involved with activities with equipment and soft- project initiatives, seventy-one percent ware. Individual teachers developed of those responding indicated that procedures for integrating technology their school simply did not require into lesson structures and these were them to be involved (D'Cruz, 1990). compiled into a booklet and dis- This suggests that school administra- tributed to participants of one profes- tions do not perceive the need for sionaldevelopmentactivity telematics to provide a wider curricu- (McNamara, 1988). There is a growing lum and maybe do not see providing a awareness of the importance of con- wider curriculum as having much im- crete procedures to teachers and they pact on retention rates in rural loca- are beginning to develop these them- tions. Initially in the project, there was selves (Behrendt, 1989). some quiet questioning of this assumption but recipient schools per- The project appears to be relatively haps not wishing to jeopardise their congruent with teaches perceptions of involvement did not pursue the issue. their role. Although superficially, the task of teaching with an audio termi- In relation to the question of total nal, a facsimile machine and a com- teacher perception of the innate worth puter used as a remote blackboard ap- of the communication technology pears daunting, all the teachers who used, no reliable data exists for the used the system in 1989 were prepared teacher population in isolated rural to continue using it again in 1990. schools as a whole. Informal observa- Seventeen of the twenty-three teachers tions would suggest a defgee of scepti- who responded to the evaluation of cism but informal discussions with the project as practising users of the teachers involved with the project communications technology indicated suggest that this is slowly breaking that using it made them more effective down. One of the key factors causing as teachers (D'Cruz, 1990). These this change of attitude is the positive finding are obviously influenced by student reaction to the technology the context in which teachers in gen- which teachers notice and the success- eral use the technology. Most teachers ful results obtained by students when link small groups of Years 11 and 12 they use communication technology students in the remote sites. These stu- for part of their instrucfion (Education dents are motivated and responsible. Victoria, February 1990). Where communications technology has been used with large groups of Whether teachers see communkations younger children in the remote sites, technology as a practical solution ap- extraneous noise levels interfere with pears to vary considerably with each the audio link and detract from the individual and how they proceed to quality of instuction (O'Grady, 1990). use it. In relation to its instuntentality, that is, the degree of concreteness of Congruence is also influenoed by the the innovation, once again it ic difficult origin of an innovation. In the case of to obtain a general conclusion for this proposal, the technology has to be teachers as a whole. Because of the in- seen as appropriate for rural locations novatory nature of the project, it is fair and capable of addressing rural prob- to say that most advice provided to lems. While the project was premised tezchers using communications tech- on groups of schools identifying how nology was general in nature apart they could enrich their owit curricu- from some excellent hands-on training lum to improve the student retention

2 8

-e- 21 rates, the reality is that only about six it is likely that most telematics teachers teachers we:directly involved in se- did not consider the effort of learning lecting or modifying the conununica- to use the teclmology to be a con- tion technology used in the project. straint In the evaluation of the project, From time-to-time, other teachers us- one of the most frequently quoted ing the audiographic system provided unanticipated favourable outcomes verbal advice, delivered sessions at was the large amounts of professional professional development conferences satisfaction obtained by staff (D'Cruz, and contributed articles for publica- 1990). On average, teachers involved in tions but they were not involved in the project either through developing initial decisions. However, b....rause of resources or teaching students with its close links with the Country communications technology have four- Education Project approach to rural teen years teaching experience. For education, it is likely that teachers saw many of them,theResource the project as in general being congru- Agreement came at an opportune time ent with their own situation. A body of in their careers when they were look- knowledge is developing in Australia ing for fresh challenges. For some, it related to applying communications meant an opportunity to continue technology in rural education and sev- teaching their most cherished disci- eral government reports have focused pline. Others grasped the opportunity on this issue during the eighties to communicate with other teachers (Australian Education Council, 1985;. and saw the professional isolation of Commonwealth of Australia, 1989) working in a small remote country town start to disappear. In general, for The project has had a p )sithe impact those teachers who had the confidence on teachers' self image and their stu- in themselves and their students to use dent relationships. Teachers have indi- communication technology, it appears cated that the use of communications to have been a prokssionally reward- technology creates a certain amount of ing experience. informality with students which is helpful for personal relationships Teaching with communications tech- (Lipscombe, 1988). There is a feeling of nology is probably as hard as you care learning together which is in part due to make it. It can never be the same as to the novelty of the innovation. face-to-face teaching, even with some expensive technology added to pro- The personal costs of being involved vide fully interactive television. It is with the project did not outweigh the not a substitute for personal contact benefits gained by students according and in fact, regular visits between to most teachers (D'Cruz, 1990). These teachers and students are an integral include a greater degree of indepen- part of the Victorian project. These dence, improved organisation skills, a help to break down the inhibitions greater willingness to ask questions which might otherwise be present and and take part in discussions, improved help to develop the learning partner- diction and an awareness and concern ship which seems to be a feature of developing among face-to-face stu- Victorian teachers' procedures. Remote dents for their distant class members. teachers can never handle targe groups Because the group surveyed includes of young students without strong on- teachers who made extraordinarily site support and then this brings into heavy commitments to developing question the cost effectiveness of using technology studies resources (tekpaks), communications technology. The very 22 ConvergingTahoologies

opportunities opened by technology munications technology and their con- can create more work for teachers and tinuing professional development. make the job harder initially (Congress of the 'United States:. Office of Technology Assessment): However Refarences student. gains mem to make ,itall worthwhile. Students ,f,:om Southport Australian Education Council. (1985). State lEgh,School Iry Queensland re- Education and- Technology :Task, Force porting .pm, their Telelearning GerMan RePort. Project, suggest that they. have been forced to become more self-motivated Behrendtt, H.(1089) WitDistance they have had the opportunity to work Education: In 1`. MarTitii*ilEd) Ciiiikiifinit;4ittikk4O1Pgif sn ,itchools: with modern technolcigy and have developed skills of cooperation with ExPC*414 alenimtkebrvusal Owols others and group interaction (Upson et Mh*triciSijaili9K11,1d64. al, 1990). Similar .:omments have been ComnionweiltWof Auttralia (1989) An made by some of the Victorian teach- Apple for :the -Mather:2, Choiee and ers interviewed by D'Cruz (The Technology in'EducatianAteport- of the D'Cruz Report, 1990). House -of: RepresentativES::Standing Committee on Employment and Training February. Conclusion Power On! Congress of the United States, Doyle and Ponder's analysis provides Office of Technology Assessment. a useful framework for looking at D'Cruz, J. V. (1990) Technologyin teacher reaction to using communica- Education: A Study of Policy ant Practice tions technology for teaching students in Rural Schools. Ministry of Education, in neighbouring schools. However, Victoria, Australia. practical issues should be considered within a wider educational framework Doyle, W. & Ponder, CA. (1977-78) The which must to be spelt out in detail. Practicality Ethic in Teacher Decision Where they exist as ends in them- Making, Interchange, 8(3), 1-12. selves, they can lead to a negative form of instrumentalism which can be har,.. Education Vktoria, February 1990, Ministry nessed to any end. Clearly practical is- of Education, Victoria. sues have been important influences Elliott, N. (1989), Victorian Telematics on the relatively small number of Manual,Ministry of Education, teachers who have taken up the chal- Victoria. lenge to use communications technology in Victoria's rural schools. Gilcher, K.W. & Johnstone, S.M., (date However if teachers are to become Unknown) A critical Review of the use equally as competent with communi- of Audiographk COnferencing Systems cations technology as they are in a by Selected Educational histittitions. conventional classroom and it is to be International" University Consortium, used to provide a curriculum which The Univeisityof Marylsnd University provides a high level of interaction be- College, Office of Instructional tween the teacher and students, then Teleconummications. much mote attention has tr.i begiven to Grundy, S., Bigum, C., Evans, P., & teacher preservice education in corn- McKenzie, D. (1987) Teaching Teachers

a Ian Conboy

Educational Computing and the Naisbitt, J. (1982). Megatrends: Ten New Professional Development of Teachers. Directions Transforming Our Lives, New In Coming to Tem With Computers in Yoik Sphere Books. Schools, Report to the Commonwealth Schools Commission, Dealdn Institute O'Grady, G. (1990) Telelearning Project: for Studies in Education. Interim Repot 1989 Trial. Unpublished report, Department of Education, Kefford,R. E. (1983).Teacher Queensland ResponsivenesstoChangein Educational Technology, Unicorn, 9, Stephans, T. (1974). Innovative Teaching 272-277. Praceces: ROation to, System Norms anditeitards,Education Lipscombe, B (1989) The Bal-Cas Music AdministmtiOn Quarterly, Winter, 10. Program: Making Music in the Far West Cluster. In Curriculum and Upson, B, Lowe, Y. & Stewart, N. (1990), Technology in Schools: Expanding Southport State High School: Report on Alternatives in rum! Schools, (Ed. Ivan the Telelearning German Project. Margitta), Ministry of Education, (Unpublished report). Victoria. WilliamsC.(1986)Educatiorsl Loddon, C., (1987). Mallee Regional Technology in TAR: Research Report. Technology Group, Proposed I.Les of Australian Journal of TAPE Research and Communications Technology, A Brief Development. 1(2), 45-48. Overview. Wright, A. (1987) The Process of McNamara, S. (1988) Distance Education Innovation in Two Primary Schools: A by Interactive Telematics: A Checklist Case Study of Teachers' Thinking. for Teachers. Unpublished manuscript Educational Revkw,39(2),1987. prepared for conference participants. -2-

Computer Based Training and the RAN: Shipboard Training

Mario Triantos HMAS Cerberus

The Australian Defence Force has been researching and developing CDT programs since the early 1980's. As a part of these developments computer trainers and simulators have been ifAuse for some time in the RoYal 'Australian Navy. With the growing trend torazrds CBT in the defence force/and in pry.- ticulur in the Navy it is perhaps timely to examine some of the lessons learned from projects undertaken. The example used in this paper is one such project. Traditionally shipboard job training has been conducted through the use of The Project task books, whereby allocated tasks are stated in a book. Upon successful In 1985 a team of two training devel- completion of these tasks trainees are opers were tasked with meeting the signed off in the task book. Once the training needs of the then new task book is completed and signed, the Auxiliary Oil Replenishment (AOR) sailor progresses into the next phase of ship HMAS Success. Contrary to his training. Computer based training normal practice the two were assigned was proposed as a more efficient and prior to the ship becoming operational. effective means of conducting such Two spedfic areas of on board training training for a number of reasons: were selected for the project to be conducted on board HMAS Success CBT as a training delivery system The Damage Control Console (DCC) was anticipated to be more efficient and the Controlled Pitch Propeller than the more traditional methods (CPP) Systems. because it did not rely on persons other than the trainee for training to Console operation is extensive in the take place. Navy. The aim of the development of It was perceived that CBT would be the computer based instruction on applicable in that it was a self-pe-ced board the ship was to provide a trainee course and that sailors were not lost with the ability to reach a high level of to training in other parts of proficiency in operating the Damage Australia. Theory training and on Control Console without seeing the the job training, in this case, were in console itself. The CBT was a simula- close proximity. tion of the DCC. A second objective of the project was that the trainee should It was anticipated that by making be able to reach this proficiency in his the program self-paced it would ul- own time and at his own pace and timately individualize instruction more importantly both the training and therefore eliminate the exten- and simulation take place without the sive use of an instructor.

32 r` 25

need for instructors or simulator oper- people for the specific task, and effi- ators in attendance. ciency being the relationship between the effectiveness of training and its The second system selected for the de- cost, that is the extent to which train- velopment of computer based training ing achieves its objectives in relation to was the hydraulic system (CPP) on the expenditure of training resources. board HMAS Success. It was intended Ultimately, effective CBT can only be that the CBT developed for this system developed if we learn from the our should allow a trainee to undertake mistakes and those of others. The fol- such interactions as looking at the lowing summarises some of the find- equipment and 'seeing' what is hap- ings of this project: pening, referring to screens illustrating cut-away diagrams of each major The training developers undertak- component in the system or viewing ing the pmject for HMAS Success such features as the graphic represen- were introduced to new concepts of tation of the oil flow. An advantage of training development, namely train- the proposed CBT for the specified ing was to be specific for a single training was its capacity to allow a new ship. The training materials student to choose to work with a par- designed to be used with ticular component or the whole system Coursemasterwere developed specif- operation. ically for the systems on board HMAS Success, ultimately directing policy that all formal training was to The Computer Based Training be conducted on board. Development Learning to author computer soft- The CBT packageCoursemasterwas ware effectively took two weeks of selected as the development and deliv- formal training plus extensive on ery package for the project This pack- the job training, therefore time was age uses a slightly modified IBM per- needed for this was at the expense sonal computer as the design and de- of other work which at times would livery mechanism. The courses used on restrict operational tasks. board HMAS Success were developed It was found during the course of at the RAN School of Training this project that while determining Technology at HMAS Cerberus and at learning strategies, close liaison the Training Technology unit in with the likely training imple- Sydney. The adopted style of training menters was imperative not only to was a team approach. All departments ensure that the design would work were to assist in the new training pro- but also to assist the acceptability of gram, allowing sailors to be released the design of the programs by the from duties to attend CBT sessions. crew. The crew provided the appropriate feedback on the accuracy of the materials. Lessons Learned A major problem confronting the In terms of training, the Royal training staff was the lime lost when Australian Navy (RAN) for one, eval- piloting the training materials. uates training in relation toits effective- When collecting job related informa- nessandefficiency.Effectiveness being tion the absence of people perform- the degree to which training prepares ing or supervising jobs hampered

33 ''. -

Converging Technologies

the efficiency of the training. Due to Appropriate preliminary data col- manpower shortages, limited job lection should be done to gather and exposure of appropriate subject process training related data and matter experts was available. It was materials and develop Australian quite difficult to design training ma- based training courses and re- terials that would use manui,'s as sources. authoritative aids when those publications were not developed beyond To be able to effectively produce the draft form. Consequently equip- required materials it is necessary to ment alai procedure manuals were liaise wr.th other training authorities being written at the same time as on an as required basis. being required for training devel- The situations mentioned above have opment which provided even longer probably oCcurred before the HMAS delays. Success project and may occur again in The required environment for CBT the future, possibly the next being the formal training is a quiet area suit- submarine training project. It is there- able for study purposes. HMAS fore appropriate that we learn from Success like all ships, is designed and remember these experiences. It is without this consideration, which probable that the situations and expe- ultimately complicates the effec- riences realised throughout this project tiveness of the training task and are not peculiar to the RAN. The per- hence defining the areas suitable for ception and actualisation of CBT effec- this role on a ship. tiveness in RAN ships is a major task; one which is still being researched, Formal training implies instructor designed, developed, quality con- or supervisor involvement. trolled and validated. If Computer However due to the roles of the based training in the defence fortes is crew members of HMAS Success to fulfil its potential we must continu- such involvement was quite impos- ally take time to pause and reflectis sible. it really the answer or is it just another filing cabinet gathering dust? Recommendations Upon evaluating tl'e problems that this References project confronted, the following recommendations were made. Computer Based Training Guide for Tminers, May 1984. A qualified training developer is re- RAN Training Systems manual, Volumes 1- quired to join the project, with the s. first of a standby crew, who would be able to assess the training re- Lindsay, M.J. (LCDR, RAN) & Krause, quirements and organise a plan of W.L. (LCDR, RAN) 1986 Nuship action. Training Development HMAS Success, RAN. It is necessary to determine at an early stage of the project the crew's Leach, G.W. (LEUT, RAN) Report on ongoing training needs and how Computer Based Training Systems they could most efficiently be met. Coursemaster.

4 Computerised out-of-class exercises

Chisholm In;fitute ofDcIP TedhodOgy PhelGn

Students' access to, and knowledge of 500 generic alloys., and over 500 material databases can have an internationallycrossrreferenced enhanced effect on the teaching of standard alloys. koccupieo4bout 1.5 materials to engineering students. Mh of disc space. Thestudents are set Most engineering subjects taught at exercises which require them to tertiarylevelareusuallybecome familiar with the basic mathematically based and students are concepts of the material defining normally familiarised with lecture parameters used in the database material via mathematically based tutorial problem solving. Engineering Materials as ta..,ght at Chisholm is Immamat Student Exercises mainly non-mathematical and, as such, easy to set mathematically based tutorial problems are not generally 1. A simpie owels.. applicable for reinforcing theory. It is proposed that computerised materials Selection of a material to make an databases can be used in a variety of axle. The axle is to have a specified ways to both reinforce lecture theory strength. and acquaint students with the vast spectrum of material property dataEven for this apparently simple available. In fact, it can be argued that exercise, a variety of tasks are required the teaching of engineering materials of the student Some of these tasks are cannot be effectively performed without students having sufficient a. Finding alloys in the data base access to materials databases. To which are described aAbeing develop an appreciation of the suitable for axles or shafts or applications of the theoretical concepts spindles etc. That is, the student developed in Engineering Materials may need to think of other lectures, students need the feedback descriptors or components that associated wiui materials databases. could have similar functions. The software used to construct the Commercial Materials database contains a pattern-matching Databases algorithm which allows for searching through the alloy text fields to obtain Engineering students at Chisholm use approximate matChes to the search the materials database of thestring. For instance, if "corrosion Australasian Institute of Metals and resistance" was being used as the materials (F.MMAMAT) (Phelan,.1988), search string, then an alloy described which has been developed '.,ry the as "corrosion resistant" would' be author. This database contains over found by the search. that have strengths Aar be varied to st: it the standard OCPect.F4,14kr, red.i%idátibIsé , - ror 1i4iie tini -and ' 14iihnuitt meddcal PIMPerties A matei-41. ,k4or .t:he c: 0, v;il&ii.,,,0101 tY0cor tYPititot mallurac*e'iPP4' , cast iron, hei"treatedsteil, iviOnght conTikaleal

eetive,of which search, pathls choiet:1, lieVeralySOlutions' -will- -be prelented and,,the students will be 4101te the reiltdred tO.' make-selection which1b04°-.*404.0111,1*IP441*O'Ae v.TilLinvOlVe theuse of lheOry-gained following.: ,property froin lectures'. lit -thcabOve example, steels having,a-variatión in strength vilth see#Oh si,F2 preiented to the Student. Theksiinifitante of this MagnetiuMOr titanhunalloy will 'heed "io :be iriteipietid by -the student. In fact, 'it is the author'sb. complicated sedion eastingalloy required experience that even though the theory asseidated with variation of strength c. sliding mechan1sm:7.-- wear with steel section _size has been resistanee advantaiouS covered in lectures, moststudentS will query it when the data is presented to d. varying teMperature,-.4aw thernial then within the environment of what exPan,OOo, tO prevefit Pt** they perceive to ben large industrial = metals ,database: That is, they are Again, a variety of searcnteclUtiques impressed with the presentation, feel it can be used by thesh4entS4MWould is part of the real world as opposed to be expeetecitolind aluminhink4iting the unreal world of the academicalloys with..relatively- lOsit-ItherMal. classn nn and subsequently take more expansion .and- relativelfhlght wear- notice ofit. It may be, Of course, that in resistances. Thesevalloys*oUld be being allowed lo work at their' oWn suitable for the manufacture of internal pace, as opposecilo keeping tip with combtiation 'engine pistons. the delivery of lecture'material, 'they are in a much better position to assimilate and query the data ,1?,eing 3. CrossWowing of presented to them. Sonie students do Socofs remember or have studied their lectUre notes and the presentation of the A comMon -industrial engineering coMpUterised data helps to reinforce materials 'preblem oceurs'::;i4lien their knotiiIedge. speed standard. inatertayS, Australian-or ;international:4i** The above is a simple example of a available_locally;coMinereial material, selection problem and.- the databases may supply other eviialent level ofdiffictilty of the fa'Oblenti 'set materials. ,

:46 Dan Phdan 29

Students can be given Australian or corrosion reestance. Amongst other International standards and be asked properties, the programme will ask for to find equivalent alloys. a steel having a certain minimum corrosion resistance. Students-receive a scorefortheiroverail game Non Commercial Databases performance and this score is:recorded against their name on the floppy disc Programmes have been developed that containing the programme At the end randomly simulate material selection of the exercise the disc is returned to problems requiring an input from the the office and the student's scores are student. The programme uses arecorded. Suitable encrypting of materials database which the student scores, etc. prevent any tampering is expected to be vaguely convetsant with results. Students seem to go out with.Propertiesare randomly of their way to complete the exercises generated and displayed. The student and may be motivated by the need to is then expected to input a material see a score recorded against their name which will satisfy the displayedon the floppy disc which is to be properties. Some materials are more returned to the office. A more detailed acceptable than others and receive a description of this and other similar higher score. The programme has a programmes has been tOven elsewher game format and subsequently (Phelan, 1989). presents a challenge to students to score as high as possible. References Students are given a broad outline in lectures of the material properties Phelan, D. (1988). Institute of Materials and involved in the database and are then Materials Australasia Databank. Materials expected, through library research etc, '88 Proceedings. London: The Institute to obtain the specific knowledge of Metals. required to input suitable materials to the programme. For lxample, after a Phelan, D. (1989). Using databanks in series of lectures on stainless steels, computer assisted learning. In J Hones students would need to consider the and M Hoisburgh (Eds.), Research and chemical composition of the steels in Development in Higher Education, Vol 8. the data base to rank them in order of Sydney: HERDSA.

t7,4 The impact of high touch in the high tech world of education: An issue revisited

R.M. Bollet and R.A. Cornell Dept of Educational SeNices University of Central Florida A

As the content and the tools of teacher education become increasingly technology-based there is a residual effect possible the dehumanization of instruction.The use o£ computers, videodisc, and other interactive technologies, when appropriately planned for within the context of instructional design parameters, can offset the tendency towards dehumanization. The problem, however, lies in whether or not ISD is incorporated in the preparation of instructional materials. It frequently is not. Concomitant With the need to incorporate an appropriate ISD model is the need to "know" the diverse learninglinformation processing styles ofour learners.

Over the years the Meyers Briggs instrument has been used to identify extant "types" of personalities. With its sixteen different cells, progress has been made in assisting learners make vocational and personal decisions. Don Lowery took the sixteen Meyers Briggs classifications and "reduced" them to four basic ty, :alled "true colours". Based on the concepts presented within the framewor. of True Colors, each participant will identify theirown "true colours." Once this has been done the participant will then relate the True Colors information to the design of instructional materials and experiences, especially those which involve the use of technology. When we were in Edinburgh we cov- mental dash through time, lasting all ered a multitude of information within of one and one-half minutes, and be a scant fifteen minutesboth the audi- done with it. ence and we were exhausted! Now we ask you, is this any way to encourage With any luck at all, we should have the use of "high touch" in this whirl- sufficient time remaining.., all of it to wind of tecimocracy which surrounds address the far more critical issue of us! "How do we, as well as those we teach, cope with an ever increasing We believe sufficiently in our message barrage of technostress?" that we opted for another go at delivering it, and this time in Sydney, A number of options present them- rather than dwell overly on the selves. All, however, revolve around historicalantecedentsof how one major individualthe learner! technology became entwined in how We'll state our "bottom line" now, we teach, we'll simply provide a R MBollet and R A Cornell 31 should time prevent it from being re- steel frame on which the structure is peated. built (Shneiderrnan, p.v.,1987). We who work in the educationalIf we are to speak to these "human technologies have the responsibility to engineering" needs we simply must insure that our every effort is designed learn more about the learner, who he to produce a learning experience or she is, and problems they currently which is as humanistic as possible. face. Not to do so is pedagogically Doing so, however, requires insight unsound but cruel as well. into both we who teach (self) and those learn (others)! The need to assess our learner's background, however, is predicated on Indeed, the field of instructionalthe fact that, first, we must fit a technology is becoming increasingly professional profile which will aware that, along with all of its near- facilitate our own entry into the realm requisite "bells and whistles," there of instructional design. In truth, it is mustbean accompanying simply not enough for us to adopt the responsibility to insure that human code of "do as I say, not as I do."If needs are addressed as well. there is to be a joining between instructor and instructee, there must Author, humanist, computer guru, Ben first be some element of compatibility Shneiderman, given the problem of extant between the two. technostress as it applies to the computer-user (which increasing What do we mean when we say this? numbers of us have become) states: We are saying, in as direct a way possible, that there are baseline Frustration and anxiety are a part of personalattributeswhich the the daily life for many users of instructional designer should possess computerized information systems. if he or she is to adequately pursue the They struggle to learn command design of materials for others. Kemp language or menu selection systems appears to say it best when he states: that are supposed to help them to do their job.Some people encounter Not everyone can become and such serious cases of computer shock, instructional designer. just as the terminal terror, or network neurosis work of a medical doctor or that of an that they avoid using computerized airline pilot requires that a person systems. These electronic-age possess certain personal traits and maladies are growing more common; act in certain ways, so there are but help is on the way! personality factors and behavior patterns which can indicate whether or not an individual could engage ...the diverse use of computers in successfullyininstructional homes, offices, factories, hospitals, development work (Kemp, 1985, p. electric power control centers, hotels, 206). banks, and so on is stimulating widespread interest in human factors Following this statement, Kemp lists issues. Human engineering, which eleventraitswhich he deems is seen as the paint put on the end of important a project, is now understood to be the

9 Converging Technologies

Willingness to assume "undefined and unanalysed area" responsibilities and make [interactive skills], came forth with a decisions variety of 'instant solutions', safe in the knowledge that it will be very 4;cfdt Enthusiasm, with a sense of either to prove or disprove the commitment to one's work effectiveness of their techniques.

Patience, combined with the We continue, to this day, to be ability to avoid frustration bombardedwithinnumerable brochures which announce that, if one Petsistence in staying with a attend this workshop, one will become diffkult problem expertin"resolving employee dissatisfaction"... "managing internal Interest in handling many details corporate conflict" ... "effecting higher and organizing them into motivation levels among the work meaningful patterns force" etc. etc... Integrity and honesty Opposing the entrepreneur mind set is, Romiszowski states, the second The maturity to put up with tendency"arejectionofthe resistance, resentment, and even technique(s) [as above] and of all obstriictio 4ism connected with it by the 'scientific community', meaning those who like Good sense of timing, to know to see all things measured and reject when to act and when to remain anything that cannot for the moment silent be measured (1981, p. 219)." Willingness to innovate and try Romiszowski concludes: new things Thus there has been a tendency for Willingness to admit mistakes educational technology tmignore the and ability to say, "I don't know group dynamics movement and this (Kemp, p. 207, 1985). has no doubt been helped by a philosophical polarization between Romiszowski, bridging our discussion the 'social education' supporters who of traits of the teacher/designer to are staunch believers in the process- those of the learner, examines the oriented approach to education (and "missing domain" of the cocial, all that implies in Me way of interpersonal, and interactive as discovery approach to all learning), applied to the act ofdesigning and the more dyed-in-the-wool instruction. educational technologists who want In this he indicates that, when it comes to have measurable products to interactive skills for the educational (objectives) defined for all learning technologist, two tendencies from the and often find 'it hard to justify past have conspiredto impede d iscovery methods on a cost- implementation. effectiveness basis (1981, p. 219). One is proffered by the various We are left, then, with a polarity of entrepreneurs who, confronted with opinion, even within our field,-,as. to whatRomiszowskicallsthe what might be the "best" pedagogical approach to take where designing 40 R MBollet and It A Cornell 33 materiaLs in a 'humanistic' manner is I will now lead you through each of concerned. One group most definitely the cards and provide some sample would include such a concern, the questions which, even if in skeletal other most likely would not, seeing form, will provide a sense of where the such as being not cost-effective nor True Colors materials lead. necessary.It is to those in the latter woup towards which we direct this True Colors is taken from rest paper. done on the Myers Briggs Persolta Type Indicator. Whe.a the MBTI has a Obvit usly, our prime concerns are matrix of 16 types, True Colors reduces two-fold, that of the teacher and that them to four gen,..:7"color" types. of the learner. Assuming that we meet Lowery indicates that most of us have the Kemp criteria previously stated, at least one preferred "color" type of and that we do plan our instructional behavior and perhaps at least one designalongthelinesof secondary color. We are happiest and Romiszowski's discovery approach to most content when allowed to operate teaching, how do we access the from our preferred "color" mode of concerns of the learner; how do we operandi. When the human organism ins.ire that what we know of the is happy, content, in its preferred state, learner is also what is best included it will experience less sti essand within the instructiona: design? Let's remainoptimallyoperational. take these questions in order of their Therefore, using a format such as True mention. Colors, may be one way to better understand our learner and keep How can we possibly get to "know" him/her less stressed by 1,h tech. our learners, you ask? There are a number of various tests,scales, By understanding ones preferred style surveys, etc, which can shed some and attempting to design learning light on this mystical identification activities which allow our learners the process and tell us a great deal about freedom to use their preferred style of who our learners are. learning,potentialstrs.5sand uneasiness will be greatly reduced. To name three the Meyers Briggs These "high touch" factorsare provides considerable information important to keep in mind as we about the style of person each of us is. continue to develop "high tech" So too, does the work of Dr. George curricula. Designing materials geared Manning at Northern Kentucky with toward the users preferences will his instument, "Chocolate, Vanilla, or better insure decreased burn-out and Strawberry Which are You?" higher productivity. Both offer considerable insight, to the teacher as well as to the learner, as to who one "really is". Conclusion A third instrument, one which we find Well, there you have it. scant period of most intriguirg, was developed by Dr time during which we've taken you Donald Lowery and is named "True from where you are into a truely Colors".In fact, with the kind mystical and intriguing world beyond. permission of Dr Lowery, we have We cannot turn back the hands of time, reproduced a few of its questions and albeit, some of use might wish to. We in slide format, his "true colors" cards.

J4111 34 Converging Teclmologies cannot bury our heads inthe collectivity of multiple sand piles and References hope that all of this technology stuff will just go away. (We're sure that, at Kemp, J. E. (1983) The Instructional Design least for this group, such is far from Process. New York: Harper & Row the case!) pp. 206-207.

What each of us can do, however, is to Lowery, D. (nd) True Colors.Laguna rejoice in the knowledge that the world Beach,California:International our learners might experience front Communication Companies. this day forward, may well be one in which the "high touch" of humanity Romiszowski, A.J. (1981) Designing and compassion will take its rightful Instructional Systems: Decision Making in place beside that of technology in Course Planning and Curriculum Design. education and that both will emerge KoganPage,London:Nichols the better for having done so. Publishing, NY. p. 218. Shneiderman, B. (1987) Designing the User interface: Strategies for Effedive Human- ComputerInteraction.Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.

4 2 C011ecled abstracts of other presented wipers

MIME

The compptitive edge management consultants.This methodology, known as, !World In manufadVring an Competitive 1 Manufacturing! (WCM) Interactive Warning system has.been disseminated by-anumber of introckicingitiateglePlanning workshops through.Australia-and a in a manufacturing industry consultant accreditatiOmprocess. This context discis an educational :packsige designed to furtherassist.,.the dissemination of the understanding of Mr.Jeff Clayton (Aptech Australia the need for, and an approach to, Pty. Ltd.), Prof David Lee (SA strategicplanning i the institute of Technology), Ms Jane manufacturing industry context based Elliott & Ms Leanne Renfree (The on elementa of World Competitive Authoring House), Mr. Nigel Russell Manufacturing. It is particularly suited (Aussie Vision) to tertiary education environments. The learning package features a The objective of this video disc is to company case study coupled yith a provide a learning experience for users tutorial on WCM and interactive help who wish to gain an understanding of facilities. The interactive helpladlity is the need far, and an approach to, called a mentor base. In addition to strategic planning in a manufacturing giving formal definitions of terms it environment. emulates a mentor by using illustrative examples drawn from .the disc's The need for Australian industry to inventory of slides and video cliptand become more competitive tests understanding of ,concepts via internationally has been widely short eXercises before returning the recognised. Analysis of manufacturing user to the point in the disc where help industry performance in the 1980s was invoked. identified widespread deficiencies in strategic planning capability. The Australian Government through its National Industry Extension Service sponsored the development of a strategic planning methodology by Aptech Australia Pty. Ltd., technology

4 3 ,141i .k "4s='..

36 Converging Technologies

useful strategy for helping students The design of a study learn the relafionships between and aid for synthesizing among previously learned ideas. instruction.

Patricia Youngblood Roll over Beethoven... University of New England Northern Rivers OM! 11.. Margaret S. Allan James Cook University of North Queensland Recentadvancesincomputer technology haw provided educators with a range of innovative delivery mechanisms including computer-. Presentation of work in progress on a based systems, interactive video, CD- project tu produce an interactive audio ROM and others. The newer systems package for the study of intonation. make it possible to incorporate text, Prototype graphics,still materialsarebeing pictures, auditory developed using audio recordings on information,andrealmotion compact disc as a speech database sequences into a single module of accessed via HyperCard and the instruction. However, along with the Voyager CD Audio Stack which is convergence of these technologies of used in the Voyager Company's instruction to be delivered via these Companion to Beethoven's Ninth systems. Charles M Reigeluth's Symphony. The project is being Elaboration Theory is one. example of developed in conjunction with the an instructional design theory which School of English at the University of proposes a set of guidelines for Birmingham, UK and Dick Fletcher's sequencing,synthe3izingand company, New Media Productions. summarising instruction. 'Interactive Intonation' is a pilot Stage In this study, the researcher used Onewhichwillpowerthe Elaboration Theory guidelines to development of multimedia packages develop a study aid called the for the study of English by Speakers of synthesizer for a unit of study in Other Languages. genetics.Three groups of students were given either the synthesizer, an alternative study strategy, or a placebo to determine the effects of the synthesizer on student learning. The results indicate that synthesizers are an effective strategy for helping students achievebothknowledge and application level learning. The findings from this study are consistent with previous research on synthesizers and suggest that studying a synthesizer is a

alimmit F

Human-Technology UNINET Optical, Fibres Traffic Jams(or harnessing in SuppOrtaResecirch human brainpower is more and Learning than a matter of logic) A

Professor Trevor W Cole Sue McNamara Electrical Engineering Monash University University of Sydney

When was the last time you got stuck Linking together Sydney University, in a traffic jam? Despite our relatively University of New South Wales, sophisticated transport system (some Macquarie University and the might debate the point), with its University of technology, Sydney in multiplicity of traffic signals and cooperation with Telecom Australia, wealth of rules and regulations UN1NETisofferingunique traffic jams still occur (and more capabilities.With multiple fibres regularly than many of us would like) installed and with the capability of Traffic jams have become a daily carrying multiple signals on each fibre, ordeal which some enjoy, many accept UNINET will permit open-ended as inevitable, most avoid as much as communications capabilities and will they can, while others have been provide an environment well in deterred from ever venturing outside advance of what might be available in their own territory because of them. A the general network. similar picture might be drawn in relationtouser and designer To offset the communication charges, interactionswithconverging the universities are entering three main technologies. agreements with Telecom Australia to undertake demonstration, use and The paper discusses some of the research into the use of UNINET in an unique geographical and socialacademic learning and research features which might be encountered environment. The firstis for the in the pursuit of integrated techr.ology dissemination of broadcast quality TV applicationstoinstruction and material. The second is for fully learning and suggests the possible use interactive, multiple site of tourist guides, roadmaps, safety videoconferencing. The third, and islands, speed zones and other driver more for the future, UN1NET will be assistance mechanisms which might used as a research and development catertothe wide varietyof basis for a fully digital, very high individuals, touring, on business trips speed network carrying all the traffic or settling into a world of convergent of the first two agreements, as well as technologicalapplicationsto other traffic services, in a digital form. education.

1'1' el 5 a.v7410=341411 4 4144)11111gICS !loot,:ana , war .tcr gs slit0er

James H. Strain victoda College

Followinga Major revision of'course content, thelormer Graduate Diploma in EducationaTedittology ciiiiducted at Vitt:irk College was reaccieditedin December, 1989 -as a Graduate Diploita Iü InstructiOnal Design and Tec1mo4agY. This paper willptirstie the signifiCarice of the ccitirie's name changc-itd explore the distinctions identified bkween the role profile of an insirtictionil designer and an educational technologist. The author will outline smite of the futdamental changes necessary in providing a graduate diploma ?rogram for instructional designers as compared to educational technoloptsts.

k,f-Y

46 The use of the satellite and. tpiecon- ferencing in real estate (ince education David Harrison and Kay Trowbridge

The pilot project was based on a con- Management series were made more cept of educational packaging, that is, educationally interesting bY having the use of satellite broadcasting, telephone interviewer's questions run, across a conferences and print support mate- black band at kllebOttoen of the screen. rial. The students were situated at It was eigieeted_ that this would assist three locations. Twenty were at the students'64 more ieadily retain the Nambour, twelve at Mackay and one prindOes iSsed# t4,(1111gions. The at Daintree. None of the students was tutors' experiences inclic*te thaka great able tc, proceed with the Award course deal of preparation and ongoing flexi- in Real Estate at their local country col- bility are required in the delivery of lege, either because there was no spe- educational packages. The problems cialist lecturer available or student encountered and strategies used to numbers were not sufficient to form a overcome the problems are outlined class. The technologies were chosen for below. the following reasons: Satellite broadcasting was to pro- Resistance to Techno01 and vide a focus for subject content and Different Accommodation consistency in content Some students in the larger groitp at The videos were pre-taped, to allow Nambour did- not responctwell to the five to six semesters of repeat technologies: It was reallied that the broadcasts and thus minimise costs group was too large and Should have for production and broadcast. been limited to ten or twlve. The accommodation was not Physically com- Telephone conferences were to pro- fortable. It made viewing the television vide administration updates, tuto- uncomfortable and there was not Suffi- rial discussion and interaction. cient space for students to be' able to relax in a one-to-one, hour telephone Print material was prepared for re- tutorial. Strategies in telephone Confer- inforcement of principles and revi- encing were developed, whereby stu- sion. dents at one location were given .tasks to do in small Iteams, and were then The videos were produced with intm- taken out of the telephone conference. ductions, objectives and summaries. The students at the remaining loca- Slides were used to simulate field trips tion/s were asked to respond to short to specialised categories of real estate. answer type questions: (These Orate- Graphics were a focus for retention of gies are explained further tirider principles and new terminology. The Telephone Conferencing). Such talldng heads sections of the Property strategies allowed the students to

Q 7 ConvergingTechnologies move around and be active, rather the students at Nambour lost concen- than passively responding to ques- tration when viewing the twenty to lions. The group of twelve at Mackay twenty-three 'minute broadcasts and had comfortable accommodation andregarded some broadcasts as superfi- responded well. The one student at cial. This was not the response at Daintree soldiered on, holding a Mackay and Daintree. It was'probably household telephone for more than an a direct result of the uncOmfortable hour. That student was highly moti- viewing conditions, that is twenty vated! people viewing a television screen. One of the tutorrobserved1hat few students at Nambour made notes Satellit broadcasfin9 during the broadcast, an indication that they had switched off. A further One of the problems with satellite complicating factor s was, that 'the stu- broadcasting is that most people have dents were employed,by many differ- to travel to a centre with a receiving ent Real Estate Agencies, and in cover- dish. The Daintree student was the ing the course material, when asked to only one to have her own dish!! There do certain application work were re- were problems with this too because luctant to give more than an obvious the signals are all encoded. That is, superficial answer,,because they did only those receivers authorised to re- not want to give away trade secrets to ceive can do so. On one occasion their opposition! Daintree did not receive the broadcast. It is assumed that their B-Mac serial number was not programmed and Teisphon Conforoncing transmitted that night. They were sent a videotape of the broadcast to com- As has been mentioned the satellite pensate for the lack of reception. The broadcast was followed up immedi- lack of reception facilities is high- ately with a teleconference. There were lighted in a survey just completed of three centres, one at Maryborough QDEC students to assess the level of with twelve students, Daintree with their technology, the results of which one student and Nambour with twenty are tabulated below. It should be noted student& It is considered that this lat- that 0.9% have satellite dishes, the ter number is too many at one location other 99.1% must travel to a receiving to adequately cater for and control and centre! A further problem occurred did lead to some discipline problems. when an electrical storm over Mackay The technology used for the conference prevented that location trom receiving was a Confertel five line teleconferenc- the signal. Again, it was necessary to ing bridge supported by an NEC post a videotape of the broadcast. AE400 line echo cancelling loud speaking telephone system. The units at the Unfortunately, loss of the signal and other points were NEC Voicepoint picture made the following telephone loud speaking phones at Nambour and conferences rather difficult, because Maryborough and a standard Telecom the tutor had to deliver a mini-lecture telephone at Daintree. to cover the lost work. These problems could be overcome by using a different The Voicepoints were chosen to be delivery method, for example posting used at Maryborough and Nambour a videotape or ming videoconferenc- because of the number of people in- ing. An additional problem was that volved at each centre, since the only z

David Harrison and Kay Trowbridge 41 facilities at those places were a were working on the assignmente they Versatel telephone and a cheap loud- had been given. They were unable to speaking telephone, neither of which hear us or each other but we could would enable a group of more than 3-4 contact them because their loud speak- to hear anything! Some early teething ers were not switched off. problems were experienced with the Voicepoints which had nothing to do At the appropriate time Daintree was with the units themselves, but related put back into the conference and the to how they were set up. One problem two groups were recalled and asked to was that the unit was set up in an al- switch on their miiirophones. The re- most infinite space, that is one with sults Of their findings were then shared walls some 10-15 metres away. Since with the whole group and the confer- the Voicepoint cancels echos by gener- ence wound up. The discipline prob- ating white noise for ten seconds and lems referred to earlier were also ad- measuring the return echo and adjust- dressed using this technique of sub- ing itself, and since there were no conf -rencing by pulling that group out walls to reflect the sound, the unit did in the next conference and addressing not adjust itself properly. This problem them with some more difficult ques- was solved by moving the unit to a tions which required much more smaller room. The other problem re- thought. In this latter instance Daintree sulted from the handset being con- was asked to participate in the wroup nected to the line socket and the line discussions of the people at Mackay. cord being connected to the handset socket. Whilst using the handset when originating the call no problem was Print Material experienced since the connection is a The print material covered the main straight loop through, but as soon as teaching points of the videos and in- the Voicepoint was put into conference cluded assignments. In hindsight, far mode and the handset hung p, no more self-test questions could have conditioning occurred and we were been included, to provide students disconnected! As we were trou- with a focus for viewing the satellite bleshooting from Briskute by remote broadcasts and also to facilitate the control it took a while to realise what questions and answers which were was wrong, especially since we could part of the telephone conferences. talk to the person using the unit before they pressed the conference button!

The Confertel teleconferencing bridge Conclusion naNIIMIE=MIMEM was used to avoid the excessive Telecom charges of $22.10/leg/half The majority of students expressed hour. This unit allowed the option of delight at being able to continue with breaking the three centres into groups their studies. They accepted the for spccific instruction. In some cases teey.ting problems of the pilot project the two larger groups were set tasks to amicably. To date, the continuous do and they were asked to turn their assessment projects which form part of microphones off whilst the Daintree the course assessment have been well student was transferred to the second prepared and are of suitable standard. conference line on the bridge. This en- Students will be undertaking final ex- abled us to give that student some per- aminations shortly after the prepera- sonal tuition whilst the other groups tion of this paper. Divergence

TAFECOMplanforsyth14,0040Wale8

The idea ofconvergence in educational recenkTOPOI.ttih!, SdnejMornlng technology generates an image of Herald pie cleitelOptileii "wi concentrating numeroukservices as if IS- entering a tunnel. In:this paper, it will phone akes4vr",,t*.; be argued that it ismhat happensat DOIrtit,I, 043 :04eiePh*ccr the other end of the tunnelor the user arouird.._ end, the divergence, that also needs in1P,014# cleo4o 4. considering. relatectc to The paper is in three parts. Part One telephone Hnesis belnt in EuroPe and kustralii.S:, looks at one aspect ofconvergence in the develOpment of Integrated Servites In the eady 1980iilieSIliston'PrOject4 Digital Netwfirk (ISDN) telephone would have beeii one of, thefitat to-fit* technology. Part Two will presenta a range of technOleichilis*fianierieon current case of the use of that the telephone line .and**einergeat technology in New South Walesthe- other enti ,Witlf."4eaSOnable TAFECOM and the characteristics of accuracy. In the fiat- eight yeinithe that trial. Part Three will look at the technology has prOgreased. future of technology and the need for divergence within convergence. In the mid-80s the Vi.Ctorian tatateof Australia] =schoolsystem' 'with assistance from agents kat lis Country Short anecdotal history of the Education Project and the Innovations telephone as convergent Program, developedelectronic technology messaging systems in the rentote In 1876 Alexander Graham Bell is reported to have said, "Mr Watson come here, I want you"1. By the middle 1990s we will,as teachers, trainers and as private citizens be 2 IV Dick Tracy mightget us yet" By Peter Hughes Sydney Morning Herald p.3. seeing others at the end of a telephone 9/2/1990 line as if they are in thesame room. This used to be the fantasy behind the 3 Progress Reporton the Ugh, CollegeAdelaide science fiction of The lasons and College Videoconferencing Networkproject. Occasional Paper 15 November1989 detectives such as Dick Tracey. Ina Adelaide Depirtment of Employment and TAPE South Aiitralla 4 The ElEston Piifect I (1981). A Trial in Bell A. G. (1989).cited in Bloomsbury Distance Educatiun Technology dictionary of quotations p. 28 London: Cenhe. Adelaide: Education Departmentof Bloomsbury Publications. South Australia.

.50 VI eljta, VO

Mallee and East Gippsland areas.5 In the telephone lines usable, the late i989 the University of New information must be translated into England trialled interactive video digitised datk This requires a conferencing between the central computerised digitiser tor vision, a campus and a study centre.6 modem, appropriate .software packages and,k printer, fOr,any hard In Europe and the UK the use of copy. The coo of suckequipment-for telephone to support student learning the learner could be KOhibitive/whilst is well reported. The Open University for the institution, the prdvision of of the UK has for some time beenequipment could cause a drain on expanding the use of modem links for available resources. students enrolled in courses requiring the use of computers.7 Similar In the long term the cost of the examples exist in countries such as technology is expected to decline. One Denmark. In Denmark, the Aarhus unanswerable question, as yet is will Consortium is exploring the use of the the t decline to a level.where it can telephone lines as an interactive be daimed that using technology is not instructional device.5 a financial obstruction to participation At the moment, most of these in courses. examples use a very limited set of sites The second factor in the 'limited site' where instruction can take place. In for Walling and evaluation is the need part this reflects on .te 'experimental' to schedule the presentation of course nature surrounding these attempts to material. A real consideration in the use the telephone line as means of near future is going to be an answer to converging the technologies. But there the question: How do you handle are further considerations about access multiple sites? At the moment the to this technology. limited sites of trails are determined by thelimitationa ofyesterday's In the short term the access to much of technology. This is disguising the fact this 'new' technology is costly and this that with tomorrow's technology, the can be a barrier to participation for reality will be in-home [as distinct to some learners. For both the instructor in-house or on-site] delivery of and the learner to connect and make instruction. But what of today's technology? The next section outlines a trial conducted Wilson, J. (1989). Technology in Distance Edur..no,:Conference Proceedings 9th within TAFECOM New South Wales Biennial Fonen ASPESA. on the use of ISDN [Integrated 6 UNEATLECOK (1989). Trial of Interactive Services Digital Network] Micro-link Video OsingData Comprehension from July to September 1990. Techniques Zetween UNE Armidale and UNE Coffs Harbour 3-13 October,1989. Armidale: University of New England. A present case : ISDN Micro- 7Castro, A. (1989). Information Technology at link In TAFECOM New South the British Open University. Institute of Wales Distance Education Deakin University. 8 DEUS Newsletter (1988). (Danish At the time of writing this paper, Enterprise University System Training TAFECOM New South Wales is Network) December, page 6. 14 Conning Tedusgogks entering into trials using ISDN Nero- To demonitmte the effectiveqss of fink technology.,The trials will look at ISDN as an educationalind training data' transfer, interactive computer mechanism whit used appropriately. confeiencing with :multi-screen capabilities and, the use of visuali in To quantify the costs of the use of interactive settings. One concern of ISDN against altermte mdes of this trial is not to fall into the delivery cf siMibirsourses. leChnology traps' of concentrating on the glainour of-the uie of ISDN. One To establish the moSiappijirrias te hope of the trial is that'the technology instrite,tionillnet*Oles* *en will prove to be transparent in terms of usintISDN'es Part f the course any effect on course material delivery. delivery systeM.

It must be restated that TAFECOM is To use the trial to demonstrate the an educationandtraining delivery of course material to an environment. Within this environment enterprise. [In thil trial the both instructional correctness and the enterprise will betelecom Training). need for certification of skills and knowledge gained are central. The To use the trial to validate the charter of TAFECOM is to present apansion of the uee of ISDN appropriate course material in a timely throughout TAFECOM as a tool to and cost effective manner. The need achieve corporate goals. for high resolution images of 'talking heads' may do wonders for the ego of Whilst it is possible to speculate on the the presenter in high cost technology uses of ISDN, the first purpode of the delivery modes of broadcast television trial is to determine parameters of use or satellite distribution. However the in an education and triiininglietting. emphasis on emulating these high cost Having determined theseI5ariniefers settings also skews the intent of trial material based on the guidelines producing the instruction away from will be produced and tested. Thli Will presentation of content. Inthe set the educational and training use of TAFECOM context most of the ISDN in context. The key factor will be presentation of content is illustrative interactivity. and demonstrative. These techniques One use that will not be trialled is the are within the technical capability of distribution of a lecture. This is a thecurrent ISDN'Microlink' misuse of the technology because it technology. This makes ISDN one denim the capability of interaction. If more means of delivery. one way communication is needed In this trial the possibilities and modes then broadcast television or TVRO of operation will be canvassed. The [television receive only] satellite stages of the trial are to speculate, to services could be used for the attempt and to evaluate the results. distributionofthatone way The aims of the trial are as follows: 9 information. It is also arguable that such a distribution service is more economically provided -through the use of pre-recorded video tape. But other considerationsareoften 9 Forsyth, 1. (1990). ISDN Trial Management overlooked. PL. AFE NSW.

.sg /an Forsyth

In the case of one way 'talking head' that srnidgin of a signal down the presentation the humble audio cassette telephone line, and reconstitute it to with support print material is a viable the full glory of the original at the alternative.Theprerecordedother end. The ISDN service is audiocassette has many instructional available across AustraAa and within advantages. The audiocassette has no most major centres as this paper is requirement for visual attention to be being written.10 focussed on the unchanging video screen of the talking head. With Because ISDN Micro-link is an n x 64K appropriate audio design, the visual service it offers advantages for data attention can be directed to note taking and voice over the [current 9.6k] data and referencing to diagrams and still modems and analogue audio. With the photographs to enrich the aural development in video digitisers, message. Using these techniques very interactive video is possible. It must be effective teaching materials are able to recognised that thisis not full be produced and distributed for a bandwidth video. What is showable, reasonable cost. however, is real interaction. What must take place to produce effective The TAFECOM trial of ISDN is being interactive education and instruction is developed and designed to avoid the the recognition of the limits of ISDN as inappropriate use of this technology. a tunnel of convergence. At the same The intentionisto define the time the ability of ISDN to be a means parameters for optimal interaction in a of divergent presentation to students variety of instructional settings. One and to 'open up' learning is attractive. activity to take place with all trial teachers/instructors will be to select However the future is not so simple. appropriate course content and The competition for the designing interactive techniques to telecommunication business of the facilitate learning of the content. private, business and public sectors is 'hotting up'. AUSSAT, OTC and The trial will use content from various Tekcom are looking at each others Industry Training Divisions within networks and market because of the TAFECOM. This will allow for a financial return. Therefore the 'owner' spread of industry, training and of the technology for delivery may educational settings to be evaluated. change in the future. What must be One important element in the trial is remembered is that in the next five that 'ITS [Telecom Training Services] years most households currently will participate in the trail alongside connected to the telephone r2twork TAFECOM staff. This has important will have the option of a fibre optic spin-offs for both organisations. line or ISDN capability to service their needs. These services could be replicated or deliverable by. satellite or The future as toacjx_ subscription cable networks if further deregulation o f t h e The future of ISDN technology is with us. As a digital system data and audio have been available for some time. It is now possible to compress a video signal to I% [yes, One Per Cent] of that 10 McIntosh, D. (1990). Homework. Sydney signals original bandwidth, transmit Morning Herald 15/4/1990 page 131. - -R7"c;-?-7-zo,,,f1,;" \\

telecommunications industry does take effective use of ISDN will require place. decision-making to be sure that appropriate technologies are selected The future then is not just one of to support the interactive instructional convergence. The £ iture is one where potential. It will require course the range of services available through designers to be divergent in their ISDN technology or the otherthinking to optimise the course distributive technologies will be reception possibilities at the other end selectively used for education, training of the ISDN tunnel. Whilst this will or for pursuing the simple pleasures of increase the opportunities to learn, the communicating. In education and full benefit will only be achieved when training the range of educatIqn and course developers demonstrate the learning strategies available through flexibility to utilise the diversity of ISDN technology offers a diversity of technologies accessible through ISDN choice for presenting courseware. telephone lines. ISDN is a technology that is a focus or a convergent technology. However the

5 4 D-I-Y publishing for the production of distance education coursewaro: What have we learned?

Neale Kemp DMsion of Distance and Continuing Education Universtly College of Central Queensland

The emergence, in the 1980s of low-cost, sophisticated computer-aided publishing systems allowed organisations which were involved in the development and preparation of course texts, training manuals and other instructional materials to manage and monitor the total preparation of print materials within their own environments.

This paper will discuss the impact of these do-it-yourself (D-1-10 publishing systems on the quality of distance education materials being produced, especially in terms of the typographic formats which have been adopted. The emergence of desktop publishing technologies will be discussed with respect to the hardware and software upon which they have been based, and the current state of the software will be expanded upon. Also some assumptions will be made regarding the future directions of the desktop technologies. The purpose of this presentation is to stimulate discussion as to how desktop publishing is being manage4 and also how the future of desktop publishing and its enhanced capabilities will impact upon the production of distance education courseware. emulate the true font capabilities of a The Emergence of Desktop traditional typesetter, albeit at a low Publishing resolution, brought a whole new meaning to the term in-house Although the Apple Macintosh is publishing. credited with heralding the foundation of desktop publishing, it is really the The successful introduction of laser development of the laser printer in printing encouraged many software conjunction with page description developers to begin the development languages which initially staked a of typesetting/publishing packages claim on low costtypesetting. which would run not only on the Machines with graphic oriented Macintosh, but also on other existing software (Apple Lisa, Xerox Star) had hardwareplatforms. As a been in development for some time consequence, programs with varying prior to threlease of the Applelevels of sophistication became McFriendlyrangeofpersonal available for the IBM personal computers. However the introduction computer and its growing number of of the laser printer which could clones,aswellasthelarger

55 48 engineering (Unix) workstations. those based on engineering There was, of course, much value in workstations being able to offer the flexibility to publish documents without the those based on traditional dedicated expense of further hardware (except a typesetters. laser printer if high quality output was a requirement). Dedicated Publishin Desktop) Publishing Publishing systems on traditional A Definition typesetters were seen to provide all the typographic flexibility which the non- What then was the purpose of this new traditional levels of publishing were technology and what value was it totrying to emulate. However these edacationalists who typically knew machines were not only expensive, but nothing of typesetting and publishing also typically comprised dedicated generally? Certainly the ability to hardware and software packages electronically originate and integrate which ensured that they were beyond text and graphics on screen and tothe reach of the in-house market in output these in a camera-ready form terms of both complexity and cost. has offered distance educators much greater instructional flexibility and document control. Electronic Publishing It would seem that one of the major Unix workstations such as the Sun and priorities of the software developers Apollo with their inherent networking was to de-mystify the typesetting and and performance capabilities provided publishing process. This was done by a sturdy platform on which to run a providing an elementary user interface publishing sys.em. As a consequence, using mouse controlled menus for the software which was developed for interactivity. As a consequence, the these machines was generally much term user-friendly became synonymous more sophisticated and required with desktop publishing systems. greater hardware performance than When these publishing systems were was possiblethe personal computer. developed on a variety of hardware Electronic ,blishing, as this level platforms, the term desktop publishing became known, found a niche in the became more specific to the personal corporatemarketwherethe computer approach to publishing, workstation hardware was already in whereas computer-aided publishing existence and being used for other became a more universal term in purposes such as computer-aided referringtothe range of both drafting (CAD). traditionalandnon-traditional Although the purchase of workstations publishing technologies available. At for the sole purpose of publishing was this point, computer-aided publishing viewed as somewhat of an "overkill", encompassedthreelevelsof the initial purchasers have not had to publishing systems: suffer the problem of insufficient memory and speed all too common those based on personal computers with the personal computers of 3-4 years past.

56 Te.

Neak Kemp 49

For the newcomers to desktop Personal Publish Ina_ publishing, the major advantage of this technology was its ease of use Desktop publishing or personalespecially at the PC level. For the publishing at the PC level litcluding professional publisher, however, of course the Macintosh has proven systems developed at the PC level in to be the boom area of non-traditional early days of desktop publishing publie.ing. There are several reasons provided very few of the typographic for this and these will be dealt will intricacies (for example leading, further on in this paper. However it justification and kerning) which can was mainly the low cost of bothgreatly affect the readability and hardware and software which aesthetic appeal of the published work. encouraged most people to publish at During the initial years of desktop this level, as well as the number of PCs publishing, the three levels of systems which already odsted and were beingdescribed above were clearly distinct used for other applications. intermsoftheircomplexity.

Mit

LEVEL OF SOPIIISTICNTION

:Nz ;:$,Z7..;\

LOW PC-BASED WORKSTATION TRADITIONAL BASED

Figure 1: A comparison of costs and sophistication of the three levels of desktop publishing,1985186. 50

applications of this technology in the Inade distanceeducationpublishing environment and, as a consequence, To those institutions who had typing pools soon evolved into in- previously utilised high quality house publishing departments. typesetting,desktop publishing offered very littlein terms of When desktop publishing was made functionality. Early systems typically available to the open market, ease of sufferedfromthefollowing use was a major consideration in the inadequacies: design of the publishing software. The "What You See Is What You Get" comparatively low resolution (WYSIWYG) displaywasa output (300 dpi) fundamental step towards user- friendliness and it was this ability to limited line spacing capabilities easily control the elements on the screen which made the systems so limited page extent of documents attractive to the first-time user.

no hyphenation or justification capabilities The Impact of Presentation To exacerbate the problems associated Although most of the early desktop with the initial implementation of publishing systems lackedthe desktop publishing in educational typographic functionality demanded institutions, the system suppliers by traditional publishers,their offered little or no training to Aipport introduction into distance education their products. Certainly no training publishing opened up something of a programs discussed the principles of "Pandora's Box" for the many typography and layout. educators who were keen to embrace the new technology. The seemingly inexhaustible range of type fonts and Acceptance by Users sizes coupled with the ability to combine a wide variety of graphic Desktop publishing was viewed with devices, encouraged the users (and, of much scepticism by the publishing course, the writers) to experiment with professionals when itwas firstthe students' ability to read and launched in this country in the mid comprehend the resultant materials. 1980s. This was mainly due to the comparativelevelofsoftwareThe inference that anyone could sophistication.However, many publish using the desktop systems distance education providers settled resulted in a proliferation of printed uponthistechnologyasan educational materials which, in many economicallyviablemeansof cases, were devoid of the essential producing higherqualityprint typographic characteristics which play materials with greater instructional a major role in determining not only flexibility. the aesthetic appeal, but more importantly the readability of the The upgrading of word processing printedpiece.Thisisquite systems to desktop publishing was understandable(althoughnot perhaps one of the most beneficial forgivable)if one considers the

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particular responsibilities (traditionally functionality of the publishing system. the domain of the publisher/printer) A typographic style was seen as which have been taken over by these essential for a variety of reasons: non-traditional publishers. to facilitate the development of While newly, installed publishing study materials by offering writers a systems offered an enormous degree of variety of instructional features and typographic flexibility in comparison ideas to the superseded word processor, it soon became apparent that if there was to facilitate the production of study no control over the operator's, and the materials through ittuse as a author's, use of these facilities, there reference,Manuatdetailing the would be, ironically, a degradation in typographic format of all the quality of instmctional materials components produced. In order to develop a coherent style, both the typographer to exploit the full functionality of and the instructional design team the publishing software and thereby required an intimate knowledge of the act as a selling tool for the publisher.

Figure 2: The skillslresponsibilities of personnel involved in the publishingprocess. Highlighted are those which can now be controlled by the desktop publisher. 52 Converging Tedmiogies 1

With the availability of a greater range being used by authors who are of typographic features and page showing greater interest in exploring formats, authors and instructional improved and alternative methods of designers now had the opportunity for displaying their instructional texts. The more creativeexpression andoutcomehasbeenthatthe enterpriseinthedesignof instructional materials are now far instructional materials. Whilst the more sophisticated than ever before, presentation of material has been however it is still not fully appreciated contained within the requirement of by authors that the effectiveness of this institution's Style Guide, there has their materials is greatly dependent been a noticeable increase in the use of upon expert instructional and the graphic features of the desktop typographic design input. publishing software. Tables, graphs, charts, illustrations and icons are all

HIGH

LOW PC-BASED WORKSTATION TRADITIONAL BASED

Figure 3: A comparison of costs and sophistication across the three levels of publishing,1990.

60 NodeKemp

early desktop systems no longer exist, and further, many of the systems now The Development of Desktop in existence will compete very pubilShin9 admirably with the professional As the demand for more sophisticated publishing systems. desktop publishing systems grew, so Whiht only fouryears ago, publishing did the number of suppliers of professionals were concerned. that the publishing packages. The increasing desktop systems lacked man); of the amount of competition over the past most fundamental typographic four years has resulted in the elements, the systems of 1990 offer developmmt of programs which offer typographic fledbility comparable to not only greatly increased typographic functionality, but also extremelyto the most sophisticated traditional sophisticatedgraphic handling publishing systems. Moreover, the capabilities. The limitations of the desktop systems are significantly less expensive.

HMH

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MEM. MMMMOM MMM=MINN =cm=rummattro MMMMM tr ammulmc j====MM MMOMMMM WAV P"UUL ... ====% LOW 1 PC MACINTOSH UNIX WORKSTATION

Figure 4: A comparison of desktop publishing software availability across various platforms, 1990.

$ 61 54

The developmentofdesktop As higher capacity microcomputers publishing software has been mainly aimed at the microcomputer level are developed, so too are desktop publishing programs which require simply because this is the largeruser base. Currently thereis more that high capacity in which torun. publishing related software available These new programs are then, of for the MadntoPh than any other PC course, out of the reach of the low- end microcomputer users. This is although there has been muchre- also happening as publishing writing of existing packages tarun on alixznative PC platforms. programs are revised and updated. Therequirementfordesktop publishing features have becomeso A Requirement for Specialist significant in software development Staff that the latest versions of basic word processing programs contain pull- It appears that as the desktop down, mouse-controlledmenus and technology progresses, the author will graphics manipulationtoolsas gain more control over the initial standard features. stages of the production process. For the author,it seems a natural Parallelingdevelopmentsin progression in technology to be ableto publishing software, there has been not only supply the words but also dramatic developments in hardware dictate the way in which they should especially at the microcomputer be displayed on the printedpage. level. Whereas fouryears ago those However, it is perhaps presumptuous contemplating professional desktop to assume that the author willpossess publishing would not have considered the appropriate design skillsto a Macintosh or PC purely on theproduce text which conformsto grounds of computingpower, the established typographic principles. incorporation of the latest high speed microprocessors from Intel and These composition skills, whichare Motorolaensurethattoday's essential in ensuring the readability microcomputers compete admirably and aesthetic appeal of the product, with Unix workstations. already exist with tradespersons in the printing industry and it is these skills While many may rejoice that these which have become quite a marketable high-end microcomputersare now product While many institutions have competing on equal terms with the enlisted the services ofa typographer engineering workstations, thereare or graphic designer to aid in the some noteworthy disadvantages: development of a publishing style, others continue to allow thecontent In striving for greater hardware experts to determine the presentation sophistication, the microcomputer style of their materials (oftenat the suppliers have sacrificed their expense of readability). traditional market advantage of cost. High-end microcomputersare The printing and publishing industry similarly priced to low-end Unix still sets the standard regarding the workstations with similar quality of print design and, in tryingto functionality and speed. emulate that standard, the higher quality end of the desktop publishing industry has made enormousprogress

R 2 WeN,'&47,1`,""4-11,

in producing exemplary materials. expense of the traditional production This increase in quality is not method. In addition, there is much necessarilyduetogreater more likelihood of the finished sophistication of desktop software, but product having greater aesthetic moreover from a realisation that appeal than if prepared on traditional higher quality design, and not simply wordprocessors. typesetting, is necessary to compete with the traditional printed industry. Further, desktop publishing has resulted in a heightened demand for Because deeldop publishing offers "irt-house" documentation to be be of educatorsgreaterinstructional higher quality. In many educational flexibility,the requirement for institutims, 200-300 dpi laser output instructional design expertise has also for the likes of memos, reports and grown. This expansion has also been general corrapondcnce is 7.01Y viewed influenced by a national requirement as minimum acceptable quality. for higher quality materials from fewer distance education providers. Creating Expectations From a production standpoint there has also been a requirement for As the demand for quality publishing publishing system operators with increases, so do the expectations of all much greater skills than in the past. involved in the publishing process: Although they are typically guided by a publishing style, operators require, Publishing operators expect in addition to software familiarity, a manuscript copy to be supplied on thoroughknowledgeofthe disk or at the very minimum typographical factors that can affect presented in double line spaced the readability and subsequent typescript these being accepted comprehension of instructional texts. standards of professional publishing houses.

Desktop Publishin.g Authors expect their dDcuments to A Viable Solution? be totally error free and have generally become more meticulous One of the key factors addressed by in locating minor inconsistendes distance education providers when which would have been overlooked arguing for the replacement of word in previous typewritten versions of processing by desktop publishing was their materials. that there would be a significant saving in the production of materials With the vast increase in the in terms of both time and resources. typographic quality of camera- However, it would appear that while ready copy delivered to printers, desktop publishing has made a there is an expectation that this considerable impact in providing the quality increase will be emulated at tools to expedite the publishing the backend of the production process, there is a considerable amount process. of materials now being published using this technology which would not In addition, students may also have previously have been considered some expectations about the quality of worthy of reproduction given the printed courseware when studying

-R3 betweendifferentinstitutions. In the future, the ability of high speed Moreover the fact that there is a photocopiers to print in several colours connectionbetweenstudying may make colour printing the rule performance and the quality ofrather than the exception. This courseware (Cookson 1989) should capability will also have a profound promptalldistance education effect upon the instructional quality of providers to carefully review the materials bp offering designersa instructional and typographic quality further tool to aid in the presentation of their materials. of information. One of the objectivesinthe Desktop Publishing development of desktop publishing The Future was to create the paperless production area. In many ways this has been Since its introduction in the mid 1980s, achieved through the electronic desktop publishing has madea integration of text and graphics significant impact upon the production obviating the need for manual paste- of educational materials by de-up. The output of these current mystifying the intricacies of the systems is as camera-ready art or, in publishing process. Its cost, user- some cases, direct imaging to plate. friendliness and capabilities provide a Whilethishas expedited the natural progression for the distance preparation of text and graphics, there education provider into a morehas been little development in professionalapproachtothe technologytoautomatethe preparation of instructional materials. platemaking and printing processes. Sinceitsintroduction,desktop With the major developments in both publishing has evolved from glorified desktop publishing and copying word processing to high quality, technology and the similarity of the professionalpublishing.The latter to laser printing technology, the limitations of early systems have been next logical step would seem to be the overcome and the sophistication of provision of a total automated current software compares admirably publishing and printing network. This with the complex typesetting andpre- may involve the development of large press systems available for the raster image processors (MN) with traditi-.nal graphic arts industry. spooling capabilities to drive one, ora number of, high quality A significant recent development in printers/copiers using laser or ink-jet desktop publishing is the availability technologies. of colour separation software enabling both spot and full colours ofa In essence, this type of system would document to be output as separate be driven by the front end with the RIP printing masters. Colour printing has acting as a multiplexing device which traditionally been too expensive to distributes the workload amongsta contemplate for the bulk of distance variety of high speed printing devices. education materials, but the ability to The use of the laser or ink-jet printing supply colour separated camera-ready processes would obviate the need for artwork to a printer will significantly theprintingplate another reduce these costs. reproduction process. These high speed printers would then be on line to Neale Kemp

collators, binding machines and advise the author on preferable means trimmers requiring minimal manual of text layout for the production of intervention. This type of system effective layouts in terms of aesthetics would be most productive in an and readability. environment which catered for demand printing where there is no There can be no doubt that in the last necessity for warehousing of materials. fiveyearsthere has beena technological revolution in educational It would not be presumptuous to also publishing. Perhaps what we have assume that desktop publishing witnessed is a mere glimpse of the systems will begin to utilise artificial technological advances we can expect intelligence. These resultant expert in publishing in the next five years. system s may develop the capability to

WOUCSTATIONS MACINTOSHES

LASER PROOFING SCANNNOtOCI L It a 11 0, P,

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Figure 5: A futuristic view of desktop publishing integrating the printing and finishing processes.

5 58 Converging Technologies

Dekkers, J. Griffin, Fl. and Kemp, N. References (1988).Style Guide. Rockhampton: Capricornia Institute Apple Computer Inc. (1989).The Apple Guide to Desktop Publishing Cupertino, Kemp, N. and Dekkers,J.(1988). California: Apple Computer Inc. Computer-aided Publishing as a Tool for Preparing Instructional Text A Case Brailsford, D.P. and Beach, R.J. (1989). Study. Rockhampton: Capricornia "Electronic Publshing A Journal and Institute its Production". The Computer Journal, 32, 6

Commonwealth of Australia (1978).Style Manual for Authms, Editms and Printers. Neale Kemp, Manager, Production Canberra: Australian Government and Systems, Division of Distance Publishing Service andContinuingEducation, University College of Central Cookson, P.S. (1989)."Research on Queensland, Rockhampton. Learners and Learning in Distance Queensland 4702 Education: A Review". The American Journal of Distance Education, 3, 2

6 Keyboarding, touch typing and computers: What students think

David H McKinnon Charles Stud University Mitchell Patrick C,..1 Nolan Massey University, New Z'adand

This paper presents the findings of a survey questionnaire conducted in September 1989, regarding the role and value of computer keyboardbg and touch typing skills for New Zealand secondary school students. Data were collected covering the following area: socio-economic status of parents; gender; time spent using the typing tutor; educational and vocational goals; perceived keyboard competence; preferred keyboard teaching methods; and, the value of typing courses. Results indicate that significant numbers of students trznt to learn keyboarding and touch typing (p< 0.01). Specifically, they want structure, guidance and irctruction provided by specialist typing teachers working in conjunction with their normal classmom teachers and would be prepared to undertake these lessons in their own time. Discussion covers implications for administrators and teachers responsible for the design of educotion with computers in schools. Many researchers have commented which will be difficult to extinguish upon the increasing use of computers when they come to learn touch typing across the curriculum and the (Hunter et al, 1988). Throughout this consequent demands being placed on debate very little empirical data has studentstousethe keyboard been collected concerning students' effectively (see for example, Jackson attitudes towards keyboarding skills and Berg, 1986; Hoot, 1986; Wharton (Gerlach, 1987, cited in Hunter, 1988). S, 1988). There appear to be, however, two opposing views as to how Effective use of the keyboard involves children should learn to use the two factors both of which might be keyboard: The constructivist view included in a definition of computer emphasises the needforfree literacy. These two factors have been exploration and discovery, favours identified as touch typing and allowing children to use the keyboard keyboarding (Iienderson-Lancett, as they see fit, and seeks to focus 1985; Wharton, 1988). Keyboarding children's attention on the cognitive refers to the correct manipulation of processes. The opposing the keys on the keyboard (Jackson & instructionalistview, normally Berg, 1986) and includes the use of espoused by typing teachers, regards specialist keys such as function keys, this process as wasteful and likely to "Control", "Alt", and combinations of induce frustration in the pupils as these. This definition may be they "hunt and peck". Moreover, they extended to include the use of fear that children will learn bad habits peripheral input devices, for example the mouse. The acquisition ofkeyboarding skills for secondary keyboarding skills is primarily linked school students. to the use of particular software packages and may be taught in the context of their use Touch typing is a Method subset of keyboarding and is defined in the same sense that is understood in the use of typewriters, that is Sublocts and &Ming typing accurately while not looking at the keyboard. Touch typing is usually The school in which this study was established through routine practice. condUcted is a typlcill New Zealand co-educational secondary school While teachers and research staffdrawing pupils fronr both country involved in the Freyberg Integrated and urban areas. Students elect to Studies Project realise that both participate in- theIntegrated Studies factorsareimportant,such Programme on entry to Rem 3 (year considerations as time constraints and 8), the first year of high school. lack of personal expertise have meant Integrated Studies involves the that very little attention has been students using the computer for a given to the development of touchminimum of three hours,per week. typing skills. The need to encourage Word processing isthe, most the development of these skills has commonly used software package and been acknowledged and an interactive isusedbyallclassesfor typing tutor installed on both an IBM approximately 75% of the time they pc network with 32 computers and 15 are using computers. A questionnaire stand-alone PS/2s. The formal was administered to 240 students in teaching of typing skills has, however, nine classes in forms three and four. progressed in an ad hoc manner. All student:, involved in the Project Some teachers have scheduled class who regularly use the -computers times for the development of touch were surveyed. Additional classes in typing skills while others haveboth forms not involved with the conducted an initial session and Project acted es comparison graups. subsequently left pupils', to develop Top classes in both the Normal and their own skills. The researchers have Integrated Studies programi are observed a wide variation of typing streamed on ability in Mathematics speeds and keyboarding skills and English. The remainder of the amongst pupils. It was decided, classes are parallel. The Integrated therefore, to assess the pupils' Studies classes surveyed Included the attitudes towards: keyboarding and in top third and fourth form classes, two particular typing skills; preferred parallel classes in each of the third teaching methods; the use of a typing and fourth form. The 'normal' classes tutor;and,therelevanceof surveyed included the top third and keyboarding skills to their educational fourth form classes, and a parallel and job aspirations. fourth form class. This paper presents the findinge of a The questionnaire comprised 49 survey conducted in September 1989 questions seeking information on by the Freyberg Integrated Studies Project research staff regarding the roleand valueofcomputer David H McKinnon and Patrick Cl Nolan 61

Class 1 2 3 41. 5 6 7 13*7-4,--m--7-6 female 16 8 12 13 17 9 7 16 14 11246.9 male 14 20 17 13 14 17 14" 6 12 127 53.1' Total 30 28 79 26 311 26 21-4 22 26 239 % 12.6 11.712.110.913.01 10.918.8 9.210.9 100.0-100.01 (Chi-Square=15.04, p=0.0584, 1 missing observation) TABLE 1: Gender composition of the classes (*) normal program eleven pertinent factors: significant differences acr...-s groups, socioeconomic background of parents; that is SES of mother or father makes gender; time using computers; no difference as to whether students applications used; subject preferences; have a computer at home. Table 3 application preferences; educational shows the results for father's SES and vocational goals; perceived against the presence of a computer at keyboard competency; preferred home. It may be noted however, that teaching methods; and, the value of significantly more boys than girls typing courses. The questionnaire was have a computer at home (Chi-square administered by a Project researcher = 126, D.F. = 1, p = 0.022). during normal class time. A clear majority of students (79%) thought that the minimum level of Resutts touch typing skill they should master was "working from the home keys, In the sample there were 112 females but looki-,)g at the keyboard". One- and 127 males, and one individual way ANOVAs of class by skill level who did not report his or her gender. and form level by Integrated Studies Table 1 below shows the there was no group membership by skill level significant difference in the gender revealed no significant differences composition of the classes surveyed. across Troups. That is, students had similar expectations with respect to The Elly-Irving Socioeconomic Status the minimum level of skill they Scale was used to determine the SES should have when using computers. of both parents. A cross tabulation of both parents' SES against the presence of a computer at home revealed no

SES-> 1 2 3 4 5 6 Row Total

yes 13 15 21 32 9 6 %

no 10 8 17 45 21 3 104

Total 23 23 38 77 30 9 200

% 11.5 11.5 19.0 38.5 15.0 4.5 100.0 i (Chi-Square = 10.634, D.F.= 5, p = 0.059)

TABLE 2: Fathers' Socioeconomic Status against Presence of a Computer at Home 62 Converging Technologies

While, as indicated above, 78% of master a touch typing speed of 20-30 students thought that "working from words per minute than either the the home keys, out looking at thethird or fourth from comparison keyboard" was the minimum skill groups (F=6.97, p4.0002). level they should master, 65% indicated that they actually operated Students were asked three questions at this level or better. Further analyses relating to their preferred method of of these data indicated that the level typing skills instruction during of keyboard mastery reported by the normal school time. These were: using students was not dependent on either a computer and a typing tutor form level or group membership. program;conventionaltyping exercises on a computer, and; In response to the question "has your conventional typing classes using a class had any formal lessons on how typewriter. Figure 1 below shows that totypeusingthecomputer students have a preference for the keyboard?", 42% of students indicated method of instruction: 55% opted fur that they had received at least 1-3 the first mode, 38% opted for the lessons. A one-way ANOVA with second and 29% opted for the third. multiple comparisons (Student- Studentsappeartoprefer Newman-Keuls at 0.05 level) revealed instructional methods which employ a that the Irttegrated Studies classes and computer. There is less preference for the third form 'normal class' hadmethods which have elements of received asignificantly greater conventional typing instruction. This number of lessons than the fourth was emphasised by the fact that 78% form comparison classes (F=3.79, of the students responded negatively p=0.015). to a later item which stated that students who use computers for When asked about the desirability of regular class work should be required having "computer keyboard skills to take typing lessons as a subject instruction for students who use option. computers at school", only 4.6% of studentsdisagreedwiththe A series of one-way ANOVAswas statement. When asked whether carried out on each of the questions regular computer users should be related to preferred instructional 'required' to have a touch typing mode using class groupings as the speed of 20-30 wpm, 40.2% of independent variable. The Student- students disagreed while only 18% Newman-Keuls multiple comparisons agreed. If the school was to provide test was used to look for significant instruction over a six to ten week differences between the classes. These period, however, objections dropped showed that the third form Integrated to 11.3% with 80.4% of the students Studies classes had a significantly indicating that they would begreater preference for using a motivated to master this level of skill. computer and typing tutor than did One-way ANOVAs revealed no the fourth form 'normal' classes significant differences for the first two (F=2.74, p < 0.05), whiie the third and questions. Differences were revealed, fourth form 'normal' classes hada however, for the third question with significantly greater preference for both the third and fourth form convendonal typing classes (F=2.92, p Integrated Studies classes being < 0.05). significantly more motivated to David H McKinnon end Pairkk CI Nolan 63

Computer Mixed Convention Method

FIGURE 1: Graph of Frequency Against Preferred Formal Method of Keyboard Instruction When asked who should provide the A further four questions sought instruction on typing skills, 31% of the information on: participation in students thought Ithat it should be a traditional typing classes; typing specialist typing teather, with only 8% speed using the typing tutor; stating that it shoudd be a normal frequency of typing tutor use, and; subject teacher. The remaining 61% length of typing tutor sessions. A wanted both types of teachers to be series of cross tabulations and one involved. A one-way ANOVA, with way ANOVAs was carried out using multiple comparisons, of class by gender and participation in traditional provider of instruction, showed that typing classes as factors. The results of there was no difference in the these analyses demonstrate that preferences of the classes for the femalesinallclasseshave provIder of keyboard instruction. significantly higher keyboarding skills than males and practice these skills The typing tutor program used in the more frequently and for longer school is an IBM version of a periods using the typing tutor. commonly usedcommercially available program. The tutor uses a Participation in a typing class was standard approach to teach touch highly correlated with gender (Chi- typing. Finger location sessions are square = 75.00, DF= 1, p = 0) with four rapidly followed by skill building times as many girls than boys sessions using real words. Rapid reported as having taken typing feedback is given in the form of classes. Females did not use the z graphs and other data showingtyping tutor significantly more student learning trends. Touch typing frequently than males, but they spent tests, as far as possible, use words and significantly more time on each typing sentences which make sense. A typing tutor session (F =10.81, p=0.0012). On game is also provided using words at average, females spent 15-20 minutes an appropriate level of difficulty. per session, while males only spent 5- 10 minutes. In addition, students who had participated in a traditional Converging Technologies

typing class spent significantly more third form comparison group, time using the typing tutor (Fa 12.72, however, 70% disagree with having tx.) p0.0005); 15-20 minutes as against use the typing tutor in their own time 5-10 minutes. As would be expected compared with 45% of the third form from these data, females have Integrated Studies students. significantly higher typing speeds as measured by both the typing tutor Table 4 shows that once the basic (F=12.09, p4.0006) and traditional skills have been mastered, 49% of methods (F. 16.56, p a 0.0001). studentt agree that there is need for ongoing computer'', keyboard skills r-- mean wordsper minute instruction, and that 57.1% of the students agree that they would typing tutor traditional assume responsibility for maintaining method and improving those skills. A one- way ANOVA of group by need for females 35 30ongoing keyboard skills instruction, males 18 12 with multiple comparisons, showed that the third form Integrated Studies N N=166' N.161classes agreed with the statement significantly more frequently that did TABLE 3: Student Typing Speed by the fourth form Integrated Studies gender classes. There were no significant differences between classes where Students were then asked about when personalrsponsibilityfor the instruction should occur.. The maintaining a I improving skills is following alternatives were given: involved. using a typing tutor in their own time (lunch, before and after school); being Students were asked three questions permitted access for supervised on their educational and occupational practice in their own time, or; aspirations. These data are not practising during class when other presented here They are the subject of work was finished. Figure 2 shows another paper. It may be noted that 45% of students disagree with however that female students had having to use a typing tutor in their significantly higher educational and own time. This figure drops to only job aspirations than did the males. A 10% if the school was to offer further two questions were asked that supervised keyboard skills practice related to whether or not knowledge during lunchtimes, before or after of computer applications and mastery school. Moreover, 75% of the students of computer keyboard skills would are in favour of practising typinghelp them in achievingtheir skills during class time if all of their educational and vocalional goals. other work is finished. There was no significant gender difference with regard to a knowledge While there is an apparent significant of computer applications helping difference between classes where students achieve their educational using a typing tutor in their own time goals or in helping them get a suitable is concerned (F=2.774, p < 0.01), there job. In both cases 80% and 84%, is no significant difference when respectively, of students believed that compared pair-wise usingthe computers would help. Student-Newman-Keuls test. Of the

72 David H McKinnon and Patrkk Cf Nolan 65

60 Agree 50 % 40 0 Not Sure 30 20 Disagree 10 0 Supervised In Class When

FIGURE 2: When Instruction Should Occur

Agree Not Sure Disagree Need or ongoing keyboard skills 49% 40.3% 10.7% instruction Personal responsibility for maintaining and 57.1% 33.5% 9.4% improving skills

TABLE 4: Ongoing Keyboard Skills Instruction/Responsibility

While 80% of students agree or them a job. A one-way ANOVA with strongly agree that a competent multiple comparisons revealed that mastery of keyboard skills would be the Integrated Studies classes placed a useful to them when using the significantlyhighervalue on computer to do school work, a one- keyboard skills (F=5.77, p=0.0008) way ANOVA withmultiple than did the comparison groups. comparisons, revealed that both the third and fourth form Integrated There was a high correlation (0.69) Studies classes placed a significantly between students' belief that a higher value on these skills than did knowledge of computer applications the comparison groups (F=13.93, p=0). would help them educationally and A similar result was obtained when their belief that a competent mastery the students were asked if keyboard of keyboard skills would help them skills would be helpful in getting gain a job.

At:(411+4,' 66 Convergbq Tedasologies

classes than in previous years. The Conclusion and implications apparent increased male interest in acquiring typing skills may be linked The survey results reported in this to their changing perceptions of the paper convey an important message usefulneis and applicability of these from computer using secondaryskills In helping them achieve school students to the teachers-and educational, and career success school administrators who dfsign especially where they can obserVe A their educationafprograms. Students females bust typing at a significantly who regularly use the computer for faster rate. , their education at school want and need to learn keyboarding and touch Both male and female students believe typing skills. As other secondary that keyboard competency and students gain access to computers it knowledge of computer applications can be expected that they too will will help in furthering their education want to learn keyboarding skills. and in obtaining a job of their choice. While in the past typing has been The survey revealed that pupils were perceived as a predominantly female predominantly using the "hunt and domain, the advent of computers is peck" method. They were dissatisfied impressing upon males the necessity with this and wished to operate at a for competent typing skills. higher level.Students saw the teaching of keyboarding skills as a Generally speaking, the students task the school should address. When preferred instructional methods basic skills are in place, then students which involved using the computer. acknowledged theyshould be They do not want or need to learn personally responsibleforthe typing in the conventional sense. maintenance and improvement of These findings are consistent with skills. Students prefer to have earlier studies (Warwood et al., 1985) keyboarding instruction in class time which indicatedthatstudents but they are willing to undertake preferr2d to learn touch typing skills supervised instruction during lunch on computers rather than use time and before and after school. typewriters.Thecontention (Warwood, op.cit.) that this preference There are clear differences between results from the environment created male and female students. At the time bythecomputer(immediate of the survey, there was a four to one feedback, the ability to make mistakes ratio of females to males enroled in without teacher criticism, and student typing classes at school. Females were control over the pace of learning) usingthetypingtutor more appears to be supported by the survey frequently and for longer periods than findings. males, and they had acquired significantly higher typing speeds as A majority of students expressed a measured both conventionally and by preference for class lessons where the Typing Tutor program. touch typing skills are taught using theiypingtutor program in Since conducting the survey, typing conjunctionwithsequenced tiJachershaveinformedthe instruction provided by a typing researchers that more males have teacher. This student preference opted to attend the traditional typing standsincontrastwiththe

74 .42A .;=I . e'

David if McKinnon and Patikk CI Nolan

constructivist view, which emphasises Henderson-Lancett, L,(1985). Typing: To the need for free exploration and Teach of Not To Teach! In Lindsay et discovery of the keyboard during the al. Byte the Chip an Introduction in writing process. The majority want Education for Teachers and Parents. 36- structure, guidance and instruction in 44. school time provided by teachers Hoot J.L., (1984). Keyboarding Instruction professionally trained in this area. in the early grades. Childhood These students perceive that keyboard Education, 60(2), 95-100. instruction provided at school serves Hunter J.H., Begorayk,Benedict G., Bilan both educational and vocational ends. B., Jardine G., Rilestone P. & Inthe work place,although Weisgerber R., (1988). Writing and computers are commonly used, it is wordprocessing: A criticsl synthesis. problematic whether computer Education Technology Unit, Calgary knowledge and keyboarding skills Board of Education. will enhance students' prospects of gaining a job. The majority of students ICAS, (1985). Mission: Define Computer seem to be convinced, however, that Literacy. The Illinois Wisconsin ICAS this is the case. It is also problematic Computer Coordinators'. Committee whether such knowledge and skills, on Computer Literacy Report, The on their own, will improve the Computing Teacher, November,:10-15. likelihood of educational success. It is Jackson T.H. and Berg D., (1986). our claim however, that when Elementary Keyboardingisit properly usedin an effective Important? The Computing Teacher, educational context, they will. 13,(6), 8-11.

The primary aim of Integrated Studies Messing J.(Ed), (1988). Getting Started is to demonstrate ways of enhancing with Computers, a Resource Kit for the educational effectiveness of Primary Schools. New South Wales schools. The project is showing that Computer Education Group, Mitchell value lies in the application of College, NSW. computers to the educational process. Early mastery of the keyboard will Nolan C.J.P. and McKinnon D.H., (1990). help makethecomputeras Curriculum Innovation:Subject transparent as pencil and paper in Integration, Computers and Out of achieving educational goals, thus Class Activities in the Freyberg helping students and teachers realise Integrated Studies Project. Curriculum the real power of the computer as an Review, in press. educational tool. Stewart, J., & Jones, B.W. (1983), Keyboarding Instruction: Elementary School Options. Business Education References Forum, 37(83), 11-12.

Gerlach G.J., (1987). cited in Hunter 1988. Warwood B., Hartman V., Hauwiller J., & The Effect of Typing Skill on using a Taylor S., (1985). A research Iudy to Word Processor for Composition. determine the effects of early keyboard AmericanEducationResearch use upon student development in AssociationAnnualMeeting, occupationalkeyboarding. MT, Washington, D.C. Montana State University (ED 26536). Converging Tedusologks

Wetzel K., (1985). Keyboarding Skills: students. Business Education Forum, 37, Elementary my Dear Teacher?. The 83, 25-28. Computing Teacher, 12(9), 15-19. Wharton S., (1988). The Writing Process. Williams B., (1988). Preparing teachers to In Messing J. (Ed) Getting started with teach keyboarding to elementary computers. NSW Computer Education Group, Mitchell College, NSW.

7 6 ort -; IN' = ,

r4t.- Starting Think-Keying

South Australian Calitioe of Achianiaiiiii

Can you write as fast as you think? Many people are not as productive as theYAmitt he hecaUse they are using old techno1P8y suChOSiPenCii. a4d Pa- per, orthey are using new tedmology t - ineffidentlyby 'hunting and pecking'. The ansvfif P.0.11mneJipa Tt it is dtketqthe,*k*****1101,40; This paper describes the evolution of a the,consl*.x PAYchOlotorkia01rp- program to enable people to become in& It InustakrckhOtaiphat theleack profident in basic typing as quickly as ing strategies have leftiltudents bored possible and with the minimum of and frustrate& Pain- In the Past, tYPht8 has hee4 ft,ml asa Communicating words via an elec- means of copyingfext fr*VPiWrit- tronic keyboard is an eVeryday fact of ten, handwritten or cliOrte5t, otiginals, life. For convenience people often refer or fnint-sh004 11-**Inglif0'0- to what they' are doing as 'typing', ing Is befle* oneby pe41ebo even though they are mit using a creating titiginarte*: typewriter. The basic keyboarding keYin8. flueqt-tYlftheOneS #1ilnea- skills are the same whether one is us- suably more *wort* ii ing a manual typewriter or a com- because thoUghts puter. wisdom, have'a, Because the skill of typing has tradi- if they are tionally been denigrated, the majority We must key ; _y its of people learning to use computers in possible, otthey belatfoerhaps Australia have resisted learning touch for ever:We haven't got thnelohnnt typing. One can make the analogy that and peck: ,Ourifingers must react to ow thoughts and spell thenrout in,the car drivers do not look to see where r the brake pedal or gears are --if they same way as the words dribble off the did, the results could be quite spec- end of our pen: fluently. tacular. THINK > KEY We teach people of all ages to acquire THINK > HUNT skills and encourage them to practise in order tolOne those Skills, be they PECK >KEY playing a musicalinstrUment or playing=a sport - and yet manyteachers It haw been asserted (Austin & think there is no need- to teach their Pargman, 1981) that the moirtiltient students to touch type and think-key. performance Li achieved by the person who is able to leave the execution of

1- t4. Ff

70 Converging Technologies

the skill to the unconscious self. The The introduction of electronic key:. conscious self attends solely to the boards meant that the need for physi- higher order activities associated with cal hand strength was removed andso or'S the sIdll being performed. word processing became a tool in the formation of language skills in primary Following study leave in the United schools. States some years ago, the author de- vised a keyboard teaching method The next stage of the program's devel- using a roller chalkboard to encourage opment resulted from a perceived touch typing from the beginning. need for business people to be able to Students worked with sentenceson the acquire a keyboarding skill quickly beard instead of from a textbookat and perhaps evensecretly (because.of keyboard level. They were paced, be- its un-macho image). Ccanputerswere cause it is important they learn the becoming something of a management elements of a skill at production speed toy, but they were also being used se- and gain the kinaesthetic feedback riously in firms with dispersed offices, which enables them to perform flu- such as Elders Pastoral. The produc- ently. Students were reminded of the tion of Key in for Infonnation,a pack time when they learnt to ride a bicycle of cards in a plastic wallet, coincided if they went slowly they wobbled and with more than 400 Elders Pastoral fell off. A series of sentences were writ- branches throughout Australia and ten on the board and the teacher New Zealand .being linked by elec. turned them over the top after stu- ironic mail. Allan Baird, theirmanager dents had had time to key in eachone. of office systems, was insistent that Students responded positively to this their staff should acquire efficient key- system which enabled the faster ones boarding skills so that ,they coulduse to more ahead while nudging along the electronic mail for .all their inter- the slower ones. office communications and other work, As educational technology developed, such as preparation of wills for clients. so did the program. Elders Pastoral prepared a house style training manual which accompanied For several years, slides on theover- Key in for Information into all their head projector replaced the roller offices. board and conference memberscan see a video of a group of young children One reason for the choice ofname for learning to type on electric typewriters the keyboarding package was theex- during their school holidays. They citementgenerated by on-line databases. So much information avail- gained a knowledge of the whole key- ,1 board during five one- hour sessions. able at the end of a computer linkup! High on-line and connect-time costs It was a real thrill to see theseyoung- sters literally running into the class- mean there are considerable financial advantages to be gained from quick room to practise their new skill. Now and accurate keyboarding. at university, they report the benefits of being able to key in fluently. Think- The success of Key in for Information keying was part of their introduction resulted in Pitman, one of the leading to the keyboard and they enjoyed publishers in commercial education, swapping jokes they had written using suggesting some modifications which only the letters they had learnt would result in an introductory keyboarding textbook. They did not have

78 71 the means to market a pack of cards. who will present his findings at the Because of the changed concept, it was conference, we found students wanted with some reluctance that The Pitman to be set on the right track by a 10- hour Typing Program was written. friendly Innran being and not just a user-friendly computer. At about the same time, my colleague, Dr Michael Gerrard, was wanting his The KEY program is now used students in Introduction to Computing to throughout the South Australian become competent in word processing. College of Advanced Education and in a number of other educational institu- The stimulus for the students learning tions throughout Australia. to type now became characters on the computer screen. In 1987 it was the first software encountered by 270 References business students. During their first 75-minute workshop they covered, on Austin, J S and Pargman D (1981) The average, six or seven units of the pro- Inner Game approach to performance gram. The first unit introduces the and skill acquisition.Motor Skills: guide keys and subsequent units in- Theory into Practice, 5(1) 3-12 troduce one or two characters at a time. In their first workshop students Carnegie U (1985) Key in for Information. are shown by the tutor how to start the Adelaide: Unisco program, select lessons, and quit from the program. They are also given Carnegie U (1987) The Pitman 10-hour Typing Program. Melbourne: Longman guidance regarding the height adjustment of their chairs, their posture, and Carnegie U and Gerrard M (1987) KEY. the arrangement of their work materi- (Available from the authors:16 als. As reported by David McKinnon, Dulwich Avenue DULWICH SA 5065

79 , Developing a HyperCard training package: Legal Systems Anne Sparks and Nell Hall Un lverstly of Wollongong

INIO-ONE International is a company Lawpac uses the STATUS software, involved in electronic publishing. Prior produced in the UK specifically for to 1988 the company was calL.d CURS database applications. Some Lawpac (Computerised Legal Information databases are available as CD-ROM Retrieval Systems), and provided on- products. CD-ROM technology is an line legal databases. INFO-ONE still efficient and cost-effective method of maintains a number of databases (the information retrieval, but it is still a majority being of a legal nature) but new technology, and until it becomes has diversified into other on-line widespread the on-line system will services as well as other forms of continue to be used extensively. Even electronic publication, particularly for people using CD-ROM technology, optical storage. it is necessary to be familiar with on- line systems because unreported The on-line databases are divided into judgments are not available on CD- pacs. There is Lawpac (legal), Landpac ROM and they are updated regularly (NSW Land Titles and conveyancing), on the system. There are also many Busipac (business and tax), Finpac secondary databases which are (financial), Geopac (mineral resources), updated regularly that are only Mediapac (directory of performers and available on-line. Thus, the on-line shot library) and Worldpac (providing system is complementary to CD-ROM gateways to several international technology. databases). The majority of clients subscribe to Lawpac. There is a wide range of users of Lawpac. Large law firms have their The training progam that formed the own legal librarians who search on basis of this present work relates to the behalf of the partners, solicitors in Lawpac Introductory course which is government departments either have regularly presented on a face to face librarians to conduct their research, or basis. The training program receives they do it themselves, there are many excellentfeedbackfromits barristers who conduct their own participants, both in the short term and research and of course there are in the longer term. Questions asked smaller legal practices where the end through the Help Desk and other data user of the information actually carries gained less officially indicated to the out the search. trainer that users of the system, especially if they were irregular users, In order to assist clients to use the on- needed some way of refreshing the line services effectively and efficiently, content of the introductory training several training courses are offered. course. The most popular is the Introductory Course which deals with the basic STATUS commands and techniques

80 Amy Sparks and Neil Hall 73 needed to search the databases.on the results and measures of Courses are offered in all capital cities performance taken during the course. and most users are able to attend one of these. However there is a problem CST must take into account three with users who live outside the fundamentals of effective learning. metropolitan area who find it difficult Firstly, the learners must he active ,. so to attend. Barristers in the CBD also there should be frequent questions and have trouble attending courses at set problems testing understandings at times because of the nature of their successive stagesoflearning. Secondly, work, when they can often have to the learners should be able to check the attend court at short notice. Special correctness and relevance of their after hours training in their chambers responses to questions and solutions to can be arranged, but it may be to their problems. Thirdly, the scheme of advantage to have access to disk based learning should be arranged so that training. Because of this,it was solutions V) questions, cakulations, decided to pmduce a computer based discriminations and other problem training package which could be sold solvingactivities,tend towards to country users, to subscribers who correctness or mastery (Dean and wish tralning in this form and as an Whitlock, 1989). optional back-up for clients who CBT offers advantages over training in attended courses. print form in three areas: Many of the users of these particular legal databases have Macintosh 1 The process by which the learner is computers intheiroffices. The routed through the lesson is widespread availability and simplicity flexible. Branching is an integral of use of HyperCard software, together part of CBT, something which is not with this computer access, provided a feasible with printed matter. good combination on which to base a training package. 2 The use of CML allows the computer to serve a wide range of purposes in course management.

Computer based training: An 3 The training designer can vary intoduction teaching strategy and integrate According to Dean and Whitlock different methods with the use of a (1989) computer based training (CBT) computer. is a generic term that covers both computer assisted training (CAD and computer managed learning (CML). Study on the effectiveness of Computer assisted learning involves CBT with legal databases using the computer as as interactive It has been shown that lawyers spend training medium through tutorials, 20-30% of their time searching for simulations and drill and practice. information. Automating information Computer managed learning involves storage and retrieval through the use using the computer to dir the of computers is seen as a means to learner through a course which may or reduce time-on-task and increase the may not be computer based. In CML quality of the search result. Van Beek, the path the learner takes is dependent Been and Hurts (1989) carried out an Converging Technologies

*1,1 ;31 experimentwhichtestedthe the command language, search effectivenessof computer-basedstrategies and general aspects of training for use in an automated database search. In the practice phase, system for retrieving legal information. also lasting two hours, studen% were They contrasted computer-based with given the same five cases to solve by 4 traditional (textbook) instruction, means of an emulated database. It was computer-based with traditional implemented on a microcomputer and (paper-and-pencil) practice tasks and was accessible through a program easy versus difficult problems. emulating the interface of the real database. Since 1983, students at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands, were Earlier studies had shown that z offered a course on legal information computer-based tutorials have been systems. In this course students were demonstxated to be more effective than introduced to the command language their traditional counterparts: more of a frequently used legal database was learnt in less time. Van Beeket al. (Kluwer Data lex). This database (1989) assumed that the quality af on- contains the full text of twenty th'4ee line searching could be measured by Law joulnals. Search assignments were two sets of indicators: command completed manually, after which language mastery level and search students could try out their searches performance. Command language on-line. Search costs, however, mastery referred to the proficiency of restricted these sessions to fifteenusing the command language 4. minutes per student. In addition, the (irrespective of the results). Search database was not always 'up'. These performance referred to the amount of factors resulted in students frequently total relevant information that was being unable to complete their retrieved (recall), the amount of total searches in the allotted time nor did retrieved informationthat was they have the chance to learn from relevant (precision) and the time-on- their mistakes. task. A computer-based instruction andThe tutorial part of the computer- practice program was developed by based program was intended as a the Law School faculty to Fovide the replacementfortheformer students with a low-cost alternative for introduction to on-line searching the on-line database. In this program, which consisted of some lectures and students were allowed to obtain students reading the database manual. hands-on experience with on-lineThe emulation part of the program information. In preparation for this replacedthemanualsearch program, students learned to search assignments and the fifteen minute for information in the library and then practice session. given five legal cases to solve by searching for relevant information in Van Beeket al.(1989) formed three the liivary. hypotheses:

After some general information about 1Training with the computer-based computers, students entered the tutorial would bring about a instructional phase of the compu ter- superior command language based program. This phase lasted two mastery level and a higher search hours and introduced the students to performance level.

8 2 Anne Spnks and Neil Hall 75

2 Training with the emuladon would them achieve low time-on-task and be better in terms of seIrch high speed of using the command performance and command language. language mastery level than training without the emulation. Characteristics of a good 3Interaction of instruction and aulhoring system practice will allow declarative and procedural knowledge to be Authoring systems provide means for developed. experienced computer users to create training packages without actually According to Anderson(1983) coding the computer. In the case of cognitive skills are acquired in a two- CBT an authoring system helps in the stage process, the first being the final production of the software but declarative stage am.: the second being the spedficatqms for the software have the procedural stage. Instructions play to be set by instructional designers, a major role in the declarative stage teachersofthecourseand and practice becomes important in the professionalsfamiliar with the procedural stage. Anderson argued authoring system: it is possible that that without the declarative stage there this is the one person. Crowell (1988) is no proceduralisation. outlined ten characteristics a good authoring system should possess. The researchers found subjects receiving computer-based instruction 1 It must be easy to use, yet allow out-performed their trad3tionally aeative flexibility. He points out instructed peers in terms of recall though that a system that takes a (relating to the fraction of relevant little while to learn may have documents that were found) and in greater eas- of use in the long run terms of efficiency and speed of using for the more experienced author the command language. However, no t1.0,11 one a novice can pick up difference was apparent between these instantiy. two groups regarding precision (relating to the fraction of found 2It must utilise interactivity in its documents that were relevant), nor own design. The process of regarding time-on-task. creating, testing, revising and re- They conclude that this research testing a new idea must be efficient. nrovided evidence for the usefulness 3It must be good at creating bot.% of computer-based tutorialsfor simple and compl?x interactive teaching certain types of knowledge systems. A good authoring system (concepts and skills relating to on-line will be juF' as fast and easy to use retrieval) and that computer-lxzed whether designing a simple or practice sessions were not necessarily complex system. better than traditionally organised practice :2ssions (using pen and 4It must support any learning theory paper). They argued toothat and should be capable of using a computer-based instruction seemed to variety of approaches to promote enable law students to become more effective learning. proficient in search peiformance and conunand language usage, and helped 76 Converging Technologies

5It must be able to call and utilise other, outside subroutines. While it HyperCard: An Introduction is important for an author to be able to access other software from HypeCard is a Macintosh al ::lication within an authoring system, it is that can be used at various levels of even more important to be able to operation. At its basic level users can include such an ability in the browse through information stored in interactive system being authored. a HyperCard stack. Other users may wish to enter their own data onto some 6It must be hardware independent, of the cards contained in a stack, or not li:nited to only one hardware may wish to create a stack from configuration. scratch. Stacks can be very simple or can be complex data manipulation 7It must be improved and updated systems. HyperCard was created by constantly, to keep on top of a Bill Atkinson (cited in HyperCard developing and expanding Course Manual, 1988, p1.6) who industry. described HyperCard as:

8It should be useful at all stages of an authoring tool and an information application development. ihe organiser. You can use it to create authoring systems should provide stacks of information to share with flowcharting, project management, other people or to read stacks of script development and other information made by other people. So resources. it's both an authoring tcol and a sort of cassette player for information. 9It should be able to incorporate higher-level systems such as AI and The HyperCard Course Manual (1988, expert systems, for example, to p2.1) describes HyperCard as evaluate student responses much a personal toolkit that gives users the more effectively than most power to use, customise and create presently ovailable authoring new information using...text, systems perwit. graphics, video, music, voice and animation. In addition it offers an 10 It should be able to accept new easy-to-use English-language-based hardware as it is developed. scriptinglanguage(called There are many authoring systems Hypertext) that gives users an available, those that are powerful are opportunity to write their own generally expensive, the less powerful programs. are often not worth their iower price, HyperCard can be thought of in terms and in any case the development time of index cards. A collection of cards is is often long. In contrast to this called a stack. A stack consists of a HyperCard is standard software on number of cards that can contain all Macintosh computers, no additional kinds of infomiation. The information hardware or software is necessary, and does not have to be related, although it powerful packages can be developed generally is. Stacks that are sold relatively easy and quickly. commercially are referred to as stackware. The cards in a stack can contain a mixture of information Anne Sparks and Neil Hall 77 media, in the form of graphics, text or subject. Any piece of information in sound. HyperCard can connect you to any other piece of information, so that you HyperCardprovidesaunique can find as little or much detail as you information environment. It can be want Refer to Table 1 for HyperCard used to look for or store information in terminology. the form of words, charts, pictures, digitised photographs about arty

Card A card is HyperCard's basic unit of information. Each card can contain information that is different to any other card.

Stack A stack is simply a collection of cards. Background The physical appearance of a blank card is called its backgruund. It is usual to have one style of background in any one stack.

Field A card can have a number of fields. When HyperCard is zskeci to find a particular piece of information, it looks in each field during its search.

Button Buttons are the devices that allow you to move .....n one card to another, they are the key to intelligent use of stacks; the key to the versatility and power of HyperCard. Horne Card The ome card is the management card, and contains a menu of stacks. Help HyperCard offers an on-line help facility: a stack which explaLns !low to ttseaspects of HyperCard i _1 Table 1: Important HyperCard Terminology

HyperCard fulfils the definition given other technology, for example CD- by Crowell (1988) for an authoring ROMs. system. For example, in HyperCard it is simple to create, test and revise cards and stacks, but complex and Specifying the learning sophisticated packages can be created. se (.._2,wr the HyperCard It has its own authoring language (Hypertext) as well as other authoring aids which make the creation and Version of the Intrlductory LAWPAC revision of packages easy. HyperCard Course allows the user a great deal of flexibility including the possibility of The Introductory Lawpac course is being able to be incorporated with designed for new users of Lawpac. The knowledge and skills of Lawpac users _ -37'717

78 ConvergingTechnologies

covers a wide range. There are users HyperCard stack. The names of the who have had little contact with stacks are: computers, on-line databases and legal information, and there are users who IIntroduction are very computer literate, are familiar with the techniques of searching on- 2 General Information line databases and have a good legal knowledge. 3 Conducting the Search The objectives for the introductory 4 Operators Lawpac course are for the user to be able to: 5 Named Sections select a database 6 Status Commands

examine the contents of the Each stack contains a number of cards database with each card connected to other cards in the stack, or to cards hi other choose a particular chapter or stacks, and to the home card. More chapters of the database detail about these stacks is given in Table 2. enter a search query +111111f.111111a refine a retrieved list with a subquestion STACK 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction to HyperCard use the SRL (swap retrieved list) 1.2 How to use package command 1.3 Handy hints

display the title of the articles in the STACK 2: GENERAL INFORMATION retrieved list 2.1 Lawpac contents 22 Computerised information retrieval display the full text of the articles in 2.3 Areas of information retrieval the retrieved list 2.4 Accessing NFO-ONE display the search term in context 2.5 Logging on in the articles in the retrieved list 2.6 Logging off 2.7 Database structure combine search terr s using logical 2.8 Common words operators 2.9 The MORE? prompt 2.10 Parameters use positional operators 2.11 Passwords 2.12 Help Desk facility search at named sections

display named sections. STACK 3: CONDUCING A SEARCH 3.1 Problem stated Several of these objectives can be 3.2 Using the menus grouped together into a single module, 3.3 Selecting a database with each modale aseparate 3.4 Looking at the contents 35 Specifying particular chapter/s

86 -dr MV:1-7,T4':^ fit.

Arum Sper.band Neil Halt 79

3.6 Asking a question information, the second for detailed 3.7 Subquestions command information, and the third 3.8 Swap retrieved list for command overview. Bel& and 3.9 Tnmcation standard,buttons -,were designed for 3.10 Displaybig titles each of these, backgroundst; General 3.11 Displaying full text information aii4t only tw9 fiej4s 3.12 Displaying in context (title and informlition); .**And information midi' hiiiiejour -fields command:-MitytOnd STACK 4: OPERA1ORS search exaMple.and*dditi4nk.notesk 4.1 Logical operator + cornmand oyeryiew Ordi-hitie five 42 Logical operator, , fields (command and :function, 4.3 Logical operator - explanation, syntax, when to use and 4.4 Notes on logical operators several types of examples): 4.5 Positional operator // 4.6 Positional operator ma Individual cards that needed to be 4.7 Brackets 0 linked to other cards *ere given 4,8 Precedence buttons as required. Bach _card has a Home, next card in stack, previous card in stack, pievious card and go- STACK 5: NAMED SECTIONS back-to-the-start-of-this-stack button. 5.1 Sections A flow chart of all stacks and cards 5.2 Searching at named sections was made and additional relevant 5.3 Displaying named sections linkings indicated on it. Once the fields had been set up, it was simply a matter STACK 6: STATUS COMMANDS oftypingintheappropriate 6.1 AC information in the correct field and 6.2 C adding buttons where required. 6.3 CHAP 6.4 CLIST A final feature of this HyperCard package is that at times users are asked 6.5 CONTENTS to go on-line to complete a number of 6.6 D hands-on activities (for which answers 6.7 DS are provided). This was designed to 6.8 E give immediate practice and feedback 6.9 HELP for the material just covered in the 6.10 MAIN tutorial. 6.11 PRINT 6.12 Q 6.13 S Conclusion 6.14 SECTIONS 6.15 SQ This HyperCard package has not been widely tested at this stage because 6.16 T system refinements were only completed ill May, 1990. However it is Table 2: Stacks and Cards in the Training possible to draw the following Packa e conclusions from personal observation and discussion with those who have Three different backgrounds were used the package. used in the stacks: the first for 80 Conning Technologies

From the authoring point of view, a familiar environment without the HyperCard is simple to use in creating imposition of learning new commands training materials. The instructional before being able to access information design can be time consuming and from the package. HyperCard offers a involved, but the conversion to high level of flexibility, allowing the HyperCardisasimpletask. user to follow the tutorial as is, HyperCard is interactive and allows backtracking if necessary, or going for user flexibility in designing and directly to a specific section and learning. One card can be linked to finding information as required. several related cards to provide further information on a particular topic which the user can access easily by Bibliography selecting the appropriate button. Buttons give users the ability to refresh Anderson, J.R.The Architectureof their memories on specific aspects of Cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard the on-line system without having to University Press, 1983. go through the entire tutorial by allowing for a variety of entry points Crowell, P. Authoring Systems. London: into the training package. HyperCard Meckler, 1988. allows for complex branching in 13Pan, C. and Whitlock, Q. A Handbook of training materials: each learner could Computer Baced Training. London: complete the training materials in a Kogan Page, 1989. unique sequence. Van Beek J., Been, P. and Hurts, K From the users point of view, the Computer-Based Learning for On-Line training package is easy to use because Data Base Search, Computers it contains features common to all Educationa1,13(0,1989, pp327-336. Macintosh applications, and because HyperCardsoftwareiseasily HyperCardCourseManual, MTE understood. So learning takes place in Management Technology Education, Sydney, 1988.

R 8 HyperCard Workshop

Roger Dickinson University of Western Australia

TheHyperCardprogram from Appkrepresentsa radically neW:soft:i4i:edi*on which allows the integration of tat, data, graphics,photompire;ilitigirrsand sound in a user-friendly environment whichoffersunpreTutentedopportunities for educators.

Roger Dickinson is investigating the potential role of HyperCard in the 110044401WX, development of multimedia resource _ 414 )siosiso spasmVW materials by producing and evaluating .1.11:1408,4 VW T VW it t two interactive self-instructional tutorial k.MICALTA vat programs. The development is being MAK WA aft PAL Z. Pa.vie sccmi supported by an Apple Developer's 04 NTIC"1.101111111CAP1 143.u-rgle.vsssa* Grant from the Western Australian - Regional Computing Centre. The first program, which will be demonstrated during the workshop, is a tutorial on video and television. It features different levels of &acuity, .1;141.11:11;;;S:a interactive glossary and directory, and a wynramtlestiamilliit wear nuevrilusww multiple-choice quiz with hints and omiommit. tlairvinior esvosibrai scoring facilities. Evaluation of this Mine elgun (*ow t Ileaspowd. see WI ad swam sows tun) sap tutorial will guide Stage 2: the w me Wimp Ow *mki varadwiwomoolee development of a second tutorial to le sr Nowsper down. no further exploit HyperCard's potential WitIIIIMIS rft1111110 br Oa TVWMAtiallellet Ma* 0,4P, with enhanced sound effects, animation, is tabalitee "Ira graphics and interactivity. It will include a comprehensive assessment feature.

The workshop should be of interest to all educators interested in developing their own instructional and learning materials JVC MOO* WPM' 'WM IIINIWOINOtee. *PS 001 in a user-friendly, open-ended Anicifsits scsift0104441Lirercety 011411t moos Vie dioq owl* CO NI flit computing environment. The $100 al diem* art alinst The 11100104 WM. ei 0011CA NOM at Mlle WWI 001111*U" presentation will assume either no cr 111WIMIONWIIMMIAMOVII Witeglerta frith IWSIM MOM. (A UM minimal prior exposure tothe from held for H 11141*4411*fri instot 10/10 01.00 Mimi* HyperCard software. Mita" ta IM1111010161110mt. "VI

cifiD -1,1" '3711rr-fre

SIULLEQ- amultimedia database about Greenland Peter Olaf Looms Donmorl4yadlo (tbeDanth ercladPoStinOSIF00(19,600) "NNW This paper covers some aspects of work with SIULLEQ, akinyractipemulti- media database about Greenland, its people, culture and .wildlifet Followinga brief account of interactive media in education in Pennwrk, the authorAials with some of the technical and educational design issues that luid to be faced during the Greenland mvject. The paper concludes with a discussion of the lacely trends in educational multimedia in the next few years. We live in a wort& characterized by teristics in comMon: they are reliable, change. In a material sense, our offices easy and cheap 'to use. Most Of ,them and homes have changed more in the are analogue rather than digital media. last fifty years than in the previous five hundred, not least due to theWith ten years to go to the end olthe widespread use of communication century we are in the midst of the technologies. transition from analogue to digital technologies for storing, and distribut- Education both in terms of its aims ing text, sotmd, images and video. and means is changing, too. Digital media hold the promise Of dis- Industrialization has brought with not tortion-free storage capable of with- only new requirements in terms of a standing the ravages of Vine.- In the skilled and flexible work force, but course of this decade, the transition to also aew media. From chalk and talk digital systems in the outside world and the occasional map or wallchart, will be almost complete. teachers now make regular use of photocopies, audio cassettes, slides, For those of us working in education, films and video, reflecting the increas- the important question is when this ing importance of sound and images in transition will make itself felt in main- our communication patterns outside strewn education, and how,our work school walls. today with text, sounds and images can be transferred to the technologies None of the technologies behind these of tomorrow. This is the eontext in educational media was developed ini- which we have to discuss and evaluate tially nor exclusively for education. interae_ve multimedia and their use in The audio cassette, for example, was a education. consumer product which found its way into the classroom in the early seventies when the price was suffi- Education and interactive ciently low, as did the video cassette media in Denmark ten years later. The interactive potential of the com- Successful and widely-used resources puter and disk-based multimedia in in education have a numberof aarac-

DO Peter Olaf Loans

Denmark is still the concern of an en- thusiastic minority in Danish schools and colleges. Six W fifteen year olds:

Work with interactive videodiscs dates 11 Local education authorities (primary back to 1985: the interactive use of and lower secondary education) videodiscs outside Denmark was such 16 Voluntary out-of-school classes that they were included in the nation- (ungdomsskoler) wide distance education project for teachers called SKINFO. Produced by 3 County educational media or informa- Danish Broadcasting and the Danish tion technology centres School for Educational Studies, this in- Sixteen to nineteen-year olds service training project dealt with the role of school in a world based on in- 6 Upper secondary education and single formation technology. TV program sub)ect colleges five dealt specifically with interactive media applied to public information 7 Technical schools systems, education and training. It included coverage of the British 2 Schools of commerce Domesday Project and a mock-up of Tertiary education an interactive museum application about Greenland. 7 Universities and teacher training colleges Interest in interactive media grew steadily from then on, although Table 1: Interactive media in schools have been reluctant to invest Denmark (DRIVE May 1990) significantly in the necessary hardware. Several factors account for this Ten schools have experience with the reluctance: uncertainty about micro- BBC Domesday Project, the Eco Disc or computer compatibility, optical disk both and many more have experience formats and hardware configurations with resource discs in biology, geogra- on the one hand, and relatively high phy and astronomy from the USA (two costs on the other. The compatibility screenconfigurationsusing issue for microcomputers has become HyperCard). Local education authori- less critical, as schools have started to ties in Aalborg, Copenha3en, Dragor, replace more than sixteen different Herning, 'Gage, Odense, Ringsted, makes of micro with 1)0S-compatible Sonderborg and Vejle have supported PCs, with the occasional Commodore work with interactive video discs and Amiga or Apple Macintosh for special- we estimate that there are about 20 ized tasks. schools involved. Today (May 1990) there are more than Observafion of teachers working with seventy educational institutions using existing materials by DRIVE has or developing interactive media using shown that gaining the necessary fa- optical disc technology. Foreign miliarity with the medium and specific language instruction predominates materials can oe a lengthy process. The (Looms, 1990a), followed by local and first group to borrow a Domesday unit environmental studies and interdisci- (four teachers) spent an average of 100 plinary multimedia bases such as hours w:11 the system before they felt SIULLEQ and the NORDIC AREA '90. sufficiently confident to use the mate- 84 Converging Technologks rial in class. Until the appearance of the potential of the LaserVision video the Domesday resource booklets, disc and their use in Japan and the teachers had little or no help in USA. Over the first few years the em- adapting existing IV materials to suit phasis shifted from the technology it- their needs. The malor problem experi- self to the interactive capabilities of enced was to come up with schemata optical discs. for classroom management. In 1984, Peter Armstrong and his team We have found it necessary to act as at the BBC embarked on the now fa- helpers as early as possible in the fa- mous Domesday Project based on the miliarisation process, giving sugges- LV-ROM format to celebrate the 900th tions of our own and establishing in- anniversary of the Domesday Book. It formal links with other teachers work- was Domesday more than anything ing with the same materials elsewnere else that showed the potential of inter- in Denmark. In December, 1987 an- active multimedia and captured the other three-teacher group were able to imagination of educationalists. reduce their preparation time for a thirty-hour project to about 15-20 By June of 1986 interest was such that hours per teacher, of which three were DRIVE, then the acronym for the spent with the author going through Danmarks Radio Interactive Video the retrieval facilities and discussing Experiment, was set up to report to the adaptation of ideas in the 'Projects television management on the impli- and Topics" resource booklet. The cations of optical storage media for the group have written a detailed account Corporation. of their project. DRIVE was asked to look into ana- Work with the Eco Disc has involved logue and digital disc technology for producing new resources to allow a our internal archives (both as primary class to work as four or five groups. storage and for "surrogate access" to With BBC producer Peter Bratt's con- picture and film archives), and for sent this has involved transferring side publishing. two of the disc (the original television Among the questions examined was programme about Slapton Ley) back to VHS, preparing supplementary texts DR's future role as a public service institution: should we confine ourselves containing transcripts of selected F.L.s- sages, putting the initial letters, news- to broadcasting and using the technol- paper cuttings and job description in ogy internally, or was there also a ca.:4e paper form, and using the original to be made for expanding our publish- Science Topics computer program, so ing activities to include optical discs? that a clasr could split into groups and If there was a case for publishing, was circulate among different work points, there any evidence of synergy pub- avoiding a queue at flie interactive lishing products based largely on radio video workstation. and television productions and therefore keeping costs down? SIULLEQ the background In its report to television management in December, 1986 DRIVE highlighted Danmarks Radio began to make tele- several areas in which optical discs vision programs about optical storage could provide cost effective solutions media in 1979. Initially they dealt with to internal archival problems. Some ev- Peter OW laws idence for synergy in mu:itimedia pub- structuring dat-A lishing was found (indeed, the case in 1990 is now convincing). We recom- distributing data mended a full-scale project to acquire accessing data first-hand experience in development updating data and production.it was in this Context that the idea of producing a multime- We wanted to offer at least 30,000 sfills dia database about Greenland was and 301minutes,of ,Videq, as well as a taken up. minimum ef tirCI:hottii. of, audio. At the time of writirig (Map 19 it seems Fourteen months later the project was likely that the total number of stills approved, and DRIVE became the will be somewhat greater (40,000.0 as interactive media unit of Danmarks we have been able*to thoorporate se- Radio. As DRIVE indeed DR as an lections from key archives such as the organization did not have the Landsmuseum in Nuuk, Greenland, necessary expertise in computer the Jette Bang Collection from the science, we joined forces with UNIC, Arctic Institute in Copenhagen, the the Danish Computer Centre for photographer Rolf Mfiller, the collec- Research and Education to tackle the tions of the Royal Library and possibly Greenland project and jointly have artefacts from the collections the soughtadditionalfundingfor National Museum. We also want to development work from public and provide cross references to other im- private foundations. DRIVE has until portant archives about Greenland, the beginning of 1991 to demonstrate such as the Danish Radio sound its viability. From then on it will be archives (more than 940 recordings expected to cover its own costs. and programs dating back to the thir- ties, details of which are available in an SIULLEQ (Greenlandic for "the first") on-line database) and 1)150, DR's on- is an interactive multimedia database, line data base of commercially-pro- the aim of which is to describe duced cassettes, records and compact Greenland, the country, its people, cul- discs. ture and wildlife. The project is being implemented in association with the For large data bases such as SIULLEQ AutonomousGovernmentof the cost of acquiring the rights to use Greenland. Work on the project started and distribute information such as in March 1988, and the full-scale stills, video and text can be the major working prototype, SIMILL will be outlay, and thought has to be given to complete in June 1990. The final how large the database should be Greenlandic-Danish version will be without making the cost of the final available from the end of 1990. product prohibitive. A good case can be made for lower tariffs, as the prob- ability of a given picture or text being S1ULLEQ design issues used is far lower than in a printed work. There are five main stagesand costs associated with a given any produc- A simple solution to copyright pay- tion: ments for "La France et les Francaises le 14 Juillet 1989", a Compact Disc- acquiring data (both intellectual Video videodisc containing 15,000 property and data capture) photographs by 300 French photogra- ;;,N

8 6 Converging Technologies

phers taken last year to celebrate the from the Community Disc (using maps wo hundredth anniversar) of the of different scales) as well as a visual French Revoludon was the inclusion of metaphor to allow users to search ,..nd the names and addresses of each of the browse through text, data, stills, contributors and a listing of the frame sound, and video. S:IILLEQ was also numbers of each of their works. Those tooffersurrogatewalks,a wishing to download material from Greenlandic-Danish dictionary and a the disc or to-use photographic copies toolkit to allow users to customize the are expected to contact the photogra- system for specific uses. We feel that pher directly. offering an open structure is funda- In the case of SIULLEQ educational mental to educational multimedia. users downloading texts from the sys- Work began in March, 1988 on a tenta- tem in paper form for individual use O.ve specification for SIULLEQ, based will not be charged. However, each on a virtual machine with various de- sheet of printout will contain copyright veloper and end-user tools which was information on the author, as will to be hardware independent. By downloaded low quality digital im- defining the contents as objects and at- ages from the CD-ROM. Should the tributes, we could harness a powerful material be photocopied it would be relational database and give the projt-ct covered by the existing photocopying team considerable leeway until fairly agreement. As we have gone to great late in the process. The team initially lengths not only to use primary consisted of staff from DRIVE and sources but also to include means of UNI.C, Aske Dam from IMA Norway. contacting copyright holders, we hope with persons seconded from the IT to encourage the responsible use ofcentre in Copenhagen and from the original material (Looms, 1990b). National Museum of Denmark, as well as editorial specialists.

SIULLEQ defining the user Given the different backgrounds and interface working procedures of the team, a decision was taken to abandon a specifi- SIULLEQ was conceived as an interac- cation in June 1988 in favour of devel- tive resource to cater for users in edu- opingasmallprototypefor cation (9+), libraries and museums in Sarfartoq/Paradisdalen (Paradise Denmark and Greenland. Since the Valley) allowing the ieam to come up original idea emerged from our televi- with a common frame of reference, at sion mock-up in 1985 we have had the same time allowing for the testing plenty of time to discuss and refine our and modification of authoring and ideas. The appearance of Domesdayend-user tools. Looking back on our and interactive materials such as Eco work, we wovld have benefitted from Disc served as a common point of ref- a full-blown prototype at that point. erence, allowing educationalists, content specialists, developers and pub- In the SIMILI prototype to be evalu- lishers alike to exemplify and discuss ated from August until November specific aspects of the user interface. 1990, users will have the opportunity to work in depth with three geograph- Our original concept had much in ical areas. A number of presentations common with Domesday: we wanted for users with limited background to combine the navigation conventions knowledge are on offer, but at any

9 4 Peter Olaf woos 87 point users can choose to leave thethen replace analogue discs. The au- "beaten track" and explore the mate- cial question was how fast this would rial on their own terms. Our formative take place. A second issue was that of evaluation will focus on the use to cost. which teachers, librarians and museum staff put the various authoring Discussions with educational authori- tools within the system, enabling them ties, librarie3 and museums indicated to prociuce new materials comprising that institutional users, were willing to digital images, graphics and texts from invest in additional hardware which the CD-ROM and barcodes for run- cost of the order of £1,000. The more ning the video disc. our configuration exceeded this figure, the more difficult it would be to adopt it. Regardless of what we chose, com- SIULLEQ why Apple puter-based multimedia were going to Macintosh, LaserVision, and cost more than institutions felt they CD-ROM(XA)? could pay. The only delivery system ..1101Mwhich is cheap enough today is a In December, 1988, we were forced to LaserVision player with barcode decide on our user configuration. In reader which cost exactly ELMO in the event we decided on two! Denmark. Table 2 lists the configurations and disc considered at various a full-scale two-screen system points. based on an Apple Macintosh computer with a LaserVision player and CD-ROM (or if possible CD- Computer Nr, of Format No. of ROM/XA) drive. JeS screens

a simple one-screen system based Acorn 1 LV-ROM 1 on the same LaserVision videodisc , 'faster controlled by bar codes printed in Macintosh/I2 LV + CD-1 or 2 one or more booklets accompanying BM/ ROM the disc. Amiga This choice was the result of trade-offs IBM/ 2 LV + CD-1 or 2 between: Macintosh? ROM/ XA the media to be offered (text, statistical data, audio, stills, film, video) IBM/ 1 DVI 1 Macintosh the total size of the database none 1 CD-I 1 the storage capacity available for different optical discs none 1 combi- 1 player the cost of the end user configura- with tion barcode reader the performance of the configuration migratory paths for future versions Table 2: Configurations considered of SIULLEQ. for SIULLEQ We were convinced that digital formats would at first complement and

F. 95 Conaaging Temologies

In 1986 it was hoped that the BBC LV- From 1987 onwards we began to ex- ROM format would catch on, so that plore the possibilities of existing for- we and others could adopt this as the matssuchas CD-ROM, and common educational format in "vapourware", forthcoming formats Europe. Although it is still by far the such as DVI, CD-I and CD-ROM-XA. most common educational configuration in Europe, LV-ROM was not a The attraction of CD-I was the promise commercial success, primarily because of a new generation of compact disc the drive never sold in large quantities players for the consumer market, al- and remained more expensive and lowing for images and text as well as less flexible than two separate sound in four qualities. Institutional drives. The Acorn BBC Master was users could piggyback on this devel- also felt to be an exotic and limiting opment and the delivery system choice in continental Europe. would be easily within their means. Althoughtheappealofthe Even if we had chosen this low cost Commodore Amiga 2000 with its dedi- delivery system, eventually falling in cated video and audio system as the price to about £200 by the mid 1990's, keystone of a nultimedia system was we would have needed to produce a considerable,, he scales tipped in series of between six and ten discs. The favour of Apple Macintosh. same dilemma faces the Spanish "500 Years After" project to be completed in Although more expensive,the 1992.Theirfeasibilitystudy Macintosh offered an intuitive graph- (December, 1988) envisaged either 1 ics interface and an environment with Laser Vision disc with two CD-ROMs a powerful UNIX-like development or a series of six CD-I discs. system, MPW and Mac App. As a pro- totypingenvironmentusing We discussed CD-I with Philips and HyperCard or Super Card, Macintosh with colleagues around the world from is still second to none. The consistency May to October 19:.2 before deciding of the user interface from one applica- against CD-I for the first version. The tion to the next, and the ease with lack of developer tools, and our reser- which peripherals such as CD-ROMs vations about the lack of full-screen can be used regardless of the video at least as good as VHS were Macintosh model were two additional two of the key arguments against this key features. choice. We took a deep breath before drop- DVI was even more difficult for us to ping IBM, given its market position, evaluate. The argument against it last but ultimately the lack of architecture year was that the standards for image standards when handling a range of compression were unlikely to be de- media such as sound and graphics and fined in the lifetime of our project. the high cost of graphics cards such as Videclogic's IVA 4000 were decisive. If CD-ROM eXtemded Architectur came SIULLEQ is successful in terms of its to our notice in late August 1988. It performance, and if funding can be seemed to offer many of the features of found it should be possible to produce CD-I and a consistent migratory path a DOS version. from text to multimedia over the next few years. Again, the main problem was not that of standards but the lack of development tools ready for use by Peter Olaf Looms 89 mid 1989. Apple was not forthcoming When publishers and producers of about its commitment to the ADPCM CD-ROM products embark on a sound system which for us was one of new project,itis worth while the most attractive features. keeping in mind funding available for tazching and 4earning resources. The merits of a simple bar code version At Rising School with 600 pupils the based on the Laser Vision disc became annual budget for educational clear as we followed the workof materials including paper, chalk, schools such as Rising School in cassettes, hardware and computer Odense. A low-cost system provided software is DEK 600,000 (£53,100), an acceptable entry point complement- or DEK 1,000 (E89) per pupil. ing the full CD-ROM configuration. Users would be able to produce their Using a computer to generate texts, to own materials using the Macintosh at prepare worksheets with barcodes or the local media centre and then use to run standard applications may not them for individual, group or class be particularly sophisticated, but it al- work. lows users to build up txperience and demand a greater degree of interactiv- At the time of writing, we still ieel that ity and better performance. As pub- the combination of Laser Vision and lisherssuchasOpticalData CD-ROM/XA is technically the most Corporation in New Jersey have flexible solution, although the cost of a shown, starting with video discs and Laser Vision player and CD-ROM then HyperCard stacks, leading to drive is at least £1,400. stackware on CD-ROM makes good educational and financial sense. Strategies for developing a At the present time there is still a need market for interactive media for further "showcase" productions, revolution or evolution? demonstrating convincingly that interactive multimedia including CD- Inhispresentationentitled ROMs can offer us something we need, "Multimedia the New Frontier" in in a way which cannot be done as effi- Paris last year, David Jones of Apple's ciently and cheaply by any other European Multimedia Centre raised a means. By offering learning resources number of important points about the which allow us to simulate real world history of multimedia, the market to- phenomena that are difficult, danger- day and the need to offer benefits ous or expensive to observe we are rather than features. revolutionizing learning opportunities but at the same time democratising the But by emphasizing benefits rather learning process. than costs, we risk excluding mainstream institutions such as schools and Domesday started this, and Eco Disc in libraries by not offering them an evolu- its many guises (on LV-ROM, CD- tionary path, beginning with simple, ROM and now atwo-screen low-cost solutions and allowing them Laser Vision version with a HyperCard to progress as and when they have the stac, , has consolidated -the ground. means to do so. Many educational multimedia projects are in the works and it will be interest- As Mogens Hoirup (1989) pointed out ing to follow their fate (Looms, 1990c). in a recent paper

9 7 90 Converging Technologies

The role of the teacher changes from training courses and presentations. that of information provider to learn- The user is not the object ofour ing consultant, setting the scene, marketing efforts but a partner who paving the way, and helping students has to be helped to make demands. to consolidate their learning. All this Together we can produce worthwhile makes considerable demands of medi- products. ators such as teachers, and they need to be given conditions conducive to This is why we with SIIJLLEQ are makiag the^,,e changes. supporting both the evolutionary and the revolutionary route, hence our two Major commitments to revolutionary configurations. As and when low-cost products do not come cheap. In a cul- digital formats emerge, we plan to turally diverse continent like Europe transfer our applications to them. we need to come up with solutions which offer the cost advantages of centrally produced multilingual CD- References ROMs and yet taking into considera- %Me tion the very real differences from one Heirup, Mogens (1989) CD-ROM in country to the next by incorporating Schools What is required? Paper nationally or locally produced contri- presentedat CD-ROM Europe butions. Learning foreign languages Conference, Hammersmith, England 24 seems the obvious place to start. - 26 November Making use of interactivity is not Looms, P 0 (1990a). The Use of Interactive something people choose to do of their Media in Foreign Language Learning. own volition. Existing disk and cas- Working paper available from DRIVE sette formats could be used interac- dated 9 January 1990. tively, allowing users to choose be- Looms, P 0 (1990b). A system of copyright tween a number of audio or video op- protection Expetience with institutions, but this is by no means common. tional users in Denmark. Paper pre- To date it seems that only the design- sented at the EVAIN meeting of art ers of video games have what it takes museums in Amsterdam, 5-7 March. to sell the concept of intcractivity to broad audiences. Looms, P 0 (1990c). After Domesday multimedia databases in education. Denmark Radio made an early PaperpresentedatEURIT '90 commitment to teacher training both in Conference in Herning, Denmark 24 educational broadcasts and inservice April.

9 8 ,

Design, implementation, and transferthe international use of instructional video: The cooporative development process of the Agency for Instructional Technology

John E. Nelson Agency for Instructional Technology

The Agency for Instructional Technology (Am designs curricula and produces learning materials for schools in the United States and Canada. Established as an instructionol television research project in 1962, AIT is charged with strengthening education through technology. AIT produces and distributes video, computer, and printer based instructional materials in cooperation with state, provincial, and international agencies. An' is a non- profit organization located in Bloomington, Indiana, USA. In the United States, the 50 state gov- out English-speaking North America ernments, not the Federal government, and around the world. control education. Canada's ten provinces have a similar system. Thus, A consortium unites as many as 60 ed- 60 different bureaucracies are respon- -ication agencies in the design and sible for education in the two nations. evaluation of pedagogic materials; A1T These state and provircial depart- manages the project and supervises ments of education share common cul- production of materials. Subsequently, tures and curricula and cooperate fre- the schools within these member quently in a wide range of activities. agencies have unlimited rights to use the materials in their classrooms. AIT was created by them to manage their cooperative development of new These materials have been successful curricula and production of learning because the cooperating agencies have materials using electronic technologies. committed their time and energy, as AIT is a non-profit organization gov- well as their intellectual and financial erned by leading educators from state resources, to make sure the materials and provincial education organiza- are designed and produced to meet tions. their own needs. The states and provinces are responsible for ensuring AIT funds design and production of that teachers have access to the pro- learning materials by forming a con- gramming, are trained to use it, and sortium of interested state and have the necessary related resources to provincial education agencies in the facilitate its effective use. United States and Canada. Thus far, 29 different consortia have created learning materials which are used through- "rI'7"7-'

92 Converging Technologks

development can be very cost effective. More importantly, eich member of the consortium helps design and evaluate the materials.

instructional Design and Formative Evaluation AIT "strengthens education through technology" by encouraging the use of 4,6 technology in the classroom, especially video. It also produces computer and videodisc materials and has, in the past, produced filmstrips and audiotapes. However, AIT does not empha- size the word "technology" in its Members of MATH WORKS name; rather, the emphasis is on Consortium "instractional." AIT relies heavily on The states and provinces make a the art of teaching and science of re- significant financial contribution to the search, recognizing that how is as im- development of these materials. The 29 portant as what students learn. For ex- major sets of materials cost $33,565,656 ample, AIT instructional videos are to produce; the majority of the funds based on several general considera- came from state and provincial fees tions about learning based on student populations, other funds came from grants and AIT. The Learning will increase if the learner following chart illustrates the invest- understands explicitly what is ex- ment made by the entire system and pected. two states: Students learn most effectively when they start with familiar situations before moving to new situations and problems. Staid Number ParticipantTotal Cost of Province of Series S'.are Develop- The greatest amount of learning oc- ment curs when skills are developed and

A1160 29 $25,360,481$33,565,656 practiced in situations similar to those in which they will be applied. Alabama 11 $355,555$19,253,882 Effective instruction emphasises ac,- Alaska 23 $311,966$28,894,156 tive rather than passive 12arning. Effective instruction encourages the development of skills that are trans- Alabama paid more for 11 series than ferable from one context to another. Alaska paid for 23 series because An illustration of students learning Alabama has a substantially larger most effectively when they start with a population. Note that Alaska received familiar situation is contained in AIT's 23 sets of materials for an investment "Measurement: Finding Areas of of $311,966; those materials are valued Rectangles" from the MATH WORKS at $28,894,156. Obviously, cooperative series. The program creates a scene John E Nelson 93 easily understood by American pupils: such as critical thinking, to manage two "target-age" children earn money their own learning processes. They de- by mowing grassy lawns for their velop positive attitudes towards math- neighbors (a common practice in the ematics by watching peers successfully US). Because they bare their fee on the cope with a difficult pmblem. size of the lawn, they must know how to calculate the area of a rectangle. The Teachors cannot create tools like program follows them as they invent MATH WORKS by themselves; they the formula "A = L x W" in the context lack the time, materials, expertise, and of an everyday, not classroom, funding. Successful learning materials situation. The program is designed to must have high technical, creative, and emotionally involve viewers as they instructional quality. They should be witness their peers using the discovery integrated with other media so that process to learn and practice in a famil- they complement other classroom ac- iar situation. tivities. They should have a carefully considered sequence of instruction, What do pupils learn from watching with each lesson building on preceding the program? The formula to deter- lessons. Finally, the content of the mine the area of a rectangle? The skill series of lessons should be new enough to apply that information? The strategy to facilitate improvement in classroom to manage their own learning process? practice, but not s,-) new as to require The desire to learn more about math- disruption of existing curricula ematics? As these questions suggest, (Middleton, 1979). learning involves more than just mem- orizing information. There are five These learning materials must be cre- broad categories of learning: ated by experts with the appropriate training and resources. For example, information verbally reporting AIT's instructional designers cite the facts or generalizations following principles of learning: intellectual skills applying Active participation encourag- learned information ing students to think along with the presentation. cognitive strategies self- managing learning Sequencing from the simple to the complex, the familiar to the un- attitudes choosing personal ac- familiar. tion Chunking presenting the right motor skills executing bodily amount of information for the devel- movement (Gagne, 1974) opment level of the students. The program "Measurement: Finding Congruency eliminating what- Areas of Rectangles" does not simply everisnottightlyrelevant state the information "A = L x W" and (Thiagarajan, 1988). tell the viewers to memorise it. By observation and subsequent classroom Adherence to these principles allows practice, students learn to use intellec- the creation of highly sophisticated tual skills, such as problem solving, to materials. The MATH WORKS pro- apply known rules to new situations. gram features two children coping They learn to use cognitive strategies, with a mathematical modeling prob-

#31 94

lein. One of them has a rigid, literal Are these materials compatible with perspective and cannot comprehend my classroom management style? abstractions (this requires a cognitive strategy); the other child gradually of- Will these materials help me engage fers enlightenment with the recurring the iliterests and energies of my use of one simple word: "pretend." students? The program also presents the same Finally, Taylor quotes a teacher on the information about the mathematical importance of immediate access: formula in three different situations: drama, teacher lecture and animation. Availability means nothing; acces- Thus, students are exposed to repeti- sibility is everything! Films are tive messages from different points of available in the county libraryso view, each presented in highly moti- what? You have to order weeks in vating situations. advance, and there's KO guarantee that you'll get them when you need The instructional design of AITpro- them. For teachers to use media gramming is verified and refined properly and effectively, it must be through formative evaluation by accessible to them in the building teachers and other subject-matter ex- at arm's length. perts; subsequent production of provi- sional learning materials is based on Obviously, creating quality videos is that design. The preliminary drafts of not enough, by itself, to ensure learn- scripts, videos, and teacher's guides ing. The distribution system must be as are thoroughly tested in classrooms thorough as the development system. and revised as the research suggests. With pre-produced instructional Formative evaluation focuses on four videos, a teacher can create a lesson ajteria: student attention to the lesson, that draws on resources far removed student comprehension of content, the from the classroom. For example, se- nature of classroom interaction stimu- quences from GLOBAL GEOGRAPHY lated by the lessen, and the appeal of show deforestation in Nepal and re- the lesson to studerits and teachers suiting soil erosion and population (Middleton, 1979). shifts.Or,PRINCIPLES OF TECHNOLOGY sequences about me- chanical resistance teach "drag force" Teacher Planning._ by showing airplanes in flight, with Once developed and released, materi- graphic overlays illustrating the con- als must be accepted by teachers. cepts. They teach "friction" by show- Education researcher Bill Taylor (1981) ing the brakes on the flight deck of an lists five essenfial questions that teach- aircraft carrier stop a jet airplane in ers ask when selecing instructional two seconds. Through video; teachers materials: can bring experts and their demonstrations into classrooms while main- Are these materials within my cur- taining control of interaction with the ricular area? students and the way the program is shaped into learning experiences. By Will these materials be available doing so, teachers are finding that when I want to use them? more students are engaged in learning Is the preparation time reasonable? more of the time, that those who miss Ichn E Nelson 95 the impact of one method may be af- teacher to interrupt the program to an- fected by another. swer questions and lead discussions. Another advantage of videocassettes is Final responsibility for and control of economy. It is far less expensive to technology in the dassroom rests with supply thousands of classrooms with the teacher. Instructional video pro- VCRs, monitors, and entire libraries of grams are designed to facilitate teacher programs that it is to construct even adoption: a typical teacher's guide con- one television station. tains a summary of each program; a statement of objectives or goals; sug- Accessibility to the programs is essen- gestions for preparatory activities; tial. A good instructional video can be follow up activities; a glossary of vo- useful for many years; each year a new cabulary; lists of useful equipment; group of students will be ready to readings; and a textbook or curriculum view it. Therefore, the delivery system correlation matrix. For example, The should encourage long term accessibil- US versions of MATH WORKS and ity and use. GLOBAL GEOGRAPHY contain charts in the teachers- guides that correlate the videos with units in commonly Adapting AIT Materials used math and social studies text- books. AIT is actively seeking mutually beneficial curricula sharing projects around the world. For example, AIT worked Delivery of instructional Video with geographers and television crews Programs in 14 countries to produce GLOBAL GEOGRAPHY. AIT also assists educa- There are a variety of delivery systems tors in other countries in importing available: broadcast television, mi- learning materials that were originally crowave, satellite, cable, and videocas- developed for United States and sette. Each has its own attributes anJ Canadian schools. all can be used successfully to deliver programs to the student. Broadcast To use AIT prograirs outside English- television, the original delivery system, speaking North America, many is still a powerful force because of its changes may have to be made: transla- ability to beam programs to a large tions, technical conversion of video- geographic area simultaneously. A tapes, and cultural adaptations. The growing number of schools are record- adaptation process relies on the origi- ing programs off-air and keeping the nal AIT instructional design to pro- tape in their libraries, giving flexibility duce quality, locally attuned, educa- to classroom schedules. Copyright tional materials. AIT offers, and en- clearances are prearranged in those courages agencies to use, its formative cases. evaluation process during adaptation, ensuring that the new programs are Increasing, the videocassette is becom- suited to the new setting. ing the medium of choice because it permits teachers to control scheduling In some cases, English-speaking the programs. A videocassette player schools outside the United States and in the dassroom permits the most ac- Canada use the programs. In other cessibility, flexibility, and freedom for cases, the programs are translated, a the teacher and class and allows the local host is added, or new printed ma-

141:i3 Converging Tethnologies terial is created to assist student understanding. Occasionally, new video References footage is produced to ensure that the programs present local cultural values. Gagne, R. and L.J. Briggs. Principles of In all cases careful attention is paid to Instructional Design. New York: Holt, the creation of programs that meet lo- Rinehart and Winston, 1974.. cal curriculum needs. Middleton, J. Cooperative School Television There are several examples of this and Educational Change: The Consortium transfer of instructional technology. Development Process of the Agency for PRINCIPLES OF TECHNOLOGY is Instructional Television. Bloomington, being adapted for use in nations as dif- Ind.:AgencyforInstructional ferent as Australia, Bophuthatswana, Television, 1979. Brazil ard Mexico. In all four cases, AIT's design and evaluation methods Taylor, W., et all, Secondary School Video: A Facilitator's Guide . Bloomington, Ind.: are being used to enable producers to Agency for Instructional Television, create materials that meet the special 1981. needs of each country. Just as this transfer of technology can be a short- Thiagarajan, Sivasailam. Quoted in cut for developing nations, more in- "Instructional Design Process Starts dustrialized nations are also adapting with Needs." AIT Newsletter, Winter North American materials to save time 1988. in the development cycle. For example, by adapting MATH WORKS and IT FIGURES rather than producing new Address for correspondence programs, one developed nation was able to introduce its new mathematics To receive free copies of the AIT curriculum ahead of schedule and un- newsletter or obtain additional der budget. information, write to: Those are two of AIT's three favorite John E. Nelson phrases: "ahead of schedule" and Manager of Irdernational Activities "under budget." Cf clurse, the first is Agency for Instructional Technology "teaching." Box A,1111 West 17th Street Telephone:(1-812) 339-2203 B:oomington, Indiana 47402 USA Telefzx: (1-812) 333-4218

104 I: Rural & remote learning centres: The point of convergence for the provision of fudher education by alternative delivery systems

John Kirk Adelaide College of TAFE

This paper discusses the development of community learning centres in rural & remote areas of South Australia and outlines how they h we become the focal point for a range of learning deliivry systems aiming to provide access, equity and participation for off-campus students in Technical and Further Education (TAFE) courses.

The philosophy behind their development is summarised in the following quote from Mr Peter Kirby, the Chief Executive Officer for the South Australian Department of Employment and TAFE.

... Forthe future we have to find creative solutions for the critical task of managing the resourees of TAFE to produce greater access to a wide variety of programs all of which meet the needs of a diverse range of clients. ... It will mean breaking away from the constraints of buildings and fixtures. ... We will have to reach out with unconventional levning systems." (Open Learning Newsletter No.2, November 1989) Rationale for learning centre TAFE campus, use external studies development print courses (where these were available), or simply miss out. The travel- The development of the learning cen- ling often meant long hours on the tre concept grew from a concern that road or a move to the city, and dis- people in South Australia's rural and rupted families and businesses. In outback regions lacked access to a many cases, the need to study is a legal wide range of TAFE courses. This con- business requirement. cern was combined vAth the need to provide increased opportunities for in- For many students, studying alone us- teraction between lecturers and off- ing just print materials presents a campus students, and to allow these daunting prospect, with the result that students to interact with each other. course drop-out rates are high. By providing a place with some simple With the majority of mainstream but effective technology, the learning courses offered being centrally located centres have met student needs for either in Adelaide or large country immediate feedback, interaction, and a towns, the chc,ce for country people group learning experience. was either to travel to the particular 98 Converging Technologies

Early trials that were conducted with as part of on-going trials (see the sec- learning centres, indicated a range of tion on technology), and interactive other benefits for students studying computer links are currently being this way. These included increased planned for others. motivation, decreased drop-outs, and students being more responsible for The centres are managed by part-time their own learning. The use of audio- managers recruited from the local confereming also produced improved community, or by full-time TAFE lec- concentration and verbal skills. turing staff as part of their duties. Through their promotion of the services offered by the learning centres, Descripfion of the learning the managers have become a focus for centres TAFE in their own communities. AD The learning centres vary according to local needs; but basically, they offer a Extent of learning centre net- space where rural people can travel a works in South Australia short distance to participate in a growing range of TAFE courses. For The number of learning centre net- some students, this means being linked works based on country colleges of by telephone to an existing class in TAFE has expanded rapidly through- Adelaide or one of the country col- out South Australia beginning with the leges, where they may be either alone, School of Aboriginal Education centres or with a small local group. Others in June 1985, followed by the South study by watching videotapes of lec- East College centres in 1987. The net- tures, or by working through printed works now cover the majority of the external studies materials with a locai populated areas of the state. tutor. Aboriginal Education conducts courses Typically, the learning centres are lo- in a variety of learning centres cated either within an existing TAFE throughout the state, the South East campus, a local area school, or in a College of TAFE has a network of community building. Access is needed seven centres, Eyre Peninsula College during the day as well as the evening. in the far west has four, the Riverland The centres aim to provide a warm, College is currently establishing five, inviting atmosphere, catering for the Murraylands uses area schools, and needs of adult learners. Each centre is Port Augusta in the far north has a equipped with a DUCT' audio-con- network of five learning centres. ferencing terminal, a facsimile machine, video replay facilities, and a range of distance education course materials. Some of the centres have already been equipped with specialist technologies

IDiverseUseofCommunications Technology terminal developed by the SA Department of Education John Kirk

SA DETAFE Learning Centres

Weomera and Leigh Creek in order Variations to provide more opportunities for the outback community. Each of the colleges has produced its own variation of the learning centre The ever-growing number of model. courses delivered through the network make extensive use of au- Port Augusta College covers some dio-conferencing techniques. This 700,000 square kilometresof includes the delivery of word pro- sparsely popukted country in the cessing courses by multi-point au- north of the state. This area has an dio-conference for up to eight adult overall population of some 31,000 students studying on remote cattle people living in a number of large stations. In addition to receiving centres plus numerous smaller their study materials, these students towns, aboriginal communities and may receive a hands-free telephone large pastoral properties. The dis- and/or a lap-top computer on loan tances are enormous and the roads from the college resource centre for are often mere bush tracks. Learning the duration of their study. centres have been established in the TAFE campuses at Port Augusta, The majority of the courses offered Coober Pedy, Roxby Downs, in this manner are mainstream cer- 100 Converging Technologies

tificatecourses. They include The South East College has its Introductory Accounting, Fmancial learning centres located either Accounting,Communication within an existing TAPE campus Concepts, Human Development, (Mt Gambier, Naracoorte, Millicent), and a number of courses for office within a local area school (Keith, trainees. The Introductionto Penola, Kingston), or in a commu- Tertiary Study is a popular offering nity building (Bordertown).2 providing a valuable link to adults wishing to undertake additional Part-time learning centre managers study, or return to study. recruited from the local community, tend to the needs of local stueents. The centres are managed by lectur- They also act as a valuable focus for ing staff as part of their normal du- TAFE within the community, pro- ties. viding a service well beyond their ten paid hours of employment. 0 The Light College model has concentrated on developing open- learn- Students at both Light College, and ing packages for students allowing the South East College make use of them to study at their own pace, videotaped lectures supported by and in their own time. These mate- tutorials. Study groups with local rials are available from the learning tutors use external materials de- centres which are located within the sign e! either by country college lec- campus of each of the college's three turers, or by external studies lectur-

branches: Gawler, Clare, and ers from Adelaide College. . Barossa Valley (Nuriootpa). A few of the college courses are taught by Use is also made of audio-confer- audio-conferenring within the local encing for courses provided both network, while others are offered by from within the country college, and videotape supported with on-cam- from city colleges (eg Marketing pus tutorials with an itinerant lec- from Adelaide, and Real Estate from turer. Kens4ngton). The desire to supplement the range The Adelaide College's School of of courses available from the col- Aboriginal Education maintains a lege, resulted in the use of video- network of learning centres in conferencing to tap the resources of Aboriginal communities throughout the much larger, metropolitan South Australia. It also conducts a Adelaide College. This trial has number of classes by telephone to proven most successful in that its aboriginal people in the state's level of both visual and aural inter- gaols. action closely approximates the face-to-face situation. A diverse T7te network began as a trial in 1985, and cpuickly spread to many remote range of courses involving tutorials, role-playing, lectures, and practical communities in the following years. demonstrations totalling nearly It covers some 13 centres catering thirty hours each week, has been for over 200 students. Not only was delivered to the country students in this way during the first half of 1990. 2 The Bordertown learning centre is located in Hawke House , the former home of the Prime Minister.

8 John Kirk 101

the network the first of its kind in home-bound or who live in remote ar- Australia, but it was also the first to eas. introduce facsimile machines as a means of providing rapid feedback The proVsion of a telephone line, an during a session, and for transmit- audio-conferencing terminal and a fax ting student's assignments. The machine, are the first requirements of majority of the tele-tutorials are all learning centres, and provide the conducted by lecturersat the back-bone of the network. VHS video School's Wakefield Street campus in replay facilities are also provided for Aaelaide. Here, a suite of rooms has students needing to view video-tape been set up with three audio-confer- materials, either inchvidually or as a ence terminals to allow classes to be group, and a range of the more popu- delivered to different locations si- lar external studies print materials are multaneously. also stocked by the learning centres. Other print resources and practical kits The methodologies that have been needed for courses are available on developed, changed the thinking of demand. many educators involved in aboriginal education, and have been In 1989, four of the most northern adopted by many other institutions. learning centres (Amata, Indulkana, The courses delivered by tele-tuto- Coober Pedy and Oodnadatta) were rials and interactive fax3 include equipped with TVRO4 satellite earth literacy, numeracy, current affairs, stations to enable them to receive a full community management, and abo- PAL television signal from Adelaide riginal studies. College via Imparja TV in Alice Springs. This was part of a ten-week talkback television trial (one-way Technologies video with two-way audio by telephone conference link) undertaken to The most common delivery method determine if the addition of a video used in the learning centres, is a com- image to an audio-conference would bination of audio-conferencing or tele- enhance learning. tutorials (some with interactive fax) together with printed study guides or A further development has been the learning packages. The public tele- installation of video-conferencing phone network has been largely taken technology (two-way interactive video for granted as an educational tool. It and audio)into three sitesto has the capacity to provide a cheap, ef- determine the effectiveness of all fective means of communicating with participants being able to see each off-campus students. When combined other as well as converse with each with well-produced study materials, other. The Light College centres at good teaching methodology, and a Clare and Nuriootpa have been facsimile machine, telephone-based equipped with a compressed digital teaching is able to meet many of the video link with the Electronic educational needs in the community; Classroom at Adelaide College for a especially for those people who are video-conferencing trial during 1990.

3 The use of fax machines connected to 4 TV Receive Only earth stations for DUCT terminals for the exchange of receivingtheRemote Commercial documents between sites Television Service from Impala TV

, 102 Conon aing Technologies

group discussions on-site, with either Del1vey styles & methodologies local tutors or an itinerant lecturer. Most lecturers using audio-conferenc- Audio-conferencing, through the ing with students located in the learn- learning centres, has also been used to ing ce.ntres, aim to achieve a high level share lecturing expertise between of interaction and participation. This is campuses, and for discussions with desirable from an educational point of guests and VIPs. These people are able view, as well as re-assurance that the to interact with the students from the students are still "on-line", and there comfort of their own home or office, have been no system failures. without having the expense or hassle The most popular methodology is the of travelling to remote regions. use of tutorials following the setting of For most of the country colleges, a work from a study guide or textbook. stipulated minimum class-size re- Ideally, the students are roughly at the quirement prevents a number of same point in their study, and have courses from commencing in outlying common experiences to discuss with branches. At least 15 students must en- the lecturer and fellow students. rol to justify a lecturer travelling to the Group sizes are kept to a manageable branch to conduct the class. For many level of no more than 12-15 students, of the smaller towns and communities, and sessions typicaiiy run for between these figures are unattainable. one and two hours. The learning centre networks provided It is off.n believed that practical sub- an ideal solution for this problem. jects or those including visual concepts Students within the college's region cannot be learnt via the telephone. could enrol in the desired subject, and However, Word Processing A & B then travel to the nearest learning cen- have been successfully taught at Port tre to be linked together into a class Augus.4, and accounting subjects have group by a telephone conference call. been taught in a variety of places. The This aggregation had a significant ad- theory of diesel mechanics was suc- vantage for the country colleges: the cessfully taught to Eyre Peninsula students that would have previously farmers using a combination of audio- enrolledin externalstudiesat conferencing, study guides, and fac- Adelaide College, were now part of simile transfers. their local programs. They were also Role-playing also proved to be a suc- included in their statistics. In this way, cessful way of teaching communica- the concept of hub or networked tion concepts by audio-conference classes is a key factor in the viability of the learning centres. from Adelaide College to students in various parts of the state. The concept also allows courses to be People wishing to present lectures conducted from any of the sites in the with minimal participation by students network. Classes do not always have are encouraged to use either audio or to originate in the majcr centre or hub videotapes of a regular class in action. campus and local expertise can be These have been very successful with available to all the students with a some business studies subjects when minimum of travelling and expense. combined with print materials and

).! Networked classes

student at home learning centre teeming centre learning centre

The talk-back television and video- twenty), to link with students in the conferencing trials predominantly leanting centres or at home. used existing methodologies with a few modifications. Videotape material A conference bridge can link up to and graphics were used to enhance the five off-campus parties to any of the tele-tutorial techniques by the lecturers rooms in the communications centre involved in the first trial. Lecturers infor a total of six participating par- volved in the video-conferencing trial ties. were encouraged to increase the levels The electronic classroom has an op- of student interaction and participation tical fibre link to Telecom's distri- during the sessions. bution centre for the delivery of a full PAL television signal to suit- Support tor the networks ably-equipped centres and homesteads via the AUSSAT communi- Although not technically a learning cations satellites. These interactive centre, the communications centre or talkback television classes can (located in the Centre for Applied also be sent interstate, and interna- Learning Systems (CALS) at Adelaide tionally. College's Light Square campus) provides an important link with most of Video-conferencint facilities are the networks. available to the Light College centres using compressed digital video Through the Electronic Classroom and through codecs and the Telecom adjoining rooms, the centre provides a public telephone network. These fa- base for lecturers to interact with off- cilities can also be linked to any campus ctudents in a number of ways: other compatible codecs worldwide. Audio-conference facilities allow User-friendly, lecturer-operated individual lecturers, lecturers with video and audio recording facilities small groups (up to eight students) are available in the Electronic and lecturers with classes (up to Classroom for lecturers wanting to 104 Converging Technoksies

send information to students on of critical factors as in the following video or audiotape. list.

Revised methodologies are needed to The success of most networks relies make effective use of these alternative heavily on the enthusiasm and delivery systems. The CALS Learning dedication of a few lecturers. These Systems and Instructional Design lecturers need greater recognition group (LSID) work closely with lectur- and more rewards from college ers using these systems, providing managers for their endeavours; par- training and advisory services to en- ticularly for the extra hours and ef- sure a successful outcome. .11 fort required to plan and conduct -t sessions for off-campus students. Effectiveness of the centres Funding! All of the networks are There is no doubt that the learning run on shoe-string budgets. There is centres have made a major impact on a need for both college managers, the way TAFE courses are delivered to and the department's bureaucrats to off-campus students in rural South place greater emphasis on providing Australia. They have broken the con- adequate, on-going funding for the straints of correspondence and cen- activities in the learning centres. tralised on-campus delivery, and offered a flexible way to study a broader Not all colleges have appointed range of courses. The success-rate of learning centre co-ordinators. These the participating students is generally people play an important role in well above the average for on-campus training new lecturers to use the groups, proving that this form of de- technology, assisting with organisa- livery is anything but second-rate. tion and planning, giving feedback on performance, and in choosing The long-term viability of the net- appropriate teaching methods. works, however, hinges on a number

CALS Communications Centre Electronic Classroom Teleconference 1 Teleconference 2 LI Elmo

" Control SAPI Desk

Monitor

2 S!. John Kirk 105

lecturers to externalise their pro- Effectiveness of the centres grams to include off-campus students. These methods must become There is no doubt that the learning part of nonital course delivery, and centres have m ide a major impact on staff recruited must be willing to the way TAFE courses are delivered to participate in providing opportuni- off-campus students in rural South ties for off-campus students. Australia. They have broken the constraints of correspondence and cen- The community at large still per- tralised on-campus delivery, and of- ceives that the learning centres offer fered a flexible way to study a broader a second-rate form of education. range of courses. The success-rate of Their preference is for face-to-face the participating students is generally classes, despite the very good re- well above the average for on-campus sults being achieved by students groups, proving that this form of de- working through the centres. livery is anything but second-rate. The long-term viability of the net- The management of the learning works, however, hinges on a number centres varies from college to college, although none of the managers of aitical factors. works full time at managing a The success of most networks relies learning centre. The part-tune man- heavily on the enthusiasm and agers feel that their effectiveness is dedication of a few lecturers. These limited by the number of hours lecturers need greater recognition available. and more rewards from college managers for their endeavours; par- The majority of TAFE courses are ticularly for the extra hours and e . conducted in the evening after fort required to plan and conduct work, putting pressure on the sessions for off-campus students. learning centre managers, access to facilities, and on the students. Funding! All of the networks are run on shoe-string budgets. There is The location of the centres is very a need for both college managers, impor tant, and must reflect the and the department's bureaucrats to wishes and attitudes of the local place greater emphasis on providing community. The local area school adequate, on-going funding for the may not be ideal, as many adults activities in the learning centres. have retained negative attitudes to schools. The centres must also be Not all colleges have appointed properly equipped to present a learning centre co-ordinators. These warm, friendly, comfortable study people play an important role in environment for bt, ,y people. training new lecturers to use the technology, assisting with organisa- The range of courses offered at pre- tion and planning, giving feedback sent is hampered by a lack of suit- on performance, 4nd in choosing able learning materials. Where pos- appropriate teaching methods. sible, existing external studies materials are used, but these often need The effectiveness of the system also modification for atAio-conferencing relies heavily on the willingness of and other forms of off-campus delivery. More resources need to be 106 Converging Technologies

allocated to the preparation of mate- Matriculation English, and Japanese rialsandstudy-guidesfor Conversation off-campus use. Word Processing A & B

Dissemination of information Office Trairiee courses: Bookkeeping 1, amongst the various networks is Work Environment, Clerical Procedures needed to avoid the duplication of resources. In addition, more infor- introduction to Tertiary Study mation is required about course Human Development availability for off-campus delivery. Micro-computer Operations Even in the best of all possible worlds, not all needs can be met by the learn- Aboriginal Education courses: ing centres. This will always be a source of frustration for both the local Adult literacy for remote aborigines managers and the students! However, Community management for remote the learning centres have become an aborigines integral part of TAFE's move to open up opportunities for rural communi- Communication studies for prisoner ed- ties, and as the industry restructuring ucation demand for re-training and re-skilling Introduction to Vocational Education grows, their role will become even certificate courses more vital. Light College Video-conferencing courses:

It- ,iness Law Appendix Computer Applications (Theory)

Summary of courses CROP General Office Practice Communications studies for certificate courses in business studies Rural Communications

International Principles of Marketing be- Customer Service & Sales (Tourism) tween Adelaide, Pt Lincoln and two centres in the USA Communications (Business Studies)

Certificate of Rural Office Practice (CROP), Business Economics & New Opportunities for Women (NOW) courses for rural women Small Business Management

Real Estate Certificate subjects Women's Studies/Community Care

Introductory Accounting & Financial Rural Property Planning Accounting 1 & 2 Building Practice Diesel Mechanics (post-trade certificate) Pesticide Applications & Safety Rural Farm Management Staff development & training for lecturers Certificate of Farm Practice in rural campuses

Adult Literacy & Numeracy

114 John Kirk 107

communities in South Australia. The SEecial projects learning centre concept was modified from similar ideas operating both in- Aboriginal Education tele-tutorials (1985 - ) terstate and overseas, and was first Interactive Talkback TV via Imparja TV & applied to the then Naracoorte AUSSAT (1989) College of TAFE (now the South East College). He has worked with Rio Salado International Marketing tele- other country TAPE colleges to help classes (1989 & 1990) establish their learning centre net- Hong Kong Introductory Accounting (1989) works, as well as working as an instructional designer on the Aussie Light College Video-conferencing (1990) Barbie interactive videodisc, partici- The Electronic Classroom of the Future pating inthe 1989 Talkback (1990 - ) Television trial, the 1990 Light College Video-conferencing project, andthe developmentofthe Address for correspondence Electronic Classroom.. John Kirk is the Senior Lecturer in John Kirk, Centre for Applied Communications Technology within Learning Systems, Adelaide College the Centre for Applied Learning of TAFE, 20 Light Square, Adelaide Systems in Adelaide. He returned SA 5000, Ph (08) 213 0111, Fax (08) from working inthe Northern 231 7165. Territory in 1985 to help conduct the Aboriginal Education Tele-conferencing trial with remote aboriginal

5 Electronic mail: Is it intrusiveor invisible?

Anne Russell Department of Communication and Resource Studies Queensland University of Technology 111M This is the saga of how thirty qualified teacherscame to grips with using Key link during their full time post graduate teacher4ibrarianehipcourse. The everience was intended to introduce the participants to technological change. It should also give them confdence in using an unfamiliar technology inan educational situation.

A participant must go through six from fully participating in the informa- stages before the technology becomes tion of their culture. nonintrusive and mental concentration can be directed toward creative appli- Technology has changed the shape of cation of 'invisible' technology to edu- time, space and culture. New trans- cational needs. portation and communications technologies have altered our sense of The Keylink project also provided an distance. Information technology has educational activityto promote distinctly influenced our sense of the International Literacy Year in schools. present, the latter being no longer About three hundred chEiren in at limited to one event in one place, least thirty schools became involved in sandwiched tightly between past and the project. future and limited to local surround- :ngs. (Brants, 1989: 81) Information Electronic mail provides one method of communicatio.:. using technology. Access to information is power. Messages arrive immediately they are sent and wait for a convenient time for And since knowledge is power in the receiver to read the message. liberal ideology, the information "Computer conferencing systems are revolution fulfilstwo of the offering a 'time and space indepen- prerequisites of a democratic state: dent' way of communication." freedom of information and growth of (Romiszowski & de Hass, 1989:8) literacy (Brants, 1989: 93). In order to cope with future sources of To have access to information one information today's children should be needs to overcome the mental barrier exposed to current hardware and of using the technology. Techniques software to access information. The li- for seeking information through in- brary or resource centre can provide a dexes to books, electronic data bases, gateway for reaching well beyond the and other resources should become au- local school environment. Murr and tomatic. Technological phobia often Williams look to the time when makes technology or equipment in- "Library," as a place, will give way to trusive and prevents some individuals "library" as a transparent knowledge Anne Russell 109 network providing "intelligent" ser- Learning to use technology can be a vices to business and education debilitating experience, however, the through both specialized librarians use of technology to access informa- and emerging information technolo- tion is important. "Technology should gies (1987:7). be the means by which teachers and students are able to feel more empow- ered and in control of their lives" Teacher-Librarians and (Va1dez,1989: 38). information technologies At the early stages of using technology Teacher-librarians, as information spe- to access or present information a cialists, have a responsibility to teach teacher tends to be overwhelmed with their students how to accs informa- the hardware and software - it is intru- tion from a wide variety of sources. sive. Only after mastering the hard- Telecommunication technologies in the ware can aeative planning for mean- form of computers, modems, tele- ingful learning experiences move to phone lines and computer software the forefront. Marker and Ehman provide just one source for connecting found teachers can not be expected to people with information. learn how specific technologies Telecommunication sophistication (electronic mail, modems, learning will, more than any other single ele- circles) work, and invent their class- ment, make or break the prototypical room applications at the same time, library of the future. (Murr & without wholesale confusion and Williams, 1989:19) frustration by many (1989:28). It is a responsibility of the teacher-li- In a project using Telecom's electronic brarian to understand how telecom- mail system Key link, adults learned to munications technologies operate. use and apply technoloecal systems to They also need to know how to apply communicate with children. this knowledge to the school curriculum. The Pro ect

Learning technological Teachers and students used a Key link based project Characters-on-Line de- processes vised by Jenny Gallaghan of the "For most teachers, 'educational tech- Queensland Education Department. nology' still implies devices - hard- This project provided experiences with ware and associated software" (Kerr, electronic mail and was implemented 1989:7). It is necessary for a teacher to through the Teacher-Librarianship realise some educational value for us- Course at Queensland University of ing the technology before it will be- Technology, Kelvin Grove Campus. come part of an instructional strategy. Meanwhile, teachers are feeling pres- Thirty qualified teachers commenced sure to introduce students to comput- fulltime study for the Graduate ers and their use in the world beyond Diploma of Education (Teacher- the school. Librarianship) at Brisbane College of Advanced Education (now Queensland University of

3 1i 7 110 Converging Technologies

Technology). Part of their Media varying degrees of word processing Production and Use unit involves use of skills. Three owned a computer and Key link to communicate with school one had her own modem. 'This was a children. The Characters-on-Line pro- great advantage as there were difficul- ject provided an excellent opportunity ties accessing Keylink in the early to practice using Key link. stages. Teachers and teacher-librarians in Later in the semester these six partici- schools throughout Queenslandwere pants wrote a users manual and in- advised the project could be used to structed the next group who took on promote literacy in this International the role of another character. By the Literacy Year. Within eight weeks of end of the semester all participants the commencement of the schoolyear had experience at least three weeks of almost 30 schools from all over Keylink interaction. Queensland, and one from New South Wales, had used Key link for students to send letters to Wilbur the pig. Strategies: Wilbur is a character from Charlotte's Web, a popular primary school fiction The Mathematics Departmentpro- book by E B White. vided a laboratory with fifteen terminals connected to a mini-computer and Messages with questions from stu- one ..todem access for the Department dents were sent to a c, licated Key link and this laboratory. mail box and the teacher-librarianship participants responded to the letters as During the first week of classes five the character of Wilbur. The questions hours were timetabled in the labora- and answers were uploaded toa tory where wordprocessing and Bulletin Board which was available to Keylink access were demonstrated. any interested Key link user. The six participants were encouraged to prepare and send messages. It was suggested they work as a team to learn Selecting the participants: skills and devise strategies forcom- municating in the role of a Pig. During the first week of the coursea lecture to explain and demonstrate Excitement was high and the parfici- electronic mail and Key link was given pants decided Wilbur would arrive to the thirty participants. Only 10% of earlier than advertised as theywere the participants claimed to have heard keen to make meaningful use of the of electronic mail before this lecture! technology. Sending and receiving letters was exciting. At the conclusion of the lecture six female participants volunteered to be members of the first group to explore Letters: the technology and use Key link to communicate with children. The A week ahead of time the following remainder of the class opted for message was put on the Wilbur.bb introductory sessions on word Bulletin Board in response to an expres- processing. sion of interest from several schools: As expected, the group of six were all Subj: WILBUR'S HERE somewhat computer literate and had Anne Russdl 111

Wilbur is so radiant about the en- Mostly for dinner I get slops. thusiasm shown by your response They're delicious, and I especially that he has decided to leave his ma- like the days when I get uxinn milk, nure pile earlier than expected potato skins, toasted cornflakes and ("some pig"). - wheat middlings.-

He would love to receive your letters Being a pig is fun, you get to lie M as soon as possible. the manure pile, get fed, and meet new friends in the barn.- The first set of ,questions and response follows: I enjoyed having so many people around as I was lonely when I had Posted: Fri Feb 23, 1990 12:37 PM few friends. EST Msg: WA-1994-5484 From: ILY.P0 I didn't mind leaving Fern as she is really always with me in ;ny memo- To: ss.bohlevale. ries.- CC: wilbur.bb Subj: wilbur answers I was a little sad and lonely at first, but then Fern came to see me quite We have some questions for you often, and I did get to know Wilbur.- Charlotte, which you know was a What's it like in a manure pile?- very important part of my life.- What's it like being chased by lots of I was given milk and slops for my farmers?- fourth meal, I think. (When you get What do you get for dinner? - to my age, your brain is not as reli- What's it like being a pig? - able as it used to be.)- When and what were you given for I liked the muddy pig pen, it was my the fourth meal?- home and I didn't like being away How did you like it with so many from it.- people around?- What's it like leaving Fern? - Well, I sure enjoyed talking to you, What's it like being sold to Mr. hope I have answered your questions. Please get in touch if you have any Zuckerman?- more.- Did you like it in the muddy pig Pen?- Bye for now, Dear Daniel, Ben & Thomas,- Wilbur -

So nice to hear from you. It's good to After the initial responses the partid- be in Queensland and to meet lots of p ants became less conscious of the new friends. The manure pile was technology and their correspondence warm, comfortable, good to lie on became more interactive as they asked and especially good to jump from. questions of the students which required follow up letters to Wilbur. I didn't like being chased by the farmers; I was scared and frightened and all my friends were confusing me with all their instructions.- 112 Converging Technologies

plications for electronic mai:. The Some Restraints technology was invisible. The participants were studying full Of the initial group of six participants, time and heavily committed toprepa- three were still excited about the pro- ration of assignments for other units of ject after six weeks of accessing work. The Key link project appeared to Key link. Initially them participants take extra time and effort Certainlyex- were 'phased' by the project and there tra mental effort was required to learn were technological teething problems new skills and understand the tech- which only stimulated these individu- nology, this involved continuous hours als to rise to the challenge. They now of concentrated time. fmd Key link easy to use and the technology has become transparent In the schools a program was already in operation. Especially in thesec- The use of Key link io communicate ondary schools it was difficult for with students provided meaningful in- teachers to adjust their timetable to teractions and the use of this technol- accommodate a non-programmed ogy has already been transferred to fiction book. Primary teachers needed other technological situations. One longer time notification to introduce participant has gained confidence and students to the book and arrange overcome her 'computer phobia'. letters to be written to a particularAnother said it still allowed her to characters. communicate with children even though she was attending fulltime Many schools did become heavily in- study. volved in the project and arranged themes around the selected book. The other three participants could not Several libraries produced a spider cope with the technological problems web and attached Key link responses to and lack of direct constant guidance. the web for the children to find. They maintain the technology gets in the way and the experience was not In these cases it was often the school worthwhile for them or for the school secretary who had the pleasure of students. sending the messages and receiving the responses. Some children were not For these participants, facsimile is a fully aware of the intervention of the better medium, with its ability to computer and operation of Key link. instantly send messages whichare immediately received in the school. In addition, appropriate formating and The results children's drawings can be sent with ..41=11 111=MINE the written message. Another failing of The Teacher-Librarianship participants the Keylink system, in their minds, is wrote of their experiences and ideas the access within the school. Normally for possible educational uses of elec- the modem and computer are located tronic mail. Some responses showed in the administration office where the the students had not moved beyonda secretary types and receives the mes- concern with the technology itself. The sages at her convenience. The children Technology was still intrusive. Other are not involved in the technology. students experienced excitement and anticipation of further curriculumap- In some schools this equipment is available in the Resource Centre and

.120 Anne Russell 113 students directly access the electronic mail system as part of the educational jpge 2:1.earnirh e process. curriculum where they explore communication systems and technology in The time consuming process of society. assimilating new information and mastering new skills epitomised this stage. Instructions were often misleading for Discussion the novice who did not understand the process . Valdez identifies "three stages that most people experience when learning Frustrations with technology failure to use technology for educational im- rendered the equipment intrusive in provement"(1989:37). They are the eyes of the user. The technology "awareness","adoption"and overpowered the curriculum applica- "refinement/adaptation". The current tion. research suggests six stages adult learners experience as the technology Some participants, without extensive moves from the intrusive to the invIsi- computer experiences behind them, were afraid of damaging equipment. ble: Others, in hindsight, enjoyed this Stage 1: Awareness challenge and persevered to ably move beyond this stage. There was general Stage 2: Learning the process agreement that the benefit of wo&ing with a team was extremely important. Stage 3: Understanding and applica- Moral support was essential. tion of the process

Stage 4: Familiarity & confidence Stage 3: Applying the process

Stage 5: Adaptation to other contexts Everyone reached this stage. Though 10% did not seem to fully understand Stage 6: Application to new contexts what was really happening - they learned tu follow instructions. At this stage the rigorous following of Stage 1: Awareness instructions is relaxed as the partici- Information about electronic mail and pant began to understand what was an explanation of Key link was pre- happening and realise the meaning sented. Only 10% of the participants behind the instructions. had heard of Electronic Mail. Some felt bewildered, fearful and con- Stage 4: Familiarity and confidence cerned about their compulsory involvement in hands-on use of Key link. The technology became transparent as Others were eager to become involved. the participant felt the sense of satis- At this stage they became aware of faction and excitement which comes some possible uses for electronic mail. with successful achievement. Problems were no longer major distractors, they became "hiccups".

121 774 Connerging Technologies

Librarianship participants and also for Stage 5: Adaptation to other the teachers and children who took contexts part in the project. The participants are aware of electronic mail and many of Now the participant reached new un- them are looking forward to imple- derstanding with confidence to move menting their educational ideas in the from concern about the technology to future. They also have an understand- thoughtful creative appiications for ing of how to explore new technolo- educational purposes. gies and most will be willing to participate in educational innovations in- Experiences learned are transferred to othcr contexts. One participant re- volving technology. ported a new sense of confidence Schools participating in the project when she assisted school children as have developed related themes of they le tined a wordprocessing pack- work and extended the learning expe- age; especially as this was a package riences to areas beyond characters in she had not xperienced herself. the novels. Does technology intrude upon the pro- Stage 6: Application to new cess of communication? For some par- contexts ticipants the technology was difficult to manipulate and their whole mind This stage will be 1.%eached by those was immersed in trying to `do it right' participants who use electronic mail in rather than explore the educational the future to satisfy an educational implications. The technology remained problem. intrusive. Knowledge that success has been There are a number of stages individ- reached in the use of this previously uals need to go through before tech- unknown echnology will empower nology becomes invisible and creative the participant to explore the educa- applications can be incorporated into tional potential of new technologies as the educational curriculum. Once these they appear on future horizons. stages have been transgressed the benefits of the new technologies can be applied for the benefit of learners. Conclusion In the future the technological innova- Teacher-Librarians are increasingly tion may not be electronic mail, but finding themselves using computers another technological application for access to information. Some have which will need to be explored before automated library circulation systems, it automatically becomes incorporated others are looking to CD-ROM data within the educational environment. bases being readily available to their students. The use of a computer with a modem to communicate over distance References: is a technique for taking learners beyond the confines of their physical Brants, K. (1989) The Social Construction school environment. of the Information Revolution, European Journal of Communication, Vol.4: 79-97. The experience with Keylink has been asuccessfortheTeacher-

1 2 Arm Russell 115

Kerr, S.T. (1989) Technology, teachers, and Seminar, Eduaitional Technology, 29 (10), the Searchfor School Reform, 7-14. Educational Technology Research and Development, Vol.37 (4): 5-17. Valdez, G. (1989) Mind Over Machine: LessonsLearnedfromStaff Marker, G., and Ehman, L. (1989) Linking DevelopmentEfforts,Educational Teachers to the World of Technology, Technology, Vol.29(3): 36-38. Educational Technology, Vol.29(3): 26-30.

Marr, LE. and Williams, J. B. (1987) The Address for conespondenc Roles of the Future Library, Lrirary Ht Tech, Vol.5: 7-23. Dr Anne Russell, Department of Communication and Resource Romiszowski, A.J. and di.: Hass, J.A. (1989) Studies, Queensland University of Computer Mediated Communication Technology. for Instruction: Using e-Mail as a Developmental usergrpups for ongoing computer training

Ch_ r H hes University of New.S94th Wdes

A perennial problem for training and development departmintaiftheaupport of non-professional conrputer operators beyond initial training:This porde- scribes a user group solution implemented at the UNSWfor operatork of popular word procesgng pickages. The design of the groups, the experience of running them, and some lessons learnt are discussed.

It is clear that the implementation of is because several types and levels of office technology is not a sure fire training and education are usually recipe for increasing productivity. In necessary in ordirto realise the full fact, the productivity of white collar benefits of the new system,. First work appears not to have improved there is the relatively straightforwani since the sixties, despite massive in- matter of what buttons to Push. vestment in computas and computer ...But beyond that, users need to un- aided communications. (Bowel, 1986, derstand the relationship between the p.267) A major study of 2000 compa- technology and the organisation, nies in the United States that had im- winds will bitter enable them to uti- plemented new office systems showed lize the full potential of the technol- that at least 40% of the systems failed ogy." (Long, 1989, p. 329) to deliver the intended results. (Bikson and Gutek, 1984) Only 10% of these While we may agree that the training failures were attributed to technical task is more difficult than usually failure. Human and organisational thought, the difficulty does not only lie causes dominated. Whereas technical with the broader educational goals. failures and software deficiencies were The 'straightforward matter of what once seen as the major causes of office buttons to push' is, on closer examina- system shortfall, the issues now seem tion, not so straightforward. to be organisational and managerial. It has become almost a commonplace (Levinson, 1985) that most real world users of computer One of the many human resource is- software packages, such as word pro- sues that office computerisafion reses cessors, use them ktt only a fraction of is training. (Kling and Iacono, 1989, p. their full capacity. Sometimes this is 346) It is also one of the issues that is expressed by bemoaning the excessive most easily misunderstood. The fol- number of featu- a the developers lowing is a typical assessment now include in the packages, noting as we do that we shall only ever use a " ... providing the necessary training few of them. The other side of the coin and education is a much more com- is the stereotype of the user who 'uses plicated and difficult task than it the computer like a typewriter'. may appear to be at first glance. This Indeed, getting stuck in a rut is a Chris Hughes 117 common fate for many users, though A way of addressing these ongoing they usually only dimly recognise the training and support needs is via de- fact. velc-pment oriented computer user groups. But some changes to the famil- The under-utilisation of the features of iar concept are necessary to make them software packages may involve a con- effective. siderable loss of productivity. I say 'may' only because most packages are intended for a range of applications, Computer user groups and no one situation demands the use of all features. Yet often it is the most Computer user groups have been basic features of word processors that around almost as lohg as micro-com- remain untouched: tabs, style sheets, puters. The earliest groups started in templates, and mailmerge. Many users the United States in the mid seventies. develop elaborate strategies to ac- They arose to fill the gap between the complish the tasks that these features need for information and support and are designed to automate. They spend the provision by manufacturers and hours formatting with the space bar, formal education channels. In many and then more hours re-formatting ways their existence is an indication of when they discover the necessity tothe poor quality of support given to change a margin. They re-type letters users by manufacturers, and by soft- todifferent addresses, when a ware distributors. In 1986 there were mailmerge or template would accom- approximately three thousand such plish much of the work in a tenth of groups in the United States, ranging in the time. This is the level that many size from 10 to 10 000. The Toronto users, many of us I am sure, operate at PET user group had 15 000 members in more often than should be admitted. 1986. (Kugelmass, 1986, p.32) Clearly this situation implies productivity foregone. User groups are generally private affairs. They are usually started by en- The situation also poses a problem for thusiasts who meet to share informa- those exercising the training and de- tion and resources, and to solve prob- velopment function within an organi- lems. As they grow larger they de- sation. Whilst initial training in the use velop formal organisational structures, of packages is often organised and and a wider range of services. They usually seen as necessary by the organ- often publish newsletters, distribute isation, ongoing training via courses is software and maintain bullefin boards. expensive, of dubious value, and hence difficult to justify. Yet while formal User group meetings too have a typical training enables initial skill develop- structure. They usually open with an- ment for staff new to packages or nouncements, then allow a period of computing, it rarely provides the con- questions and answers, followed by a ditions for autonomous and continu- coffee break when members meet to ing development thereafter. The need discuss, and often solve, the problems for ongoing development and support raised so far. After the break there may of operators persists and needs to be be demonstrations of techniques, new addressed if the full benefits of the sys- software or hardware, or a guest lec- tems purchased are to be realised. ture. The formal meeting is often followed by meetings of special interest groups. (Po 'sledge, 1984, p.97) rT1r,

118 Conning Tedmologies

Most user group form around a brand of computer, or around an operating The context of the UNSW user system. Thus there are, or have been, groups Apple, IBM, PET, Kaypro and Tandy user groups. Likewise MSDOS, Unix The University of New South Wales is and Macintosh groups have been run comprised of a large number of rela- successfully. More recently some tively autonomous units, Schools, groups have formed around specific Departments, Research Units and the software packages. In NSW, for ex- like, spread over four major campuses. ample, there is a state wide Word A relatively small central administra- Perfect User's Group. In many cases tion provides support and coordina- the groups provide a hedge against the tion functions. vagaries of the computer industry, providing support unavailable from The Higher Education Sector has come the manufacturer, and after the manu- under increasing pressure in recent facturer has ceased to exist. years. Funding has been cut in real terms, and is now at levels per full The high proportion of enthusiasts time student similar to those experi- among members can lead to problems. enced, and deplored, in the early Many new members are "... over- 1960s, despite increases in student whelmed by the technical banter and numbers. (FAUSA, 1989) Income is in- do not return after the first meeting." creasingly being generated by accept- (Kugelmass, 1986, p.30) To overcome ing full fee paying overseas students, these problems some groups ask and by entrepreneurial activities, both novices to arrive early so their con- of which involve additional pressures cerns can be addressed separately, in on staff. other groups novices gather after the formal meeting as a special interest As would be expected there is a central group. (Pow ledge, 1984, p.97) computing department which operates a range of mainframe and minicom- Little has been written about the place puters for academic and administra- user groups can take in an organisa- five purposes. It also provides user tion's training and development strat- support services to all users, as well as egy. While it is certain that corporate a small PC support group mainly fo- user groups have existed for some cused on technical issues. It is not di- time, they are usually informal gather- rectly involved in the training of PC ings, even if officially sanctioned. users. Indeed the line between formal corporate user groups and informal, on the While the central PC support group of- job support and mutual help is usually fers advice and assistance to staff se- very thin. Corporate user groups also lecting and purchasing microcomputer tend to share the characteristic of their systems, there is no standard policy private counterparts in being oriented concerning hardware or software towards hardware, albeit that available packages. A broad, though narrowing and in use iLl the workplace. (Brandt, range of micro computer hardware 1987, p.28) and software is thus in use across the university. Training and development for all staff is coordinated by the Professional

.1 6 Chris Hughes 119

Development Centre, an academic unit tuation where many people allocate set up with human resource develop- work to them directly, without any ment as well as traditional academic overall coordination or control. responsibilities. Ultimate responsibility for training and development lies with Others work in the central administra- staff and managers, with assistance tive section where organisational or available from the Centre and a num- physical isolation is not a problem. Yet g`k, ber of other specialist units. even here complaints of under-staffing and high workloads are often voiced, The Centre organises training courses and the alienation commonly felt by for staff in a range of commonly used those lower down the hierarchy in a word processing packages such as large organisation is not unknown. Word Perfect and MSWord, as well as in MSDOS and other computer related Another facet of the isolation experi- topics. It also maintains a self access enced by these staff, is their effective facility, in which CBT and video isolation from other users of the com- t.aining is available for a number of puter packages they work with. packages, and a library of training materials for loan to staff and work groups. It supports the user groups The history of the user groups which are the subject of this paper. strc_agy The University employs approximately The inclusion of user groups within 2 500 general staff. Many are in cleri- the university's computer training and cal, secretarial and administrative support strategy stems from a recom- roles. Many are expected to use micro- mendation from the Staff Development computers as part of their work,Unit (a forerunner of the cur-cnt mainly for word processing. Few are Professional Development Centre), in fully qualified word processing opera- 1985. This recommendation followed, tors. They are also among the lower among other things, a training needs paid workers of the University. survey which had identified at least 25 separate wordprocessing packages in A proportion work in 'isolated' loca- current use. tions, often in one person offices. While they may work on the main Groups commenced operation in the campus, or on another in the Sydney middle of the same year. Ten groups metropolitan area, they are organisa- were started, covering the following tionally quite remote from the central software packages: Word (two groups, administration. Their isolation can be one MSDOS and one Macintosh intensified by being the sole general based), Type-Rite, Unix, Spellbinder, staff member in a unit otherwise made Multimate, Apple, Wang, Word up of academic staff. This means that Perfect and Wordstar. An additional they work under very different work- group, potentially comprising some ing conditions, and their performance sixty members, using a variety of other is much more closely monitored, albeit packages was convened in an attempt informally. The work pressures can be to meet their needs. very great. Their work areas are often understaffed and there are few mech- The agendas of the initial one hour anisms in place to control or limit the meetings of all groups was the same: workflow. It is not unusual to fmd a si-

127 120 Converging Technologies

Welcome and introduction of mem- (separate groups for version 4.1 and bers and of the user group idea. 4.2); and Multimate. Over one hundred staff members attended the first round Announcements (including the re- of meetings in 1988. These figures sug- sults of the training needs survey). gest an increasing standardisation of Demonstration. software and hardware packages in Information on getting supplies. use at the University. Tea/coffee and informal discussion. All groups lapsed at the end of 1988 (members were invited to bringbecause a reorganisation tthe train- their lunch) ing and development functions of the Each meeting was 'chaired' by a mem- University left them, temporarily, ber of the Staff Development Unit who without administrative support. Two acted as a facilitator, while staff from groups, MSWord (MSDOS) and Word various units demonstrated tech- Perfect recommenced aetivity early in 1990,supportedbythe new niques. Much of the administrative ,. and technical support for the groups Professional Development Centre. was provided by the Head of the They meet for an hour regularly each University's Word Processing Section. month. A third, for users of Word on Staff members attended in working Macintoshes, is planned to start later hours, and were welcome to stay for this year. informal discussion during the lunch hour. Lessons from the experience In all approximately 100 out of an es- timated 275 staff members in the target The stark facts related above cloak a group were involved in these initial world of experience, from which a meetings. After each meeting an invi- number of lessons may be drawn. tation was issued for the next, with written responses to queries raised attached. _Range of concerps In 1985 and 1986 the groups ran twice The focus of the groups on specific a year, in April/May and September- software packages has, if anything, December. By the end of 1986, nine firmed up over the period of their exis- groups were operating: eight of the tence. It will have been noted that the original eleven groups - the Type-Rite, original Apple group eventually split Spellbinder and Wang groups had into two, covering separate software stopped - and a new one - the Apple packages. This package focus is essen- group had split into Zardax and tial when the group members are not Sandys' groups. At the end of 1987, enthusiasts, and consequently find lit- eight groups were running, the tle of interest in the problems facing Sandys' group having ceased to oper- the user of another package, even ate. The participation rate at this stage though it runs under the same operat- was still approximately one hundred ing system. out of art eligible 290 staff members. In the5r time the groups have ad- In 1988 the number of groups running dressed topics such as: incorrectly had shrunk to five: Word (MSDOS); loaded print wheels; console and file Word (Macintosh); Word Perfect merges; spell-checking; page number-

1 28 anis Hughes 121 ing; conversion from/to other formats; professional operators of the packages controlling line and character spacing; with the 'technical bantce men- printing on envelopes and labels; us- tioned by Kugelmass (1986, p.30) as ing columns; efficient word processing both a boon and a problem with con- and office procedures; creating direc- ventienal groups. Rather ,than being tories; managing a hard disk; er- enthusiasts, the staff involved in the gonomics of work stations; and im- groups are often more accurately de porting dBase files. Apart from these scribed as phobicsl As such they are topics, which are drawn from the ma- sensitive not only to 'technical banter' terial circulated after the meetings, in- from others, but also to the potential numerable queries across a broad loss of dignity that raising what may range have been addressed: everything be trivial concerns with a group of from what proportional spacing is, to peers sometimes involves. the features contained in new version of a package. For these reasons the presence of an experienced facilitator from the In short the range of concerns raised Prt,:essional Development Centre is reinforces the rationale for the initial crucial to the success of the groups, at development of the groups them- least in their formative meetings. The selves. Operators face a myriad of facilitator's role centres on group man- problems, few of which are addressed agement. in formal training. If they are addressed, the skills are often lost and General criteria for good learning cen- the information forgotten, by the time tred groups have been set out by they are required in the workplace. As Fawcett Hill. He sees the following as Brandt notes (in the context of library essential characteristics: microcomputer user groups): 1 A warm, accepting, non threatening Why do librarians need user groups? group atmosphere. For the same reason 'hobbyists' or 2 Ltarning is approached as a cooper- anyone else does: microcomputers are ative enterprise. complex tools, difficult to understand and use. (Brandt,1987, p.29) 3 Learning is accepted as the raison d'etre of the group.

The role of the facilitator 4 Everyone participates and interacts. 5 Leadership functions are distributed. One of the key differences between the ..:ser groups described here and con- 6 Group seasions and the learning task ventionalgroups,isthatthe are enjoyable. University's groups are not, in the main, composed of enthusiasts, as just 7 The material is adequately and effi- noted. Further, some steps have been ciently covered. taken to ensure that those with high 8 Evaluation is accepted as an integral level technical skills, or those with non part of the group operation. professional involvements with word processing, have been excluded from 9 Members attend regularly and come the groups. This has been done pri- prepared. marily to avoid overwhelming mem- (Fawcett Hill,1977, p.40) bers of the key target group non

9 ffkr

122 Converging Tec;mologks

All of these are relevant to user groups leadership functions advocated by set up as part of a staff development Fawcett Hill above is one positive step strategy. In consequence, the facilitator which can be taken to encourage au- is resporsible for setting up the group, tonomy. ensuring the atmosphere is productive, ensuring comments, queries and sug- In practice what this means is taking gestions are made sensitively and con- steps to ensure that the responsibility structively, and for ensuring that the for presenting demonstrations and for group functions as a supportive, learn- finding and communicating informa- ing centred gathering as much as pos- tion concerning issues and problems sible. At times they must control the raised is shared among the members of tendencies of 'experts' to lecture at the group as much as possible. In this length, at others they have to work way the group will be experienced by hard to facilitate the participation of its members as a rnutual support the less assertive members. mechanism, as opposed to a centrally run training activity. This perception will be reinforced, and the develop- Development of autonomy ment of autonomy encouraged if the responsibility for facilitating the meet- One danger is that the presence of the ings, and for associated administrative facilitator could lead to the group be- work is shared among members, to the coming dependent on this 'outsider' extent that this is feasible and reason- for its functioning. The danger is in- able g.ven the risks, and the skills and creased if the facilitator also performs workloads of those involved. or controls the administrative support provided for the group. This threat became a reality in the University's ex- Control of diversionary concerns perience when the central support and facilitation was (temporarily) with- One of the other differences with con- drawn, and the groups ceased to func- ventional user groups concerns the re- tion, even though this was not a neces- strictions placed on the agenda of the sary consequence at all. group. In a conventional group made up largely of enthusiasts, the agenda is In principle it is desirable for each open, in that the group is almost cer- group to evolve towards an autonomy tain to welcome most activities related which would permit it to continue to to its purpose. Dealer demonstrations function without administrative or fa- and sales drives; expert lectures, and cilitative support. Given the make-up excursions into esoteric features all of the groups however, and the organ- have a place in the life of these goups. isational context in which they operate, In groups set up for development and this desirable end is most likely to re- support purposes however, the make- main a grA to be worked towards, and up of the group, the relative absence of a principle to guide the activity of the enthusiasts, and its work orientation, group and the facilitator. Never-theall combine to restrict the acceptable less it is important to seriously adopt agenda. The above items, which have a this guiding principle and goal so that legitimate role in a conventional user the group develops as high a level of group, have the potential in a support autonomous function and indepen- group to jeopardise the continuing dence as is realistically possible in its goodwill of the members, and the circumstances. The distribution of support of the overall organisation.

130 Chris Hughes 123

The difference between the two types of user groups is not always clear to Benefits for the overall staff the members of the developmental d2velo mentstrategy user groups, so that suggestions and spontaneous attempts to use the group The presence of the user groups in the for sales and technically oriented pre- overall training strategy of the. sentations need to be carefully moni- University has a number of benefits: tored and considered. The overriding concern must remain with the work The groups have become a contact related needs of the group members point for an otherwise difficult to themselves. Where the facilitator con- assemble group of staff. The experi- siders it necessary to argue against an ence of the members can be con- activity, or to cut off an acfivity, s/he sulted for advice over the bcn:t way should do so by arguing the point tact- of proceeding with a computer fully and by referring to aspirations of training proposal which relates to the group and the elements of its con- them, or information on ergonomics text that lie behind the decision. No can be presented and explained. At matter if the facilitator fails to win the times issues to do with relations group over to his/her point of view. between staff and supervisors arise, The attempt and the discussion will as do workplace practices and ways have been valuable, and the subse- of controlling workflows. These can quent activities more keenly consid- often b2 dealt with in a natural and ered by all. In this way the process of supportive way by the group, with the group assists the group and its difficult cases being taken up out- members towards refining their goals side the formal group meetings. and developing their autonomy and At the same time, the groups pro- independence. vide an opportunity for the facilitator to monitor computer training needs and to feed these back to the Development of a support network appropriate support groups for con- The names and phone numbers of all sideration. Thus when many work members of the groups are regularly units decide to upgrade to a new made available to all members. It has version of software, this will become been found that this encourages mem- apparent in the user groups and ap- bers to contact and support each other propriate training considered. This between meetings of the group. Thus sort of current information is very minor problems are often sorted out as difficult to obtain in any other way they arise, with only a report of the is- in p decentralised organisation. sue being made at the group meeting. Beyond computer related needs, the The development of these contacts is close contact which the groups af- encouraged, both as a support for the ford between the facilitator and the group and its developing autonomy, members, permits exchanges of in- and as a support for staff who are formation on a wide range of topics otherwise relatively isolated. relating to almost any concern of mutual interest. The high profile that the training and development function attains in this way is in- valuable for the dissemination of in-

J31 124

formation, the development of con- California, 1984. The results quotb.1 are tacts, and the raising of training is- reported in: Long, 1989, p.327. sues among a group of staff not normally disposed to consider theni Bowen, W, The Puny Payoff from Office Computers, Fortunt, May 26, 1986. on a broad scale. Reprinted in Forester, Tom (ed), Computers in the Human Context: Conclusion Blackwell, 1989, pp.267-271. . The University has found the user Brandt, D S Joining Forces: Library Users groups I have described to be an effec- Groups, Wilson Library Bulletin, June, five way of continuing to support its 1987, pp.28-30. wordprocessing operators beyond Federated Australian University Staff their initial package training. Provided Association (F.A.U.S.A.), Funding and the groups are well run, and their sup- Funding Models, F.A.U.S.A. policies and port function kept in dear focus, they attitudes, 1990. The data used is drawn allow the staff concerned to handle the from a range of sources. issues computerisatior. raises in an Fawcett Hill, W. Learning Thru Discussion: easy and supportive atmosphere. Guide for Leaders and Members of The provision of this timely practical Discussion Groups, Sage Publications, support to operators has the potential second edition, 1977. to reduce stress levels among staff, Forester, Tom (ed), Computers in the while increasing productivity. These Human Context, Blackwell, 1989. benefits alone make the inclusion of user groups within the overall training Kling, R. and Iacono, 5, Desktop and development strategy of any or- Computerisation and the Organisafion ganisation well worth considering. of Work, in Forester, 1989, pp.335-356. Kugelmass, J, Computer Groupies, Natural History, January, 1986, pp.30-37. Acknowledgements Levinson, E., Implementation Path I wish the acknowledge the work of Analysis: A Method for Studying Ms Margot Pearson formerly of the ImplementationofInformation Staff Development Unit, and the work Technology, Office Technology and and continuing support of Ms Pevple, vol. 2,1985, pp.287 - 304. Maureen Beaton, Head of the Word Long, R. J., Human Issues in New Office Processing section of the University in Technology, in Forester, 1989, pp. 327- designing, setting up and running the 334. user groups I have described. They faced and solved all the teething prob- Powledge, Fred, The Power of User's lems that arose. The success of the user Groups, Popular Computing, December, groups is fundamentally due to their 1984, pp.95-102. insight and efforts. Address tor correspondence References ChrisHughes,Professional Development Centre, University of Bikson T. K. and Gutek, B., Implementation of Office Automation, Rand Corporation, New South Wales, PO Box 1, Kensington, NSW, 2033

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111111110 Microcomputer implementation in the primary school: The effect on teachers attitudes and perceptions

Lorraine Kershaw and Judith Cousins Western Australian College of Advanced Education

Microcomputers have only been available for use in Western AustralianFactors affecting implemen schoolsincethe mid-seventies. tation Following the introduction of this technological innovation educational A diversity of opinions and results is policies recommending practices on apparent when attempting to deter- the use of computers in classrooms mine the nature of effective implemen- slowlydeveloped(Education tation (Meister, 1984). Teacher educa- Department, WA 1980/81). In a relation and commitment, teacher atti- tively short time, therefore, as far as tudes, access issues, policy implica- educational change is concerned, tions and curriculum integration are teachers were being expected to incor- some of the acknowledged major con- porate computers into the curriculum. tributors to successful implementaiion (Anderson, 1984; Baume 1986.) (Burdett, 1987; Hill et #11,988; Meister, 1984; Woodhouse and jones, 1988). In Western Australia, funds were made available by the government to Other factors which seem to affect supply all its primary schools with one implementation are teacher's attitudes microcomputer for every 50 to 60 stu- towards the innovation and a wide dents. Few resources were allowed to range of behaviours. Particularly well support schools in the implementation known is their resistance to change, process which, according to Dynan in often attributable to difficulties in Cox et al (1988) is one stage of the ef- changing habits, fear and a sense of fective Innovation model Inception futility in attempting to adopt yet an- (Government initiative), Resources other new idea (Waldrop and Adams, (technology in classrooms), Adoption 1988; Henson, 1987; Scanland and (school participation), Implementation Slattery, 1983; Lidke, 1981). In addi- and Outcomes (effects on learning). tion, time for teachers to become famil- The Implementation Stage warrants iar with the resources and to develop closer examination to ascertain those proficiency in their use, influence the factors which could influence class- effectiveness of the implementation room practice, the decision making process (Chandra gt01,1988; Cox el Al, and the management processes within 1988;Strudler and Gall,1988; the school environment. Woodhouse and Jones, 1988).

.,,1I :/ 3 126 Converging Technologies

1 describe and monitor teachers' Knowledge attitudes and per- classroom and computing experi- ceptions ences; A number of recent studies highlight a 2 describe and monitor teachers' gen- variety of teacher characteristics which eral attitudes and perceptions of cou.k1 influence the implementation computers; and use of microcomputers. These in- 3 describe and monitor teachers' per- clude gender differences, teachingex- perience, age, computer anxiety, in- ceptions of computers in education. service computer training, general attitudes towards computers and percep- Methodoloix tions about computers (Bracey, 1988; Cicchelli and Baecher, 1985; Fitzgerald A small local primary school which gt 41986; Meister, 1988; Shavelson had no microcomputers prior to the aj,1985). government initiative, participated in this study as it had received its first As might be expected, computer anxi- two microcomputers in March, 1988. A etydecreasedwithclassroom longitudinal case study of different use/computer instruction (Ernest, aspects of microcomputer implenenta- 1986, Gressard and Loly, 1985). Some Eon in this school was underH...ken by a gender differences in teachers' percep- team of five researchers from the tions of children's use of the computer Western Australian College of were found by Fitzgerald et al (1986) in Advanced Education. This paper re- their study of Australian primary and lates to one section of this study, secondary schools. The researchers re- namely teacher characteristics. ported that teachers considered the most desirable advantage of comput- Data collection was carried out ers in the learning program to be the through a use of a comprehensive development of language skills and questionn,, two interviews with the the least desirable to be the devel- principal of the school and a series of opment of social skills. Insufficient observations of the principol's com- computers caused the biggest prob- puter use in the classroom. The ques- lems, closely followed by lack of funds tionnairefromtheFitzgerald and specialist teachers. Australian study (1986) was adopted and modified slightly to accommodate Although various teacher characteris- the primary classroom context. A five tics have been ex3mined by a number point Likert scale was used where the of researchers, few, if any, have fo- rating of 1 referred to strong 4is- cused on the primary classroom agreement of undesirability, while 5 teacher. This study was designed to rated as strong agreement or desir- examine the characteristics of some ability. The final version of the ques- primary teachers and so begin topro- tionnaire contained three major areas- vide an insight into this aspect of the background, general attitudes and per- implementation process. ceptions and perception of computers The aims of the project are to: in classrooms. The questionnaires were administered in April, and again in December, 1988. The principal undertook to distribute :I 4 -7`

Lonaine Kershaw and Judith Cousim 127

them to the teachers and they were col- female teachers and the male teachers lected within two weeks upon comple- were quite different in relation to tion. computers being more interesting to male teachers. The female teachers had changed their responses to one of dis- Results agreement while the male teachers .1=:C11,maintained their opinion of agreement with the statement. Background on teaching and computer use All teachers, except one, remained almost unchanged in their strong desiie All teachers were experienmd and had "to learn a lot more about computers". been teaching from eleven to twenty- The degree of anxiety about working eight years. Two of the six teaching with computm ranged from no con- staff were males nd held key posi- cern to considerable concern and these tions in the school. These were the feelings persisted even after a year of Principal and the Year 6/7 class the school implementation program. A teacher who was also considered to be siniilar range 4 perceptions was main- the teacher with the most expertise in tained about computers costing "too computing as he was currently study- much money for most imple". ing for a Graduate Diploma in Computer Studies. None of the teach- Table 1 Summary of results for five ers had received any pre-service edu- sub-sets of items cation in the use of computers. use & effects inusefulness for During the period of the year long everyday life ajob study a few hours of in-service train- Pre- Post- Pre- Post- ing was undertaken by all teachers. intro intro intro intro Except for the Year 1 teacher, all teach- Princip 3.8 3.8 4.75 5.00 ers reported that they had used theal computer in the classroom at least once a week or more. Year 1 2.4 3.2 4.25 4.25

Year 2 2.6 2.4 3.50 3.25

General attitudes and perceptions Year 2.4 2.6 3.75 2.75 3/4 A summary table of results of this section of the questionnaire shows the Year 3.0 2.4 3.25 3.50 means calculated for each teacher on 4/5 the five sub-sets of items. (See Table 1.) Year 2.8 2.4 3.25 2.50 6/7 The responses to the subset on gender differences were the only group of Total 2.8 2.8 3.80 3.50 items to show a polarisation of atti- means tudes by all t?achers over time. This may be due to the ease with which teachers could personally relate to (continues over page) their immediate experiences with the computer during the year. It is of some concern that the perceptions of all the 128 Converging Tedindogies

Results were collated to produce rankings. sexism computers in classroom Like the results found inthe Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Australian study of Fitzgerald et al intro intro intro intro (1986), teachers felt that comPtrs were most advantageously used asin Princip 1.75 1.75 4.25 3.50 information source, for word process- -a1 ingand administrativgtasks. Year 1 2.50 1.00 4.00 4.25 Following the iinnkrmentition period, however, teachers rankedligher some Year 2 3.25 2.00 3.50 3.00 functions of the computer which could Year 1.50 1.00 3.75 4Al0 have the potential for reducing the 3/4 time spent on tedious and repetitive tasks, namely, for administrative pur- Year 1.00 1.00 3.50 3.50 4/5 poses, drill and practice activities and marking and analysing tests. Year 1.75 1.75 3.50 3.75 6/7 The most marked difference between the results for this section of the study Total 2.00 1.40 3.80 3.70 and thaw obtained by Fitzgerald et al .7;4. means (1986), related to this use of the computer 511 spedareducation. Teachers in this study actually lowered their rank- computer anxiety/alienation ing to one of undesirability of this use following the introduction of comput- Pre-intro Post-intro ers, while in the Australian study, Principal 1.7 1.8 teachers considered it to be a desirable use. It is possible that the teachers' Year 1 3.4 2.4 perceptions in this case study were in- Year 2 fluenced by the very limited number 2.8 2.6 and variety of software packages Year 3/4 1.7 1.6 available to them. That is, the teachers' beliefs were not confirmed by the Year 4/5 3.4 3.1 knowledge gained through their uses Year 6/7 2.1 2.0 of the computer in the classroom. Total means 2.8 23 Using computers "to develop social skills" drew the widest individual differences in responses in both questionnaires, although the means for this item from the pre and post introduc- Perceptions of computers in the tory data were constant at 3.0. classroom Difficulties encountered by the teach- The following tables summarise theers were evidenced by their strong means calculated from the item re- agreement with the statements relating sponses by each teacher, where state- to insufficient funds for purchaft of ments were rated from "strongly un- computers and not enough computers desirable" to "strongly desirable". in classrooms. These appear to be

136 Lorrahse Kershaw and Judith Cousins 129 among the long standing concern of Table 2: Main advantages of comput- teachers (Fitzgerald et J.,1986), ers in classrooms although in the Australian study teachers ranked "insufficient funds" Pre-intro Post-intro fifth in the list of major problems. Rank Maor Rank Mom

Following the implementation of c sun- An infix:ration 1 4.8 4 43 puters in the school, the teachers ex- source (egII- pressed even greater concern about in- braW aupPurt sufficient teachers with specialised data bases) training. As most were inexperienced Language and 2 4.7 3 45 in the use of computers, this finding writing skills suggeski they considered the skills of a through word key resource person essential in this processing specific learning environment. Administrative 3 45 1 4.8 At first teachers did not feel there was tasks (eg timetabling, a lack of high quality software, but records) following the introduction of computers into the school they felt this was a Developing 3 45 3 45 difficulty. learning & skills simulation & educational games Uses of computers In classrooms Drill and prac- 4 43 2 4.7 This last section of the questionnaire tice coictained nine identical statements about seven different uses of the com- Diagnostic test- 4 43 4 43 ing puter in +IT classroom. A brief example of !,'.1. %Ise was given to explain Use in special 5 4.2 7 35 word processing_ drill and practice, education problem solving, managed instruction, Mark and anal- 6 4.0 3 45 games rnd simulation, tutorial and yse tests data bases. Teachers were not given any software to assist in their identifi- Helping students7 35 6 3.8 cation of the seven categories of uses. with problems Comments have been made about in- Teaching pro- 7 35 8 33 gramming dividual responses of teachers in relation to some statements across the Helping students8 33 5 4.0 seven categories of uses. In addition, gain un- means have been calculated for re- derstanding sponses to Item 6 - "be a good use of Reward for stu- 9 3.0 6 3.8 computers in the classroom" - for each dents category (see Table 3). Develo? social 9 3.0 9 3.0 skills _

130

Table 3: Difficulties with using com- from the remaining teachers did not puters in the classroom change.

Pre-intro Post-intro From showing no bias at first the prin- Rank Mean Rank Mean cipal agreed word processing would be more useful for boys. Perhaps he Not enough 1 4.5 2 4.8 felt this skill would be neceseary in the computers work environment of the near future available in particularly for males who were not classrooms expected traditionally to use typing as

Insuffident 2 43 1 5.0 part of their job. funds available for purchase of The Year 6/7 teacher had been unsure equipment about games and simulations being more useful for boys than girls but fi- Little known 3 42 3 4.3 nally strongly about how chil- disagreedwith the dren learn when statement. He could have found in using computers practice that girls were equally en- thused by this type of computer use. Teachers will 3 42 4 42 have to give up The Year 4/5 female teacher selected important the midpoint as her final response preparation time to become famil- about drill and practice being more iar with com- useful for boys than girls. This rating puters choice was made in response to the majority of Not enough 4 3.8 2 4.8 teachers with items on use of computers in class- both teacher & rooms. Her once a week use of the spedalised computer may have been insufficient training key resource people experience upon which to base a more definitive decision about the degree of Lack of suitable 4 3.8 6 3.5 computer usefulness for these types of in-service activi ties. courses for teachers "stare and worry students" pre mean = 1.8; post mean = 1.4 "be more useful for boys than girls" Two of the female teachers (Year 2 and Year 3/ 4) were either undecided or pre mean = 1.3; post mean = 1.3 disagreed with this statement for each All teachers strongly disagreed with given example. This was in contrast this statement for almost every use ex- with the other teachers who were cept the Year 2 female teacher, who mostly consistent in their strong dis- was either undecided or expressed agreement that "the computer would disagreement. The two male teachers scare and worry students". These same and the Year 4/5 female teacher two female teachers also indicated the changed their views on one type of ac- most anxiety/alienation towards the tivity each, while every other :esponse computer in their post introduction responses about general attitudes and Lorraine Kershaw and Judith Cousins 131 perceptions (see Table 1). It appeared way. But drill and pracdc... is the only their views about student anxiety were application of the seven given, which a reflection of their own feelings to- would appear to possess questionable wards the computer. In general, how- educational value. That is, when ever, teachers' perceptions of student teachers considered mainly the quality anxiety decreased correspondingly to of a suitable learning environment, their diminution of alienation/anxiety they did not rate drill practice as good feelings. auseas other applications. "be a good use of computers in a Table 4: Different uses of the com- classroom" puter in the classroom pre mean = 3.9; post mean = 4.1 "good use of computers "

All seven categories, as explained in Pnhv Post-fnftv the examples, were viewed favourably by the teachers (see Table 4), with drill RinkMean Rank Mem ard practice uses (mean = 3.7) at the Word processing2 4.7 3 4.2 lower end of this favourable scale and problem solving (mean = 4.5) seen as Drill and prac- 5 3.8 5 3.7 the best use of computers in a class- tice room. Problem solving 3 4.3 1 4.5

In comparIng these results with those Managed in- 4 4.0 2 4.3 of similar items in the section on struction "Main Advantages of Computers in Classroom." (see Table 2), collated Games and sim- 1 4.4 2 4.3 rankings corresponded quite closely. ulation The one exception was on drill and Tutorial 5 3.8 2 4.3 practice where the example (ranking = 2, mean = 4.7) and the item (ranking = Data bases 2 4.1 4 4.0 5, mean = 3.7) differed considerably. Perhaps this relates to the position Discussion from which the teacher views the use. The example could have been quite Them is no doubt that the introduction dearly associated with beliefs about of computers into primary schools can good teaching practice, as the state- present problems when teachers are ment about "good use" was preceded faced with the implementation of by an example outlining a teach- many policy and syllabus recomnwn- ing/learning situation which may no dationsaboutcomputeruse longer be widely advocated. On the (Commonwealth Schools Commission, other hand, the item on drill and prac- 1986; Ministry of Education 1989). tice, which was placed in the general From the teacher's viewpoint these section on "advantages" of computers, recommendations appear to imply that may have been primarily considered the curriculum will be enhanced by us- as an aid for the teacher because of the ing computers in the educational pro- context in which it was read. gramme. Consequently there is pressure to adopt such recommendations It could be argued that all examples as classroom practice. This cannot be `4N and items may be perceived in this achieved without change. Change may /32 Convaging Tedmologies

have many faces and be influenced by could continue to pose significant many factors, some of which have problems with the majority of teachers been described in this paper. currently having more than ten years of experience. Investigations in this Among the group of teachers in this area are warranted. study, relatively few or major changes were found in their perceptions of Further considerations in overcoming computers and their use in the class- the changes which are needed in classroom. Although these findings cannot room.5 b facilitate confident and expert be transported to other primary envi- computer use by teachers Ire sound ronments, some interesting questions planning, a relevant policy and a set of emerge about aspects of change in the goals for a specific school population. context of computers in education and A collaborative approach is essential curriculum expectations. and this requires the use of effective communication skills and strategies by Floden and Huberman (1988) suggest all school staff (Snyder, 1988) that educational improvement, which assumes change of some form, relies Perhaps some of the problems of lack on teachers, who must maintain their of knowledge about the use of com- commitment to their chosen program puters by school colleagues and inade- over a long period of time. According quate consultancy could be overcome to Guskey in Floden and Huberman by the mutual sharing of information (1988), it is only when teachers have and techniques. It would be interesting clear evidence of the effects and results to explore, for example, a team teach- of the changes on children, that they ing approach, where a reluctant will continue to pursue such a course. teacher and an experienced teacher This has implications for technological combined dasses to trial, practice and implementation, if factors influencing observe a range of strategies. success are teacher perseverance over prolonged periods of time and the Gender differences were still apparent perceived effects of the changes on at the conclusion ofthisstudy and the children. findings support many of the aspects described by Fitzgerald et al (1986). Although age appeared not to affect The maintenance of the two male computer use (McCoy and Haggard, teachers' opinions that computers 1989), it could perhaps be related to were more interesting to male teachers rate of change. Huberman (i988) is of particular interest. Fitzgerald et al found in his research on teachers' pro- (1986) found in their Australian study fessional life cycles that teachers with that there were more male co-ordina- about ten to twenty years teaching ex- tors than female coordinators. While perience (the same range as most having a computing coordinator may teachers in this study) were at a stage not necessarily be the best approach to in their career when many were reluc- adopt in a primary school, the ways in tant to try new ideas. Could this not which females are involved in the have an impact on their willingness to school computing environment could accommodate such a major change in be vital in any attempts to dispel ap- their environment as the introduction parent gender differences. of computers? In view of the fact that fewer younger teachers are being Specific strategies may need to be un- trained and employed, this innovation dertaken by principals to ensure fe- -737-,,

Lomrine Kershaw and Judith Cousins 133 male teachers are involved in making Bracey, Gerald W. (1988). Stili Anxiety decisions about policy development, Among Educators. Electronic Learning. computer access and curriculum inte- March, p 20. gration. Differences in perceptions of Burdett, F.J. (1987). Local Education gender differences may be overcome Authority policies forcomputers in ed- by encouraging female and male ucation. JournalofComputer Assisted teachers to become resource persons Learning. Vol. 3, pp 30-39. rather than coordinators. An adoption and analysis of this model could pro- Chandra, Peter; Bliss, Joan & Cox, vide further data on this issue. Margaret.(1988).Introducing Computers into a School Management Based on sound educational theory Issues. Computers fir Education, Vol. 12, and practice, successful integration of No. 1. computer use into the curriculum may Ckchelli, Terry & Baecher, Richard. (1985). be influenced by the learning and in- Introducing Microcomputers into the structional styles of the teachers. It Classroom: A Study of Teacher's would seem feasible to suggest that a Concerns. Journal of Educational range of effective educational strate- Computing Research, VoL 1, Nol, pp 55- gies already exists in the teacher's in- 65. structional style. How this repertoire Cox, M. et aL (1988). The Use of Computer of skills could be incorporated into Assisted Learning in Primary Schools: successful computer use without Some Factors Affecting the Uptake. greatly changing the teacher's chosen Computer Education. Vol. 12, No. 1, pp style is the question. 173-178. This study has provided a valuable Dumaresq, Richard & Blust, Ross. (1981). insight into some teachers' perceptions School Climate Improvement: A Model of computers in education. It has for Effective School Change. Education spawned a number of useful ideas for Department (WA.), Policy from the further research into computer use in Director General, No.29, Dec 1980. primary schools. We need to know a Education Department (W.A.), Policy great deal more about the characteris- from the Directory Genera!, No.34, Oct tics of change in relation to age, the 1981. role of female teachrrs in the adoption Ernest, PS. & Lightfoot, R.M. (1986). A of new educational practices and Model to Reduce Anxiety and Increase teachers' learning and instructional Utilisation of Computers in the styles. Classroom. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the National Councilof States on Inservice References =111MS Education, Nashville. Fahy, Patrick J. (1985). Instructor Attitudes Anderson, J.(1984). Computing in Affecting Adoption of Instructional Schools: An Australian Perspective. Innovations. AEDS Journal. Vol. 19, No. Australian Education Review No. 21, 1, pp 66-67. ACER, Hawthorn. Fitzgerald, D. et al. (1986). Computer Baume, G. et al. (1986). Computers Across Applications in Australian Classrooms. the Curriculum; A TEASA Research Australian Government Publishing Project - Interim Report. Not published. Service, Canberra.

141 '4= , -7 ,,,7-71' Converging nchnolVgies

Floden, Robert E. & Huberman, Michael. Oliver, R. (1986). Using Computers in (1988). Teachers' Professional Lives: Schools. Heron Computing, W.A The State of the Art.International Journal of Educational Research. VoL 13, Report by the National Advisory No. 4, pp 455-466. Committee on Computers in Schools. (1986) Australian School, Computer Gressard, Clarice & Loly, Brenda, H. Systems: Educational User Reodrements, (1985). Age and Staff Development Commonwealth Schools Commission, Experience with Computers as Factors Canberra. Affecting Teacher ikItawies toward Computers.School Science and Scanland, Worth & Slattery, Diane. (1983). Mathematic s. Vol. 85, No. 3, pp 203- The Impact of Computer-Based 209. Instruction upon Teachers: Two Perspectives. Educational Technology. Henson, Kenneth T. (1980). A Philosophical Vol 23, No. 11, pp 7-12. Approach to Educational Change. Shavelson, Richard J., Winkler, John D., Henson, Kenneth T. (1987). Strategies for Stasz, Cathleen & Felbe, Werner. overcoming Barriers to Educational (1985). Patterns of Microcomputer Use Change. NASSP Bulletin. Vol. 71, No. in Teaching Mathematics and Science. J. 497, pp125-127. Educational Computing Research. Vat No. 4, pp 395-413. Hill, M., Manzo, F., Liberman, D., York, J., Nichols, C. & Morgan, P. (1988). A Plea Strudler, Neal B. & Call, Meredith D. for Computer Integration: Let's Bring (1988).Successful Change Agent Computers into the Classroom. Strategies for Overcoming Impediments to Educational Technology. May. Microcomputer Implementation in the Lidtko, Doris K. (1981). Securing Teacher Classroom. Paper presented at the Acceptance of Technology. Paper pre- Annual Meeting of the American sented at the National Conference on Educational Research Association (New Technology and Education Orleans, LA,, April 5-9). (Washington, DC, January 26-28). Waldrop, Phillb? B. & Adams, Thomas M. McCoy, Leah P. & Haggard, Cynthia S. (1988). Ove,:coming Resistance to the (1989). Determinants of Computer Use Use of Instructional Computing in by Teachers. Paper presented at the Higher Education. Annual Meeting of the Eastern Woodhouse, D. & Jones, A.J. (1988). Educational Research Association IntegratingCALwithOther (Savannah, GA, February). Instructional Activities in Schools. McGee, Glenn W. (1987). Social Context Computer Education. Vol. 12, No 3, pp Variables Mfe ling the Implementation 381 - 389. of Microcomputers.1.Educational Computing Research. Vol. 3, No. 2, pp AddressA2Lcol_com ndence 189-206. Lorraine Kershaw and Judith Meister, Gail R.(1984). Successful Integration of Microcomputers in an Cousins, Mathematics Science and Elementary School.Institute for Technology Education Centre, Research on Educational Finance and Western Australian College of Governance, Project Report No. 84-A13. Advanced Education Ministry of Edycation, W.A. (1989). Policy on Computer Use inPrimary Education.

.142 The convergence of teaching and production in media centres

Grahame Ramsay University of Western SydnwNepeon

New and amalgamated universities are facing decisions about how beSi to provide audio visual services for teaching and research. This paper will outline research that the author conducted concerning centres in NSW and Vktoria as part of the development of proposals for a malia centre for the University of Western Sydney, Nepean. The role of professional production services was one of the key issues that emerged in the research which has implications for buildings and facilities and staffing. The production function by specialists has been traditionally separated from the 16.n/teaching service for students. Is it desirable or possible for these functions to "converge"?

The issues are not unique to Nepean as questions of facilities, technologies and administration are relevant to all institutions. Multi-campus developments, distance education, videodiscs, teleconferencing and computer network links, all force the management of universities and colleges to make policy decisions about future directions of resources. The narrowing of the difference between broadcast-standard and domestic-standard video, for example, has led to an expansion of the use of video by students (and staff) with little training in production skills. The apparent simplicity of the technology may hide the skills needed to actually get the best value from it. Universities have accepted the need in USA believes media centres can for high quality video promotion have a bright future. packages to sell particular courses to students in Australia and overseas. Media centres will not only survive, When it comes to production of these, but thrive now and in the future if VHS productions by students are not we make the necessary changes to adequate, commercial production place our media centres right where houses are often prohibitively expen- they belong: at a critical place in the sive. It's more appropriate for an in- centre of the parent system (Russell, ternal production service to provide 1988, 158). this kind of service. The same applies There may be some need for thought to professional still photography, o! the management of technology in desktop publishing, and the produc- these centres. Television, for example, tion of high quality graphics. The de- has become an integral part of the edu- mand for these technologies has the cational resources in most higher edu- potential to make media centres more cation institutions. Television produc- central to the institutions teaching and tion was undertaken by staff in media research program. Thomas Russell centres to produce resources for 53 out from North Carolina State University of 58 tertiary institutions surveyed in

1 4 3 136 Converging Tedmologin

1987. (Neale, 1987) The extent to which driven by financial restraints imposed that production is conducted by spe- on centres. cialist staff is part of the more general question of media centres as providers A study conducted in 1986 aimed to of equipment versus media centresas set a bench mark on the state of meuia producers of resources. centres in Australian CAE's. The scenario found by the 1986 study was not The term "media centre" is used here encouraging. to encompass those facilities and departments that physically house audio Funding cuts, rising costs, static or visual equipment and manage its use. reduced staff profiles, aging equip- This paper focuses especially on those ment either past its replacement date centres that the author has been able to or rapidly approaching obsolescence, visit in Victoria and NSW as part of his increased demande for the provision own submissions for resources at of training albeit with old equipment Nepean. In 1986 the University of in insufficient quantities, providing Western Sydney, Nepean commenced services to multi-campus institu- a threeyear BA(Applied tions and providing additional ser- Communication Studies). The existing vices to new nursing students and "media centre" was a small section of staff. (Norman, 1988, 66) the library which mainly lent 35mm cameras, projectors, cassette recorders Many of the CAE's surveyed in the and a limited number of domestic 1986 study have now become part of video camcorders. An adjacent space larger universities where the issues designated as a television studio had identified will no doubt becomemore no working studio equipment, no pressing. lights nor ;amid system and was being Despite the financial pressures I found used as a classroom. Demand for evidence that the majority of centres equipment increased rapidly during mai Atained a clear separation of those 1987 with practical production courses resources for "professional" produc- includinga Media Production tion and those for teaching. Even those Specialisation, Design, Dance, Visual centres that appeared to have a sharing Arts and Photography courses intro- of resources between students and duced or updated professional production personnel As Nepean has no "specialist" produc- only allowed a very small number of tion facilities, I was interested in the well trained students to operate role of production services within in- equipment. stitutions. An important question was whether production services with specialist staff could co-exist with fa- Present divergent models cilities designed for student use? The specialisation within institutions of units for teaching and units forpro- duction was evidence of the perceived Financial constraints need to separate these functions. With It would appear logical that conver- a few exceptions, the media centres gence of the loan and production ser- were either predominantly a centre for vice functions of centres would be students or primarily a production service. Media centres were a hybrid of a number of different functions. These Gra !wine Rtmsay included a loan function for equipment support services to the whole institu- for staff and students; on-campus tion with the training of students. production facilities for student and staff use ; professional production fa- The units that seemed to fit this de- cilities for developing material for use scription included: in teaching or research. Each higher Faculty of Arts1Swinburne education institution had a different way of dealing with these functions. Faculty of Humanities and Social Swinburne Institute of Technology was ScienceslUniversity of Technology, the most diverse with two separate Sydney Faculty audio-visual services and an Information Technology Centre. Royal Instructional Technology Unit/ Melbourne Institute of Technology had Victoria College, Toorak diverse solutions with broadcast quality television studios for production of School of English and Linguistics professional quality resources, a /Macquarie University Faculty radio station with five studios Audio visual service/ Melbourne and an "electronic classroom" which CAE (now Melbourne University) allowed teleconferencing with a group Audio Visual Service/ University of of 15-25 students in the room. Despite Western Sydney, Nepean. the hybrid nature of centres they could still be classified into two categories Audio visual unit /University of according to their orientation to stu- Western Sydney, Richmond. dents or their orientation towards producing resources for teaching and North Sydney Technical College learning. (This was the situation in January 1989 and may have changed since then with further amalgamations The loan function of centres and reorganisations of universities and The management of the b..an of book colleges). and non-book resources Las typically been the resporsibility of a library. However, as the technology being Media centres for students ANS used by students and staff becomes These facilities had been set up to al- more complex the skills required of low students access to equipment as staff lending equipment becomes more part of their course work. Their pre- specialised and includes the ability to dominant function then was a loan teach how to operate equipment and service. Some were staffed and re- identify and solve problems with sourced by a specific faculty within the equipment. Industrial disputes have college or university while others were developed at several media centres part of the Library. Most had very about where the responsibilities of small teams with typically one or two technical, academic and production F.:11 technicians and loan staff. They had staff begins and ends. What seems staff to provide very basic instruction clear is that Libraries with their book to students on how to operate equip- orientation do not easily incorporate ment. Some of these centres combined media centres with noisy and complex equipment including video editing, the function of providing audio visual computer and television studio equipment. Of all the centres I have

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3-4 138

visited in NSW and Victoria only-two achieved by having off-limits equip- were within a Library. The unit at ment within -the. unit thatotiew:stu- what was Melbourne CAR was under dents operatelontylifter 44tiensive review.Ar.ct'sierat what was training courses. This requireokdisd- HawkesbuTy College of Advanced Oiled and- virf Eduujnow UWS, Richmond) was itgerAent*Ieti,cnn epci. g physically isolated from the rest of the des. Ir. thetrridam 0#1: library. twenty, ht.:- manymunon couries,ene t à.i' flktuidàit, 'JO' The equipment loan function was still becominginO1*44c.. a part of the responsibility of media would ba. irresporisible,Wallow:un, centre staff, but was handled differ- trained itudeitt4erateWacceis to ently from centre to centre. It wasveryexpensivearid: -*complex considered by most media centre managers as a time consuming and some- equipment what unproductive role. They had tried to streamline it as much as pos- Media o ud ction sible.Oneunit(Information Technology Services Unit Swinburne) These units anribine support* aca- had stopped providing a loan service demic staff for resources (but nottisib to students because it was considered ally students) with theproduction to be too labour intensive. high quality video, photogrOhle, graphic and audioxesourcesf,Mosthed a small television studio for use by Studnt use In coursowork. professional staff and employed graphic artists and photographers. The units within Faculties had the least ambiguous role. They knew who their Teaching Services Unitl Victoria clients were and were well organised College, Bunvoot: because of the known demands on resources and equipment that were tied Communicatkm Services to specific courses. The role of faculty Unit1RMIT centres was primarily to provide facilities for students to complete course- Audio Visual Unit/Melbourne work using video or audio equipment. University In some Faculties the word processing Education Unit/ Chisholm Institute equipment also came under the media centre (Uni versity of Technology Audiovisual Services Information Sydney, Swinburne Faculty of Arts). Resources CentrelMacarthur These faculty units have high student Institutenow UWS) usage rates with technical staff typically providing support for students Sydney University Television outside class time. Professional pro- Service/ Sydney University duction was not seen as possible be- Production Services NTS (Kuring- cause most of the equipment in these units was domestic and was used ex- ga0 tensively for teaching. Phillip Institute Media and Production services was the only college I haveseen where UnitlPhillip Insiitute of Technology student use and professional production are combined successfully. This is

346;

_ ,,VV, -V,

Grahame Ramsey

The larger Universities and Institutes ments which allow the delivery oi ex- of Technology had professional pro- isting materials (Television prograrrys, ductionservices.Melbourne audio- and OHP material) via satellite. University employed sixteen specialist These. develoPments. have been staffin production including a prompted by,coMmerdal and commu- television producer, chief technicalnity groups using, satellite Acilities officer, three graphic designers and a which has- prOmpted, the-interest of full-time stills photographer. Typical higher education Atte?: 'IA NSW the services provided were photography, State teachers Unio0:beve Made Oen- black and white printing, computer sive use otSKY: 1Z;bi,iniief'10 -broadcast graphics, graphic design and desktop meetings live araMd-tife.State.- lit the publishing, and the production of commercial Sector an Austvalia wide videos for publicity, teaching and educational network has, been devel- research. Video production has oped by IBM for its own training become more sophisticated, with needs. It consists of a transmission several units completing production studio in Sydney from which.two pic- work for outside organisations. There tures and the teachers voice are is a recognition that resources need to transmitted via satellite around have a "broadcast quality" look to Australia to eleven classrooms in the compete with other video material that six mainland capital cities. Students at is on the market and to have theall locations can ask the teacher professional "look" that student and questions and -Ilk to other classrooms staff have come to expect. There are on the network IBM have introduced some marketing success stories from the system to increase the productivity these media centres. A video on of thee staff by deleting unnecessary bushfires by Production Services of travel and duplication of courses Melbourne University gained an around Australia. (ED TECH NEWS, International Television Association 1989). award and has achieved impressive sales. The IBM ISEN development is less production oriented than traditional The emphasis is on portable profes- media centre models. These develop- sional quality video equipment and ments have implications for media broadcast quality post-production fa- centres. If they are part of national cilities. networks then questions of equipment compatibility and standards have to be There is an increasing specialisation of considered. professional staff required to complete work such as computer graphics, video There nay indeed need to be some re- editing and production. Freelance staff orimtatim of media centres in the way are being engaged in some institutions they use resources, as the ISEN net- on a program by program basis. The work shows. However, I still believe production services within universities there are specialist functions which are better equipped to mesh into need to undertaken with these changes telecommunication links than the "low to technology. Teachers will need to be technology" teaching centres. trained in some of the techniques of on-air television presentation. There The obvious need to develop linksare high capital costs in establishing within and between campuses has such facilities and they require special- been led by technological develop- ist staff to maintain them.

I 4 -';';-`71

140 Converging Tedmologies

vide the opportunity for there to be a To converge or not? central production unit which can produce the high quality resources The investigation of media centres in needed by education. NSW and Victoria, although by no means exhaustive, has led to some Media centre developments have the practical suggestions for plans for potential to be central to the rationali- facilities at the University of Western sation of video, audio, radio, telecon- Sydney, Nepean. The detail is not rele- ferencing, computers and Other digital vant to this paper but areas covered technologies. The greater accessibility include the location of the centre, desktop publishing and VHS video staffing, relationship to the library, editing can lead to a do-it-yourself teleconferencing and other telecom- mentality that underrates the services munication systems. There are man- that can be provided by more profes- agement and University wide issues sional media production services. that are yet to be resolved. I found evidence that the professional Bibliography services offered by media centres may need to change.Computer Neale, K. (1987) A Directory of audiovi- technologies, photography, graphics, sual and television production centres video digital post production and in Australian tertiary institutions. desktop publishing provide new opportunities for centres. Rather than Norman, M. (1988) In flight or in plight? AudioVisualDepartmentsin there being a diminishing of skills re- AustralianHigherEducation. quired the new centre may need to Australian Journalof Educational employ more specialised professionals. Technology, 4(1), 59-69. The advent of cheaper technologies can provide opportunities for student Ramsay, G (1989) Report of a visit investi- use. But such use still needs to be gating Victorian media centres. properly mandstil. Universityof Western Sydney (Unpublished) 2Opp These issues are also relevant to older Universities who now find themselves Russell, T. (1988) Media centre adminis- with a number of former colleges with tration: An alternative for success. different levels of equipment, staff and AustralianJournalof Educational facilities. These amalgamations pro- Technology, 4(2), 146-159.

_ est

Developing guided self-study materials for higher education: The Curtin experience t Robert Fox Curtin University

411..110MCW11111111ear In an age of accelerating technological The availability of relatively Cheap, so- change where today's knowledge and phistical(' technology, the reduttion skills are obsolete tomcrrow, it has be- in financial resources for teaching, the come impeiative to maintain a contin- current, and I hope lasting, trend to- uous process of inquiry and learning wards the promotion, of antonomous to update present expertise. It is thus learning and the dissatisfaction with not enough for our educational sys- 'chalk and talk' as the sole method of tems, from primary through to teTtiary, instruction has led to a resurgence of to simply produce 'know:edgeable' interest in developing more indepen- people, we must produce people who dent learning materials for use by on- are equipped with the skills and atti- campus students at Curtin University. tudes to continue the process of learning throughout their lives; we have to Guided self-study is a form of inde- produce life-long, autonomous learn- pendent study for which there are a whole host of names, each having a s. slightly different emphasis, but having Curtin University was one of the earli- much in common with guided self- est Higher Educational institutions in study. You may be familiar with the Australia to ecpress significant interest following names: in independent learning. In the mid Directed Private Study 1970s money and time were made Individualised Learning available for staff training and the Supported Self Study development of materials. Schools and Programmed Instruction Departments set up whole courses, or Packaged Learning parts of courses, in the independent Correspondence Education study mode for students on campus. Distance Education Learning by Appointment Some of these courses are still running Own Learning successfully now, others were discon- Learning by Contract tinued, mainly because of the time it Keller Plan took to develop and update the mate- Personalised Systems of Instruction (PSI) rials. All of this took place before the Flodstudy technology was available which can Home Study Computer-Bar.ed Training now make the task of developing and Postlethwaite Audio Tutorial System updating independent learning materials less onerous. As I see it guided self-study is an early step on the continuum towards producing fully autonomous learners. Yet,

d 142 Converging Technologies

depending on the emphasis, it ran still 2. Sections of Courses which Adapt be considered a teacher-centred ap- Well to Guided Self-Study Mode. In proach hence 'guided'. It is a mode this section I shall cover areas such of study which, because it doesn't have as: to lean too much towards learner autonomy, is relatively non threatening Lntroductory modules to the more conservative staff and institutions who are reluctant to release Duplicated or often repeated lec- the reins. It is thus a 'softly, softly', tures diplomatic shift in the direction of de- Service teaching veloping independent learners. It isa way of beginning to promote self-di- Laboratory work rected Arning in traditional institutions. 3. Technology Being Used at Curtin University for Guided Self-Study Programs. In this section I shall look #'; Aim at The aim of this presentation is to look Desk top publishing and computer graphics at guided self-study as a step towards fostering self-directed learners with Computer managed learning reference to developments in thisarea at Curtin University in Western Video Australia. Interactive video

Organisation The advantages of using guided self-study to The paper is divided into 3 sections: complement the more 1. The Advantage of Using Guided conventional chalk and talk Self-Study to Complement the More method of teaching Conventional Chalk and Talk The advantages of using the guided Method of Teaching. In this section I self-study mode are made apparent shall cover areas such as: when we look at the obvious disad- the reasons for increased interest in vantages intert nt in the lecture-based the guided self -study mode in method of instruction. The lecture is of Curtin and in Australian higher ed- course valuable but it should not be ucation institutions in general used as the sole source of learning, for the following reasons: some- flns for the reluctance to introduce u,mode of instruction The speed at which information is delivered does not necessarily ways of encouraging more teaching match the speed at which stuclrnts staff to develop and use guided self absorb the infoimation. study materials This section is based on issues raised The lecture is a 'once orly' experi- in a recent seminar in Curtin on devel- ence. If a point is missed, or not oping guided self-study materials. fully understood, it is not possible 71.'0077

Robert Fox

to 'rewind' the lecture and listen computer and print-based material again. are all easily portable. Lectures do not allow for inter-stu- In most cases students can enoose to dent discussion or for student ex- work through units on thAr own or ploration of the subjects being with partners, 01: in growls should taught they need to or be requhed to explore various points through dis- Lectures do not demand a particu- cussion and debate. larly active role of students, apart from their bodily presence; their Students following a guided self- minds may be elsewhere. study program are required to do far more than sit back and listen. It is sometimes quite difficult to con- They are expected to follow instruc- trol the behaviour of large gruups of tions, ub,, different media, complete restless, poorly motivated students. worksheets, analyse data, evaluate The value of lectures depends on so material and more. Students are many variables: the inherent interest therefore required to take a very ac- of the subject being explored, the tive role in their learning. amount of lecturer, and student Good quality guided self-study ma- prepuration, the mood of the lec- terials are often packaged in mod- turer, and that of each individual ules complete with learning tasks, student, at the time of the lecture, and self evaluation tests with an- and so on. If one or two of these swers. Students are thus free to at- variables are not quite right, the tempt the tasks and tests and make value of the 'once only' lecture can mistakes in privacy so avoiding all be lost. the learning complications arising In a recent seminar at Curtin on devel- from making errors in public. oping guided self-study materials lec- It was generally agreed by the speak- turer currently involved in using ers at the seminar, all of whom are such materials as part of their courses, lecturers running guided self-study agreed that the following were the programs at Curti.; that: main pedagogic advantages of using this mode of instruction: Students' performance improve:, significantly, both in terms of course Students can control the rate at work and end-of-unit test results. which they learn. Some students obviously require more time than Motivation increased. Students ac- others. They can stop, rewind and Wally reported enjoying the greater start the audio cassette or video flexibility the materials allowed again, they can re-do computer them and the opportunity to take tasks, they can re-read printed in- greater responsibility for their own formation as often as they require to learning. ensure complete understanding of each section of the materials before Students' working relationships proceeding to the next unit of study. with lecturers and with other students improved. Students can decide when, how The above advantages of using guided much and in some cases, where to self-study materials relate directly to study; audio and video cassettes,

5 1 144 Converging Tainologks

the students using them, with lecturers There is little or no incentive to in- being the indirect beneficiaries, but vest time and effort in developing what are the specific advantages for quality teaching and learning mate- lecturers who invest time in develop- rials since there is minimal linkage ing guided self-study materials? The between this and promotion. following were discussed in the semi- Universities in particular like to be nar: seen to be htvolved In research and development so that being engaged Lecturers, freed from the tyranny of in research and the publication of delivering lectures, can devote more articles has more value than produc- quality lime to counselling and tu- ing quality teaching and learning toring individual student; and to materials. assessing student work thus ex- periencing more professional satis- There is a fear of losing jobs as a di- faction. rect result of producing self-study materials, particularly in the current Reduced lecturing time can enable climate of cost cuttinz and the redef- lecturers to concentrate on their inition of tenure combined with the own research and development. administrative interpretation of Other, more general advantages of 'reduced lecture time'. guided self-study that came up in the seminar were: Not enough training is available to help higher education staff to rede- Funded self-study learning pack- fme their roles from transmitters ages can be easily, quickly and and controllers of instruction to that cheaply adapted to or from the ex- of facilittors, resource persons and ternal studies mode. counsellors for self-directed students. The materials can be sold to a DEC or to students on overseas courses. Lack of appropriate training leads to: Quality learning materials enhance the reputation of the University and feelings of inadequacy in terms of its staff. how to go about designing guided self-study materials So, given all these advantages and the very positive feedback from lecturers feelings of inadequacy in terms of currently involved in guided self- their abilities to act as facilitators, study programs why is there reluc- resource persons and counsellors tance on the part of the majority of staff to use the guided self-study fear of losing control over their mode? studen ts

The following reasons were expressed concern that their students won't in the seminar: be able to work on their own, thus leading to higher failure The perception of the time and costs rates which in turn reflect on the of developing and updating guided lecturers self-study materials. fear of peer criticism

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fear of not meeting the traditional tasks, answers and essay sugges- student expectations of lectures tions. This didn't take up too and hours of lecturer/student much time and it didn't cost a lot contact time either, but it allowed his students greater freedom and gave him some lecturers expressed anxiety more time to deal with individu- over using technology believing als. it to be expensive and unreliable. What happens to the student and Another lecturer said he was to the course when the comput- forced to develofp self-study ma- ers, tape recorders and/or video terials when he hadlo attend a 2 playbacks etc. break down? week conference,during a semester. He slimly asked the How then can we encourage a change Educational Media Centre to of attitude towards the implementa- videorecord two of his lectures tion of guided self-study and more in- and made up a series of work- dependent learning modes? sheets into a workbook to go with the videos. Copies of the videos I feel that it is imperative that staff and the workbooks were made currently involved in running suc- available to his students and it cessful guided self-study and inde- worked perfectly. This small pendent learning units should package is now the beginning of vigourously promote their work another guided self-study pro- through research, publishing arti- gram. This experience made the cles, running seminars and work- lecturer aware of how different shops and displaying their materi- media can be used to 'spice up' als. Management and colleagues his lecture-based course and it al- need constant exposure to the bene- lowed him to be much more flex- fits of running such programs. ible in his approach to teaching At the Curtin seminar on develop- and learning. ing guided self-study materials sev- Other lecturers said that the ini- eral of the worries covered above tial development of the materials were allayed by guest speakers who did consume a great deal of time, described their process through ma- but once the courses were up and terials development, giving the fol- running they found that refining lowing advice on time and costs: and updating the materials did Start small, don't be too ambi- not take long and they were free tious. It is perfectly feasible to to devote more quality time to develop one module at a time students and to research. In terms rather than attempt to transfer a of cost the general feeling seemed whole semester program at once to be that videos and print-based into guided self-study material. materials can be produced relatively cheaply using in-house One lecturer explained that he university services. simply compiled all his lecture Management has to be prepared to notes into workbooks complete support staff in the development of with information, text references guided self-study materials by pro- for further reading, learning viding fmance and releasing staff

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146 Converging Tethnologks

from some of their duties, or otherwise giving staff incentives to Sections of taught courses attend training sessions and develop which adapt well to guided materials. setf-study mode Management has to be helped to recognise the value of developing quality teaching and learning mate- Introductoty Modulel rials so that promotion is more closely linked to it. In many units, the introductory lectures may: Ongoing training programs should be made available through which cover areas of knowledge the stu- staff are: dents should already be familiar with or exposed to a program of self-directed learning themselves assume incorrectly that all the students are at the same level of exposed to materials which have 'learner readiness' been proven successful, taken Instead of introductory lectures, stu- from higher education institu- dents could be given guided self-study fions over a range of subjects modules comprising readings, references, and activities planned around encouraged to see, understand objectives which have to be achieved and accept their role of helping by all students, working at their own students to become autonomous pace, but within a period of, for exam- learners without constant teacher ple, three weeks. Students are then free presence and intervention to choose where they begin. Some may decide to cover all the modules, others, helped in the transfer of lecture- based units or modules into who are familiar with the content of some modules, will discard those and guided self-study materials concertrate on modules with which given the opportunity to work they are not familiar. A self-evaluation together with colleagues as a test, or a more formal test can be ad- team in the transfer of materials ministered either after completing the to guided self-study mode modules, in the case of self-evaluation, or at the end of the third week in the Staff shouid have access to person- case of a more formal test. Having nel who are experienced in the de- mastered the content and activities sign of such materials i.e. within the modules all the students Instructional Designers. would be at an equal level of competency and be orientated towards the ensuing course of core, as opposed to introductory, lectures.

Duplicated or Often Repeated Lectures Certain lectures are common to a number of units. Lecturers often have

J54 Robert Fox 147 to give the same information to differ- which suits them. The point being that ent classed. Repeating the same lecture not all students will need access to labs can be tedious and the tedium is prob- and workshops at the same time. Thus ably sensed and reciprocated by the reducing timetabling problems. students. Unnecessary duplication of lectures also has cost implications. Technology being used at Duplicated or often repeated lectures Curtin Universily for guided are easily transferred to self-study self-study programs mode; for example, by the production of print-based workbooks or by a The following technologies are being package of video and worksheets. used or will be implemented to complement or replace the lecture-based mode of instruction at Curtin Service Teaching

Certain subjects, for example statistics, Desktop Publishing and Computer- are taught in more than one school or Graphics department. To avoid continually re- inventing the wheel it would save All teaching divisions at Curtin use schools and departments time and DTP and computer graphics to pro- money to transfer shared subjects to duce their teaching materials. In fact the self-study mode. print is still the medium used for over 95% af all guided self-study and project based materials produded on cam- Laboratory Work pus. This is so for the following reasons: Ensuring that students have mastered relevant theory before embarking on it's flexible laboratory work may mean that laboratories and workshops remain it's easy to produce, update and unused for weeks. change Once all the students have been using word processors, it's rela- through a course of theory lectures tively cheap to produce, duplicate there is suddenly a difficult period of and disseminate timetabling 100 or more students into With the advent of desktop publishing laboratories and workshops to do the capabilities, it is now possible to in- practical work. In some subject areas clude graphics, photos and illustra- so many students need access to labs tions thus making lecturer produced and workshop facilities that it is neces- material look similar to professionally sary to extend access hours and some- published texts. times have students working unsuper- vised. The potential of this technology for education is enormous. Since all the These logistical problems can be over- data is on computer, it is now possible come by developing guided self-study to produce either whole units as manuals embracing theory and in- guided self-study packages, or divide struction related to laboratory and the units into individually packaged workshop assignments. Students may modules, each complete with their work to a prescribed order or one

Fc5 148 Converging Tecknologies own learning objectives, text informa- Students can randomly select topics to tion, learning tasks and self-evaluation study although progression from one tests with answers etc. These could topic to another is entirely controlled then be interchanged with modules by computer-testing. Tests precede from other units thus giving students a and follow each topic.Ifstudents far greater range of options than ever achieve 80% in the pre-test, they are before from which to build up courses not required to study that topic and more closely suited to their individual can choose another at their level of needs and goals. Obviously, this flexi- knowledge. Students must also bility would not be possible within an achieve 80% in the test which follows institution offering only lecture-based each topic before going on to another courses. one. On completion of the end-of-topic test the computer provides the student with a list of areas which need more Computer Managed Learning work, plus references for further reading for revis!on; an individual at- This has been tried and proven suc- tention which is often not possible cessful in our School of Nursing and within a lecture-based program where Department of Human Biology where the teacher/learner ratio is often 50-1 1,100 students are using the CML pro- or more. gram. I'll just describe how it is being used for one program in the School of All test items taken and test results are Nursing. recorded and stored by the computer so that students and course controllers The program was developed specifi- can monitor progress. cally for nurses who are returning to the profession after five years and thus need to re-register. 100 students are Wdeo currently following the nursing re-reg- istration course. Instead of requiring The use of viLieo for guided self-study all 100 to come from all over Western is becoming i acreasingly popular at Australia to attend a series of formal Curtin. Videos are relatively easy and lectures at Curtin, the course comes to cheap to produce and allow students a them. Students access computers greater amount of flexibility in terms through local learning centres statrgi- of 'when', 'where' and to some extent cally placed in the major cities or 'how' they study. towns of the geographical regions of tne State. The Educational Media Centre at Curtin has recently produced a short The program is made up of 22 discrete video course in learning skills to re- print-based topics. Each topic has a set place a series of learning skills lectures. of learning objectives and contains in- The course is aimed particularly at formation-type material and clear in- non-native English speaking overseas structions to guide students through students coming into Curtin. There are the instructional module. All 22 topics ten videos in the course, each pack- must be completed successfully before aged with a set of notes and learner students are allowed to progress to the tasks for users to complete. The advan- clinical stage of the nursing course. tages of such a program over a series of lectures for overseas students are obvious. They can play and re-play the Robert Fox 149 videos to ensure complete understand- The Surrogate Laboratory. ing and they can make mistakes in privacy: an important factor in all inde- The Japanese Interactive Video. pendent learning materials and par- These projects are still in the very early ticularly important for Asian students. stages of development, but are ex- The Educational Media Centre at pected to be ready for use at the end of Curtin has also produced a major new 1991. video course in Microbiology a key The Surrogate Laboratory unit in the degree offered by the School of Nursing. The series will be DEET has funded the School of available for the second semester this Electrical and Computer Engineering year. It comprises 18 topic-based video with assistance from the Eductional lectures and ten laboratory demonstra- Media Centre to develop the surrogate tions. The videos are accompanied by a laboratory interactive video for on- study manual and practical workbook campus students and for the WADEC which will allow students to work distance learning program. through the unit requirements at their own pace. The workbook includes The displays and controls of various tests and answers, so that students can technical equipment are stored on evaluate their own progress through video disc and are made available for the topics. At present a conventional 2 adjustment by the student through the hour end-of-unit written exam is of- computer controlled interactive video. fered. The unit is wrapped around a The displays and controls are easily in- published text which all students are tegrated with graphics and textual required to purchase. teaching material. Students are thus enabled to operate as well as to see The intention, after trialling the mate- and be informed about the equipment. rial, is to divide the unit into discrete modules and ad?pt the program for Educational audit software will be in- CML. tegrated into the package. This will provide the student with immediate The Unit is being offered to 'off-cam- feedback on progress and will provide pus' external and country contracted the educator with longer term statisti- students. In order to reach external cal and progressional information. students dotted across the whole of WA, 28 videos will be broadcast on the Access for the student is via a com- local GWN EdTV Network. Students puter-controlled video disc, thus elim- will be informed when these programs inating the need, in many cases, to are to be aired and back up copies of provid e the full range of training each video will be held in tke regional equipment in the early stages of the colleges as well as in lit; main Curtin learning process. Considerable capital Library External Editions Reserve. and maintainance cost savings are made. In addition, students only gain access to delicate equipment when interactive Video competent to operate it, having undergone basic training via interactive There are two ongoing interactive videodisc. video projects in which Curtin is involved: Not only can interactive video improve teaching methods and the pre-

1 5 7 150 sentation of educational material, but it ie repetition can also be used to minimise problems associated with teaching in remote lo- grammar exercises cations and the lack of availability and access to extremely expensive equip- dialogue building ment Where the student population is role playing etc. remote from an educational institufion, or where the student population is choose to print out sequences in widely distributed, it is uneconomic as Japanese or Eng,lish. They will be well as physically difficult to ensure able to select a *Int Out of the adequate access to a wide range of whole sequence, or specific charac- technical equipment for a suitable peter roles etc. (Note that the problems riod. of printing Japanese text are still to be solved) The Japanese Interactive Video choose to access self-evaluation tests This interactive video is also funded by DEET and is being produced by choose to control the program using WA Distance Education Consortium. keyboard, mouse, or, if possible, voice recognition, a barcode will This interactive video is to be a major also be investigated. resource for Australian educational institutions for use by upper secondary Within these choices are a whole range and beginning tertiary students in, ei- of other options. This non-linear ap- ther distance education or classroom proach to learning offers new chal- mode. The disc will be suitable also for lenges for learners allowing them use in business and industry as a self- greater control in the design of their own learning experiences. instructional or open learning package. The project will be composed of video 3equences ot 5-30 seconds in length. Conclusion These sequences can be linked to each other or they can be self-contained. The notion that the traditional educa- Users select video sequences and fur- tion system can equip individuals with ther select ways of interacting with sufficient knowledge to last the rest of them. their lives is hardly realistic. Rather individuals need to develop skills to It is intended that users will be able to: equip them to learn throughout their lives. The major focus of higher edu- browse around the whole system cation institutions should be to help and choose which sequence they students to 'learn how to learn'. want to work with Introducing educational change is al- choose to access sequences in target ways frought with difficulties, espe- or native language cially in traditional institutions. Management and colleagues have to choose the language of the sub-titles be convinced. It is safer in the long run displayed, ie Japanese or English to approach the change of focus from Choose the type of interaction with teacher-controlled instruction to stu- the selected video sequence dent self-directed study on a 'softly, softly' basis, easing into guided self-

J.58 Robert Fox 151 study and slowly moving towards the skills as facilitators, resource persons goal of independent learning. and counsellors, which, in the end, determine the success or failure of 'the We have technology available which independent learning experience. can make the task of producing effective guided self-study materials less daunting. Technology also makes the Address for correspondenc exploitation of materials more flexible and enjoyableforthelearner. Robert Fox, Lecturer, Instructional However, no matter what technology Desfgn, Curtin University, GPO we have access to it is the teachers' Box 19871.1, Perth WA 6001. CHRONIC BLOOD TRANSFUSION:A video and resource book to facilitateteamwork in the treatment of patients requiringchronic blood transfusion

Justus Hiewis, Chisholm Institute of Technology

Ralph E. Green, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology

The program,Take Care! Chronic Blood Transfusionwas the result of a collaboration between the two authors, one of whomwas at that time working in the area of instructional designinthe Education Unit at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) and the otherLecturing in the Department of Applied Biology there. Other members of theworking party included the Director and senior members of the nursing staffat the Red Cross Blood Bank.

Meeting vocational needs educational processes being used in different subject areas in the under- The Blood Banking subject in the RMIT graduate Medical Laboratory Science is vocationally oriented and taken by degree course at the RMIT and also, students in the final year of the more generally, to vocational educa- Medical Laboratory Science course. tion. Blood Banking can be studied ata number of levels. For example, all stu- Changes in the funding basis for the dents have a brief introduction to the course meant that it was necessary to topic in their second year. Those who re-evaluate the aims and objectives of wish to consider Blood Bankingasa many subjects and to determine the career option can study it as a one most effective way of teaching them. It semester subject, and those who are al- was decided to employ a multimedia ready committed to a career in trans- approach and to develop a number of fusion science have the opportunity to instructional packages. The degree of study the area in depth in the subject self-learning and student interaction Immunohaematology. incorporated in each package was determined largely by the aims andcon- Take Care! Chronic Blood Transfusion tent of the subject material being cov- was designed to be used in this course ered. Another concern was the cost in as an interactive video program in terms of time and materials required to response to the identification of a develop and produce each package. number of concerns and issues, outlined below, relating both to the

1 60 - W qm-

Justus H !sans tnd R a OE Green

For a first year intToductory subject in ates as to the level and depth at which Haematology it was decided to use a it was appropriate to present these series of self-instructional booklets and topics to students and in what se- to follow a Keller plan approach to quence, again with emphasis on the help students understand and assimi- need for students to be able to recog- late their laboratory based work. The nise and apply their knowledge in booklets were produced using practical situations. Yet another con- ReadySetGo! and make extensive use cern was the need to make more effec- of graphics. The professional presenta- tive use of the limited teaching time tion of the booklets will allow cost re- available and to present the subject in covery from students who are required ways which would encourage students to purchase them as their course text. tunderstand concepts and principles and also to become more self-reliant in A second year subject in Introduction their approach to learning. The voca- to Immunology requires students to tional nature of the subject obviously come to terms wit many new and lends itself to the use of a problem often complex concepts. The grasping solving case study approach and this is of concepts is often facilitated by the the approach that was decided on. use of diagrams and figures. Quite often animation is also helpful where there is interaction and subsequent Search for suitable material change in the items of interest. The computer program HyperCardTM has An investigation of existing video ma- been used to develop a number of terial in the field of Blood Banking stacks on the various topics in this indicated that there were not many subject. Extensive use has been made programs available and those that of the graphics capabilities of the pro- were, did not address the issues the gramme and stacks are printed and authors wished to examine. provided to students as hand-outs during lectures. The stacks are being The National Heart Lung and Blood programmed and will eventually be Institute in the United States had in available for use in Computer Aided 1984, awarded a Transfusion Medicine Learning. Academic Award to Brown University to examine the state of transfusion The vocational issues related firstly to medidne teaching and the application a need to categorise and define the of new teaching technologies. Under essential elements which students are this award the Brown University team, required to understand to meet their led by Dr James Crowley, commenced future professional mquirements. As the production of a number of interac- medical laboratory scientists they will tive video programs integrating the frequently be operating as part of a use of computers and video. A number team with other members of the health of videos in this series were obtained professions such as nurses and doc- for evaluation, but, once again, the tors. A way had to be found, therefore, topic material and approach used did to relate concepts and principles not suit our purpose. learned in the classroom to future on- the-job training in the laboratory. Another of the authors' concerns was to provide clear guidelines for teachers both of undergraduate and postgradu-

.1 61 Converging Technologies

practice outlined in this manual. This The objeciives of the program could be done by presenting some of the contett of the manual within the The program was conceived as having context of a case study which would three main objectives. The first wasas demonstrate the practical application described above: to show the ways in of the principles. which the responsibilities of nurses, doctors az.d laboratory scientists are linked in the treatment of chronic A Joint venture transfusion patients. The other two objectives related to the need to make It was decided, therefore, that there users aware of the most recent was a need for a new program to be developments in the area of blood developed. Because of the nature of the products together with some of the proposed content (depicting a team si- dangers inherent in lack of care and at- tuation involving nurses and doctors tention to detail in using the products. as well as medical laboratory scientists, They were, firstly, to show some of the it was realised that this program most recent practices and procedures would be potentially as useful to these in the treatment of chronic transfusion professionals in their onthejob and patients and, secondly, to give infor- continuing education as it would be to mation on the composition and storage undergraduates. Consequently the of red cell products used for these pa- Director of the Red Cross Blood Bank tients. was approached and he and senior members of his nursing staff agreed to Although thest objectives may appear become part of a joint working group to be mainly concerned with the giving with the authors. This meant that from of information, the authors were also the start, there was input from all three concerned to influence the attitudes of groups and the development of the students towards their responsibilities. program became itself another exercise Studies in the United States (Sazama, in cooperation and understanding be- 1988; Honig & Bove, 1980) have indi- tween members of the three profes- cated that most fatal transfusion reac- sions. tions result from the transfusion of ABO incompatible blood. In the vast majority of cases the cause behind the Development tissues and their transfusion of ABO incompatible resolution blood was shown to be human error involving mistakes in patient, blood In developing the present progxam the sample and donor unit identification. authors encountered a number of All participants in the transfusion of problems and dilemmas. Some of these blood (medical scientists, nurses and were of a practical cr pragmatic na- doctors) were guilty of such errors. ture, such as arranging suitable common meeting times for a group of di- A practical guide to current proce- verse professionals. Some were more dures and practice had recently been technical in character, such as finding a produced by the Red Cross Blood speedy and cost-efficient way to collate Bank (Blood and its Products), and it and integrate the diversity of inputs was felt that it was desirable to rein- from these groups. This was greatly fa- force and promote vigorously the pos- cilitated by a member of the working itive attitudes to good professional =

Justus H Lewis and Ralph E Gram 155 party inputting material directly into ting up the equipment for transfu- the computer. sion without requiring to know the precise nature of the details. The issues that concern us here, however, raise questions regarding the de- 2 Another related decision concerned sign of instruction. Although in hind- the relationship between the video sight, many of these matters appear and the resource book. Should the clear cut, the working party experi- program be conceived as video-led enced them at the time as complex and or as print-led? Was the printed unclear. This is scarcely surprising page an adjunct to the video c-r was since the processes of design fall into the video to be seen as a practical il- the category of problem solving pro- lustration of the basic principles cesses and these are frequently ill- explained in the resource book? If styuctured in the case of complex and the case study in the video was the 'real life' problems Vackling et al, 1990, central focus, then did this imply in preparation). that the video could be viewed as a 'stand alone' program? 1 One of the the most difficult deci- From the start it was decided that a re- sions concerned the amount of in- source book as well as a video was formation which should be included essential to the success of the program. in the program, whether that in- If, however, the video were to be formation should be given in the viewed on its own, by someone who video or the resource book, or in did not consult the resource book, if both, and how the information the video appeared superficially to be should be presented. This is a classic a 'stand alone' program, would this re- teaching issue: how can we 'cover' flect adversely on the program if the all that students need to know viewer(s) decided that insufficient or within a limited time frame? In this misleading information was pre- instance, the problem was com- sented? Conversely, what if the re- pounded by the need to ensure that source book were studied without ref- the material would be relevant to erence to the video? What steps might three distinct groups of profession- be taken to forestall the possibility of als, who although they clearly had a students being frustrated or misled? commoa interest in the material, were involved in the situation in different roles-Ad to varying degrees Practical solutions of depth. For example, it was desirable that the nurses should have Let us begin with the second problem. some understanding of what the It was decided at an early stage that scientists were doing with the blood the program should be video-led on samples in the laboratory but it was the grounds that one of the major rea- not necessary for them to have de- sons for making it was to promote atti- tailed knowledge. The doctors, on tude changes in the three groups of the other hand, would need a cer- users and the printed word by itself tain amount of detailed knowledge was insufficient to ensure this. By de- of these procedures, but not to the veloping a case study which showed degree required of the practising the progress of a patient trom the start scientist. Similarly, the sdentists and to the end of an episode involving doctors should be aware that there transfusion procedures, it would be existed detailed procedures for set-

j g3 OnivergMg Technologies

possible to represent the most impor- learned through the printed word. So tant issues in a real life situation with should additional information relating which students could identify. to transfusion be presented in the resource book? The decision t3ken by the Having made the decision to create a team, after considerable discussion, real life situation, the next decision was that it would be inappropriate to was whether to recreate this with the burden the resource book, which was help of actors or to use actual patients intended to be used as a worx book by and medical personnel. The choice of those using the program, with an ex- the latter was made on the grounds cess of technical information. It was both of cost and that the professional decided that the important focus of the audience for whom the video was in- programme, was to trigger discussion tended would be more likely to re- within local settings of the issues spond positively to a real patient and highlighted in the video. The function real personnel. Further, the program of the resource book was to remind was conceived as a teaching perfor- students of these questions and to pro- mance rather than a dramatic re-en- vide a series of ancillary questions for actment, and for this purpose, 'real discussion relating to these issues. people' were considered more likely to Although the irni-ortance of the techni- convince learners. cal knowledge was fully recognised, it Following on this paint, was the ques- was seen as being the responsibility of tion of how to ensure that teaching whoever led the discussion groups, to (and learning) were, in fact. occurring? provide access to such information It would be easy for a group to view within the local setting. One of the in- the case study in a fairly superficial teresting features of the experience of way. It was decided to identify a series developing this program was the of crucial moments in the course of the movement from the concept of a self- patient's history. These might be instructional package to an open learn- 'critical incidents' or relate to impor- ing programme or module. The main tant procedural questions. At these features of a self-instructional package points, the action would 'cut', and relate to its self-contained nature. It of- with the signal Take Care! a question fers instruction in a specific area, and it would be posed for the student(s) provides all the information required discuss or take a decision on before for the student to acquire the relevant proceeding to the next segment of the knowledge and skills without recourse video. to outside resources. A self-instructional package addresses itself to each This leads us back to the first design unique individual and takes little or no question. How much information account of the individual's environ- should be included .n the program? As ment. The very term 'package' sug- the focus was on facilitating coopera- gests strongly that all that the learner tion amongst the three groups, it was needs is provided within the package. inappropriate to include large amounts Open learning, on the other hand, ad- of scientific and technical information, dresses itself to the learner within his although it was recognised, that par- or her environment and, equally, to ticularly for the scientists, the knowl- groups of learners within specific envi- edge component was of central impor- ronments. For the learning to be com- tance. Scientific and technical informa- plete, the learner must use the infor- tion, however, is better presented and mation provided within the context of Justus H Lewis and Ralpia Green 157 the environment. In the case of this which to use the program with stu- program, the environment may be the dents and it was only possible to view undergraduate classroom where the part of the program. To view the entire student will have the benefit of the program would probably take at least teacher's experience and learning. But three separate sessions for Medical it may also be the clinical setting of the Laboratory Science students. This time hospital where it may be used by clini- requirement may not apply to nurses cal teachers and supervisors who draw or doctors who are viewing the on their particular expertise and spe- program to gain different information. cific 'local knowledge' to encourage Using the program on a number of the students to develop their own different occasions may be a distinct structures of learning which internalise advantage and permit issues to be the concepts and principles in the con- discussed again after time for reflec- text of the real needs of patients and tion on various aspects of the case the organisational pressures to cooper- study. ate with others to achieve the best outcomes in patient care. References Conclusion Crowley, J, (1987). Interactive Video Technology in Transfusion Medicine, in The program has been trialled with a Summers SH, Macpherson CR and group of final year Medical Laboratory Kennedy MS, eds. Alternative Science students who have had limited Educationa! Methods for Continuing exposure to blood banking practices. Education, Arlington, VA: American Association of Blood Banks. Student feedback was very positive with respect to the case study ap- Editorial Panel, (1987). Blood and its proach employed. They found the Products. A practical guide to Handling program of value in showing some of and Usage. Red Cross Blood Bank. the practices that take place in the Melbourne. ward at the time of a blood transfusion Honig, CL & Bove, JR (1980). Transfusion- being given. associated fatalities, Review of Bureau of BiologicsReports1976-1978. Their main interest was directed to the Transfusion, 20, 653-661. segments of the program which er.- tailed activities in the blood bank. Jackling et al, Problem solving in the pro- They responded well to the open- fessions, (in preparation). learning environment created by the video as it allowed them to put much Sazama, K. (1988). Transfusion-associated of their theoretical knowledge into a fatalities reported to the FDA between practical situation. 1976 and 1985. American Society of Clinical ?athologists Teleconference Because of class timetabling, there was Series. March 8. a relatively short time available in Interactive videotape end videodisc language packages

Warwick H. Lobb and William E. Cartwright Victoria Univemityof TechnologyRMIT Campus

This Paper discusses a Pilot Interactim Language Package whichis being developed to enable major language difficulties facingany new-comer to Australia to be encountered andovercome well before the need to interact arises.

The Pilot introduces concepts and interactive video andvideodisc techniques which are used in the complete package of four units.Areas being developed within a Pilot are: Social Contact language, BusinessContact Language, Cultural Differences, and Study Skills. Concepts, teachingmethodologies and skills areas which will be covered in the complete packageare previewed in this Paper.

Interactive education and the use of in- problems in participating in authentic teractive videodiscs as part of interac- conversation modes where rapid tive educational programs and projects speech, interactive native speaker dy- are becoming more and more namics and problem-solving language commonplace. The use of such medi- skills are naturally employed tore- ums offer an exciting and flexible solve an immediate issue or to simply medium for teachers of English as a engage in idle chit-chat. This shared second language. native-speaker knowledge essentially This paper outlines an interactive lan- involves "knowing the rules" of the conversation game; usually quite a dif- guage education project being devel- ferent game than most non-native oped by the authors. Interactive video- speakers are used to playing. tape and videodisc is being used as the vehicle for an interactive language This linguistic minefield includes be- project. ing able to use appropriate register (formal, idiomatic, local, slang andso on), communication signals which in- Interactive language troduce semantic content, acceptable cguisition "i=1=1 expressiveness, body language and gesture (non-linguistic features), un- It is a common experience of English derstand turn-taking rules and many as a Second Language (ESL) teachers.more elements of verbal and non-ver- to encounter students having a good bal communication that native English knowledge of English language struc- speakers take for granted. ture, vocabulary and function (in con-- trolled communicative environments It is this overall inability to operate ad- Uke ESL courses), yet to have severe equately in uncontrolled communica- Walwith H Lads and William E Cadwded five settings that causes great despair of this type available. Much of what and frustration amongst non-native does exist is generally second-rate speakers; whether they be expressing a (with notable exceptions). point of view in a i..)ardroom or responding to an opinion in an informal social conversation. Video, interactive video and interactive videodisc The difficulties in interactive language acquisition is as daunting for foreign Both large and small systems, from business people, government represen- video player and monitOr to-computer tatives, cultural groups and students videodisc player, video monitor, pe- as it is for the migrant languageripherals, offer the ability to merge learner in the classroom. While the video image with computer graphics pedagogic value is needs-based, the with computer software. Man:. *ice implications of commercial viability computer manufacturers are market- are also extensive. ing video enhanced models to be sold to corporations as training devices for the users of standard machines. Video-based material in ESL Home computers are available with in- With the steady increase in immigra- terface cards to control the operation of tion activating the burgeoning of ESL- home video discs for example, quite provider institutions, ESL teaching some dm,: ago Micro-Ed of the USA methodology continually seeks to pro- marketed a Commodore 64/Pioneer vide students with an experience, both consumer laser video player interface. linguistically and socially of the cul- Similar interfaces are available for use ture, in which they will have to oper- with Apples II and Apple rle micro- ate. Ideally, the language problems computers. With this wide range of confronted in the classroom will be micro-computer/interface cards/video equivalent, or at least relevant to those disc players on the market, they may the student will face when operating become common place in homes and within the community. Unfortunately, offices during coming years. judging from feedback from legions of past students, this is often not the case. As long ago as the Japan Electronics The experience of not being abk to Show of 1982, some Japanese con- function effectively in real interactive sumer-oriented companies offered in- language situations can be devastating. tegrated microcomputer/video systems. Sharp displayed its X1 system, Video-based material has become an which comprised an eight-bit com- increasingly important par'. of ESL puter, a 14 inch colour television moni- teaching methods (usually in the form tor and optical "Teletropper" which of off-air television programs, for- enable the computa to be connected to matted by individual teachers to suit a video camera, video tape recorder or their immediate needs). This has video disc. It allowed computer graph- mostly been in the form of comprehen- ics to be superimposed and displayed sion-testing and discussion-provoking, simultaneously over video images and rather than analysis and evaluation of television signals. This is made possi- participants in authentic communica- ble by a RGB mix circuit. Sharp named tion scenarios. Reasons for this are the concept "Visual integration" and obvious: there are almost no materials

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called the X1 the world's first personal mum exploitation of the materials. The computer/television monitor system. random-search mode of teaching resources on an optical disc allows for a Microcomputer systems linked to rapid sebzction of desired linguistic (or video players show great potential for non-linguistic) features of any conver- use as a simple interactive teaching sation sequence on the disc, rather unit, which could be suitable for ESL than the tedious, almost impossible programs. But the availability of in- operation of rewind/find and play tegrated microcomputer/video sys- modes of videotape., Add to this the tems (and especially those containing ability to store student responses, the video discs) enable the production of analysis of these responses and then highly flexible (and very ...able) the re-formatting of particular indi- teaching packages containing dynamic vidual teaching strategies as a result of programs in a format acceptable to a analysis, then the true teaching power variety of students, from beginner to advanced, from newcomer to one of such a package can be appreciated. wishing to improve interaction in the English language. Language package content Optical videodiscs are looked upon by program developers as a new and in- It is proposed to concentrate on four novative means assembling interactive specific areas of interactive language teaching units and packages. There are which present major difficulties to any a number of reasons for this, including new-comer to Australia. These will be high storage capacity (54,000 frameson presented as four language teaching one side of a videodisc), random access units, namely : to each "picture" or videotape se- 1 Social contact language quence, the disc player can be inter- faced with a microcomputer (allowing 2 Business contact language software control of scenes on the disc), an almost limitless variety of pro- 3 Cultural differences grammed alternatives and branches 4 Study skills when developing teaching units from any one disc and there is virtually no Action/teaching scenarics within each wear of the disc with the laser-reading unit will take place in authentic loca- device. tions and will demonstrate typical everyday as well as the more formal Video discs offer a means to producea business language interactions. This software-controlled system to display will highlight cultural and social dif- video/computer graphics and audio in ferences between those practiced in a static or dynamic mode. Programs Australia and elsewhere. can be written using an integrated personal computer/interface card/video These variable language and social disc player equipment package. dynamics depend upon a number of factors. These include mode, setting, The advantages of optical disc format communicative function, group famil- over lineal videotape for language ac- iarity, shared cultural knowledge, oc- quisition are mainly concerned with cupation, temperament and so on. the interface available for interactive computer-driven sequences for opti-

18 Warwick El Lobb and William E Cartwright 161

7 Packaging and promotional materi- Pilot als production.

Deyelapmenkti Videodisc General hcrdwate being us** As a research program, a pilot videodiscprograms, videotape, au- Compaq XT Microcomputer dio tape, videodisc and a comprehen- M1C 2000 Videodisc Contsoller sive user's guide is being assembled. A Cards and software "combination" of microcomputer, composite VDU, and "laservision" SONY LDP 1500 Laservision videodisc player is being used. Videodisc player Production will involve scripting, SONY KX 14CP1 composite VDU filming, editing and the assembly of a All the production tasks, with the ex- BVU master 3/4 inch video tape. Once ception of production of the master complete, a videodisc will be manufac- glass disc will be done within RMIT by tured and progranuning ef interactive the authors. routines using "Turbo Prolog' will ling appropriate teaching units. The material will be re-formatted and Language Pac kage re-publishedinDigitalVideo It is envisaged that three versions of Interactive (DVI) when that technology the language teaching package will be is commonplace. made available. Version #1 will consist of videotapes, Methodology audiotapes, transcripts and text. 1 Production of teaching units using Version #2 will contain videotapes, conveanional videotape facilities videodisc, transcripts and text. and techniques Version #3 will contain videotapes, 2 Editing to produce a master BVU videodisc, transcripts and text and will 3/4" videotape with appropriate include a training program presented "headers and footers" to allow for by the authors for in-house training videodisc production. personnel. 3 Production of a "glass master' Tailored packages of teaching kits, videodisc. hardware and training programs will also be offered after consultation with 4 Development of flowchart for inter- individual clients. active routines. The Authors expect to liaise with 5 Programming interactive routines in commercial marketers of educational 'Turbo Prolog". media when the products are complete 6 Production of text and guide for in- and marketable. struction package.

iz 9 _

162 Converging Technologies

Elements of verbal and non-verbal Tarrt-Usor Group communication techniques that native English speakers take for granted will ESL teachers in Australia and off- be explained and practiced. shore, visitors to Australia (business people, government representatives, After completing these four self-paced cultural groups, students and tourists) language, cultural and study skills and new-corners alike will be able to units a newcomer to Australia will be use the package as self-directed self- able to comfortably and positively paced programs. On-the-job or re- participate in social, business and edu- medial employer-sponsored schemes cational activities by "knowing the would use the package. Those in- rules" of the conversation game. volved in linguistic research are also seen as potential users. Addrossfor co.'respondenc.

Conclusion Warwick H. Lobb, Centre for English Language Learning and William E. The packages being developed will Cartwright, Department of Land teach appropriate language registers, Information, Victoria University of communication signals, acceptable TechnologyRMIT Campus, 124 body language and turn-taking rules. Latrobe Street, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. 3000

170 The use of interactive video conferencing in educatipn and training: Recentdevelbiornents in Victoria

Peter Jamieson and Keith Rees Victorian TAFE Off-Campus Nehvork

How are things down on the Video conferencing farm? configurations On March 21, 1989 several dozen As it has developed in Australia, video Victorian farmers drove to a number of conferencing for education and isolated rural sites to discuss their training can be configured in a number concerns with a leading national of ways according to the requirements taxation authority. of the learning program. Greeted by a local tutor at each site, The most prominent systems are: and provided with printed support material and a teleconferencing termi- 1 Two way conferences linking desig- nal, they were ready to begin. nated campuses. Using optical fibre lines, these systems are generally At that moment, hundreds of miles used to deliver regular on-campus away in Melbourne, a crew of three accredited courses on a continuing was using simple VHS equipment to basis. These systems can also be televise the presentation by Mr Geoff used effectively for administrative Nielson to the farmers. purposes between campuses. Both the sound and visual image are re- The program was delivered live via ceived simultaneously at either satellite and participants spoke directly point via the television receiver. to the presenter by way of a telephone This two-way communication of conference. sound and video is accurately Simultaneously, in Mildura several termed video conferencing. The two hurvaed observers (teachers, students remaining systems are often dis- and interested community members) cussed under the same banner, but packed the reception site at Sunraysia are not strictly video conferencing. College of TAFE (SCOT) bo witness the 2 One-way video/sound to a single inaugural Sunraysia Project video point usually delivered by opfical conference into Victoria's remote fibre lines (satellite is an expensive northwest. option to single sites). Confettncing, is achieved by providing a separate

i71 164 Converging Technologies

sound link from the reception site The project, which has beena joint back to the teaching pointusually venture by the TAFE Off-Campus Co- a telephone link. This system is best ordinating Authority in Melbourne, suited to programs which are about Sunraysia College of TAFE andthe "one-way" teaching/instuction, Gordon Technical College in Geelong, but require interaction via the audio has focused on theuse cif video conferlink. The teacher does not requirea encing for off-campus deliyery. visual image from students A at the Commonwealth Governmentgrant reception site. Generally therecep- was provided to establish satellite tion site is located on acampus and transmitting and receiving facilities is devoted to the provisionof ac- and to pay for an initial block of credited on-campuscourses at a dis- satellite time. The project presently tance. consists of a network of 16 sites. 3 One-way video/sound via satelliteA major emphasis has been to multiple points, interaction being on the provision of access to educationand provided by a telephone conference training opportunities where these linking all sites. As with theprevi- would not otherwise be available, ous system, this one is used where or could only be presented by lesseffec- one-way visual instruction is re- tive means. quired alongside two-way audio. With this system it is possibleto use Had a terrestrial link accommodating all or some of the V-SAT(VerySmall two-way conferencing to Mildura been Aperture Terminal) and TVRO available at the outset, it wouldnot (Television Receive Only) sitesac- have met the project's requirements. cording to need. Significantly,flex- Such a link will soon be established ibility can be increased through the but it will only enhance, andnot re- provision of mobile sites whichcan place, the method of satellitedelivery be set up for singleprograms, unlike to outlying locations. fixed facilities oncampuses. The number of participating sites islim- The Victorian government's expanding ited to the capacity of available tele- terrestrial (fibre optic) telecommunica- phone conference bridging equip- tions network (VISTEL) linking ment (recently increased from about Melbourne with regionalcentres will 20 lines to 60 ormore through provide a less costly system ofdelivery Telecom's new conferlink service) which can be integrated with the satel- which provides the audio feedback lite delivery system accordingto the link.Thissystemprovides needs of a particularprogram. widespread coverage beyonda campus and is suitable for a range of programs. Programming The Sunraysia Project isa response to The Sunraysia Project the very real need toovercome the isolation of a large community fromexist- The Sunraysia Project's telecomxnuni- ing government services dueto the ab- cafions system has been configuredac- sence of effective and efficient methods cording to this final modelas it reflects of delivery. the broad ambitions of the project. In part, the project has trialledthe delivery of reguldr on-campuscourses

372 "7.

Peter Jamieson end Keith Rees 165 into the Mildura campus of SCOT However, it has largely been con- Technical Obstacles cerned with encouraging, and then training and supporting, a variety of The Sunraysia delivery system has program providers to deliver a range presented certain problems in a num- of programs to largely off-campus lo- ber of programs. Overcoming these cations. limitations has become a ptoject priority. A number of the video conferences have been one-off, fee-for-service pro- The most regularly frustrating teclmi- grams which have complemented a cal problem has occurred with the tele- broader study package. In the case of conferencing. Often one or more sites the inaugural 'Taxation for Farmers' have encountered difficulty for part or program described at the outset, par- even an entire program. ticipants mould enrol for the video conference presentation supported by a Frantic efforts are then required as the local tutor and study notes (cost $20), program continues, to improve or re- or they could include it within a larger store the telephone signal to the af- course of study (cost $60). This pro- fected site(s) to enable full interaction. gram reflects the project's aim to pro- Where the problem has continued vide integrated study packages featur- throughout a program, those partici- ing the video conference component. pants have still been able to receive the Each of the programs has proceeded inward video/sound signal and have on the important principle that it heard exchanges between other sites would not constitute a stand-alone, and the teacher through the television low-level technology television pro- receiver. In these circumstances inter- gram. action and therefore active student involvement has been lost. Programs transmitted under the Sunraysia Project have included a pro- Generally, these problems occur at the fessional workshop on the disabled in point of the telephone conference employment and education, social bridging equipment and Telecom is science and business studies programs, being pressured to address this issue. and a VCE English exam preparation To date, no interference has occurred seminar for country secondary stu- with the live television signal at any dents. site during any program. The general practiceoftransmittingavi- The most recent transmission was a sual/sound signal prior to the actual program on ergonomic furniture and program allows all reception sites to the application of ergonomic principles tune their receivers if necessary. to office procedures. This progam was transmitted from Melbourne to the All programs transmitted under the Sunraysia College of TAFE and five Sunraysia Project have been conducted prisons around Victoria, each of which at a band width of 2MB. This has re- hadinstalledasatellitedish sulted in surprisingly good qitality im- (temporarily relocated from other ages, and has been more than capable Sunraysia Project sites). of meeting the demands of 'talking heads', use of graphics and charts, pre- recorded video, demonstrations of

173 Converging Technciogies practical skills and the operation of Prior to the program, ideally at a re- technical equipment. hearsal if this is at all possible, the novice presenter is made to address, among other things: Video conferencing principles 1 Overall appearance and suitable Lessons we have learnt through the dress (glasseb can create distracting experience of transmittingthe reflections). Sunraysia Pro)ect programs suggest to us a number of important principles to 2 Vocal dynamics, ie avoidance of a be observed in planning and conduct- monotone ing video conferences. Attention to 3 Methods to involve student activity these principles (which are by no in the program. means exhaustive) should save future users of video conterencing consider- 4 Telephone conferencing protocob able time and anxiety. and procedures (essential for a system depending on audio-only interaction). Presentation Style 5 Structuring the program to max- Sticking rigidly to a detailed script imise student interest and the effec- leads to a very wooden presentation. A tiveness qf the medium. script/lesson plan should necessarily be a flexible guide. 6 Capitalising on well-produced, relevant graphics. Despite the mix of programs and con- These concerns may be thought of us tent areas covered under the project, as the "down" side of using what is all of the teachers and presenters (often normally an exclusive technology. non-teaching professionals in a partic- However, most of these basic skills can ular subject) have shared a common be acquired readily once the presenter ability to conduct themselves in acon- has been made aware of them. fident conversational manner. Composure before the camera is essential. Television Protocols The presenter and crew involved ina Staff Development video conference cannot ignore the fact that the television camera is an intru- A consistency in presentation (which sive instrument and thatstu- in itself is vital) has bet.1 brought dents/participants are extremely liter- about in the Sunraysia Project by a ate in basic television programming program of staff development for protocols. Although video conferenc- teacher (s)/ presenter (s, conducted by ing cannot, and should not, attempt to staff from the TAPE Off-Campus Co- compete with the standards of broad- ordinating Authority. The experience cast television, it is directly related to of previous programs is shared with that medium. Each student will bring new presenters and experience has to a video conference an expectation of established a number of basic televi- what television "looks like". Abiding sion presentation techniques which as- by the basic television protocolsmay sist any presentation.

1 '74 prevent a student becoming distracted when questions are put to groups of from the program content. anonymous students. Basic protocols include: Teleconferencing Protocols a Presenter looking into the camera or to a chairperson/interviewer (not In any program, the presenter's Cast somewhere in between). task is to confirm that all sites are receiving the video/sound signals and b Graphics should be legible and de- are linked to the telephone conference. signed (and redesigned if necessary) It is at this point that a system for tak- according to the needs of the stu- ing questions from sites can be estab- dent rather than the prior knowl- lished by the presenter. During this edge of the presenter. initial round-up of sites, the presenter c If two (or more) people are on cam- should take the opportunity to break era, shots should be matched in the ice by encouraging a quick ex- terms of camera angles and the size change in each instance, thereby mak- of people in the frame. ing later participation more likely. d Dress should be appropriate for the program content and the expecta- Chairperson/Host tions of the audience. Stark white, all reds, fluorescent colours, and The Sunraysia Project has established fine checks etc, should be avoided. the important role of a chairperson/host who can introduce the pro- e Lack of variation in camera shots gram, conduct the telephone confer- induces boredom. A close-up en- ence, contribute to the exchange of in- genders more intimacy and information by putting questions to the volvement and can instantly convey presenter where necessary, and gen- a presenter's sense of commitment erally allow the presenter to concen- and self-assurance, (but equally, trate on the program content. This is extreme nervousness is instantly an even more critical role when multi- and painfully obvious). ple reception sites are involved or The most important skill any presenter where technical interference occurs can master is the art of looking confi- with the telephone conference. dently into the camera and therefore at each student. Where there is no group of students at the presentation site to Tutor support teach to, it can be useful to position Providing integrated study packages, . someone alongside the camera to de- not merely television programs, has velop a sense of audience and proper serious implications for the provision eye contact. of human and other resources, as well The project's most effective progruns as for the coordination of the entire have been those where the presenter is delivery network. able to develop a sense of persomil dia- This approach necessi,T the estab- logue with one or more participants at lishment of a coordir vork for each reception site. This techn'que cm the efficient distribu any sup- help to avoid embarrassing silences port study materials adv ertising

J 7 5 CT-

168 Converging Technologies

brochures or enrolment forms; for fees collection (if required) and the provision of on-site tutnrial support; as well Major issues in video as the operation and maintenance of conferencing. the V-SAT and TVRO facilities. Much work has gone into staff devel- Lack of floidbllity"reallirme opment activities to promote the spe- programs? cific role of the local tutor for video In the eyes of its critics, video confer- conferences. At isolated reception sites, the local tutor functions as the host for encing is rigidly scheduled, thereby students and must necessarily perform denying students any flexibility for a number of tasks. Chief among them study and negotiating convenientac- is to prepare students for the style of cess according to the personal circumstances of distance education students. program they are about to receive; that is, it is not broadcast standard, and in Certainly, unlike telephone conferenc- contrast to passive viewing of regular ing which is particularly convenient, television, in video conferencingpar- video delivery requires students to ticipation is the name of the game. assemble at a specific location and at a The local tutor also has a crucial in- prescribed time. structional role and is vital in the The concept of flexibility (access) is identification of key issues, the clarifi- not, however, simply one of time and cation of different points and in space. The Sunraysia Project has suc- prompting valuable questions from the cessfully provided access to resources, group. The tutor's role is absolutely vi- education and training which would tal when the live video presentation is not otherwise be made available, or divided into separate segmentssepa- would be provided in a less satisfac- rated by on-site activities and study tory form. Through its programming, between transmissions. the project has established that interactive video conferencing can be an effective and preferred method of pro- Economy of effort gram delivery. Video conferences are generallymore successful when several of thepro- A hidden problem for staff duction/technical/instructional design clever)t roles are performed by the oneperson. The rigid distinction between produc- Some months into the project, a fun- tion roles and the understandablecon- damental flaw in the entire operation cern to produce a quality product, was exposed. Considering the possible must be weightd against the certain opportunitiesforinvolvement, impact on cost resulting from large through management and project crews. committees, and as presenters and production crew, there had been very few women involved. The Sunraysia experience points to the need to actively provide opportunities for women to participate in order that

.1 7 6 Peter Jamieson and Keith Rea

they may have an effective role in the However, failing proper coordination application of this significant technol- of video conferencin& individual insti- ogy, and in determining policy and tutions will continually face the gulf procedures governing its use in educa- between the potential widespread tion and training. communications network available to them, and the limitations on their own The project sought to redress this im- resources to maintain and utilise that balance by actively cultivating the in- network. volvement of women production staff, hosts and presenters of programs. Given the cost of video conferencing, Such a staff arrangement was respon- many programs may only be effective sible for an examination prepPration when access is guaranteed to a wide program for country VCE students in range of reception lilies. (A reception October, 1989. Subsequently, women site fee or individual student fee may have play xl key roles in several pro- help to recoup costs). grams.

It is intended that a resource base of Teachers and video conferencing_ experienced women be ctablished to assist with, and actively encourage, the It is particularly instructive that almost increasing participation of women in everyone involved in the Sunraysia future video conferences, both behind programs comes from an educational and in front of the camera. and not a technical background. Key staff have generally combined teaching experience with significantly less ex- Need for coordination pertise in television production. The comparative success of the Sunraysia One of the successes of the Project has Project is due in large part to this fac- been the cooperation between the tor. various sectors of tertiary, TAFE and secondary education which has taken A range of approaches may be. place in a number of programs. adopted for video conferencing productions. Very simple programs may In turn, this has highlighted the need be transmitted by one person in a suit- for the coordination of any further ably equipped "studio" using a panel developments in video conferencing of buttons and switches remotely con- Victoria (and between other states) be- trolling a fixed single or multi-camera yond the Sunraysia trial. set up. The Sunraysia College of TAFE Staff development, resource allocatim, has developed such a facility ("SCOT programming and the accessibility of COM") which may also be used in programs are all factors which should more complex programs where the ba- be coordinated by a responsible au- sic console is linked to supplementary thority. equipment and operations. If this occurs, it becomes relatively The decision concerning the degree of easy for an interested educational insti- production complexity built into a tution, government agency, or indus- program should be an etiuc,Aional one. try or community group to mount a That is, do what is required to achieve program. the ed- cational aims. All Sunraysia Project programs have been produced

7 7, 170 Convagin Technologies using two (cheap, VHS portapack the Victorian ambulance service is also style) cameras, with a small vision planned. mixer and standard lapel microphones. Most programs have used a Beyond the lifespan of the Sunraysia crew of three people. Project, the future of video conferencing is less dear. It may be picked up by The crucial point of this discussion is commercial organisations (IBM has that video conferencing will be most just installed its ISEN system for effective when it is in the hands of ap- training using two-way video confer- propriately trained teachers. It doesencing). In educational institutions not require significant expertise in video conferencing will be an impor- television production. In the course of tant part of flexible delivery strategies, the project, generally the greatest resis- if the technologies associated with the tance to video conferencing as a learn- range of flexible delivery strategies are ing medium (especially criticism of its adopted and used in mainstream pro- low-grade production levels) has come gramming. from qualified television production staff at educational institutions. The basis of the infrastmcture is in place. But the main battle will be to Any attempt to hand over responsibil- change the attitudes of teachers and ity for video conferencing to produc- administrators to allow existing recur- tion staff in the "white elephant" tele- rent funds to be redirected to support vision studies common to many cam- video conferencing and other educa- puses should be resisted strenuously. tional technologies. It would be a pity if video conferencing were confined to Video conferencing has little to do the fringe of educational programming with telev;.sion beyond initial appear- for short range or "one-off" fee-paying ances. Principally, it is about teach- activities. It has great potential as an ers/instructors doing what they do educational medium to be used in best; that is, providing real-time learn- conjunction with established tech- ing experiences to students (sometimes nologies and teaching practices, as in a classroom, sometimes at a dis- well with as the emerging computer tance). That a relatively exclusive tech- and associated telecommunication nology is employed should not overly technologies. It is not a universal concern any of us. It is simply another panacea, rather one of a large number learning medium. of educational options.

The future of video Address for correspondence conferencin9 PeterJamieson,Educational In Victoria, a range of future programs Technologist/Project Co-ordinator is planned in support of accredited off- and Keith Rees, Head, Educational campus courses in real estate studies Technology,Victorian TAFE Off- and further professional development Campus Network for real estate practitioners. Trialling the statewide delivery of professional training and development of officers in

17s Developing instructional videos in Indonesia

Alan JoIllffe Box Hill College of TAFE

=MY= n MowlmINIZ. ve The development of instructional videos requires a combination of technical and instructional skills. Developing these in a ovemeas country presents additional problems for the expatriate advisor. This paper is based on my work as a media advisor in an Indonesian teachers college wnere one of my major roles was to develop instructional videos. In 1987 I was employed as a Media fellowships for six to twelve months as Advisor by the halonesian Australian part of the IATEP project. Technical Education Project (IATE?). The IATEP project had been involved The role of tIzq long term advisor was in upgrading the skills of teachers in to work with an Indonesian counter- technical and vocational educatior in part to follow-up their training in Indones,:a for many year. Australia and assist them in the overall operation of their department. At the I worked at the Vocational Teacher's VTUC, I worked in cooperation with Upgrading Centre (VTUC), in Jakarta, the head of the media department. The as a long term advisor in knedia. The media department consisted of seven VTUC has a dual role: Master teachers and one technician.

It is responsible for conducting in- My role was to change the media de- service activities to upgrade the partment from a teaching department skills of practising teachexs. These to one having a major role in program activities are of two to six weeks du production. Since there was a large ration. amount of video equipment available there was great encouragement for me It also conducts an initial three year to fully use the equipment by produc- teaching diploma. ing instructional videos. The short courses are conducted in the The role of the media department at areas of media, food, clothing, busi- the time was to teach student teachers ness, office administration, accoun- and to conduct upgrading courses for tancy and secre' arial studies. The practising teachers from all over courses are conducted by master Indonesia. The media department was teachers at the-UC. Master teachers similar to an educational technology are experienced teachers who have department but taught various aspects undergone additional training in of media use. There was no program Indonesia. Most of the master teachers production taking place for other had been to Australia on long term teaching arcts at VTUC.

119 172 Converging Technologies

All the media centre staff had up to lack of time of the media staff and one year fellowships in Australia to the subject matter spedalists for study educational technology at the program development Hawthorn Institute of Education and had work experience at a TAFE col- lack of funds lege.

Method of program devel- Problems of working as an opment advisor overseas Al Initially, I attempted to run mini work- Advisors working overseas have many shops on video production with the professional problems to overcome. media staff, I taught subjects such as Two of the mains ones for me were: lighting, editing, sound recording and character generator use. However, this The advisor is an "advisor" to their did not prove very successful because counterpart staff who can accept or the staff could not see how the indi- reject their advice. The advisor has vidual skills were to be of any major no authority within the organiza- use to them professionally. Also they tion; they are trying to assist. regarded practical skills as inappropriate and thought this type of work There are cultural uiffelences be- should be completed by technicians. tween Australians and Indonesians. Indonesians tend tc agree with ev- Another problem was r. y lack of erything you say even if the don't. Indonesian language ability. As stated As the reser..th of Cannon (1989) by Cannon (1990) when describing the has shown 1-1.1 Indonesians, more language problem, than Australians, prefer to have good relations with everyone. This Lack of skill in the language of the can led to problems if your coun- host country is a more difficult terpart on:superficially agrees problem, but, in theory at least, this with your advice. can be partly r...olve.d by moving away from formal presentations toward interactive problem-based Problems of develophg learning. structional video To overcome my previous problems, I The problems included: decided a more coordinated approach to training was required. I developed a inadequate television studio new training pian based on the following objectives: diverse range of television equipment Upgrade the television skills of the technician and the media staff, so only one TV technidan they could form the production crew. the subject matter experts and the media staff had no experience in Develop the skills oi the media staff applying instructional strategies to in applying sound instauctional de- video sign techniques to video programs.

S 0 Establish the media department as In full consultation with my counter- "exposts" in developing video pro- part three formal training programs grams. were planned with associated training activities. Establish the scripting skills of the media and subject matter experts. The courses were:

Develop the project management Video production techniques skills of the media staff. Studio production Create an interest in developing in- Script writing. structional video programs. Other training activities included TV Involve local personnel experienced studio visits and work experience for in video, in teaching the courses to media staff. overcome the language and cultural problems. Video production techniques Provide work experience for the cows* media staff in educational television. The Video Production Techniques Course wes &signed to hain the me- Visit other video production facili- dia staff how to operate the video ties. equipment. Several ether staff were involved in the training so a large re- The plan is shown in the associated di- source of people was available for agram production crews.

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TRAINING FORMAL OUTSIDE ACTIVITIES COURSES ASSISTANCE st.dio Das,cVdo Produc I,on

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181. 174 Cower:ink Tecluiolosies

Topics covered included: studio and other equipment. They shot and edited the program under the lighting guidance of Indoitealan supe!vising staff. This course,ranoyer three days. audio

graphics Script wills.* coin administration and planning Several weeki 'liter a Script Writing Course wis held:ThliwaCairakicted pre-production techniques at the VIUC, i411*itit the iselitance of the stafflront TTUC.and, the media scripting advisor. The' objective* if& Course was to allow the media Stiff hi Work editing with stAff from other Object itteiii in the production of a script. Eachinedia instructional design and video pro- staff member worked with subject spe- grams cialistS in the production of an htstruc- tional video. practical workshops Topics covered included: I decided to involve other local staff in the training rather than doing it all Why use video? myself I used staff from our sister college, the Technical Teacher Upgrading Instructional design and video pro- Centre (TTUC) at Bandung. At 'MC duction they were quite well equipped with a high-band television studio. The TrUC Scripting techniques staff were well experienced ',a video production. The course ran for four Samples of instructional videos days. The result of the course was that we ther, had staff who could form Mini videoproductions production teams when required. Mini groups scripting Studio production course At the end of the course subject specialists had completed scripts in their The Studio Production Course was mini groups.was assigned to a me- inducted at Truc Bandung which dia staff membt to compleh* the pro- had a suitable studio. This gave my gram with the help of the subject spe- staff an idea of how an established TV cialists and using the other media de- studio operated. A nrogram was partment members as the production scripted and was planned to be shot at crew. This course ran over three days. MC using VTUC staff to ar=aerate the studio. The students were. land in Over a three months period ten video the complete production of an instruc- programs were produced. During this tional video for the first time. There period they had the continued techni- were no formal classes but the stu- cal, assistant of staff from TTUC dents were shown how to operate the Bandung.

_1 2 Alan lolliffe 175

since there was only one technician, Other training activities the media staff doubled as the production team for each other. The other activities included visits to other video production units. The staff There was a slight competitive ele- saw how other studios operated. In ment to see whO could produce the addition they looked at the physical best production, especially as the design of the studio and this was help- Director and other senior staff ful because they were re-designing would view the videotape's. their own studio. The staff learnt from their col- We also arranged for the placement of leagues and their sister college, as the media staff for work experience in well as from advisors and experts in various video production houses. Here the wider community. they learned practical production techniques of other colleges. Unexpected outcomes Why these courses were The unexpected outcome of this train- "successful" ing plan was that closer cooperation between my college, the VTUC, and The courses were successful in that ten their sister college, TIVC Bandung oc- instructional videos were produced curred. There was genuine cooperation and the media department staff devel- and friendship between the two col- oped video production skills. leges. Some of the advantages of the courses were: Conckisichs The courses were given a degree of According to criteria described by importance within the college. The Cannon (1988), the courses had a formal opening and closing cere- teacher-centred approach as opposed monies of the courses were always to student-centred. In the teacher-cen- attended by the Director and other tred approach, the content is specified senior staff within the college. by the advisor. However there was a great degree of student involvement in * The participants were required to the course and follow-up activities produce scripts during the course which allowed the students to apply and were very involved in decisions the knowledge they had learnt. In ad- about their program. They then had dition, the use of local staff rather than to comple e the program in their expatriate advisors, overcame many own time. language and cultural problems. The subject matter experts worked As an advisor, I acted as a facilitator with the media staff directly. The rather than on my exoertise alone in media staff were in charge and to- my role as an expert applying my tally responsible for the production. practical experience as an instructional designer to solve problems in another The media department formed the country. For the expatriate advisor to basis of the production team, and rely on their expertise alone and not

Pi 3 176 Converging Technologies

use the professional expertise already and Personal Qualities for Effective existing in the country is a mistake. Teaching and Consulting. (Unpublished paper). References Cannon, R. (1988)Conducting Professional Development Activities in Cannon, R. (1990) On Being an 'Expert': Southeast Asia. Paper presented for Conducting Educational Developments discussion at the Annual Conference of Activities in Southeast Asia. In I. Moses HERDSA, Melbourne. (ed).) Higher Education in the Late Twentieth Century: A Festschrift for ErnestRoe.Kensington, NSW: Address for correspondence HERDSA, pp 270-294. Alan folliffe, Instructional Designer, Cannon, R. (1989) Expatriate `Experts` in Box Hill College of TAFE, PO Bag Indonesia and Thailand: Professional 14, Box Hill, Victoria, 3128.

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Educational technology in Malaysia: The resource centre as a unifying concept

John G Hedberg Universtty of New South Wales

My first contact with Malaysia was a are diverse applications, but no professional education conference held unifying concept. Principles are in Kuala Lumpur in January 1970, transferred from more developed where the language of communication countries, but there is a lack of was English but the methods of understanding on part of decision- presentation were largely talk with makers on what is meant by little presentation technology. At that educational technology. This field time, I had only just arrived in Asia must be defined in the cultural and the sounds and smells were so context of each country. The field exciting and different, that I hardly must emerge as an indigenous noticed the lack of resources. Recently, innovation, not a transfer from I was invited to return to present the another country. (Ely, 1990, p1) Keynote papertothe Second Malaysian Educational Technology It is this context in which arises a Society Convention. After twenty difficult problem for Malaysia. The years, I noticed a definite maturity country contains an interesting series about the way in which people were of paradoxes. At one time, it is possible approaching educational technology. to obtain the latest in educational The sophistication was not only in the technology and software, and at the technology employed but in the same time, many classroom teachers concepts held about its appropriate are still working with simple, non- use. In the intervening years, I had projected, self-made materials such as been fortunate to be a consultant to models and charts. It was pointed out one ofthe premier Malaysian to me by members of the convention universities in the area of educational that books are still precious items, technology, and been a consultant and despite the increase in the number of examiner to other universities in the local books which are published for same country. classroom use. The dilemma also extends to the implementation of In reporting his experiences over a educational technology ideas. similar period, Don Ely compared three developing countries, Peru, Chile One of the best examples is the and Indonesia. In summarizing his application of the resource centre conclusions he stated: concept to schools and districts (Tow & Zubir, 1985). While the educational Educational technology is alive but technology ideas are adopted there are not well in all three countries. There problems with their execution. There is

1 85 178 Converging Tedmologies a confusion about what are the key process more effective. Prior to 1972, elements of the innovation and how there existed an Audio Visual Unit in can they be employed in the Malaysian the Ministry of Education and a context. The issues in Tow and Zubir's Schools Radio Service in the Ministry . report are not unique to Malaysia or a of Information and Broadcasting. developing nation. Problems of Following the success of two pilot supply, and government bureaucracy Educational Television (ETV) Projects are universal problems for educational in 1965 arA 1966, and the deciskin by systems. But when also dealing with the Government to introduce an ETV unknown concepts the problem is service on a permanent basis in 1972, doubly difficult. these three services were integrated to form a new Division of the Ministry of Educational technology in Malaysia Education called the Educational has had considerable support from the Media Service. This service was Education Ministry and government charged with providing a viable authorities. In fact, compared toeducational media and technology Australia,thereisremarkable service for schools. The objectives of coherence and organisation. Scarcity of the division are: resources has created a dimate where sharing has created links not often 1to create awareness of the important seen in Australia. For example, role of educational technology for the Malaysian school libraries are part of development and progress of the Educational Technology Division education in the country. of the Ministry and participate in the growing sharing of resources through 2 to assist in providing services that Resource Centres al school district and can help strengthen the teaching and state levels. learning process especially tor the benefit of the schools in the rural In this brief discussion, some of the areas. key developments which demonstrate clarity and direction for scarce 3 to encourage teachers to present their resources will be raised. These basic lessons in more creative and components of the situation can innovative ways through the use of a provide a useful picture of the variety of educational media. application of education technology. 4 to motivate students to obtain knowledge in a more interesting and Creating an organisation to effective manner through a variety of support educational educational media. technology "MMIMIMMI 5 to assist in providing services in The Educational Technology Division teacher training both preservice and (ETD) formerly known as the in-service especially in the field of Educafional Media Service (EMS) was educational technology. established in 1972 with the main objective of helping improve the 6 to assist in the planning and quality of education in Malaysia implementation of reforms in particularly in the rural areas. It was learning and curriculum. believed that the technology would help make the teachinglearning

Jc6 ,.

John G Hedberg 179

7 to prvide advisory services and secondary schools and 28 Teacher's technical assistance for the effective Colleges in the country. The target use of educational media equipment. school population is about 22 million elementary school children, 1.3 million 8 to aisseminate information on the secondary pupils and about 180,000 reforms and developments in the field teachers in the country. of education to teachers and parents. (Abdul Hamid bin Ayob,1989, p The most significant development in

., 11-12) line with the need to integrate services was the transfer to the Division of the Library Section (with effect, from Infrastructure and Administration January 1st 1988) from the Schools Division of the Ministry of Education. The Educational Technology Division The prime objective again relates to the ... is one of the twenty Divisions in the coordination of the educational Ministry of Education. As the ETD resource centres set-up at State, prepares and produces educational District and School levels. Thus the radio and educational television idea for resources centres has had a programs for transmission using the pervading and interesting impact on National RTM networks, it worksthe organisation of educational closely with the Department of technology support Broadcasting of the Ministry of Information as well as the recently The Library section among other privatisedTelecommunications activities is involved in: Company of Malaysia (formerly the Department of Telecommunications). a. evaluation and selection of supplementary reading materials for The Educational Technology Division Schools and reference books for has six different SectionsEducational District Resource Centres (another TV, Educational Radio, Audio Visual, project being implemented through a Library, Evaluation and General loan from World Bank). Services, and Engineering. The Division is headed by a Director who b. Printing of guide books on subjects is responsible to the Director-General such as management of school of Education and he is assisted by a Resource Centres, book selection and Deputy Director and a staff of about development policy for schools and 250 in the six sections. Each Section has other educatinnal institutions. an Assistant Director who plans and administers all the activities in his/her c. Printing of the Educational own Section. At the State level there Technology Bulletin and other are the State Educational Technology special publications. officers whose functions are to coordinate and help implement the d. Conducting of courses/workshops/seminars for ETD programs, acdvities and projects. teachers, resource personnel, The ETD with its staff and activities at students, parents and others rek ting both national and state levels strives to to reading and organisation of provide an integrated educational resource centres. (Abdul Hamid bin mediaserviceforover6,500 Ayob, 1989, p19) elementaryschools,over 1,150 Converging Technologies

The introduction of the KBSR (The Kelantan, Trengganu, Pahang and common curriculum in schools) in Kedah as a pilot project (Tow & Zubir, 1983 may be said to have strongly 1985). Under the current Eighth World influenced the various agencies to Bank Loan Scheme, 360 new District review and reassess their aims, roles Resource Centres are being built and and functions. The Library Services equipped. unit of the Schools Division and the Educational Media Services Division These state and district resource were no exception. Starting from the centres will operate in the context of 1%0's and up until the 1980's library the following functions: services and media services developed as two distinct entities, though each 1to act as a catalyst towards overall had the same target group. professional development of teachers, particularly professionalism in What may be termed a shift in Pedagogy. emphasis from the preoccupation with the production of radio/TV programs 2 to provide in-service training and and the provision of library books and guidance to teachers in materials non-electronic AV materials to a production techniques. concern over the concerted use of media (print and non-print) to 3 to act as a materials bank to which enhance the quality of education may teachers can contribute what they be dated from the launching of the have developed either at the school Projek Menggalakkan Penngunaan level or at the resource centre itself Perpustakaan Sekolah' (Project to and from where they can obtain Encourage Intensive Use of School model materials for reproduction and Libraries) in 1981 In that year the production equipment like cameras, Ministry set aside M$409,000 for a video or audio recording facilities, three year period during which 25 etc. for self-production of materials rural primary schools selected from for use at the school level. the 14 states were given guidance, training,encouragement,and 4 to assist teachers, through in-service assistance to integrate book and non- courses and informal meetings, in book materials and look upon them as acquiring skills of organising and teaching-learningaids.Initial managing their book and on-book emphasis of this project was the materials more systematical1.1 at the physical organisation of material school level, for easy retrieval. according to the established school 5 to help heighten current awareness of library system. The rationale here was teachers through newsletters and that systematic organisation of book other extension services by keeping and nonbook materials would lead them up-to-date on the state of the to easy retrieval which in turn would art in materials production, encourage frequent useage. organisation and use. The Ministry of Education has embarked on a nationwide strategy 6 to offer on the spot professional towards setting up resource centres at advice to teachers in the course of State and District levels. Four State visits to school resource centres. ResourceCentreshavebeen (Abdul Hamid bin Ayob, 1989, p22 established in the rural states of 23)

J Fst John G Hedberg 181

Be thisasitmay, theissues confronting the Ministry of Education Linking educational now go further than the establishment technology concepts with of the school Resource Centres. The rofessional develo ment 1990s have to ensure the greater use of resource centres by teachers and Interestingly, the development of the students, for whole-class teaching as resource centre concept has provided wellasindividualised learning an indirect boon for the professional including self-instruction. There has to development of teachers. Not only be an increase in the understanding of have they provided the technolngical resource-based learning and this will resources, but they have provided a have to be linked to an increase in the meeting ground and a link with use of communication and information otherwise different serving agencies. technologies including, of course the The use of open learning approaches is use of computers in education. now being triedto reduce the problems of travel and time away from the classroom. While not universally Training in Educational accepted, the method has significantly act. jciplo helped to improve teacher skills (Dhamotharan, 1990). Even with this There are a number of institutions newer approach to delivery, there are which train teachers. The most easily real problems of participation and the accessed figures are provided by the recommendation was that Ministry of Universities (currently six in all). Education should support the costs of Training of preservice teachers usually teachers engaging in this form of includes one or two units in the use of professional development. educational technologies. From the figures, it is also evident that theThe concepts for the design and teaching of the students is not also development of alternative delivery personalised and from experience systems are similar to those found in large numbers of students are required other counties, namely, relevance, to take educational technology courses. benefit in terms of time invested, individualisation in terms of needs and Univer Type ofNo No Staff/ feedback,andself-assessment -sity Coursehours/studentsStudent units Patio (Dhamotharan, 1990, p 15). A simple comparison with an Australian study UKM Elective2 units260 1:8 has found similar problems in working withteachersfortheirown UPM Core 3 units 1200 1:40 professional development (Hedberg & McNamara, 1990). The general USM Core 3 units 1363 1:40 applicability of the open learning method is without doubt, the problem remains as to how to motivate teachers UM Elective1 unit 380 1:4 who feel that their employer should foot the bill as they believe they UTM Elective2 units800 153 undertake the exercise for their employer rather than themselves. (Thanby Subahan & Abdul Mutalib Rani, 1985, pp180, 187)

I9 182

prized resourceslibrary books. Most Creating a Professional Associa' ,on universitieshaveconsiderable collections of works in English. It is to Three years ago the Malaysian be expected that the focus on learning Educational Technology Society to read and speak in English as well as (Persatuan Teknologi Pendidikan Bahasa Malaysia will open up the MalaysiaPTPM) was formed and the resources to many students who current membership of around 330 cannot currently use the resources. The people is remarkably healthy. There is dass sizes remain high and so it is considerable support fromthe unlikely and the staff are relatively Ministry of Education, with time inexperiencedsothatmajor release for teachers and financial innovations in teaching methods will support for the activities. The need to not be a likely as the use of the simple develop such an Association is a mark resources of teaching, such as boolts, of the growing need for professional overheads and presentation. recognition of the role educational technology is playing in both the resource centre concept and in the increasingly sophisticated changing resources availableto concepts of information schools. Technology Another idea which was brought home Changing teaching strategies to me with the recent conference was the importance of preparation for life Rohanna Zubir has been working and inaninformationage.The reporting a variety of studies related to predominant focus in schools has beca the changing use of independent the acquiring of knowledge to pass the learning versus presentation strategies examinations.Withgrowing such as lecturing (see for example, awareness of resource based learning, Zubir, 1988). In this regard, Malaysia is there is now a call for the development facing similar problems to those faced of information retrieval and research by other countries when the ideas of skills (Vias, 1990). In fact this has been changing teaching methods. Other a theme of the Educational Technology authors have also suggested methods Division in recent years (Abdul Timid which have been tried in other bin Ayob, 1989) as it encourages countries such as the audio-tutorial teachers to use the broadcast, and approach (Bujang & Hussain, 1985) but audiovisual materials developed by these appear to most often be the different sections of the Ministry. experiments and not really integrate into the mainstream, largely because of It is this change in the concept of how resources available. schools perform their key function of educating the society that educational Recently, there have been policy technology is seen as a key player. The changes which suggest that students tangible development ofresource throughout their secondary school and centres has a clear impact on the tertiary studies should be able to also presence of educational technology in speak another language fluently. The learning. The organisational links emphasis on English as a second between, print, broadcast, computers language will have considerable and other media forms has therefore impact on the use of one of the most potential for efficient development and

.1 0 , John G Hedberg 183 lessfragmentedallocationof concern for what should be the main development effort. focus in the country and how is should be most effectively employed. This has been achieved by the resource centre Conclusions concept and its many ramifications for converging services. The development In summarising the current status of of an integrated organisational educational technology in three structure is by far the most interesting developingcountries, Don Elyoutcome. The task of usingit claimed: effectively has yet to be proven as the marriage is only two years old. 1Educational technology is more of a movement than a field. Thechangingpolicyofthe government to the tme of languages 2 Efforts to transfer North American hasa bearing on the use of technology are resisted, especially in technologies, there is more emphasis lAtin America. now in bilingualism meaning Bahasa Malaysia and English, in that 3 Educational technology professions order and that will develop an increase exist in all three countries, but they in the use of the current resources such have different titles. (ie Minister of as books and English language Education, Director of Education, materials. etc.). Clem Chow (1990, p3) in reporting his 4 There are existing networks of perceptions of the use of new people: Prof.Assoc.of Ed.Tech. in technologies in developing countries Chile; National. meeting of reported: educational technology professionals in Indonesia. There have been many reports o; failuresinadaptingthese 5 Reasons for acceptance of ed tech: technologies. Hardware is relatively easy to get, as is technical assistance Leadership (commitment to do comparedtohelp developing something about educational appropriate software. To develop technology); successful software, it is essential Principles and practices of that there be local input. The material must reflect the values of educational technology can the particular culture. provide equal access to educational opportunity using Malaysia has indeed worked hard to media and; provideteaching and learning Perception of modernizationa materials with an appropriate national desire to adopt conternporary and cultural bias. The growing sophistication of production methods technologies. and quality of materials promises to (Ely, 1990, pl) assist the country achieve better educational methods and more Malaysia by comparison has a strong enlightened practice. There appears to belief in the role technology can play be a real movement away from the in teaching and learning. There is 'cargo cult' approach to the use of

z '4 91 184 CoraergingThchnologies

technologies toward an assessment of Hedberg, j.G., & McNamara, S. (1990). The appropriatenessandeaseof human-technology interface: implementation within the structures Developing for open and distance provided for dissemination. The education. International Perspective, unique mixtures axe paying off and the 18(1), 5. growing professionalism of a group who are identifying themselves as PersatuanTeknologiPendidikan educational technologists and who MalaysiaPTPM. (1989-90). Laporan achieve national recognition is an Tahunan. Mesyuarat Agung Ke 3. important development. (Third Annual Report). Kuala Lumpur. Rahim, MS., Myint, S.K, & Rasidah, S (Eds.) (1985). Perulidkan, Lathihan dan References Teknologi-Teknologi Baru. (Education. Training and New Techreo?ogies) Ayob, Abdul Hamid (1989). The role of Proceedings of a seminar, 21-22nd educational technology in educational December, 1984, Penang: Universiti reforms and its implementation as an Sa ins Malaysia. educational innovation in Malaysia. Paper presented to the UNESCO Thanby Subahan, M Meerah & Abdul Seminar onImplementationof Mutali'l Rani, (1985). Pendidkan Guru Educational Policies and Reforms, dan TeKnologi Baru. In Rahim, M.S., Bangkok, April 25 to May 2. Myint, S.K., & Rasidah, S (Eds.) (1985). Pendidkan, Lathihan dan Teknologi- Bujang,. Hhnin & Hussain, Mohd. Yusof. Teknologi Baru. (Education, Training (1985). Individualised teaching and and New Technologies) Proceedings of learning (ITL)An approachto a seminar, 21-22nd December, 1984, teachingBiologicalcoursesat Penang: Universiti Sains Malaysia. pp undergraduatelevelthrough 175-194. appropriate educational technology. In Rahim, MS., Myint, S.K., & Rasidah, S Tow, D.M., & Zubir, R. (1984). Educational (Eds.) (1985). Pendidikan, Lathihan dan Resource Centres. Project completion Teknologi-Teknologi Baru. (Education. report. Fourth Education Project in Training and New Technologies) Malaysia. World Bank Loan 1329-MA. Proceedings of a seminar, 21-22nd Kuala Lumpur: Faculty of Education, December, 1984, Penang: Universiti University of Malaya. Sains Malaysia. pp 140-174. Vias, R. (1990). The information age: Some Chow, C. (1990). Using new technologies implicationsforschools.Paper in developing countries. International presented to the Second Educational Perspective, 18(1), 3. TechnologyConvention,Kuala Lumpur, June 1st to 3rd. Dhamotharan, M. (1990). Open learning systems for the continuing education of Zubir, Rohanna. (1985). Models of professionalsinMalaysia. Paper Teaching and Student Learning: A presented to the Second Educational Malaysian Perspective. In Rahim, MS., 'fechnologyConvention,Kuala Myint, S.K, & Rasidah, S (Eds.) (1985). Lumpur, June 1st to 3rd. Pendidkan, Lathihan dan Teknologi- Teknologi Baru. (Education. Training Ely, D. (1990).Diffusionand and New Technologies) Proceedings of implementationofeducational a seminar, 21-22nd December, 1984, technology in developing nations. Penang: Universiti Sains Malaysin. pp International Perspective,18(1),1. 115-139.

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Zubir, Rohanna. (1987). The challenges of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, innovation in teaching: A Malaysian Selangor, Malaysia, December 7-8. context. Paper presented to the UNESCO Seminar on the application of Zubir, Rohanna. (1988). Descriptions of communicationstechnologyin teaching and learning: A Malaysian education in developing countries, perspective. Studies in Higher Education, 13(2), 139-149.

193 Developing an intelligent tutoring system

Neil Hall The University of Wo#ongong

This paper is concerned with the de- argument about teaching for under- velopment of an Intelligent Tutoring standing, and about procedural and System for use in teaching mathemat- conceptual knowledge. The intelligent ics. Research in the field of intelligent tutoring system must take these views tutoring systems is generally con- into account in its objectives and in its ducted by cognitive scientists or com- presentation. Developers of the intelli- puter scientists whose main concern is gent tutoring system need then to ex- the development of a system that emu- amine research as to what is known lates human behaviour, or at least a about student learning in that field, system that arrives at the same con- including the problem of representing clusions achieved by a human. This mathematical concepts using two and paper takes the view that fundamental three dimensional objects, and must to the development of intelligent tutor- then investigate good teaching practice ing systems is an understanding of in the field. Each of these issues is processes related to pedagogy and analysed in later sections of this paper. learning. That is, this paper argues that the extent to which an intelligent tutoring system is educationally valuable Understanding as an objective partly depends on the ability of cogni- in mathematics teaching tive scientists and computer experts, but also depends on a detailed under- Much research and development has standing of the teaching-learning pro- taken place in recent years concerning cess. In particular this paper examines the teaching and learning of mathe- the intricacies and complexities of matics. There is a long history of math- teaching and learning seemingly sim- ematics taught as a set of rules to be ple mathematical procedures. learued and practised. The rejection of this very taditional approach to mathematics also has a Jong history (Breslich, 1933; Durell, 1929; Taylor, 1938). Contemporary approaches to The first decision in developing an in- the teaching of mathematics see telligent tutoring system is to select the 'understanding' of mathematics by the content area. In the research reported learner as fundamental to the teaching here the topics were the addition and process. subtraction of whole numbers, and the addition of fractions. Educational ob- The term 'understanding' reflects at jectives of the intelligent tutoring sys- least two views. One view is that of tem are then set: in mathematics edu- understanding as 'remembering the cation there has been a long standing step by step application of the appro-

1 g4 Neil Hall 187 priate rule to obtain the correct an- date. In reality, for the great majority swer'. This has its basis in traditional of school children, a fuller understand- dassroom teaching, with the learner ing of mathematical relationships does simply being a smaller version of an not occur through drill and practice adult, who has to learn the rules of alone. mathematics. A second view of 'understanding in mathematics is that Conceptual knowledge involves un- the learner is able to perform the step derstanding relationships between by step sequence to achieve the correct concepts and procedures. A student answer because he or she understands with conceptual knowledge of a topic the concepts behind the rules and has a is more likely to be able to explain his good knowledge of the relationship or her solution to a problem, is more between these steps. likely to have an individual approach to the solution to particular problem, and is more likely to be able to transfer Procedural and conceptual this knowledge to related problems, knowledge than is a student who is limited to procedural knowledge. The learner with Procedural knowledge is concerned conceptual knowledge has a well de- with following the appropriate se- veloped conceptual map of the inter- quence of steps to obtain a correct an- relatedness of mathematical ideas, and swer, whereas conceptual knowledge a well developed network of mathe- requires both an ability to obtain the matical concepts. Of course, a student correct answer and to be able to ex- may have conceptual knowledge in plain why the steps in the algorith are some topics, and operate with proce- appropriate (Hiebert, 1986). Learning dural knowledge in other areas of procedures 'by heart' so as to obtain a mathematics. rorrect answer without any deeper understanding is dearly rote learning, Conceptual knowledge may be seen to and involves only procedural knowl- exist at a number of levels. The pri- edge. That is, procedural approaches mary level is where mathematical rela- invol ve choosing the correct rule and tionships are understood and can be substituting known values so as to find applied effectively: for example, the value of, the unknown: success is recognising the appropriate trigono- heavily dependent on the context in metrical ratio to fmd an angle in a right which learning occurred. angled triangle. Then there is a higher, more reflective level where one sees Procedural knowledge is concerned the relationship that exists between with 'how do I get the correct an- trigonometrical ratios and algebraic swer?', and is often linked to 'skills', at statements and manipulations in gen- the expense of understanding. It is eral. That is, at the higher level, the seen by mathematics educators as the mathematical understandings are poor cousin of conceptual under- richer, and one can analyse problems standing. There is a long history of to plan the most appropriate method teachers arguing that by teaching 'the of attack based on earlier experienceq skills' a fuller understanding will occur and examination of the likely range of at a later time. This may indeed be the possibilities. The essential element to case, but it rarely happens unless the conceptual understanding of mathe- teacher sets out consciously to provide matics, at both the primary and Ligher that elaboration of the skill at a later levels, is the understanding of the re-

.195 _

188 Converging Txhnologies

lationships between mathematical con- procedural versus conceptual have to cepts, and the ability to be able to free be addressed. Indeed, the longer term the mathematical concepts and proce- value of such intelligent tutoring sys- dures from the context in which they tems is likely to be enhanced if they were actually used; that is, to increase are based on approaches more likely to the generalisability of the concepts.to lead to conceptual understandings new contexts. Von Glaserfeld (1987) than if they limit themseb:es to em- argues that the more abstract the con- phasising procedures. cepts and operations, the more reflective activity will be needed, that these operations and concepts are products The role of embodiments in of several levels of abstractions, and mathematics learnin that successive acts of reflection are necessary. This use of representations in mathematics,especiallythrough the The assumption is made implicitly, if widespread classroom use of manipu- not explicitly, that school mathematics lative materials, exemplifies one of the should be about the conceptual under- major aspects of modern mathematical -4.-mding of mathematics. Procedural pedagogy. This aspect is concerned understandings are insufficient. Given with the representation of mathemati- the meaning of 'understanding in con- cal concepts and principles through temporary mathematics education, it two or three dimensional diagrams appears that learners must attain con- and structures. The main questions of ceptual knowledge in the field of interest to researchers include what study. Conceptual knowledge is ar- representations are most effective in gued to be 'better' than procedural mathematics, ought these representa- knowledge because it involves a tions differ with the age of students be- higher level of understanding. In con- ing taught, and just how is it that ceptual knowledge the problem solver learners use these representations to is more likely to be able to solve a internalise the mathematical concepts novel question through his or her more involved so that they construct cogni- fully developed cognitive schema, and tively efficient inter-related conceptu- through a greater likelihood of being alisations of mathematical knowledge? able to successfully transfer previous The term most associated with these experience to new situations. Von aspects of teaching and learning in to- Glaserfeld (1987) asserts that "the pri- day's literature is 'embodiments'. mary goal of mathematics instruction has to be the student's conscious un- The ways in which conceptual knowl- derstanding of what he or she is doing edge and procedural knowledge are and why it is being done". Conceptual developed is still the subject of re- knowledge will allow the learner to search. It is not a simple issue. Many organise his or her knowledge more ef- teachers, especially of elementary fectively, and memory and recall will school mathematics, make use of be easier, because the relationships be- teaching materials that embody math- tween the mathematical concepts are emafical ideas. The learner is meant to understood. use this material initially to solve mathematical questions, and theit in If intelligent tutoring systems are to be some way to internalise the mathemat- developed for widespread classroom ical concept embodied in the mate:ial. use in mathematics the argument of For example, by using Multi-based 189

Arithmetic Blocks the learner is exis rarely apparent. At the same time it pected to internalise the concept of must be realised that learners have to place value which causes so much dif- be given time to familiarise themselves ficulty in the performance of arith- with the various representations in metic calculations. The same materials order to be able to use ;tem effectively, are designed to help the learner under- and to have a greater chance of inter- stand addition and subtraction algo- nalising the concepts involved. For ex- rithms involving almost any size num- ample, even calculators are a hin- bers. But just how the concept of place drance in solving arithmetic problems value or the structure of the algorithm if the user is not totally familiar with is internalised is unclear. Little de- the operation of the calculator (Cooper tailed understanding exists as to the and Hall, 1989). use of embodiments and symbolisa- tions in general (Kaput, 1987): in spite Dufour-Janvier et al. (1987) add further of research into different representa- support to the earlier views expressed tions of a rahge of mathematical con- here, when they outline a range of cepts there is no systematic agreed motives for using 'embodiments', or as upon theory. theycalledthem'external representations'. In their view repre- A fully developed understanding of a sentations are an inherent parc of concept means that the student will be mathematics, they make possible mul- able to use manipulative materials and tiple embodiments of a single concept, diagrams to solve problems about this they help overcome spedfic difficulties concept, will be able to use spoken and and make mathematics more attractive written language to solve problems and interesting. and describe their solutions, and will be able to apply this problem solving With regard to intelligent tutoring sys- ability to the real world (Lesh et al., tems then, there is a clear need to em- 1987): effective teaching will have to phasise the flexibility with which such include all these kinds of experiences. systems must deal with representa- This idea is supported by Booker et al. tions of mathematical concepts. This (1980) who argue that arithmetic activ- need for flexible representations is ities ought not to bc- limited to written likely to increase in importance as the numerals, but ought also to include availability of mathematics education activities associated with the word software, including intelligent tutoring name and activities involving con- systems, increases. crete/ diagramatic representations of numbers. This is clearly important for developers of intelligent tutoring sys- :Leaching strategies tems. The importance of the way mathemati- Present day educational computer cal concepts are represented has been software available for use in mathe- discussed, as have the kinds of knowl- matics sometimes uses diagraniatic edge learners' need to achieve. But representations, but relies .mostly on there is still the issue of teaching written symbols (numerals) and sel- strategies. That is, conceptual knowl- dom uses number names. Such soft- edge may be more desirable than pro- ware may use diagramatic representa- cedural knowledge, and embodiments tions of manipulative materials, but used in computer based teaching may the link to wriaen or other symbolisms have to be flexible, but this does not

197 190 solve the pri....em of how topics should been a closer examination of these be taught. assumptions so as to understand how learning actually takes place, how The question of the most effective concepts are formed and organised, teaching style is clearly complex. The how efficient cognitive networks are behaviourist style of teaching with its developed, and how concepts can best emphr sis on stimulus-response con- be stored and retrieved. In developing nectior,c is eliminated since mathemat- an intelligent tutoring system it must ics 'educators generally regard it as un- be remembeted that we are primarily pc,pular and believe it is likely to lead concerned with the view of 'embodi- to procedural rather than conceptual ments' as a teaching methodology: but knowledge. According to Howson this more recent research emphasis .(1983) this approach has exerted little into how learning actually occurs influence on mathematics teaching. through the use of 'embodiments' The Integrated-Environmentalist style provides us with a model upon which (where mathematics teaching is envi- to base pedagogy. ronmentally based) and th? Formative ter.ching style (based on Piagetian Ohlsson and Hall (1990) have devel- principles) would seem oped a model that predicts that the . tobe too pedagogical effectiveness of an embod- complex in terms of design and con- iment is a function of four variables: struction for use in an intelligent tutor- the ease with which the learnercan ing system, and in any event there is understand the description of the em- little support for them in the schools (Howson, 1983). The Structuralist ap- bodiment procedure, the ease with which that description can be procedu- proach, emphasising the structure of ralized, the degree of isomorphism be- mathematics, seems to have a good tween the embodiment procedure and deal in common with the design and the intermediate or target procedure, structure of an intelligent tutoring sys- and the degree to which the transfor- tem. Howson notes that there has been mation of the embodiment procedure little rigorous research into this teach- procedure into the intermediate or tar- ing style, but argues that it is a useful get procedure can be done through approach. Indeed there is a good deal of support in the literature for the simplifications. Structuralist approach to teaching The model focusses on the isomor- mathematics (Booker etal., 1980; phism between the embodiment pro- Bruner, 1963; Dienes, 1960, 1973). cedure and the intermediate or final target procedure. This model proceeds in four steps: A pedagogical model for mathematics teaching a Construct an information processing model of the embodiment proce- In mathematics education the acquisi- dure as well as the target procedure. tion of conceptual knowledge is believed to be facilitated through the use b Run the models to generateex- of manipulativematerials. panded traces. 'Embodiments' are an important part of mathematical pedagogy (Booker et c Decide which entries in the ex- al., 1980; Davis, 1986; Hall, 1981a, panded traces correspond to each 1981b, 1982). More recently there has other.

P, 8 Neil Hell 191 d Calculate the isomorphism index. in the embodiment procedure are compared with the steps in the target Figure 1 shows an expanded trace for procedure. A measure of the isomor- the we of Multi-based Arithmetic phism between the two procedures is Blocks in solving an addition of two calculated using a formula that takes If/me-digit numbers. In the figure F, L into account the number of steps in and U represent Flaa, Longs and Units each trace, and the numbcr of steps in which are the names given to the ma- one trace not matched by steps in the terials to emphasise the place values other trace. Ohlsson and Hall (1990) hundreds, tens and units. maintain that the higher Ite isomorphism as calculated using the formula, Figure 1: The procedure for addition the more effective will be the use of the with MAB blocks. embodiment in teaching the target behaviour. Put another way, the higher 0. Add (5F, 3L, 2U) and (1F, 4L, 9U). the measure of isomorphism, the greater will be the achievement scores 1. Pkocess the units (2U, 911). of learnut. This formula was success- 1.1 join 2U to 9U => 11U. fully applied to three pieces of research, two of which were computer 1.2 Trade 1111. based. 1.2.1 Decompose 1W. 1.2.1.1 Count out 10 units. To generate sets of production rules 1.2.1.1 Move remaining 1 for these procedures takes a matter of unit down. hours. The ease with which the mea- 1.2.2 Exchange 10 units. sure can be applied makes it possible 1.2.2.1 Move 10 units to the to generate hypothetical designs, cal- bank. culate how well they come out on the 1.2.2.1 Movel long to the L isomorphism index, revise them, calcu- column. late the index again. The model claims that the degree of isomorphism is one 2. Process the longs (3L, 4L,1L). of four variables that determine the ef- 2.1 Join 3L to 4L => 7L. fectiveness of an embodiment. It is not 2.2 Join 7L to 1L .-> 8L. the sole determinant, but the re- 2.3 Move 8L down. searchers suggest that it is safe to predict that if the isomorphism is low, 3. Process the flats (5F, 1F). then the embodiment will not be effec- 3.1 Join 5F to 1F => 6F tive. 3.2 Move 6F down According to this model the teacher Total number of enties: 17 . has three tasks. First, to describe the embodiment procedure in such a way that the learner can proceduralize it. There are seventeen steps that the Second, to specify the analogical learner must take in order to answer mapping between the embodiment this question. Some of the steps are procedure and the intermediate proce- physical actions but others are thought dure. Third, to guide the learner processes. Next another trace is de- through the successive simplifications vised, for example, a trace of an of the intermediate procedure until it 'expert' in adding three-digit numbers: coincides with the ta:get procedure. In this is the target procedure. The steps the context of intelligent tutoring sys-

1 9 9 tf"se-

192 Converging Technologils

tems, the designers of such systems may find this model an appropriate.References base from which to develop specifica- tions for the system. In any event the Booker, G., Irons, C. and Jones, G. (1980) model proposed by Ohlsson and Hall Fostering Arithmetic in the Primary clearly shom the complexity of having School.Canberra:Curriculum students learn mathematical concepts Development Centre. and skills, and indicates that specifying the teaching component of an in- Breslich, E.R. (1933) Secondary School telligent tutoring system will itself be a MathematicsandChanging complex problem. Curriculum. Math T, 26, 327-9-

Bruner, JS. (1963) The Process of Education. Conclusion New York: Vintage Books. Cooper, T. and Hall, N. (1989) The effect of Inherent in this paper is the view that instruction on calculator usage on perfor- intelligent tutoring systems will lessen mance in multi-step word problems will' their potential impact if their designers calcukdon.Researchmonograph, believe that knowledge is a commod- Blisbane CAE. ity, directly transferable from one person to another in the way that every- Davis, R.B.(1986) Conceptual and day items are bought and sold. The Procedural Knowledge in Mathematics: software's role is not to dispense a Summary Analysis, in J. Hiebert (Ed) knowledge in accurately sized dollops, (1986),Conceptual and Procedural but to provide the opportunity foe the 1.:4owkage: the Case of Mathematics. learner to come to a correct and effi- Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. dent conceptual organisation. This paper has argued that in the world of Dienes,Z.P.(1960)RuildingUp classrooms, education and training the Mathematic& London: Hutchinson. development of an intelligent tutoring system is indeed problematic. Dienes, Z.P. (1973) The Six Stages in the Process of Learning MathemaUcs (P.L. The Ohlson and Hall model sum- Seaborne, Trans.). Paris: OCDL marised here addresses the major issues raised in this paper. The model Dufour-Janvier,B.etal.(1987) desr-ribes a method fo: using embodi- Pedagogical Considerations ments in both face-to-face and com- ConcerningtheProblemof puter based teachhtg, it provides a Representation, in C. Janvier (Ed) pedagogy based on a well documented (1987) Problems of Representation in the view of learning and clearly demon- Teaching and Learning of Mathematics. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum strates a method of assisting a learner Associates. towards both expert behaviour and an understanding of 'mathematical con- Durell, F. (1929) Making the concrete and cepts. The model provides a useful tool abstract help each other th mathemat- suitable for the design of the teaching ics. Sch Sci Math, 29,702-713. component of intelligent tutoring systems. Hall, N. (1981a) Teaching Decimals- Diagnosis and Remediation. In A. Rogerson (Ed) Mathematics: Myths and Realities. Melbourne: MAV.

200 Neil Hall 193

Hall, N. (1981b) Teaching Fractions - Solving, in C. Janvier (Ed) (1987) Diagnosis and Remediation. In A. Problems of Representation in the Paching Rogerson (Ed) Mathematics: Myths and and Learning of Mathematics. Hillsdale, Realities. Melbourne: MAV. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hall, N. (1982) Towards a Theory of Ohlsson, S., and Hall, N. (1990) The Teaching Mathematics. In J. Veness Cogni!'ve Function of Embodiments in (Ed) Mathematics - A Univenal Iimguage. Mathematics Instruction, Technical Sydney: AAMT. Report No. KUL-90-02. Pittsburgh: Learning Research and Development Hiebert, J. (Ed) (1986), Conceptual and Centre, University of Pittsburgh. Procedural Knowledge: the Case of Mathematics. Hinsdale, NJ: Lawrence Taylor, E.H. (1938) Mathematics for a Four Erlbaum Associates. Year Course for Teachers in the Elementary School. Sch Sci Math, 38, Howson, A.G.(1983) Curriculun 499-503. Development and Curriculum Research: Part C. Windsor, UK: NFER- Nelson. Von Glaserfeld, E. (1987) Learning as a Constructive Activity, in Tanvier, C (Ed) Kaput, J.J. (1987) Representation Systems Problems of Representation in the Teaching and Mathematics, in C. Janvier (Ed) and Learning of Mathematics. Hillsdale, (1987) Problems of Representation in the NJ: Lawrence Eiibaum Associates. Teaching and Learning of Mathematics. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Address for Correspondence Lesh, R., Post, T. and Behr, M (1987) Neil Hall, School of Policy and Representations and Translations Technology Studies in Motion, Among Representations in The University of Wollvngong, Mathematics Learning and Problem Wollongong NSW.

201. Expert systems and education:An innovation in Grad Dip Ed (Computer Education)

George Gedgovd Universtly of Technology. Sydney "WIMMI1=1 /n a continual quest for excellence and application of leading edge technolo- gi, The Institute cf Technical and Adult Maher Education (ITATE) introduced "Expert Systems and Education", as a final semester option, into their Graduate Diploma in Educational Studies (Computer Education) during Semester 2 of 1989.

This paper presents the lecturer's perspective of the inaugural launch, method cf presentation, evolution of format, conceptual pitfalls and teaching challenges together with concensus strategies for hurdling foreign ;argon, Wien methodologies and preconceived mysteries.

Despite unexpected manifestations of Computer Industry completed the seemingly myriad problems, some 1989 cohort. bizarre computer feedback and tremendous emotional drain in con- The lecturer's qualifications range tinual attempts at demystification of across several disciplines [Electrical strange concepts, the author found Engineering \ Applied Science \ Expert Systems and Education the most Operitions Research \ Computing \ difficult, unconventional yet fas- Education], 14 years in industry, 21 cinating and rewarding experience in a years full-time tertiary teathing. He twenty-five year tertiary teaching ca- qualifiedforthe Grad Dip Ed reer. (Computer Education) in 1988 with the project ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE EXPERT SYSTEMS IMPSHELL The Group 011989 and has studied educational techniques during the past 15 years. The inaugural Expert Systems option attracted the majority of taachers, trainers, and educators taking courses Course Outline in semester 4 of the Grad Dip Ed program. Student backgrounds cov- Expert Systems and Education seeks to ered the spectrum: TAFE Computer develop an understanding of expert Co-ordinator, TAFE teachers of systems and their social and educl- Business and Administrative Studies, tional implications. Students learn how Engineering, Building, Mathematics, expert systems work and study sam- General Studies, External Studies, HSC ples of expert systems in use. Students Chemistry.PrimaryEducation, also use expert system shells to gain Teacher Education, Public Service,

2 n 2- W="

practice in building expert systems in How expert systems work. their area of spedalisation. Inference engine. Working memory. Knowledge base. Rules, networks, frames. Backward and forward Pre-requisttes cad Assesunent chaining. Differences among expert systems. Pre-requisites cansisted of the subjects: ComputersandTeaching 1, Methods of knowledge acquisition InformationProcessing2 and used in expert systems. Know/edge Principlesof Programming2. engineering. Induction and intelli- Assessment consisted of the creation of gent editing. individual Expert Systems together with essays detailing the application of Examples of expert systems, eg, Expert Systems in each student's area MYCThJ (medidne), PROSPECTOR of expertise. (geology), INFEST (legal)., BUILD (architecture), EXCALIBUR, BUGGY, SOPHIE (education). OblectIves The course unit was designed to en- 6 Expert system shells. Expert systems able students to versus expert system shells. Variety of expert system shells. Advantages critically examine the notion of ex- and disadvantages of using expert pert systems system shells. Using an expert systems shell to develop a proposed 6 describe how expert systems work expert system.

explain methods of knowledge ac- * Social and educational implications. quisilion in expert systems Deskilling of professional knowledge and expertise. Wider availabil- describe examples of expert systems ity of expertise. Expert systems as in use expert teachers. The effects of the narrow domain of expertise of ex- use expert system shells to gain pert systems. practice in building expert systems in their area of specialisation Resources discuss the social and educational implications of expert systems. The ITATE Computer Studies Unit comprises a laboratory of 24 IBM work stations together with a laboratory of Content 14 Osborne work stations. The two contact hours per week were sched- The content comprised the following uled for Wednesdays, 11.00 am to 1.00 topics : pm in the IBM laboratory. The IBM machines allocated for the course were The human expert. Expert knowl- of the PS/2 System 30 286 variety. edge versus expert behaviour. Components of an expert system. Available software consisted of ESIE and IMPSHELL-87 Shareware Expert Systems Environments, evaluated by

2 196 Converging Technologies

two ITATE studentsinpartial Supremely Simple) principle governed fulfilment of requirements for the the method of presentation. award of Grad Dip Ed (Computer Education). Every other resource had Essentially, this course was designed to be begged or borrowed. For exam- for maximum effect.Itwould ple, IMPSHELL-89 was begged, while demystify Expert Systems and explore EXPERTEACH III was borrowed. the depth as well as breadth of the topic in a graphic, diagrammatic, Documentation for IMPSHELL was jargon-free mode. The group would finally published in text book form and focus on understanding, creating, became available in Australia during achieving and evaluating, rather than April, 1989. The book Expert Systems arguing about shades of meaning ina Programming in TURBO PROLOG, largevocabluaryofstrange Daniel H Marcellus, Prentice-Hall Inc nomenclature. In the words of Anna 1989, which included IMPSHELL-8. Hart, Knowledge Acquisition for diskette, was used as a primary Expert Systems, Kogan Page, 1989: reference for Expert Systems and Education. In addition, the impressive a no-nonsense approach to a subject On-line Study Course, EXPERTEACH which is too often obfuscated by IntelligenceWare Inc., 1988, was jargon and technicalities. introduced,forconsolidation purposPf, as a self-paced tutorial. Inaugural Lecture Under the prevailing conditions, one's teaching ability and use of inner re- The first lecture was carefullypre- sources, guided the direction of the pared on several overhead transparen- course and proved the main contribut- cies and commenced with a short in- ing factor to the degree of success of troductory overview. The field of Expert Systems and Education. The Expert Systems was defined asa sub- author was prepared to face peer and set of Artificial Intelligence(AI). IBM student judgment at the end of the in- PC based expert systems shellswere augural course during December, 1989. introduced, together with previous work in this area at ITATE. The class was alerted to unconventional Al jar- Philosophy of Presentation gon and was led through a hands-on demonstration of EXPERTEACH The initial design was generally 'in ac- cordance with most of the Background Assessment tasks were presented to- Assumptions presented in Adult gether with the notion that thegroup LearningPrinciplesandtheir would be studying an emerging body Application to Program Planning, D H of knowledge. The introductory phase Brundage & D Mackeracher, 1980. The concluded with some suggested areas detailed lecture notes endeavoured to of research and the presentation ofa sequence the course in small, easily substantial list of reference books. digestible, visual frames.It was anticipated that the proposed tech- Expert Systems demystificationcom- nique would give each student a "feel" menced with individual student for Expert Systems without wading participation in hands-on attempts to through a near infinite jungle of for- solve the classic, four coin, nickel-and- eign jargon. The KISS (Keep It dime problem. After three to four minutes a visual representation of the

'214 George Gedgood 197 complete problem space, in traditional systems are readily available, how ef- state-space decision tree format, was fective are they, and how are they pro- displayed wing the overhead projector granuned? and a copy was distributed to each student. After approxinntely 30 minutes, it was time to introduce a change of pace in The historical perspective took the the form of an exploratory walk- form of a chronological scan through through the various menus plus all fifteen important milestones of Al re- frames comprising the introductory search between 1947 and 1990. Item 0: Background on Expert Systems Artificial intelligence in education was within the EXPERTEACH III tutorial. illustrated by a transparency featuring intelligentcomputer-assisted The EXPERTEACH 111 learning envi- instruction (ICAI) placed in context of ronment posed a series of pee,inent AI activities and lessons learned dur- questions and provided simple, jar- ing the two decades, 1960-1980. gon-free answers, in an impressive colour coordinated graphical format. The babic elements of artificial intelli- For example: gence were conceptualised in the form of a segmented wheel, each segment is a representing a unique subset of AI. An expert system program behaves Expert Systems was highlighted in the like a transparency. A later transparency illustrated the distinctive similarity be- expert tween the User Inference Engine Working MemoryKnowledge Base EXPERTEACH III thus led the group Expert System Architecture and through Methodologies for Dealing StudentTutorPrior Knowledge with Knowledge, Knowledge Oriented Knowledge Base, ICAI Educational Applications, Differences Between Model. Traditional Programming Languages andLogical,ObjectOriented Expert Systems in Management were Programming. The penultimate flame presented from the point of view of the displayed a chronological develop- "Intelligent Assistant" as a facilitator ment of programming languages in in the decision process. The module block-graphical format. The initial concluded with several applications of contact with PROLOG and USP took Expert Systems in Crisis Management. place in the penultimate rrame of Item 0. Overview of Expert Systems The next change of pace was designed to slot the presented terms and con- The second session focused on discus- cepts into context by conceiving a sions of the following essential ques- possible application. A classic mystery tions: What are Expert Systems? Why "Electronic Expert Solves Murder at use them? How do they work? Where Mumfrey Manor" was thus specifically are they used? Can they alter society, chosen to reinforce the group's interest and in whe way? What is their poten- and to blend the new concepts with tial, in education and training? What is previous.. knowledge. their potential, generally? What supporting resources are available? What

2,0 5 198 Comas* Tecnologia

by SHERLOCK through the use of Secrets of an Electronic Expert "Certainty Factors". Scratches on the victim's hand therefore elicited a re- A hypothetical crime-solving expert sponse of 0.8 negative (80 percent cer- system, SHERLOCK, was introduced tain) to the question "Except for the in order to illustrate investigations in a Death Wound, Does the Victim Show typical Sherlock Holmes mystery. The any Marks that Could Have Been scene consists of the discovery of a Caused by the Attacker?". A ccmputed body, six possible murder suspects "Certainty Factor", which refiects the and a bureaucratic police inspector combined uncertainty due to dialogue jumping to hasty conclusions. and inbuilt knowledge, is thus returned with the final conclusion. SHERLOCK initiates this dialogue, one question per frame : "Murder at Mumfrey Mannor dearly illustrates that SHERLOCK, the Has the Furniture Been Disturbed? Electronic Expert, finally unmasked the killer by following a simple chain Except for the Death Wound, Does of logic, not unlike a trail of footprints. the Victim have any Marks that Each new step followed on the heels of Could Have Been Caused by the the last until the destination was Attack& readied. The Crime Occured in the Victim's Bedroom? Ccasolfdation The Crime Occured in the Victim's The intuitive ideas, displayed by Study? and so on. SHERLOCK, were sequenced dia- grammatically on transparencies, for- Chains of logic, acting on the re- malised, amsolideted and generalised sponses, confirmed the hypothesis that by further illustrations. Each trans- "The Victim Knew and Trusted the parency emphasised contextual Al Killer". The path to this conclusion analogies of every new concept ap- traversed intermediate states such as plied by the Electronic Expert. The 'The Victim Did Not Struggle", "There structure of SHERLOCK was for- is No Sign of a Break-in", 'The Crime malised, facts and rules were empha- Occured in the Victim's Private sised and the "chain of logic" was re- Domain". Multiple connections be- lated to the inverted "search tree". The tween states feature AND, OR "root-node", "tree branches", "child- connectors, or entirely separate paths nodes", "depth" and "leaf-nodes" SHERLOCK may be interrogated and were identified. each chain of logic reviewed by a WHY? or HOW? response at the point Students were fami arised with fornial of interest. problem representation, consultation paradigms and five strategies for representing knowledge. "Semantic Uncertakgy Networks" were thus related to "Object-Attribute-Value Triplets", Partial or uncertain information, such "Rules", as "Frames-Inheritance", "a smudged fingerprint"or "Logical Expressions". "questionable testimony", is handled

PrG George a Agova 199

Forward and Backward Chaining was to have a significant impact on busi- introduced as techniques of "groping ness and industry. for a solution" or "confirmation of hypotheses" respectively. Various search patterns,Exhaustive,Random, Emelt System Shells Heuristic were illusrated and evaluated. The Animal Classification system The emphasis next shifted to in-depth was explored within ESIE and exploration of Expert System Shells. "InvestmentAdvisor"within The adopted strategy encouraged in- IMPSHELL as hands-on illustrations dividual student exploration of the rel- of the differences between forward atively simple PASCAL IF-THEN rule and backward chaining respectively. based ESIE, in parallel with detailed class material on the "fuzzy-logic" driven, PROLOG style IMPSHELL. Evolution of Exped Systems Because IMPSHELL is coded in Having gained an appreciation of the PROLOG, all students were first famil- structureandoperationof iarised with basic differences between SHERLOCK, ESIE,IMPSFIELL, Procedural and Declarative pro- generality was introduced by an exam- gramming styles as two perspectives ination of the evolution of expert sys- of the same knowledge. Tracing, tems within the wider framework of cheding editing rules required an ex- AI development. All essenlial informa- haustive analysis of the internal, tion was again encapsulated in graphi- IMPSHELL eight-segment, rule stor- cal form on several transparencies. On age format. The rt7).: structure was vi- a time-scale from 1940 to 1990 plus sually related to simplified real-life si- one may thus trace the myriad devel- tuations such as: Transportation opment paths, such as Formal Logic, Planning Housing Loan Evaluations, Symbolic Computing Systems, Aircraft Recognition, Management of Applied Artificial Intelligence, Expert Minor Ailments. Systems, Expert System Building IMPSHELL Rule Types, Reversibility, Tools,Large Hybrid Systems,Positive, Negative applications, IntelligentTutoringSystems. Premises, Conclusion were illustrated Evolution of Expert Systems was in "field-reconr file processing format illustrated in the now familiar inverted and related to simple examples. AND, treestructure, with DENDRAL, OR, and NOT operators were defined MACSYMA, MYCIN at the root and within "Crisp Logic" and extended to later applications, INTELLECT, HASP, "Fuzzy Logic". PROSPECTOR, XCON, PUFF, and so on, at the next level of development. The MYC1N style confidence (certaint) (ct)) representations of "definite", The perceived future of Expert "almost certain", "probably", "slight Systems was illustrated in the form of evidence", "don't know", "practically two waves. The first, smaller wave, is not",-'almostcertainlynot", generally predicted to crest at the pre- "definitely not", were marked on a sent time, while the second, much number line between limits of -1.0 and larger wave, is just beginning to swell +1.0. The visual impact of this repre- and is not expected to crest until 1992 sentation proved to be immediate and to 1995. The second wave is expected total.

2 n 7 200 Converging Technologies

considered to represented its stiongest Approximate Reasoning links. Extensive certainty calculations were avoided by providing each This segment commenced with an as- student with tabulated bipolar surance to students that fuzzy logic conclusions. based, multi-stage reasoning operates on a few, relatively simple concepts. It Equ±valence between "Inference Net generally avoids the complications as- Notation" and "Rule Notation" was sociated with Bayesian statistics. highlighted on a transparency and Calculations involving degrees of cer- immediately interconnected, coded tainty(ct) were thus based on the prin- and saved within LMPSHELL as a ciples: "Medical Rule (MEDICALRUL) inference net. Hand calculations were A single piece of evidence in an im- performed on MEDICAL.RUL infer- plication. ence net for several sets of client responses and compared with results re- (ct(conclusion) = ct(evidence) * turned by IMPSHELL. Similar tests ct(implication)] were carried out for a Mortgage Loan example and on FUZZYNET, an Local combinations of evidence inferertce network especially con- within a single rule. structed to reason about competing hypotheses. [ct(evidl AND evid2) = min(ct(evid1),ct(evid2))] Hand calculations were applied to the substantial,25 question 6 [ct(evidl OR evid2) = Hypothesis, "Investment Advisor" max(ci(evidl),ct(lvid2))] supplied on the IMPSHELL-89 disk. A comparison with results returned by Multiple rules supporting the same the Evert System disclosed a discrep- conclusion. ancy in the degree of certainty in one of the six Investment Hypotheses. A 0 +0.76 +1.0 careful examination revealed a missing

( full-stop (.) in a single statement 1 within the IMPSHELL knowledge (First Conclusion. 6) ^ base. The IMPSHELL environment ,, was particularly unforgiving but our 0 +1 . 0 methodology withstood the acid test.

( 1

(Second Conclusion. 4 ) ^

Bipolar certainty figures (ctl = +ve, ct2 = -ve)

[ctotal = (ct1 + ct2)/(1 - min(abs(ct1),abs(ct2)))] AND implications were therefore viewed as the weakest links in a chain of logic, whereas OR implications were

'2r8 George Gedgovd 201

Mortage Loan Expert System

Finance Company will loan mortage money

.9 Bank will loan (rev) mortgage money

A .9 Customer can qualify if (rev) one_third_monthly_income - .9 all_house payments > 0 (rev)

(rev) customer customer all_house_ one_third income income payments -monthly more than more than income $50,000 $40,000

500

'monthly_ monthly_ mortgage insurance

100 100 Numerical Responses Logical Responses

IMPSHELL is designed to manipulate LogicalNumeric Interface algebraic expressions by conversion to Reverse Polish Notation (RPN) and re- Expert Systems dialog generally returning a TRUE(+1) or FALSE(-1) requires answers to some questions in sult by an eir >added RPN interpreter. the form of certainty factors, while This aspect was thoroughly tested and other responses, such as extended by introducing the group to "monthly_mortgage", within the the PROLOG environment, and in MORTGAGE LOAN EXPERT particular, PROLOC--C, PROLOG- SYSTEM, require numerical inputs. PASCAL project modules. System exe- Eventually an expert system must rec- cution traces were often saved and ondle the two forms oc -esport3es, both evaluated as aids for error diagnosis. of which invariably contrib ate to the disnlayed conclusion. Consider the The main segments of IMPSHELL mixed mode in the diagram. were interpreted in PROLOG source code and a small test program The simple inference net discloses tliat FUZZYNET was executed using numerical and logical inferences con- standard PROLOG and within the verge at the two concluding nodes aria IMPSHELL environment. Both results have to be reconciled at both locations. were verified by hand calculation. The group was introduced to the inbuilt

a() 9 202

WHY and HOW capabilities and a WES, APES, CLASS, JET- X, CARE, detailed exploration of the WHY stack ROSES, ECAS together with a brief de- was undertaken. The HOW function scription of the commercial shell did not appear to operate within NEXPERT. Current openings ior IMPSHELL-89. Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems professionals were mentioned. Creation of New Expert Systems

The numerous concepts, covered by Student Perceptions the course, were now focused oa narrow, specialised domains and com- After esti. .iishing interconnecting bined into the design of several se- nodes and defining the backward mantic nets, which were analysed by chaining process with a flow chart it hand calculation and verified by seemed like an easy task. IMPSHELL. Group confidence increased dramatically after several suc- Could anything be more straight cessive matches with IMPSHELL forewardthanthisbackward thinking?. The prelude for individual student project work consisted of a detailed I found the development of my own tour through the Expert System non expert 'expert system' a time Creation Sequence. The mode of pre- consuming but very rewarding sentation consisted of successive com- exercise. puter screen dumps transposed on I entered 'you have tender abdomen' transparencies. The creation diologue in my implication statement instead was emphasised and applied to a small of 'you have a tender abdomen'. The example. result of this was that in the printout ofthe'inferencesummary' statements beginning with db Knowledge Acquisition occuredwhichIcouldnot The closing sessions of the course fo- understand. cused on Knowledge Acquisition, Computer Learning,Relational Databases, Hypercard/Hypermedia ResoWed Mysteries and their possible applications in the The IMPSHELL expert systems rule set educational environment. Substantial is usually quite straight forward in the programming code was examined to "pre-run" mode. Logical implications illustrate Arthur Samuel's game play- consistofinterconnectionsof ing algorithms, a program which "terminal_node" (question), "imp" learns to differentiate between a num- (implication) and "hypothesis_node" berofdifferentobjectsand (hypothesis). Hypermedia as a possible link between Expert Systems and Computer Aided The "post-run" rule set, however, is Learning. typically much longer. Additional information, provided by the system, Students were acquainted with current consists of evidence, "infer...summary', activity in Expert Systems applications. "danswer" together with eqnivalent These included PICON, PREDICTE, terms fcr mathematical implications.

210 George Gedgood 203

These extra terms establish a trace and The Credentials of DENDF:AL and displayIMPSHELLcertainty MYClN. calculations at all nodes. In Depth Exploration of Expert There are no traditional diagnostic messages. Character mismatches, Systems Shells. however, appear to be indicated by Animals Within ESIE. "dbimp" from the WHY stack and the undefined "tdbimp" statements in the Knowledge Representation in "post-run" rule sei. Hypotheses, Expert Systems. which exclude contributions from mismatched paths, are evaluated by IMPSHELL Conclusion Following a review of Expert Systems Student Projects and Education. plus suggested future directions for each o'i the participants Some impressive Expert Systems, cre- the group reflected on the learning ex- atedbystudentswithinthe periences during thf: allocated 30 hour IMPSHELL environment, ranged course. It became apparent that inova- through the fields of TOURISM, five teaching techniqdes and excellent AUTO-MECHANICS, NATURAL- group dynamics r.,:ayzed important MEDICATION, FAULT DIAGNOSIS, roles in the learning process. VOCATION PLANNING, ILLNESS DETECTION, STUDENT SELECTION, The author was amazed by the rate of PURCHASING, DOCUMENT progress during the 15 week course. PREPARATION and CARBON Course content was exceeded while CHEMISTRY. most assessment tasks were original and of exceptional quality. It appears Student essays, designed to broaden that the extensive coverage was possi- their ;knowledge of applications, fea- ble by continual application of the tured the following titles : Confucian Dictum "one picture is worth a thousand words". Top priority Expert Systems in Education and was given to "what it is" rathc than Other Domains. "how you say it". Perceived Future of Expert Systems. The style of presentation was adaptive to student needs and aspirations. The Threat of Thinking Machines. Group dynamics influenced the agenda for each session. The numerous Talk Plain With an Expert. books, journals, articles, consulted by the group makes a bibliography im- Robotics, Natural Language and practical. However, books by Anna Expert Systems. Hart, Chris Naylor, C.F. Chabris, Harmon and King, P.S. Snell, A.C. Commercial Applications of Expert Staugaard, W.J. Black, B.G. Silverman, Systems. Clocksin and Mellish, V.D. Hunt, D.N. Chorafas, together with ITATE Theses ESIE Expert Systems Inference by B.J. Smith and G.I. Gedgovd, were Engine.

211. 204 Converging Technologies frequently examined by the participant has been invited to teach Expert pants. Systems while another intends to pursue the Expert Systems \Computer In many ways Anna Hart, Knowledge Aided Learning (CAL) interface to Acquisition for Expert Systems, 1989 master's level. With gadual resolution summarises the cooperative effort of of teething problems, acquisition of the ITATE class of 1989 by the follow- worked examples plus additional ing words: Expert Systems Shells, it is anticipated I have seen many good prvjects. They that the 1990 session will offer a sub- all had somebody in the development stantial advance on the described team who had a questioning spirit, course. who was able to take on ideas from different disciplines and whc was not afraid to change a decision. Acknowledgements Despite unconventiality, selective The author gratefully acknowledges usage of emotionsadded the guidance and advice of the ITATE "enthusiasm", "flair", "a sense of ad- Computer Coordinator, Mr. John Roc, venture" to a subject "often obfuscated during the design and presentation of by jargon and technicalities". Perhaps Expert Systems and Education. Particular our collective appreciation of the intu- appreciation is expressed to Mr John itive elegance of AI played a major Roc for his faith in the author's part in the success of Expert Systems untested ability to teach teachers, and Education. trainers and educators. Sometimes faith can indeed move mountains. Recognition of achievements have been swift and positive. One partici-

2 2 A computer-based system for developing expertise in the diagnosis and remediation of common error patterns in the domain of fractions

Rod Nason and Christopher Marfin Queenslcnd University of Technology Corse ldine

In our mathematics education courses which they have acquired from their atQueenslandUniversityof mathematics education courses. These Technology, a significant amount of two phases in fact require the student time is spent in trying to develop high teachers to utilize higher level applica- level diagnostic and remediation skills. tion thinking skills based on accurate One method which is used to achieve observatica of working children. this aim is to have the student teachers Because of this, most of our students analyse error patterns taken from chil- tend to utilize a shotgun approach in dren's work. This analysis usually pro- these two phases and thus produce ceeds in three phases. First, the student rather inexact and impractical diagnos- teachers are required to identify the er- tic and remediation reports. For ex- ror pattern. Then they are required to ample, given an error pattern such as identify the underlying causes of the that in Figure 1 below, it is not un- error pattern and state possible reasons common for student te.-.zhers to rec- for the children's use of the error pat- ommend a remediation program tern. Finally, the student teachers are which consists of all the activities required to plan a sequence of reme- which they have recently done in a diation activities which first would series of workshops on fraction con- help the children understand why cepts. That this sequence of activities their answers were wrong and second may cover work to be done over eight would help them learn how to gener- years within a school curriculum ate correct answers for the problems. seerrc 4-c. be overlooked. Most student teachers experience few problems with the first phase of the analysis; the identification of the error 1/3 + 2/3 = 3/6 pattern. They however experience 1/4 +3/4 = 4/8 great difficulties with the second and third phases of the analysis; identify- 3/5 + 5/8 = 8/13 ing the underlying causes and planning an appropriate sequence of remediation activities. This is not surprising because these two phases of the analy- Figure I An Error Pattern for sis require the student teachers to do Addition of Fractions more than just recall information

21 3 206 Converging Technologies

Unfortunately, at present, the student 1 that many of the errors that children teachers rarely have an opportunity to make in mathematics are systematic, implement and eva/uate their planned and sequences of remediation activities. Many of them thus graduate without 2 that the underlying causes of these realizing the inappropriateness of the error pattern* ire related-to sthe shotgun approach. This is one reason manner in which mathematical why most of our graduates exhibit low knowledge is stored and structured levels of expertise in diagnosing and within the children's long term remediating mathematical learning memory. problems. The criteria for an effective system It is in this context that the System for were: Diagnosis and Remediation of Mathematical Error Patterns is being 1 that the system's actions should developed.Unlike many other parallel the actions 'of real children Computer-based Systems whose major as closely as possible; purpose is to replace or supplement human experts, the major aim of this 2 that the system should give students system is to provide the users with ex- easy access to its knowledge base so periences which will help them to de. that they can better understand the ye/ _p such high levels of expertise, underlying causes of Whir children that they soon will no longer be de- use error patterns in mathematics; pendent on human and/or computer experts. 3 that the system should have psychological validity; and In the section that follows, the architecture and the functioning of the system 4 that the domains of knowledge ex- in its present form will be described. plored by the system should be Following this, a description of how those in which most children expe- the system will be used by teacher ed- rience difficulties. ucation students at our college will be presented. In the final section of this One major consequence of these sets of paper, future directions for this re- assumptions and criteria has been that search and development project will be the system presently being developed discussed. is a network of production systems which focuses on the addition and subtraction of vulgar fractions with unlike The Present System denominators. Before proceeding on to a description of the system, it first During the preparation of the system, would be desirable to briefly describe a numtnr of assumptions based on what a production system is and how dose clEssroom observations and labo- it operates. ratory 7esearch were made about how children learn and do mathematics and a number of criteria for an effective Production Systems system were specified. The assumptions made about how children learn Production systems were first em- and do mathematics were: ployed by Newell & Simon (1972) in order to help in the analysis of detailed

2 4 Rod Nason and Chn'sfopher Martin 207 protocols of human problem solving The STM holds an ordered set of behaviour. According to Young, the symbolic expressions or chunks. New technique attempts to capture regular- expressions always enter the STM at ities in a subject's behaviour by wfifing the front or left hand end. Thus, when a set of independent rules known as (Temp > 72) enters the STM in Figure a production system (PS) that ex- 2, the contents of the STM will be: presses what the subject does under what conditions (Newell, 1968; Newell (Temp > 72) (Temp = 71) (Furnace on) & Simon, 1972). Each individual rule AA BI3 CC. (or PR for 'production rule') is a con- The conditions of the production rules dition action statement of the form C examine the expressions in the STM in ===> A. and means simply that in the order starting from the front. Front ex- circumstances specified by C the sub- pressions in the STM thus may pre- ject performs action(s) A. (Young, empt later expressions. The LTM con- 1971, p3) sists entirely of an ordered set of pro- The condition side of a production duction rules. Each prAuction rule is refers to the symbols in the Short Term written with the condition on the left Memory (STM) that represent the separated from the action(s) on the goals and the elements of knowledge right by an arrow. In Figure 2, only existing in the system's momentary two production rules are shown: T1 knowledge state. The action consists of and 12. transformations such as the genera- This particular production system option, interruption and satisfaction of erates a thermostatic control device goals, modifications of existing ele- whose purpose is to keep the tempera- ments and the addition of new ele- ture of a room between 70-72 degrees ments to the STM. Fahrenheit. As the system stands ini- The architecture of a classical produc- tially, none of the production rules in tion system (Klahr, Langley and the LTM is satisfied by the contents of Neches, 1987) is presented in Figure 2 STM and nothing happens. However, below. as is shown in Figure 2, (Temp > 72) is about to enter the system from the external world. When it does, the contents of the STM will contain the two TOTAL SYSTEM conditions necessary for the selection and the execution of Rule 12 by the system: LTM T1 (Temp < 70) (Furnace off) ===> Turn on (Temp > 72) and (Furnace on). Furnace T2 (Temp > 72) (Furnace on) ===> Turn off The action of Rule 12 will be to turn Furnace. the furnace off. irI In contrast, if the contents of the STM (Temp = 71) (Furnace on) AA BB CC had indicated that the furnace was off and if the incoming information from the external world was: Figure 2 Overall Architecture of a Production System room temperature less than 70 (Temp < 70), then Rule T1 would

215 f; 208 Converging Tothnologies

have been executed. Its action 3 The explicit control structure ofa would be to turn the furnace on Production System makes clear ex- and heat ur the room. actly which decisions the child has control over and which decisions are forced on him or her by the The Prototw%) environment. Production Systems Although production systems have thus allow one to clearly indicate predominantly been used to analyse how the child's goals affect perfor- adult protocols, production systems mance on a task. Wi th many other have a number of properties which techniques, this is well nigh impos- make them most appropriate for the sible especially if one tries to shnul- present project of producing a system taneously indicate how environ- for the diagnosis and remediation of mental factors may have affecte4 error patterns associated with the ad- performance. dition and subtraction of fr.xtions with unlike denominators: 4 Production Systems can cope with minor variations to a Task. This en- Production Systems can serve as a ables construction of a singlepro- miniature Artificial Subject whose cessing system to handle all varia- reactions to different experimental tions of the addition and subtraction manipulations can be empirically of fractions tasks rather than the explored. The production system construction of separate systems for thus can be used to predict a child's each variation of the tasks as has to cognitive behaviour under certain be done with most other techniques conditions much more precisely such as flow-chart and M-Space than with most other techniques. analyses (Pascual-Leone, 1970).

2 Production Systems analyse prob- 5 Production Systems are the most lem solving into components which homogeneous form of programming specify not only what a child does organization known to man (Newell but also when he (or she) does it. & Simon, 1972). Each production Most techniques, such as Gagne's rule represents a fragment of poten- technique of task analysis (Gagne, tial activity that is a meaningful 1962, 1968) and Pascual-Leone's component of the total problem technique of M-Space analysis, only solving process. Individual produc- indicate what the child does. The tion rules therefore frequently pos- solution of a problem, however, in- sess a kind of local plausibility volves more than the simple linking which enables them to be discussed together of a list of sub-tasks. sensibly in isolation. With most Information about when and how other techniques, the parts cannot these sub-tasks are linked together be isolated out of the system to be is just as important. This capability discussed and modified; the system of production systems to specify has to be discussed and modified in what the child does, when s/he toto. does it and how the child does it is This structural independence of the therefore most useful when one is produCtion rules has two important trying to develop a complete pro- consequences. Various sets of produc- cessing model. tion rules can be combined freely to form working production systems. 216 Rod Nason and Christopher Martin

This makes it possible to show how MAINUST first peruses the problem. certain production rules or schemas When it finds that the two fractions perform critical functions in more- havedifferentdenominators, than-onenumber-relatedtask. MAINUST activates EQUIVFRACT. Secondly, it is possible to incremen- Because EQUIVFRACT has not got .my tally add new production rules or rules which enables it to generate the modify previous rules to extend a pro- lowest common denominator, it in duction system so that it can handle turn activates LCM. When LCM has more complex tasks or the same tasks determined that the lowest e:ommon in a variety of new contexts. This denominator is 6, EQUIVFRACT is re- makes it possible to identify consis- activated. EQUIVFRACT then converts tencies and differences between suc- 1/2 to 3/6 and 1/3 to 2/6. MAINLIST cessful and unsuccessful performances is then reactivated. The rules in on the complex number tasks very MAINLIST then generate the answer precisely. The use of production rules 5/6. in the system being produced thus enables the authors to produce a power- The power of the system as a means to ful and flexible system which meets all prcduce expert teacher diagnosticians of the criteria required of the system. however only really becomes apparent As is illustrated in Figure 3 below, the if one of the three following modifica- prototype system consists of a network tions are made to the system: of three interrelated production subsystems: an executive subsystem 1 one or two critical production rules (called MAINLIST), an equivalent are removed from one or more of fraction generating subsystem (called the subsystems; EQUIVFRACT), and a lowest common multiple generating subsystem (called 2 one or more "buggy rules" (Van Lehn and Brown, 1980) are included LCM). in one or more of the subsystems; or 3 a combination of the first two types MAINLIST <>EQUIVFRACT <> LCM of modifications occur.

Figure 3 The Prototype System PR2B If you are required to add two fractions, then add the numerators MAINUST affects the overall opera- and add the denominators. tion of the system by selecting which of the other subsystems will be opera- tionalatanypointintime. EQUIVFRACT generates equivalent Figure 4 "Buggy Ruk PR2B fractions when asked to do so by MAUILIST; LCM is activated by For example, if Buggy Rule PR2B is EQUIVFRACT to generate the lowest added to MAINLIST, the following common denominators. scenario could occur if the system is asked to add 1/2 and 1/3. For example, if the system is asked to calculate The system peruses the problem, notes the addition sign and immediately op- 1/2 + 1/3 erationalizes the addition operation rules. Rule PR2B then is executed. The

2 11 Converging Technologies

system thus adds the two numerators order to overcome the error pattern. In (1 and 1) and the two denominators (2 order to test their hypothesis about and 3) to plcduc an incorrect answer why the child is making the errors, the ef 2/5. students will be asked to teaCh-the relevant knowledge to the srstem. The 1/2 +1/3=2/5 students teach the system by adding This, by the way, is one of the most and/or removing production- rules common errors that children make from the system. This process is done when adding fractions with unlike de- by the means of a specialrninu.. Once nominators. By experimenting with the student teachers have made their modifications to the four production changee to the system, the systemre- systems, the experimenters have been works the original-worksheet of probable to reproduce most of the common lems. If the student teachers diagnosis errors that children make when adding and remediation plait is sound, then and subtracting fractions. the system will get all theproblems on the worksheet correct. If-their diagnosis and proposed remediation program How the System will be used is unsound, then two possible scenarios can occur; the system either makes As was stated earlier, by making mall- the seme errors as before or a new set fications to the lists of production rules of error patterns appears. In either within the sub-systems, it is possible to case, the student teachers will be reproduce most of the error patterns required to revise their diagnosis and that occur when children attempt to remediation program and rerun the add or subtract fractions with unlike simulation. To help the student teach- denominators. ers gain deeper insights into what is occurring, they will be encouraged to This characteristic of the system en- hack into the production system and ables the production of a very dynamic explore how the information w:ithin type of interactive, computer-based tu- the system is structured. torial. To maximize the effectiveness of the system, it is recommended that Because this system's ability torepro- each tutorial should be attempted by a duce most of the common error pat- group of two to four student teachers. terns children use when adding and At the beginning of each tutorial, the subtracting fractions with unlike de- student teachers will be presented with nominators, it will be possible to pro- a worksheet of fraction problems done duce a graded sequence of tutorials so by an imaginary child. The student that student teachers may become teachers first will be asked to identify more adept At diagnosing and remedi- the error pattern being used by the sting most of the common errors that child. This is done by asking them to occur within this doinain of mathemat- show on the computer screen how the ics. The first tutorials thus will simu- child would do a problem similar to late the simpler types of error patterns those on the worksheet. Following while the later tutorials will simulate their correct identification of the type the compound and more complex of error pattern, the student teachers types of error patterns. This will be an will be asked to identify why the child improvement on the one-off types of is making the error and to suggest error pattern activities which student what the child needs to be offered in teachers presently do in their mathematics education courses.

2 8

11111111111.1111.111 Rod Noon and Christopher Marhn

A set of computer-simulation tutorials for most of the content domain areas in Future Directions the K-10 mathematics curriculum thus The present version of the system is will be generated from the prototype written in muLisp and is still being system which has been described in modified and improved to make it this paper. quicker and more user-friendly. Once it is fully operational, a Parser will be added to the system so that the users References will be able to use almost Natural language to interact with and modify Gagne, R.M. (1962) The acquisition of the system. The student teachers thus knowledge. Psychological Review, 69, may be able to teach the system and 355-365. explore how changes to the amount Gagne, KM. (1968) Learning hierarchies. and the structure of knowledge stored Educational Psychologist, 6, 1. in a child.Long Term Memory affects mathematical performance. This has a Klahr, D., Langley, P. and Neches, R. number of important possible conse- (19r) Production system models of learn- quences. First, it may facilitate the de- ing and development. Cambridge, MA.: velopment of teachers as not just MU Press. transmitters of knowledge but also as researchers. Second, it may help over- Newell, A. and Simon, H.A. (1972) Human come many teachers' resistance to problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: technology by helping them to realize Prenfice-Hall. that there are more educational uses Pascual-Leone, J. (1970) A mathematical for computers than just wordprocess- model for transition in Piaget's devel- ing. opmental stages. Ada Psychologica, 32, 301-345. Once the natural language version of this system has been producci and Young, RM. (1971) Production systems field tested, the shell produced for this for children's sedation behaviour An system will be modified for use with introduction and an example. CIF* other domains of knowledge such as: Paper No. 202. Dept of Psychology, Carnegie-Mellon University. 1 addition and subtraction of whole numbers; Address for correspondence 2 multiplication and division of whole numbers; Rod Nason and Christopher Martin, Centre for Information Technology 3 addition and subtraction of decimal in Education (CITIE), Queensland fractions; Universityof Technology C.urseldine 4 multiplication and division of decimal fractions;

5 operations with percentages; and

6 operations with ratios.

219 .r..amiostommmenimimumineV ' t '1"*-

Using CD-ROM and multi-mediafor education and training

Neal A Shaw and G J-Standfield Footscray Instttute of Technology :=1.11110 Compact Disc Read Only Memory whereas the audio orCDdiscs are (CD-ROM) refers to a technology in normally controlled by a compact disc which a range of data types, such as player with attaChed speaker andau- text, graphics, audio, photographs, and dio amplifier system. video can all be stored in digital form and accessed by conventional Personal Note that a CD-ROM player operating Computers. under computer control can access the audio segments on a CD-ROM discas CD-ROM is best considered as a pub- well as play a pure audio or CD disc lishing platform, capable of carrying and deliver the audio to an external very large amounts of information loudspeaker or headphone set. (about 550 Megabytes) in a single, However a CD player can only access small format disc. As the term implies, the high-fidelity audio materialson a publication necessarily means the mass CD or a CD-ROM disc. production of discs at a factory, followed by widespread distribution This paper, which discusses the edu- of the product in the market place, in- cational applications of CD and CD- cluding schools, colleges and universi- ROM, is restricted to interactive meth- ties. Of great significance is the fact ods of deliyering information and re- that CD-ROM discs are not expensive sponding to student requests. This to produce, and the hardware needed means that we are considering only the to use the discs (less than $1,000) is situation where a computer is control- considered to be a normal peripheral ling the delivery of materials througha device for a personal computer. CD-ROM player, but the source of materials may be any one of the This point is Lest illustrated by com- following: paring CD-ROM wit :. its predecessor or companiontechnology,the 1 multi-media from a CD-ROM disc Compact Disc (CD). Publication and distribution of music has recently been 2 audio only from a CD disc tsansformed by CD technology, and consumers are very familiar with the 3 audio from a CD disc but supple- capabilities, audio quality, and low mented by text graphics, photos and costs of both CD discsd the associ- video from the computer's hard disc ated hardware for playing the discs. Technically the two disc formats (CD 4 multi-media from a CD-ROM disc and CD-ROM) are very similar, the but supplemented by other materi- major philosophical difference being als from the computer hard disc. that access to CD-ROM discs is under the control of a micro-computer,

220 A., "

Neil Shaw and G J Standfield

b Transfer of digital audio fries on the Technoi CD-ROM to a PC where the analogue audio is regenerated for out- For the purposes of this discussion, it put into a loudspeaker system or will be assumed that educational insti- headset. Some versions of this tutions are the primary group or client technique use an inexpensive voice which needs to offer staff and students card to regenerate the audio, while access to a range of CD-ROM other methods deliver the audio programs. Budget pressures usually through a parallel port on the PC require that the delivery system, especially the computer hardware, is a These methods of audio control have simple or standard configuration certain advantages and disadvantagn, which does not contain expensive ad- some of which will be demonstrated ditional peripherals. For example, the with the presentation of this paper. delivery system assumed for the products and techniques under discussion is a standard IBM-AT (286) personal Current Applications of computer or compatible, with hard CD-ROM in Education disk, VGA display adapter and matching VGA monitor. There will be Most of the current CD-ROM products no reference to extra enhancements on the market are database applica- such as DVI technology or to DVA- tions in which very large volumes of 4000 peripherals, both of which are text and numerical data is availtIle for more expensive than the entire com- searching. Examples in this category puter configuration described above. include dictionaries, encyclopedias, chemical information,statistical The CD-ROM player is a peripheral records and census data. Results of a device which can be installed either in- search are often enhanced by the dis- ternally to the computer, thereby oc- play of gaphs and photographs. cupying the same space as a conventional floppy disc drive, or an external Products can also be described in player can be connected to the com- terms of their disciplines, such as puter by cable. In some instances the Business and Computing, Earth player can be controlled by a PC acting Sciences, Educational, Entertainment, as a fileserver on a network of PCs, or Health and Safety, Health Sciences, each PC can be fitted with its own LibrarySciences,Medical and player. Biomedical. There are several CD- 4 3 ROM Directories available, including Data files, such as text, graphics and the 1990 edition of TFPL's Directory of photographs, are read from the CD- CD-ROMs covering more than 816 ROM and transferred to the PC, but products, and MICROINFO's CD- audio data can be accessed in a variety ROM Title Index of educational discs. of ways, including the following: The Technology Based Training Group a Control by the PC of digital audio at Footscray Institute of Technology on the CD-ROM, with final audio has been actively developing CD and output being accessed directly from CD-ROM programs for education, and the audio socket on the CD-ROM existing products include the follow- player, or ing: ft

214 ConvergingTethnologies

a Essay Writing machine. For example in the Learning Japanese program, students can see b Learning Japanese (5asic Sounds) and hear a set of scunds or words in Japanese delivered from the CD-ROM, c Spelling for Technologists then the students use a microphone to mimic the professional voice of the d A Taildng Dictionary of Medical language teacher. Students can then Terminolog1 (Anatomy) compare their own efforts- with the CD-ROM recording and repeat the e The Foetal Heart process as often as required (or at least until the student feels .that a satisfac- fPhonetics tory standard has been achieved). Individual student attempts at repro- g The VGA Sampler, which includes ducing the sounds, words or sentences the following : are saved on the hard disk of the computer for later analysis by a teacher. hundreds of VGA quality colour photographs supplied by: CSIRO Division of Information Services Recent developments RMIT Library (Fine ART collection and (The Talking Book) Anatomy) One of our more recent developments two text data bases using data from: is the Talking Book program, which The Tourism Index, and interfaces a normal hard-copy book with both a computer and a CD-ROM The Westdoc Database, both of which are searched by a commercial player. This process enables the stu- retrieval program, called dent to read the book in a normal way, SearchMagic, stored on the CD- to select a particular sentence on any ROM. page, then to hear that sentence read Most of the Footscray Institute of aloud in any language of the student's Technology (FIT) programs make ex- choice. tensive use of the audio facilities of The text in the hard-copy book can be CD-ROM ina technique called written in any language, or even mul- Interactive Audio. In this mode stu- tiple language fonts. Each sentence is dents are presented with the simulta- associated with a unique icon which neous delivery of visuals and audio. the student touches with a special pen. The controlling program ensures that A data base is used to link the coded the visual displays of text, graphics information with a specific audio se- and photographs are also synchro- quence, which in turn is accessed from nised with the audio information. Such either the CD-ROM or from the hard techniques enable the audio medium disk. to carry most of the information in a clear natural voice, while the text is Students can touch other icons to used to hold attention, and to reinforce change language, then touch a sen- the issues by displaying key words tence in the book to hear the sentence and phrases. read aloud in this selected language. In some FIT programs there is a facility An additional interactive mode allows to enable students to talk back to the students to touch the SAY-IT-

222

-; -=1 Neu Shaw and G I Standfidd

YOURSELF icon, then to use a micro- quickly as curriculum designers can phone to record their own attempt at write the materials. speaking a chosen word or sentence. This means that students can select a b Computer programs which control particular sentence, hear the correct student access to materials (such as pronunciation from the CD-ROM, menu-driven controls) are signifi- then hear their own attempt for pur- cantly reduced in size and complex- poses of comparison. ity. At the same time students gain far more freedom in their choices The first set of booklets based on this and options because the book itself technology are currently being pub- is the menu and studenta can lished at FIT, with focus on the learn- rapidly turn pagei and ccromence ing of foreign languages. Languages reading/listening at anypoint in the selected for trials with the new tech- book without gcing through any nique are those which are currently hierarchy or structured access. taught or planned for introduction to FIT courses (suchas Japanese, Vietnamese and Italian). Issues Involved in a CD-ROM We believe that the technology can Pro ect also be used for helping students to When developing an educational pro- learn English, including very young gram using CD-ROM there are many childrenjustlearningtoread. issues to consider, including taskanal- Applications in this field are under de- ysis, instructional design, materials velopment, and new curriculum ma- production ( text, audio, graphics, pho- terials for the Talking Book are being tographs and video), computer pro- prepared. Although language learr!ng gram development, CD-ROM produc- is an obvious application for the new tion, rality assurance, and marketing. technique, we believe that curriculum materials in many different disciplines Design and presentation of these edu- could be successfully developed. cati.onal materials should be driven by a consideration of the target audience, One of the outstanding attributes of and special thought must be given to the Talking Book technique is its fan- accommodating a variety of learning damental dependence upon normal styles. The multi-media capabilities of hard-copy pages. Students can pur- CD-ROM empowers producers to ad- chase their own copy of the book, giv- dress these issues, and to explore a mix ing them freedom to read the material of techniques which is functional, in- at any time and place. When used in formative, attractive and acceptable to conjunction with an appropriately students. Of greatest concern is that configured computer, students can re- the programs do not simply entertain. ceive the added dimension of audio. Our experiences suggest that most ef- From a producers perspective, the fort is expended in the early phases of major advantages of this technique are preparation, especially analysis of the as follows: task, instructional 2 esign, script writing, audio and video production. a Production costs and times are sig- Producing the controlling computer nificantly reduced, and talking programs also requires significant de- books can be prepared almost as velopment and effort. Emphasis on 2/6 Converging Technologies team effort is important since this Educational applications. The technol- stage requires close co-operation be- ogy combines very large storage capac- tween subject matter experts, who are ity of multi-media materials with the responsible for the content, and the interactive control of a personal com- production group who interpret the puter. material and create the program. This paper has outlined some relevant Often the most expedient approach is aspects of CD-ROM technology, par- to prototype the program on a hard ticularly interactive audio, and has en- disk platform, then to trial t...interim deavored to illustrate the style, diverse product with students, prior to a final range and possible applicalions of CD- commitment to CD-ROM. Opinions ROM to education and training. A and feedback from staff and students brief outline of some issues relevant to can be incorporated into the product the design and production of educa- during this development phase. Some tional materials for CD-ROM was also CD-ROM manufacturers, such as given. Disctronics Australia, are prepared to produce single "check discs" for eval- Of particular importance to educa- uation purposes prior to committing tional institutions is the cost of materi- the master disc to the process of repli- als development and hardware sup- cating large numbers. In either case, port for delivery of CD-ROM pro- we strongly recommend that an inde- grams. In the case of programs pro- pendent editorial panel of content duced at FIT, the delivery of high reso- experts also reviews the program be- lution colour photographs, audio and fore commencing a mass production of motion video has been achieve without CD-ROM discs at the factory. any expensive peripherals. Emphasis has always been on making use of ex- Even after factory production of the isting computer facilities which are disc, there is a testing and evaluation likely to be found in educational insti- period. Errors, additions and upgrades tutions, rather than depending upon to the program can still be included, another layer of expensive supporting although the CD-ROM contents can- technologies. not be changed. New or alternative materials, such as improved pho- One of our more recent developments, tographs, text and graphics can be de- the Talking Book, was also described livered by floppy disc in conjunction and the importance of this technique with the CD-ROM. To some degree should not be underestimated. audio files can also be included on the Although these Talking Books can be companion floppy disc as upgrades to used in conjunction with either a CD- the existing CD-ROM contents. A new ROM player or a hard disk, the special computer program, which controls ac- attributes of optical discs makes this cess to the multi-media, can select ma- delivery system particularly attractive. terials from the CD-ROM, floppy disc The rapid acceptance and penetration or the computer hard disk as required. of CD-ROM players into all levels of educational institutions suggests that this technology has a basis for future Conclwion development. Educational software to CD-ROM is a delivery system which accompany the hardware has ap- has many attributes ideally suited to peared in the form of databases of in-

224 Neil Shaw and GJ Standfield 217 formation as well as interactive multi- co-operation and understanding be- media lessons and computer based tween curriculum developers and edu- training programs. cational technologists. To harness the power of CD-ROM for educational applications and to ensure Address for conesponrience the future role of CD-ROM in teaching and learning we need the commitment Neil Shaw, Centre for Research and and energies of talented curriculum Development, Footscray Institute of developers to produce quality materi- Technology, PO Box 64, Footscray, als. We also need a greater degree of Victoria, 3011.

225 ME=

Converging Technologies Author Index

Allan, Margaret 36 Kershaw, Lorraine 125 Bollet, R M 30 Kirk, John 97 Carnegie, Uni 69 Lee, David 35 Cartwright, William E 158 Lewis, Justus H 152 Clark, David R 1 Lobb, Warwick H 158 Cole, Trevor 37 Looms, Peter Olaf 82 Conboy, Ian 14 Martin, Christopher 205 Cornell, R A 30 McKinnon, David H 59 Cousins, Judith 125 McNamara, Sue 37 Dawkins, John Nason, Rod 205 Dekkers, John 4 Nelson, John E. 91 Diinson, Roger 81 Nolan, Patrick CJ 59 Forsyth, Ian 42 Phelan, Dan 27 Fox, Robert 141 Ramsay, Grahame 135 Gedgovd, George 194 Rees, Keith 163 Gooley, Anne 4 Russell, Anne 108 Green, Ralph E 152 Shaw, Neal A 212 Hall, Neil 72, 186 Sparks, Anne 72 Harrison , David 39 Standfield, G J 212 Hedberg, John G 177 Strain, James H 38 Hughes, Chris 116 Towers, Steve 4 Jamieson, Peter 163 Triantos, Maria 24 Jolliffe, Alan 171 Trowbridge, Kay 39 Kemp, Neale 47 Youngblood, Patricia 36 " .5-

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