Frontiers in Urban Water Management: Deadlock Or Hope?

INTERNATIONAL HYDROLOGICAL PROGRAMME PROGRAMME HYDROLOGIQUE INTERNATIONAL

PROCEEDINGS / ACTES

Frontiers in urban water management: Deadlock or hope?

Frontières de la gestion de l’eau urbaine: Impasse ou espoir?

SYMPOSIUM 18-20 June / juin 2001 Marseille, France

Edited by / Sous la direction de: José Alberto Tejada-Guibert and Čedo Maksimović

IHP-V Technical Documents in Hydrology / Documents Techniques en Hydrologie  No. 45 UNESCO, Paris, 2001

Water Academy World Water Council City of Marseille Académie de l’Eau Conseil Mondial de l’Eau Ville de Marseille

(SC-2001/WS/10)

The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The ideas and opinions expressed in this book are those of the individual authors and do not necessarily represent the views of UNESCO.

Les appellations employées dans cette publication et la présentation des données qui y figurent n’impliquent de la part de l’UNESCO aucune prise de position quant au statut juridique des pays, territoires, villes ou zones, ou de leurs autorités, ni quant au tracé de leurs frontières ou limites.

Les idées et les opinions exprimées dans cet ouvrage sont celles des authors et ne refletent pas nécessairement le point de vue de l’UNESCO.

3DUWQHUV

$JHQFHGHO¶(DX5K{QH0pGLWHUUDQpH&RUVH $JHQFHGHO¶(DX6HLQH1RUPDQGLH

&KDPEUHGH&RPPHUFHHWG¶,QGXVWULH0DUVHLOOH3URYHQFH &RQVHLO*pQpUDOGHV%RXFKHVGX5K{QH

&RQVHLO5pJLRQDO3URYHQFH$OSHV&RWHG¶$]XU *URXSHGHV(DX[GH0DUVHLOOH

,QWHUQDWLRQDO$VVRFLDWLRQRI+\GURORJLFDO6FLHQFHV ,QWHUQDWLRQDO$VVRFLDWLRQRI+\GUDXOLF(QJLQHHULQJDQG 5HVHDUFK

,QWHUQDWLRQDO:DWHU5HVRXUFHV$VVRFLDWLRQ

0LQLVWqUHGHO¶(TXLSHPHQWGHV7UDQVSRUWVHW 0LQLVWqUHGHO¶$PpQDJHPHQWGX7HUULWRLUHHWGH GX/RJHPHQW O¶(QYLURQPHQW

2IILFH,QWHUQDWLRQDOGHO¶(DX 3UpHFWXUHGHV%RXFKHVGX5K{QH

81&+6+DELWDW

:RUOG+HDOWK2UJDQLVDWLRQ

LLL

Preface Preface

The International Symposium “Frontiers of urban water Le symposium international “Les Frontières de la Gestion de management: Deadlock or hope?” (Marseille, 18-20 June l’Eau Urbaine”: Impasse ou Espoir?” (Marseille, 18-20 Juin 2001) represents a unique opportunity to assess the 2001) constitue une chance unique d’évaluer l’état actuel des current status of urban water systems in various settings systèmes d’eau urbaine existant dans un certain nombre de around the world and to explore various approaches, milieux autour du monde, et de passer en revue les différentes proposals and technologies that hold promise in facing the approches, propositions et technologies disponibles pour faire shortcomings. The nature and gravity of the urban water face aux situation défectueuses existantes. La nature et la gravité problems in the developing countries is such that they des problèmes d’eau urbaine dans les pays en développement warrant our immediate attention. The aim is not only sont telles qu’ils nécessitent notre attention immédiate. Le but recherché n’est pas seulement la découvert de moyens de finding ways to cope and to hold off an impending résister aux situations menaçantes de destruction et de les collapse, but to provide sustainability and improve the néutraliser, mais aussi de fournir et d’améliorer une qualité de quality of life of the urban population, while safeguarding vie durable aux populations urbaines tout en sauvegardant le the well-being of all members of society. bien être de la société.

This Symposium, organised by UNESCO and the Ce symposium organisé par l’UNESCO et l’Académie de l’Eau Académie de l’Eau de France, with the support of the City de France, avec le soutien de la ville de Marseille et du Conseil of Marseille and of the Secretariat of the World Water Mondial de l’Eau, représente le point culminant des activités Council, represents the culmination of the activities entreprises dans le thème de la Gestion intégrée de l’eau related to the theme Integrated Urban Water Management urbaine de la Cinquième Phase (1996-2001) du Programme of the Fifth Phase (1996-2001) of the International Hydrologique International (PHI) de l’UNESCO. Un certain Hydrological Programme (IHP) of UNESCO. A number nombre d’autres importants partenaires et parrains ayant of other important partners and sponsors who provided an apporté un support essentiel au Symposium sont présentés dans essential support to the Symposium are identified in a une page spéciale. Leur aide dans la préparation et separate page. Their support in preparation and running l’organisation du symposium a été déterminante et est hautement the Symposium is highly appreciated. appréciée.

This volume holds the papers selected to be presented Ce volume contient les contributions qui seront oralement orally at the six workshops of the Symposium, and the présentées au symposium et les résumés d’articles acceptées abstracts of the papers accepted for poster presentations. pour être présentées par affiches. En évaluant les documents In evaluating the papers submitted to the Symposium, the soumis au symposium, le Comité Scientifique a jugé de la qualité des présentations, de leur couverture des thèmes retenus et de la Scientific Advisory Committee assessed the quality of the distribution géographique des auteurs. Certaines articles de papers, coverage of topics and geographical distribution discours introductifs et de ateliers n’étaient pas encore of authors. Some of the keynote papers and workshop disponibles quand le volume a été soumis à l’imprimeur, donc papers were not available when this volume had to be elles n’ont pu être inclues dans ces actes. Néanmoins, submitted to the printer, so have they not been included l’accompagnant CD-ROM contiendra tout les articles, y compris here. Nevertheless, the companion CD-ROM contains the ceux présentés sur les affiches. full set of papers, including those of the posters.

We would like to express our deep thanks to all the authors Nous aimerions exprimer notre profonde gratitude aux whose valuable contributions appear here. Likewise, we auteurs dont les contributions sont presentées ici. Nous would like to thank all its members of the Scientific aimerions egalement remercier tous les membre du Commité Advisory Committee of the symposium, whose work Scientifique du Symposium dont le travail a permis de fonder provided an admirable base for the selection of the papers. sur d’excelentes bases la selection des documents. Nous We also thank Mr. Yoslan Nur who materially put together remercier également Mr. Yoslan Nur qu’a materialement this volume. préparé ce volume.

We hope that the readings contained here will provide food Nous espererons que son contenu nourrira les pensées come les for thought and action. actions.

Čedo Maksimović José Alberto Tejada-Guibert Urban Water Research Group International Hydrological Programme (IHP) Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering Division of Water Sciences Imperial College of Science,Technology and UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization CUW-UK Medicine & Centre for Urban Water (CUW-UK) UNESCO London, UK Paris, FRANCE

SYMPOSIUM CHAIRPERSONS PRESIDENTS DU SYMPOSIUM

J. A. Tejada-Guibert (UNESCO) C. Maksimovic (CUW-UK)

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZING COMMITTEE COMITE INTERNATIONAL D’ORGANISATION

M. Abu-Zeid (World Water Council/Conseil Mondial de l’Eau) J. Bartram (World Health Organization) B. Braga (International Water Resources Association) C. George (International Association of Hydraulic Engineering and Research) P. Hubert (International Hydrological Programme) T. Milburn (International Water Association) J. L. Oliver (Ministère de l’équipement, des transports et du logement) K. Ray (UNCHS - Habitat) P.A. Roche (Agence de l’Eau Seine-Normandie) L. Roussel (Agence de l’Eau Rhône-Méditerrané- Corce) D. Savic (International Association of Hydrological Sciences) A. Szöllösi-Nagy (UNESCO) P. F. Tenière-Buchot (United Nation Environment Programme) F. Valiron (Académie de l’Eau)

SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY COMMITTEE COMITE SCIENTIFIQUE

J. A. Abrishamchi (Iran) J. Marsalek (Canada) M. P. Boudouresque (France) J. Niemczynowicz (Sweden) D. Butler (UK) K. M. Nouh (UAE) L. Casanova (Japan) M. Saad (Egypt) B. Chocat (France) S. Saegrov (Norway) M. Desbordes (France) J. P. Sotty (France) P. Harremoes (Denmark) D. Stephenson (South Africa) T. Lee (Chile) C. Tucci (Brazil) J. Lundqvist (Sweden) E. Vlachos (USA) S. Matsui (Japan)

LOCAL ORGANIZING COMMITTEE COMITE LOCAL D’ORGANISATION

L. Fauchon, Chairperson (Groupe des Eaux de Marseille) J. Al-Alawi (Secretariat du Conseil Mondial de l’Eau) V. Burroni (Conseil Régional Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur) J-P. Chirouze (Agence de l’Eau Rhône-Méditerranée-Corse) J-N. Guerini (Conseil Général des Bouches-du-Rhône) G. Pipien (Préfecture des Bouches-du-Rhône) P. Martel-Reison (Chambre de Commerce et d’Industrie Marseille Provence) J. Mancel (Office International de l’Eau) D. Vlasto (Ville de Marseille)

vii

Table of Contents / Table des Matières

Preface

Workshop 1: Demand management practice, policy, data and technologies 1

GPA Strategic Action Plan on Municipal Wastewater with Recommendation for Decision-Making . . . . 3 De Vrees, L (Keynote)

A Case Study of Integrated Water Resource Management in Windhoek, Namibia...... 10 Biggs, D. & R. Williams

Reduction des Pertes: Cas de la Ville de Fès (Maroc) ...... 19 Coulange, F.

Heigthening Urban Water Supply Capacity and Reliability Trough Reconstructing Integrated Regional 22 Water Resources Systems Feng,G. & Y. Feng

Society and Water Quality: Self-Organized Critical Water System...... 30 Geldof, G.D.

Water Quality in Networks in the Condition of Substantial Decrease of Water Consumption ...... 38 Koppel,T., N. Kandler, K. Tiiter and A.Vassiljev

Community-Based Urban Water Management under Scarcity in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania ...... 46 Kyessi, A.G.

Water Crisis in Iran, Codification and Strategies in Urban Water...... 55 Motiee, H., Monouchehri and M.R.M. Tabatabai

GIS “Hydro-Manager” for Urban Areas Water Control...... 63 Tskhay, A.A. & Y.S. Morozova

Abstracts of Poster Presentations: ...... 70

The Tuul River Water Resources Changes and Water Use in Ulaanbaatar City, Mongolia ...... 70 Batnasan, N.

Impact des Eaux Urbaines sur la Qualite des eaux de l’Oued Seybouse...... 70 Djabri, L., A. Hani, J. Mania, and J. Mudry

Masterplan Tools for Water Supply Network ...... 72 Odeh, K., F. Fotoohi and P. Feron

Implementation of International Technologies and Know-How for Improvement of Water Supply in 72 Alytus, Lithuania Paukstys, B. and E.A. Hansen

Urban Thermal Climate Affects on Stormwater in Cold Regions? ...... 73 Semadeni-Davies, A.F., L. Bengtsson, A. Lundberg and W. Schilling

European Side Water Resources Management in Istanbul...... 73 Sen, Z. and V . Eroglu

Workshop 2: Recycling and Reuse at Different Scale ...... 75

Protecting Urban Water Supplies in South-Central Kansas by Integrated Groundwater-Surface Water 77 Management to Meet Municipal, Agricultural and Ecosystem Water Needs Buddemeier, R.W., H. Rubin and D. P. Young

Xenobiotic Organic Compounds in Grey Wastewater: a Matter of Concern? ...... 84 Eriksson, E., M. Henzen and A. Ledin

Wastewater Reuse – Integration of Urban and Rural Water Resources Management ...... 92 Friedler, E.

Wastewater as a Source: Perspectives and Challenges...... 99 Hamdy, A.

Recycled Water: Technical Economic Challenges for Its Integration as Sustainable Alternative...... 108 Resources Lazarova, V.

La réorganisation du cycle de l'eau en milieu oasien: une nécessité. L'exemple du Sud-Tunisien ...... 117 Moguedet, G., R. Bouckchina, A. Romdhane, D. Dubost, A. Houas, A. Jadas-Hecart, C. Kergaravat and A.M. Pourcher

Removal of Nutrients and Heavy Metals from Urban Wastewater Using Aeration, Alum and Kaolin 127 Ore Rashed, M.N. and M.E. Soltan

Abstracts of Poster Presentations: ...... 136

La reutilisation des eaux usées traitées dans le secteur agricole defies et controverses ...... 136 Ben Brahim, H. et L. Duckstein

Early Australian Regulatory Models for Water Reuse to Ensure that it is a Major Contributor to ...... 137 Sustainable Urban Development McKay, J.

Water Reclamation in South Africa: the Answer for the Increasing Water Demand in the Gauteng . . . . 138 Region? Vandaele, S., C. Thoeye and K. Snyman

Water Quality Investigation and Management in Bangkok Metropolitan Region, Thailand...... 138 Weeteeprasit, W.

Workshop 3: Water and Health...... 141

Health Impacts of Water ...... 143 Giroult, E. (Keynote)

Needed Innovative Urban Water Management for Developing Countries, Case of Egypt ...... 147 Amer, A.M.

Water, Health and Development ...... 154 Baral, H.

Towards a Recycling Society – A Case Study on the Successful Implementation of the Pilot Project in 161 in Dalu Village, China Mi Hua

Rethinking Urban Wastewater Re-use : Opportunities and Challenges ...... 168 Raschid-Sally, L., C. Scott, M.U. Hassan, J. Ensink, Y. Matsuno, and W. Van der Hoek

Abstracts of Poster Presentations: ...... 177

La Reustilisation des Eaux Usées Traitées dans le Secteur Agricole Defis et Controverses ...... 177 Ben Brahim, H. and L. Duckstein

Managing the Water Quality Effects from Densely Populated Settlement in South Africa...... 178 Boyd, L.A., M. Hinsch and G. Quibell

Monitoring and Comparing the Levels of 20 Trace Metals in the Reservoirs of Water Supply and 178 Sewerage Corporation of Athens using the ICP-MS Technique Lytras, E., F. Tzoumerkas and D. Xenos

Catchment Restoration and Sustainable Urban Water Management: A New Paradigm 179 Powell, A.M. and L. Jones

Water Quality in Three Reservoir at Citarum River Basin, Indonesia ...... 180 Sembiring, S.

Workshop 4: Technological outlook for the future...... 181

Sustainable Management of Municipal Wastewater and Stormwater: UNEP-IETC's Information and 183 Capacity Building Resources Casanova, L.

Rooftop Rain Water Harvesting - An Alternative Technology for Fresh Water Augmentation in 191 Chronically Deficient Urban Agglomerates of India Dhar Chakrabarti, P.G.

State of the Art and New Opportunities for Membranes in Municipal Water Treatment ...... 200 Durand Bourlier, L. K., Glucina, I. Baudinand P. Aptel

Energy Related to Sustainable Waste Handling Technology ...... 209 Eilersen, A.M. and M. Henze

Waste Design Paves the Way for Sustainable Urban Wastewater Management ...... 219 Larsen, T. A., W. Rauch and W. Gujer

Prévention et Diminution des Inondations Urbaines; Emergence de Solutions Intégrées ...... 230 Lavallée, P., M. Pleau, R. Martin, D. Guthrie and M. Link

"Slum Networking" - Using Slums to Save Cities ...... 238 Parikh, H. H.

Abstracts of Poster Presentations: ...... 246

Urbanisation Process and Urban Hydrology Problems in Developing Countries: The Case of Argentine 246 Bertoni, J.C. and P. Chevallier

Integrating urban water management in the Higher Education Curriculum, Hungarian case study ...... 247 Csobod, E.

The evolution of stromwater management in New South Wales, Australia ...... 247 McManus, P. Smith, R.R. Brown and R. Ryan

Workshop 5: Integrated urban water management for the future ...... 249

An Australian Case study: Why a Transdisciplinary Framework is Essential for a Successful Integrated 251 Water Management Policy Brown, R.R., R. Ryan and R. McManus

Water Management in the Mexico City Metropolitan Area: The Hard Way to Learn ...... 260 Castelan, E

Sustainable Management of Water Supplies for Developed Urban Areas: Issues, Perspectives and a 269 Vision Kallis, G. and H. Coccosis

Development of Sustainable Water Management in Beijing, China ...... 279 Nie. L. & W. Schilling

Vers un Service Universel : Nouveaux Concepts pour l’Approvisionnement en Eau et l’Assainissement 285 des Zones Urbaines à Faible Revenus Mathys, A.

Overcoming Macro/Micro Gridlock: the Implications for Regulatory Reform of a Local Urban Water 292 Conflict M’Gonigle, R.M.

L'Assainissement Urbain dans les Pays en Voie de Développement. Le Besoin d'une Stratégie ...... 301 Alternative Roumagnac, A & M. Benedetti

Abstracts of Poster Presentations: ...... 307

Tashkent Irrigation Net in Tashkent City - Problems and Decisions ...... 307 Makhmudov, E.J. & A.D. Ganiev

The Challenges for Urban Water Management in Tropical Coastal Megacities: Bangkok, Jakarta and 308 Manila Nur, Y

La Ville Nouvelle de Sidi Abdellah et le Développement Durable un Example d’Amenagement à Partir 308 de la Gestion des Eaux Urbaines Souag, M. and S. Dorbhan

Urban River Catchment Management Association - A Long Term Experience as a Model for the Future 309 Sperling, F

Urban Water Problems: the Case of the Metropolitan Area of Mexico City ...... 310 Tortajada, C.

xii

Workshop 6: Private participation in the provision of urban water services 311

Partnership for the Sustainable Urban Water Utilisation and Management in South-West Nigeria: . . . . . 313 Issues and Prospects Akegbejo-Samsons, Y.

The Importance of Public Attitudes and Behaviour for Management of Urban Water Systems ...... 318 Ashley, R.M., N. Souter and S. Hendry

Is Privatisation of Urban Water Supply Services in Developing Countries a Sustainable Alternative? 327 Experiences from Argentines Recent Privatisation Strategy Bundschuh, J. & A. Fuertes

Water Provisioning in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: The Publilc - Private Interface ...... 337 Kjellén, M.

The Participation of the Private Sector in Urban Water Services Provision...... 344 Moss, J.

A New approach for the Delivery of Sustainable Services in Poor Peri-Urban Areas: Business Partners 352 for Development. Kwazulu-Natal Project Rousseau, P. & E. Tranchant

The Challenge of Urban Water Management in Africa...... 358 Thuo, S.

Abstracts of Poster Presentations: ...... 362

Urbanization and Water Industry Growth in Malaysia: Issues and Challenges in the New Millenium . . . 362 Hashim, N.M.

Social and Economic Aspects of Urban Water Management. The City of Thessaloniki Case...... 363 Kolokytha, E.G., Y.A. Mylopoulos and A.K. Mentes

Water Supply Options in Urban India – Institutional Challenges and Opportunities ...... 363 Saravanan, V.S.

xiii

Workshop 1

DEMAND MANAGEMENT PRACTICE, POLICY, DATA AND TECHNOLOGIES

Convenors: United Nations Environment Programme UNCHS - Habitat

GPA STRATEGIC ACTION PLAN ON MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER WITH RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DECISION-MAKING

L.P.M. de Vrees*

* UNEP/GPA Coordination Office, P.O. Box 16227 2500 BE The Hague, The Netherlands. Email: [email protected] or [email protected] ; Web-site: www.gpa.unep.org

ABSTRACT

This paper outlines the Strategic Action Plan on Municipal Wastewater of the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment. The GPA/Coordination Office developed this Action Plan, in cooperation with other organisations, to support nations to address the problem of sewage adequately. One element of this action plan is the development of Recommendations for Decision-making on Municipal Wastewater. The aim of this paper and its presentation is to stimulate an exchange of views on the usefulness, adequacy, applicability, or appropriateness of these proposed Recommendations for Decision-making on Municipal Wastewater.

KEYWORDS

Clearing-house, Global Programme of Action (GPA), Marine Environment, Recommendations for Decision-making, Wastewater management

BACKGROUND

Coastal and marine pollution have become world-wide phenomena and triggered international action. In 1995, the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA, 1995) was adopted by 108 countries and the EC. The GPA recognises that the environmental effects associated with domestic wastewater are generally local, though with transboundary implications in certain geographic areas. The GPA notes that the commonality of sewage-related problems through coastal areas of the world is significant. Therefore, urban wastewater discharges are considered one of the most significant threats to sustainable coastal developments world-wide.

The priority for action on “sewage” was also identified by: • Seven regional workshops of Government-designated experts held in the period 1996-1998 in the framework of the United Nations Environment Programme/UNEP’s Regional Seas Programme and involving more than 60, mostly developing, countries; • UNEP Governing Council (decision 20/19B.1.d) who requested the Executive Director in cooperation with other relevant organisations to explore the possibility to convene a global conference to address sewage as a major land-based source of pollution, affecting human and ecosystem health.

The slowly growing awareness, the technical complexity and high cost of wastewater management, are main reasons why it has taken several decades before the rich industrialised nations managed to take effective action. The burden on the developing countries is the heavier as they are less wealthy and have weaker institutions. Therefore, the GPA Strategic Action Plan on Municipal Wastewater (GPA, 2000a) aims at supporting the efforts of States to address the serious public health problems and the degradation of coastal ecosystems that result from the disposal in coastal areas of inadequately treated municipal wastewater. It does so through, amongst others, the development of Recommendations for Decision-Making on Municipal Wastewater (GPA, 2000b) and associated Knowledge Base; and the holding of regional meetings - including partnership meetings - and global consultations. The Recommendations for Decision- making are a guide for local and national decision-makers and professionals on appropriate and environmentally sound wastewater management systems, including treatment. It contains key principles and annotated checklists of recommended practices and procedures.

The Action Plan builds upon, develops and enhances the relevant sections on sewage of the GPA. This Action Plan is the reflection of concerted actions by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the World Health Organisation (WHO), Habitat (UNCHS) and the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC).

COMPONENTS OF THE GPA STRATEGIC ACTION PLAN ON MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER

Assessment

• Global review of the State of Affairs, including the extent of the problem, hotspots and root- causes; • Four regional reports on socio-economic opportunities and potential partners (i.e. East Asia, South Asia, Eastern Africa and South East Pacific); • Case studies, illustrating the social, environmental, and economic benefits of action (and no- action); • An analytical paper on challenges, opportunities and benefits. Especially the effects of improper sewage management on health, and the difficulties of sewage management in large urban centres will be analysed.

Management

The envisaged outputs are: • Global Knowledge Base, describing the range of management options for addressing the sewage problem. Best practices, experiences and cases studies will illustrate these options. The GPA information and data clearing-house on sewage and sanitation will be used as a vehicle for access, dissemination and further development of the Knowledge base. This so- called “Sanitation Connection” is a partnership of UNEP/GPA, World Heath Organization (WHO), International Water Association (IWA), Water and Sanitation Programme (WSP), and the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC) and is accessible via www.sanicon.net. • Recommendations for Decision-making on appropriate and environmentally sound wastewater management. It contains key principles and annotated checklists of recommended

practices and procedures. It details ranges of approaches, infrastructures and tools available to practitioners and policy makers. The full document is available at: www.gpa.unep.org/documents. • Regional Cooperation for Innovative Actions: Four regional meetings (i.e. in the Caribbean, Eastern Africa, West Asia and East Asia region) are planned in the period February – July 2001, bringing together national and local experts, private sector, international financial institutions, potential donors and other stakeholders to: • Review the Recommendations for Decision-Making • Share technical, administrative and financial experience • Identify demonstration projects • Provide a forum for partnership creation • Identify regional resource centres • Global Consultation Process, consisting of (i) High level segment at the GPA Intergovernmental Review in 2001. To this high level segment the results of the regional meetings will be presented and the Recommendations for Decision-Making submitted for endorsement. The meeting will be requested to assess if the process and outputs of the implementation of the Municipal Wastewater Action Plan as described above could be used to guide the development of similar activities for the other source categories, identified in the Global Programme of Action (such as nutrients, heavy metals, and habitat modification); (ii) Sessions for professionals during planned global conferences, organised by professional associations, such as the 10th Stockholm Water Symposium (August 2000), Canada 2000 (September 2000), the fifth Global Forum of the WSSCC in Brazil (November 2000), the Symposium “Frontiers of Urban Water Management: deadlock or hope?” in Marseilles (June 2001), etc; (iii) Regional partnership meetings, as mentioned above.

AIM OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DECISION-MAKING

The development, consultation with experts from the different stakeholders and finally seeking political endorsement of the Recommendations for Decision-making fits within the normative function of UNEP. Seeking involvement of key stakeholders is another focus of UNEP. There is an important role of central and local authorities, citizens, non-governmental groups, private sector, in their role as water polluter (industries), water user (certain sectors such as tourism, fisheries) and water service operator (water supply and treatment industry). New partnerships between all these stakeholders, also involving regional organisations and finance institute is the new paradigm along which solutions for the future need to be sought.

There are several prerequisites for addressing the management of wastewater in order to safeguard human and ecosystem health, and to avoid the degradation of water quality and other coastal and marine resources. These include: • Stakeholder involvement, which will foster the political will to assign a high priority to wastewater management among other pressing public investment needs • Financial affordability.

These recommendations aim to provide guidance how to gain this political will and to increase financial affordability by describing sustainable systems for wastewater management, including less expensive technical options and ways of attracting support.

The key principles for managing wastewater sustainable are to conserve water resources, by eliminating pollution at the source, using water efficiently, and maintaining water quality, and to respond effectively to demands from society.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DECISION-MAKING: KEY-ISSUES

This paper gives all the (draft) key-issues and recommendations, which will be reviewed at the regional meetings mentioned above, amended, and possibly, to be endorsed at the GPA Intergovernmental Review of November 2001.

Issue 1 A comprehensive and integrated approach to urban wastewater management is needed to maintain the environmental integrity and the economic functions of aquatic ecosystems, including ground water, rivers, lakes, and coastal areas. Recommendations 1.a Promote studies to quantify the socioeconomic impact of environmental pollution in case of inaction and action, and use such information to determine the priorities for investment and clean-up programs. 1.b Prioritise actions to minimise current and future environmental damage with carefully selected policies, programmes, and investments; invest stage-wise in infrastructure for wastewater management while maintaining a long-term horizon for planning and operations. 1.c Impose appropriate effluent standards that are feasible for local conditions. 1.d Integrate planning for wastewater with the planning for other sectors, such as water supply, solid waste, and land use. 1.e Use a mix of technological options and managerial approaches, including community- based development approaches, that are appropriate and optimal for different zones in the city. 1.f Incorporate wastewater management within integrated approaches for the management of river basins and coastal zones.

STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT Issue 2 Successful wastewater management requires a high level of public commitment. Recommendations 2.a Invest in creating and maintaining awareness among citizens regarding their dual role as polluters and beneficiaries of wastewater management.

2.b Develop commitment to a clean environment and “river basin solidarity,” and demonstrate that “win-win” situations exist when all polluters cooperate in wastewater management. 2.c Devolve decision-making to the lowest appropriate administrative level, and ensure that local communities receive financial power to participate in local or regional initiatives to operate, manage, and maintain their part of the infrastructure. 2.d Ensure that citizens receive an adequate wastewater management service relative to their financial contributions. Issue 3 Wastewater management is pre-eminently an effort that involves many actors who must be willing to cooperate and contribute to the overall result. Recommendations 3.a Apply both restrictive and enabling regulations. To make this approach more palatable and effective, add positive incentives, such as load-based licensing fees. 3.b Introduce market-based instruments, such as tradable effluent permits, in conjunction with administrative regulation to give polluters more flexibility to invest and operate in the management of wastewater. 3.c Develop mechanisms that allow civil society and its representatives (such as consumer associations) to hold polluting entities accountable, whether they are owned and operated privately or publicly. 3.d Ensure that the investment and operational mechanisms and instruments enable the equitable distribution of costs and benefits among all stakeholders.

FINANCING Issue 4 The financial sustainability of the wastewater management system must be assured. Recommendations 4.a Strive to apply the principles of “the water user pays” and “the polluter pays” in the wastewater management systems. 4.b Design the financial system to balance the quality of the service, the investment costs, and the tariffs that households are willing and able to pay (demand-driven approach). 4.c Involve the stakeholders who are to gain from the water quality improvement, including those benefiting from enhanced land values, and ensure that they contribute financially (opportunity-driven approach). 4.d Use charges or pollution fees to establish funds for the cofinancing of wastewater treatment facilities, instead of considering these revenues as taxes that enter the national budget. 4.e Establish systems to ensure that tax revenues are allocated to the appropriate service provider. 4.f Examine the potential to use cross-subsidies.

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS Issue 5 A country’s central government can play a significant role as a facilitator and initiator of appropriate wastewater management. Recommendations 5.a Develop systems to ensure good and sustainable governance and protect the performance of investments and operations, whether performed by the public sector or the private. 5.b Recognise the responsibility and authority of the central government to set the institutional environment to encourage local governments, the private sector, regional and river basin agencies, and other partners to initiate and implement programmes. This can include: • Developing and maintaining national policies and strategies in cooperation with local governments and other stakeholders • Enacting legal and regulatory instruments • Encouraging the development of appropriate organisations to complement local government initiatives. 5.c Consider cofinancing schemes and infrastructure that are highly cost-effective and that have a high priority, as appropriate. 5.d Make local governments and environmental agencies accountable to central governments for implementing, operating, and maintaining sustainable wastewater management systems. 5.e Establish criteria for central governments to assess the performance of local governments and environmental agencies in reducing pollution.

Issue 6 In many countries, institutional restructuring and strengthening is required to ensure the good performance of the wastewater management system. Recommendations 6.a Develop a long-term strategy for institutional reform and capacity building where existing structures, legal and regulatory frameworks, and organisations inside and outside of the government are weak or inadequate. 6.b Recognise that weak capacities pertain to the capacities of individuals (such as wastewater engineers) and to capacities embodied in managerial procedures, regulations, administrative rules, and career and salary incentives. 6.c Make use of or develop dedicated networks of multidisciplinary sector experts in academia, government, industry, and civil society. 6.d Ensure that these networks and information exchange systems, such as web-based clearing-houses, help to identify or articulate the problems to be solved and draw upon experiences from other countries in the region and globally.

Issue 7 Partnerships between the public sector and the private sector are important options and useful tools to assist local governments in financing and operating the infrastructure for wastewater management. Recommendations 7.a Review the regulatory and legal frameworks that might impede public–private partnership arrangements; appropriate frameworks can facilitate local governments and the private sector to investigate partnership opportunities. 7.b Devise carefully the requirements and options for such regulation, which should be compatible with the country’s economic, social, and political situation and should discourage monopolistic behaviour. 7.c Structure the contract and its implementation to maximise the long-term effectiveness of collaborative partnerships between the contracting authority and the operator by building in systems for dialogue. 7.d Implement pilot public–private partnership initiatives and learn from the experiences. 7.e Evaluate fairly and objectively the performance of such partnerships against international benchmarks and consumer satisfaction surveys, regardless of whether the utility is managed by a private firm or a public entity.

TECHNOLOGY Issue 8 The high cost of wastewater management warrants a very careful search for low-cost and thus more sustainable technologies and approaches. Recommendations 8.a Introduce appropriate strategies and incentives that target waste prevention and minimisation, water conservation, and the efficient use of water. 8.b Apply more cost effective technologies such as lagoons, natural systems, anaerobic treatment, and reuse schemes. 8.c Adapt land use policies and financial and other regulation to promote the segregation of industrial effluents unsuitable for municipal wastewater treatment by relocating industries, recycling waste streams, and using the best available technologies. 8.d Promote the exchange of experience with the implementation and operation of different technologies.

REFERENCES (available at http://www.gpa.unep.org/documents)

- GPA (1995). Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities. UNEP(OCA)LBA/IG.2/7. Washington D.C. [USA]: UNEP. - GPA (2000a). GPA Strategic Action Plan on Municipal Wastewater. The Hague [The Netherlands]: UNEP/GPA - GPA (2000b). Recommendations for Decision-making on Municipal Wastewater. The Hague [The Netherlands]: UNEP/GPA

A CASE STUDY OF INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN WINDHOEK, NAMIBIA

By Dudley Biggs* and Rick Williams*

*Department of Water Affairs, Private Bag 13193, Windhoek, Namibia. E-mail: [email protected] and [email protected].

ABSTRACT

Integrated water resource management is crucial in meeting and managing the increasing water demand in Namibia. Recent studies have shown that as part of that process both water demand management measures and non-conventional water supply augmentation schemes are considerably cheaper than developing more traditional pipeline schemes. This paper presents a case study of Windhoek, describing the different initiatives adopted by the municipality in conjunction with the bulk water supplier, NamWater and the Department of Water Affairs in the Government to integrate traditional supply systems, WDM and non-conventional supply initiatives to manage and meet this demand. The case study provides an indication of what can be achieved and what are feasible and practical interventions. The case study shows that lessons that have been and continued to be learnt in Windhoek can apply to many other areas in Namibia as a way to promote sustainable water resource use yet meet increased demand.

KEYWORDS:

Integrated water resource management, supply augmentation, conjunctive use, water demand management

BACKGROUND

Namibia is Southern Africa’s most arid country. Its rainfall and consequently its surface and ground water sources in the interior are extremely limited and variable. Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation by a factor of between two and five. There are no natural resources of perennial surface water other than rivers on the borders of Namibia. It is estimated that 56% of water consumption is derived from groundwater, 20% from ephemeral rivers and 24% from perennial border rivers. Of the low total rainfall of between 20 and 700mm, 83% evaporates, only 1% contributes to groundwater recharge and 2% can be harvested in surface storage facilities.

With a population growth of over 3% and a growing economy, water supply is becoming an increasing constraint for Namibia. Until the beginning of the 1990s emphasis has been placed on supply augmentation. Over the last 40 years surface water dams have been built to collect run off from ephemeral rivers. However, further supply augmentation is becoming increasingly expensive as the country has to look further afield for water. Water demand management (WDM), implemented to reduce demand rather than continue to augment supply, and non- conventional supply schemes have become important components in Namibia’s integrated water resources management (IWRM) programme. The recently approved Water Sector White Paper reflects this and concentrates more on managing water resources.

As more research is conducted there is an increasing number of feasible and potentially feasible projects to conserve water and augment supply cost effectively. Windhoek has been the forerunner in IWRM in Namibia. This paper describes IWRM supply and demand side initiatives that have been adopted and which are being investigated for Windhoek and how these have been developed by a partnership of Windhoek Municipality, NamWater and the Department of Water Affairs. It then discusses the implications of current and future IWRM for Windhoek and the progress made in some aspects of IWRM in the rest of the country.

A CASE STUDY: WINDHOEK

Introduction Urban growth in the capital city, Windhoek is high. Due to urbanisation pressures it has a population growth rate of approximately 6% per annum. Economically, politically, culturally and socially it is the most important city in Namibia. The country’s parliament is located there and it is the capital for trade, industry, commerce, culture and education. At the beginning of the 1980s average water consumption was 600-700litres/person/day (l/p/d) in the affluent areas of Windhoek. IWRM was introduced in the early 1990s as a concerted effort to both reduce the level of consumption and increase the safe yield of Windhoek’s water resources to meet increased demand. Considerable progress has been made to date, the current average water consumption having reduced to 180l/p/d, although this is still above average for African cities.

Areas of intervention The areas of intervention for Windhoek’s water supply concentrates on both supply and demand side measures. The different approaches for Windhoek now and in the future are presented below.

Supply side

Current sources of supply for Windhoek Traditional water supply to Windhoek has come from groundwater in the Windhoek locality. Whilst Windhoek still gets some of its yearly supply from groundwater its main source is from the 3 dam system north of Windhoek. Table 1 summarises Windhoek’s supply sources.

Table 1. The Supply of Water to Windhoek (1999).

Operator Water Source Capacity Safe Yield Amount supplied (Mm³/a) (Mm³/a) (Mm³/a) NAMWATER Ephemeral Omatako Dam 43 5 } 20 Rivers Swakopoort Dam 63.5 13.180 Von Bach Dam 48.6 Groundwater Berg Auchas Mine - 3* 2.177 MUNICIPALITY Ephemeral Avis Dam 24 12 Goreangab Dam 3.6 Groundwater Municipal Boreholes - 2.3 Reclamation Goreangab Works - 3.6 2.424 TOTAL 161.6 30.1 17 Source: Ben van der Merwe and Ben Groom (1999)

• Integrated three dam system The 3 dam system was developed between 1970 and 1982. Of the three dams, the Von Bach is the nearest to Windhoek and the most efficient1. Water from Swakoppoort Dam bypasses Von Bach Dam and is pumped straight to the water treatment plant and used directly for Windhoek. The Omatako Dam, the smallest of the 3 dams and also the least efficient, is intended to store only a minimum amount of water and is used primarily for surface water catchment2 and replenishing the Von Bach Dam. By operating the dams on such an integrated basis the 95% assurance of supply is increased from 13.7Mm³/a to approximately 20Mm³/a, a 42% increase in efficiency.

• Groundwater Groundwater is Windhoek’s traditional source of water. When settlers first moved into what is now Windhoek, there were springs in a number of places. However the Windhoek Aquifer has been depleted to the point where there are no longer springs. Over the long term the aquifer can sustainably supply 2Mm³/a of Windhoek’s total water consumption. However in the short term and with conjunctive use it can supply as much as 6Mm³/a.

• Reclaimed and reused water Windhoek was the first city in the world to reclaim its water back to potable water quality for use in the reticulation system. The first pilot plant, commissioned in the 1959, was followed by a full scale plant in 1960. The treatment process includes flocculation, sedimentation, flotation, filtration, ozonation and treatment with activated carbon. As a cost effective way of augmenting supply, Windhoek Municipality is currently constructing a new reclamation plant to increase the capacity from 3.6Mm³ to 7.5Mm³ of water per annum. In addition to reclaiming water back to potable standards, approximately 1Mm³ of semi-purified water is distributed from Gamanns sewerage works in a separate reticulation system for use in parks, sports fields and a golf course.

• Kavango River/Karst Aquifer Pipeline schemes Investigations into conventional groundwater and surface water supply augmentation has been done and focus on two main schemes, water transfer from the Karst Aquifer, north east of Windhoek and from the Kavango River. The Karst Aquifer is divided by a natural ridge. The south eastern section is already in production with water drawn from Kombat and Berg Aukas mines and transported along the Eastern National Water Carrier (ENWC) into the Windhoek supply system via the Omatako Dam. The north western section is currently under investigation and would follow the same route with little extra infrastructure required. The Kavango scheme would involve the construction of a 250km pipeline also feeding into the ENWC. Because of their geographical situation these two supply augmentation schemes complement each other. However both are seen as expensive options3 in comparison to other IWRM options, involving water transfers over 350km and 600km respectively.

1 Efficiency is measured as a ratio between depth and surface area. The amount of evaporation relative to capacity is subject to this ratio. 2 With the addition of the Omatako Dam, the 3 dams cover two river basins with a total catchment area of 16 800km². Planners anticipated that this should increase the surety of supply by splitting the risks of drought in different river basins. The success of this strategy has been disappointingly limited since drought patterns in southern Africa stretch over very large areas, minimising the advantage. 3 See table 6

• Congo River Transfer scheme Due to sensitivities regarding the use of water from the Kavango River and the potential environmental impact on the Okavango Delta, alternatives that avoid influencing water flow to the Delta are being investigated as well. Many Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries experience or at least anticipate a shortage of water. For this reason a desk study is underway to determine the feasibility to transfer water from the headwaters of the southernmost tributaries of the Congo River such as the Kasai or Lualaba to the headwaters of the Zambezi or Kwando Rivers, possibly in cooperation with hydropower projects e.g. Nzilo.

• Artificial recharge Artificial groundwater recharge is considered a potentially important part of IWRM for Windhoek. To cancel the effects of evaporation, groundwater can be an efficient way of storing water. As an estimated 35Mm³ evaporates every year from the 3 dam system there could be great benefit in preventing evaporation of even some of the water that is stored. At present, research is being conducted into the financial feasibility of artificial recharge in the Windhoek locality and the suitability of certain aquifers for water storage. Initial results suggest that artificial recharge of the Windhoek Aquifer is a feasible alternative to storing water above ground. Further studies are due to start this year on aquifers in the 3 dam system area and to the south of Windhoek. Table 3 shows the estimated amount of water saved over three years through artificial recharge, depending on the amount of water stored. This alternative for water storage could certainly postpone alternative, more expensive supply augmentation schemes, some perhaps indefinitely.

Table 2. Artificial Recharge and Total Saving in Evaporation Loss

Artificial Injection in First Year Saving in Evaporation Loss Total Saving* in Surface Water over only (Mm³) over 3 years (Mm³) Three Years (Mm³) 10.00 3.95 11.95 15.00 5.70 17.70 An allowance of 20% was made for losses in the aquifer during storage Source: Ben van der Merwe and Ben Groom (1999)

• Reduction in unaccounted for water levels An additional water conservation measure on the supply side is to reduce unaccounted for water levels that have traditionally accounted for a disproportionately high level of the total water supply in Namibia. At present, Windhoek loses an estimated 10%, a loss of 1.7Mm³/a4, of its total water supply through leakages and poor maintenance of its reticulation system. This is relatively low in comparison to other municipalities in Namibia but is still a cause for concern. A study is currently underway to look at implementing WDM related maintenance programmes in municipalities throughout Namibia to try to reduce the extent of this problem.

Conjunctive use of water The very low safe yield of the individual surface water sources is a direct result of the low efficiency of storage due to evaporation and the variability of rainfall. By augmenting or ‘backing up’ these sources of supply with other sources that are more reliable like a perennial resource, or at least not as affected by drought, existing sources can be utilised at a much higher risk,

4 Although it could be as high as 15%, a loss of 2.55Mm³)

13 increasing their effective and safe yield dramatically. Table 3 illustrates how the safe yield of the dams increase from 12Mm³ to 20Mm³ by operating them on an integrated basis, which increases to 30Mm³ when the Karstland groundwater is fully utilized, and finally 40Mm³ once water is supplied from the perennial Kavango River. Groundwater is also important. In times of good rain, surface water can be used before the water evaporates as the predominant water source whilst saving groundwater for years of low inflow into the dams due to low rainfall. The table also shows the effects of non-conventional water conservation and supply initiatives such as artificial recharge and the increase of capacity at the Goreangab reclamation facility. Conjunctive use of Windhoek’s water supply system is one of the key components of IWRM for Windhoek.

Table 3: Conjunctive Use of Windhoek’s supply side schemes

SOURCE SUPPLY POTENTIAL Mm3/a Windhoek Boreholes 2 2 2 2 2 Artificial recharge 1.5 1.5 1.5 Windhoek Reclamation 4 4444 Additional reclamation plant capacity 3.5 3.5 3.5 Individual Dams (95% assured yield) 13.7 Dams on Integrated Basis 20 20 Dams with Karstland Water 30 Access to Okavango River 40 TOTAL 19.7 26 31 41 51 Source: Piet Heyns

Demand side

Water Demand Management One of the main components of IWRM and an important consideration in terms of conjunctive use, is WDM. A WDM policy was introduced in Windhoek in July 1994. Windhoek has seen a growth in total water consumption of 1.28Mm³, an increase of just 7.7% over 9 years against a population growth of approximately 60% since 1991. WDM measures can be broadly split into two areas: • Market mechanisms and • Direct interventions.

Table 4: Water consumption in Windhoek

Financial Total Water Growth in water Daily/capita Total daily/capita Year Consumption consumption (%) residential water consumption (Mm³) consumption (l/p/d) (l/p/d) 1990/91 16.72 - 201 322 1991/92 15.59 -6.8 201 283 1992/93 14.58 -6.5 167 251 1994/95 17.50 201 161 271 1995/96 14.41 -17.7 136 211 1996/97 12.36 -14.2 117 179 1997/98 15.24 23.3 130 201 1998/99 17.69 16.1 1999/2000 18.00 1.8 1. This is over the previous two years Source: Windhoek Municipality

• Market mechanisms: block tariff structure A block tariff structure based on a system of volumetric charges has been implemented in at least four municipalities throughout Namibia. Windhoek was the first to approve a block tariff structure in 1991. In conjunction with other WDM measures this has met with considerable success in promoting conversation and more efficient use of water. Table 5 shows Windhoek’s block tariff structure.

Table 5. The Block Water Tariffs in Windhoek

Water Consumption (m³/month) Tariff (N$/m³) (June 1998) Tariff (N$/m³) (Dec 2000) 0-6 2.65 3.51 7-15 3.70 4.89 16-36 4.75 6.28 37-45 6.25 8.26 45+ 8.15 10.77 Source: Windhoek Municipality

There are two main benefits of a block tariff structure can have. Firstly a block tariff structure can achieve full cost recovery of the water supply yet still keep the cost of water affordable5 for low income groups. It achieves this through the cross subsidisation of water from rich to poor. The wealthier part of the population are characterised more by those who have large gardens to water, swimming pools to maintain and more cars to keep clean. Therefore these will be people who demand more water. Secondly this pricing structure, as it increasingly punishes higher water consumption, encourages more efficient, careful use of water by consumers because the less water they use the less the average cost of each unit.

The structure of the block water tariff has a significant impact on water conservation. The more a unit of water costs, the less a rational customer will consume. The degree to which this is the case is dependant on the Price Elasticity of Demand6 (PED) In terms of water conservation in conjunction with keeping the lowest block affordable but still achieve full cost recovery, this is very important. Block water tariffs have proven to be an important component of WDM. It is also a relatively flexible tool and works towards three policy objectives of WDM, namely full cost recovery, affordability, and water conservation. In addition the more efficient the use of water, the larger the population that Windhoek’s water supply system can support, thus contributing to the conjunctive use of the supply system.

5 Affordability is defined as the minimum amount of water required for human consumption not costing more than 5% of a person’s income. 6 PED = % change in quantity % change in price

• Direct interventions The main components of these measures are summarised in Box 1.

Box 1: Water Demand Management Direct Interventions

POLICY-policies approved and implemented in Windhoek Maximum reuse of water: including semi-purified effluent for irrigating municipal areas and recycling of water to potable standards Plot sizes: reduced for new developments and higher density housing encouraged for existing developments Urbanisation: guidelines have been developed to efficiently supply water to growing population. Reduction of municipal water use: for public gardens etc. reduced by 50%. Wet industries: guidelines given to promote efficient water use in wet industries and re-use of water by new wet industries

LEGISLATION Compulsory water efficient equipment: metering taps in hotels, taps outside non-residential building to be self closing or lockable, toilet cisterns must be dual flush units, automatic flushing devises prohibited; replacement of inefficient devices within 3 years. Groundwater: monitoring of abstraction and groundwater levels controlled. Gardens: watering prohibited between 10.00 and 16.00 Swimming pools: must be covered when not in use Prevention of pollution: regular testing of underwater tanks mandatory and all tanks to be registered TECHNICAL MEASURES Lowering of unaccounted for water: leakage detection carried out, repair programmes in place, water audits undertaken, proper management of meters, and systematic pipe replacement programme. Efficient watering methods: proper irrigation systems for municipal gardens, advice given on efficient watering methods PUBLIC CAMPAIGNS AND AWARENESS Education programmes: lectures in schools and other educational institutions, use of radio, television and local media, pamphlets on water saving ideas distributed with water bills. Consumer advisory service: advice on water related issues an information on leak detection. Advice of efficient gardening methods: including suitable flora and efficient watering techniques Community empowerment in formerly neglected areas: training of community based plumbers and gardeners Source: Ben van der Merwe and Ben Groom (1999)

Comparison of financial implications of IWRM measures for Windhoek

Table 5 shows the difference in unit cost between some the schemes presented above. As can be clearly seen, traditional supply schemes and conventional supply augmentation are generally more expensive that alternatives supply sources and non-conventional supply augmentation. This provides the financial impetus for introducing IWRM in Windhoek and potentially the rest of Namibia.

The progress of WDM in other areas of Namibia

Block water tariffs have been implemented in other areas in Namibia. Table 7 shows the municipalities that had introduced a block water tariff system by 1998.

In a survey as part of the IUCN WDM country study, it was found that measures considered part of a WDM initiative have been introduced in 79% of municipalities surveyed. However, only 30% of the municipalities or towns have introduced 3 or more projects. As has been shown in Windhoek, for WDM measures to have significant effect, it is important to implement a range of different measures. But perhaps the most serious problem in many municipalities is the level of unaccounted for water. A level of 30%+ was recorded in 1998 in at least 5 municipalities and the majority of municipalities surveyed lose substantially more than 10% of their water supply.

Table 6: Comparison of supply costs between different schemes in Namibia

Water Schemes Cost per unit (N$/m³) Current water supply schemes NamWater cost recovery tariff 3.17 NamWater bulk tariff 2.40 Goreangab (existing plant) 2.35 Boreholes 1.15 Purified Effluent 1.57 Conventional supply augmentation Okavango pipeline scheme 8.50 Tsumeb Karst Aquifer N/a Congo River Pipeline Scheme N/a Unconventional supply augmentation Goreangab (new plant) 2.80 Artificial Recharge 1.25 Source: IUCN WDM Country Study, 1998

Table 7: Municipalities which have adopted a block water tariff structure (1998)

Town Municipal Block Tariff Range 1998 (N$/M³) Windhoek 2.65 – 8.15 Henties Bay 2.60 – 3.20 Okahandja 1.95 – 5.00 Swakopmund 2.25 – 4.50 Tsumeb 2.25+ Walvis Bay 2.16 – 8.54 Source: IUCN WDM Country Study, 1998

CONCLUSION

As Namibia’s population grows and economy develops, IWRM initiatives are becoming more and more important in terms of conserving water, promoting efficient water use and cost effectively augmenting supply through the conjunctive use of water supply systems. This discussion on Windhoek’s IWRM policies and initiatives show the success these have had and could potentially have in meeting and managing the growing demand for water and enhancing Windhoek’s water supply system. The successes of using such IWRM initiatives as WDM and water reclamation measures are important lessons for the rest of Namibia. Whilst some progress has been made in implementing WDM measures and using reclaimed water in some municipalities there is considerably more that can be done to conserve water and use it more efficiently. This remains one of the many challenges for Namibia.

REFERENCES

Groom, B. & Van der Merwe B., (1999) Water Demand Management and Water Re-use in Windhoek, Namibia, Paper for the WMO/UNESCO Water Resources Programs Workshop on Tools for Water Use and Demand Management, Harare, Zimbabwe. Heyns, P. (2000) Presentation on the conjunctive use of water for Windhoek, Windhoek, Namibia Namibia Water Resources Management Review, (2000), Namibia Water Policy: Policy Framework for Equitable, Efficient, and Sustainable Water Resources Management and Water Services, Windhoek, Namibia Van der Merwe, B. Bethune, S., Pieters, R., Steynberg, R., Basson, T., Groom, B., Buckle, J., Redecker, M., & Hugo, L. (1999), IUCN Water Demand Management Country Study- Namibia. Technical Report to The World Conservation Union(IUCN) Van der Merwe, B., (1999) Implementation of Integrated Water Resource Management in Windhoek, Namibia Paper for 4th Biennial Congress of the International Association of Hydraulic Research, Windhoek, Namibia.

RÉDUCTION DES PERTES : CAS DE LA VILLE DE FÈS ( MAROC )

François COULANGE

PREAMBULE SUR LA NECESSITE DE REDUIRE LES PERTES DANS UN RESEAU DE DISTRIBUTION D’EAU POTABLE

Au-delà de la conception et de l’exécution des ouvrages, les critères de qualité d’un réseau de distribution d’eau potable reposent sur les bonnes conditions d’exploitation et de maintenance, avec pour objectif la réduction des volumes d'Eau Non Comptabilisée (fuites, pertes, gaspillages, prises frauduleuses, etc.), car les volumes perdus : • Représentent un danger de pénurie, spécialement dans les villes ou pays qui ont des problèmes de ressources en eau. • Peuvent impliquer la nécessité de réaliser des travaux pour renforcer les ouvrages existants, alors qu’une meilleure utilisation de l’eau pourrait suffire pour reporter à plus tard ces projets et les lourds investissements qu’ils représentent. • Donnent une image défavorable des responsables de l'exploitation à la population, laquelle, souffrant d’un manque d’eau chronique, peut reprocher à l’autorité qu’aucune action ne soit mise en œuvre pour remédier à cette situation, • Représentent un manque à gagner important pour le service d’eau. De ce fait, sa capacité de financement se trouve amoindrie, et il disposera de moyens réduits pour améliorer le système. Il faut remarquer qu'il ne suffit pas d'appliquer une technique particulière pour atteindre un résultat. Pour être efficace, la réduction des pertes d'eau impose la mise en œuvre d'une politique globale, mobilisant des moyens techniques, financiers et d'organisation nécessaires à la réduction ou à l'élimination des causes de pertes d'eau. Pour mener à bien la mise en œuvre d’un programme d'amélioration du rendement du réseau, il est indispensable de traiter les points suivants : • élaboration du bilan hydraulique, en définissant les indices qui permettront de suivre l’évolution du rendement du réseau de distribution, • entretien préventif et curatif du réseau, • amélioration du fonctionnement du réseau (régulation des pressions, notamment), • cartographie du réseau, • fichier des abonnés • macrocomptage • microcomptage • recherche de fuites.

REDUCTION DES PERTES D'EAU : CAS DE LA VILLE DE FES (MAROC)

Le cas de Fès est très intéressant car le réseau de distribution d’eau potable de cette ville possédait un rendement très faible en 1990 (50 % environ) et qu’en moins de cinq ans et grâce à la mise en œuvre d'un programme de mesures énergiques élaboré avec l’aide de la Société des Eaux de Marseille , on a pu relever ce rendement à 65 %. Il est encourageant de constater que

19 lorsque les problèmes ont été bien identifiés et lorsque l'on s'en donne les moyens, il est possible d'améliorer rapidement une situation qui semblait très compromise.

1. Le réseau d’eau potable de la ville de Fès

Le réseau de distribution d'eau potable de la ville de Fès, long d'environ 900 km présentait en 1990 un rendement très faible (de l'ordre de 50 %), aggravé par une quasi saturation des ressources en eau. Les incidents et les coupures d'eau étaient fréquents, ce qui entraînait le mécontentement de la population, surtout durant les mois les plus chauds de l'année, où les températures à Fès dépassent souvent les 40°C. La prise de conscience des responsables de la Régie des Eaux de Fès ( la RADEEF ) et la première phase de l'étude du Plan Directeur de Distribution d'Eau Potable réalisé par la Société des Eaux de Marseille, ont rapidement abouti à la mise en œuvre d'un programme d'actions énergiques destinées à améliorer la situation. Il s’agissait comme on va le voir, de mesures souvent très simples, dictées par l’expérience et par le bon sens d’hommes rompus à l’exploitation d’un réseau, et de ce fait relativement aisées à mettre en œuvre.

2. Mesures qui ont été préconisées pour la réduction des pertes d'eau

Les principales mesures qui ont été préconisées par la SEM sont les suivantes :

- Travaux d'amélioration des ressources en eau et de la sécurité d'alimentation de Fès, pour pouvoir satisfaire rapidement aux besoins des usagers. Ces travaux ont été réalisés en partie par l'ONEP ( Office national de l’eau potable ) et en partie par la RADEEF ( Régie des eaux et de l’électricité de Fès ) : mise en service de forages de secours dans la plaine du Saïs, construction de réservoirs de stockage supplémentaires, amélioration de la filière de traitement des eaux de l'Oued Sebou, pose sur plusieurs kilomètres d'une conduite de secours de diamètre 800 mm pour alimenter les réservoirs du Nord de la ville à partir des forages situés au Sud.

- Création d'un service de recherches de fuites (3 équipes motorisées équipées de corrélateur acoustique et d’hydrosols) et suivi permanent du fonctionnement du réseau (par des relevés de pressions). Instauration d'un programme de détection systématique des fuites, dans les secteurs les plus fuyards.

- Amélioration des moyens mis en œuvre pour réparer rapidement toues les fuite décelées.

- Pose de macrocompteurs au niveau de tous les réservoirs de tête du réseau, pour pouvoir mesurer et contrôler les volumes d'eau mis en distribution.

- Création de trois étages de pression en Médina avec la pose de neuf stabilisateurs de pression. Rappelons que les habitations de la Médina de Fès se situent entre les cotes 400 et 250 m NGM (soit un dénivelé total d'environ 150 mètres). La Médina de Fès ne possédait dans les faits qu’un seul étage de pression avant les années 1990, ce qui générait des pressions très élevées, surtout durant la nuit, dans les points les plus bas du réseau..

- Mise en oeuvre d'un programme de renouvellement des conduites les plus vétustes du réseau de distribution.

- Pose de plus de 40.000 compteurs neufs (en remplacement des compteurs défectueux), soit près de 50 % du parc total des compteurs des abonnés de la Régie, en 3 ans.

- Création d'un atelier d'étalonnage et de réparation des compteurs.

- Amélioration du fichier des abonnés et mise en place d'un service anti-fraude qui a contrôlé tous les branchements sur le terrain (plusieurs milliers d'usagers qui étaient absents du fichier des abonnés ont pu ainsi être récupérés).

- Lancement d'une vaste opération de pose de branchements sociaux (près de 20.000 branchements sociaux ont été posés à Fès entre 1991 et 1997). En donnant accès au réseau d’eau potable au plus grand nombre d'habitants possible, on a pu réduire le nombre des bornes fontaines, qui sont toujours une source importante de gaspillage. - - Création d'un Comité de vigilance destiné à sensibiliser les usagers aux économies d'eau. Fermeture nocturne des fontaines de la Médina durant les mois les plus chauds de l'année.

2. Résultats obtenus

Grâce à cette série de mesures menées à un rythme très soutenu, les résultats ne se sont pas fait attendre. En cinq ans seulement, le rendement général du réseau de Fès qui était de 50 % en 1990 est ainsi passé à 65 % en 1995. Il s’est ensuite maintenu à cette valeur ; l’amélioration du rendement de réseau de Fès a alors marqué une pause, en partie à cause de la taxe d’assainissement qui est venue augmenter sensiblement le prix de l’eau. La conséquence en a été une réduction importante des consommations.

Ce redressement spectaculaire a rapidement permis à la RADEEF de ne plus avoir à recourir aux coupures d’eau, d'acheter moins d'eau à l'ONEP et d'en vendre d'avantage à ses abonnés.

HEIGHTENING URBAN WATER SUPPLY CAPACITY AND RELIABILITY THROUGH RECONSTRUCTING INTEGRATED REGIONAL WATER RESOURCES SYSTEMS

Guozhang Feng* and Yuzhen Feng**

* College of Water Resources and Architectural Engineering, Northwest Sci-Tech University of Agriculture and Forestry, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China ** Division of Construction for the Infrastructures, Northwest Sci-Tech University of Agriculture and Forestry, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China

ABSTRACT

This paper presents essential concept of reconstruction of integrated regional water resources systems (IRWRS), basic status of urban water supply in China, and a case study of solving urban water issues induced by unitary water source through reconstructing IRWRS. Integrated regional water resources systems are defined as water resources systems that consist of water source subsystems, water project subsystems, water utilization subsystems, water management subsystems and the environment of the systems. Lack of enough water sources with sufficient quantity and proper quality is recognized to be one of the most crucial stresses to urban water security. Integrated regional water resources systems with multiple water sources are regarded as an important solution to unitary water source induced urban water scarcity and pertinent issues. The results from the Xi'an Water Resources System show that urban water supply capacity and reliability is capable of being significantly improved through reconstructing IRWRS.

KEYWORDS

Integrated regional water resources system (IRWRS); multiple water sources; water scarcity; water supply capacity and reliability; unitary water source, urbanization.

INTRODUCTION

Urbanization is an essential trend of the developing world. It is generally accompanied by rapid industrialization and population growth in persistently expanding urban areas. One of the most specific phenomena of urbanization is rapid increase in water demand in urban areas. This often causes severe water scarcity and pertinent social, economic and the environmental problems in urban areas. These problems may be aggravated by natural and anthropological factors. Lack of enough water sources with sufficient quantity and proper quality might be one of the most crucial stresses to urban water security.

Traditionally, urban water resources systems are usually isolated systems with unitary water source: groundwater or surface water. This situation is typical in China, where a large number of cities and particularly the urban areas in some large cities only use local groundwater. However, local groundwater in urban areas is limited in quantity and quality by nature and aggravated by human activities (Feng, 2000a, 2000b). The groundwater might suffice for a city's needs fifty

22 years ago, ten years ago, and even five years ago, but may make the city fall in predicament water stresses in few years during its high speed developing stage and cause severe geo-environmental catastrophes. This situation occurs not only in natural water scarce regions such as North China but also in natural water abundant regions such as South China, and so does in many regions or countries throughout the world.

Unitary water source urban water resources systems are evidently inappropriate for sustainable development of urbanized and urbanizing areas. For sustainable development of water stressed urban areas, urban water resources systems have to be improved or enlarged so that the water supply capacity can keep pace with the increasing demand. This needs to seek efficient and effective solutions.

An important feasible solution to urban water scarcity induced by unitary water source is to heighten urban water supply capacity and reliability through reconstructing integrated regional water resources systems with multiple water sources (Feng et al., 1999; Feng, 2000c). The reason of emphasizing on reconstruction is that there have been many available regional water resources systems. Similarly, the reason of advocating integration is that many available water resources systems and even so-called regional water resources systems are actually isolated in water sources and/or users.

The purpose of this paper is to present essential concept of reconstruction of integrated regional water resources systems, basic status of and major problems in urban water supply in China, and an integrated regional water resources system for solving unitary water source induced urban water problems in Xi'an City, one of the most water scarce large cities in China.

CONCEPT

Integrated regional water resources systems (IRWRS) are water resources systems that consist of water source subsystems (WS), water project subsystems (WP), water utilization subsystems (WU), water management subsystems (WM) and environment of the systems. Water project subsystems include all the projects in the systems such as water source projects, water supply projects, water disposal projects, wastewater treatment and drainage projects. The relationship among these subsystems is shown in Fig. 1. There are obvious interactions among WS, WP and WU. Water management subsystems are the management or operational systems of the other three subsystems and their interactions, as well as the interactions of the subsystems and the systematic environment.

As an integration of the subsystems and their environment, IRWRS have obvious advantages over the traditional water resources systems. In an IRWRS, conflicts between water supply and demand are able to be properly solved on regional scale through scientific spatial and temporal regulation and redistribution of water resources in the system; water resources are able to be more effectively utilized through rational urban-rural sharing and recycle uses; multi-functions of water resources are able to be completely developed through comprehensive utilization; degraded water environment is able to be reasonably restored through appropriate reconstruction; water demands of the society, economy and environment are able to be fairly balanced through optimal allocation among all the water use sectors; water supply capacity and reliability are able to be considerably improved in not only the urban subsystem but also the entire regional system through effective reconstruction of water supply project subsystem.

IRWRS WS

WP WU

Fig. 1. Relationship among the subsystems, WS, WP, WU and WM in an IRWRS, where WS stands for water source subsystem; WP stands for water project subsystem, WU stands for water utilization subsystem, WM stands for water management subsystem; ES stands for the environment of the system; and IRWRS is the abbreviation of integrated regional water resources system.

Notwithstanding the advantages, IRWRS associated with urban water supply should consider several important aspects. They are scientific assessment of water resources available for the city and pertinent users, in particular, the traditional users such as agricultural irrigation; reliable prediction of water demands for different developing stages based on sustainable macroeconomic development planning of the city and whole the region of the system concerned; integrated water resources planning based on rational allocation of available water to and highly effective utilization by all the water use sectors involved; intensifying protection of water sources and water environment; combined utilization of the water from different sources; optimal operation of water resources systems; appropriate development of water resources under the constrains of economic effectiveness, technological feasibility, environmental security and human acceptability; participation of the public and especially women in water resources management; and capacity building of water resources management institutions. All of these are basic requirements of reconstruction of IRWRS. Otherwise, any inadvertence would inevitably cause new conflicts between the urban and the new water source related sectors. Particularly, any inadvertent share or occupation of the water resources originally used by the suburban or nearby rural areas would severely impact local agriculture and food security, critical urban-rural contravention and non-solidarity, and even social stability. Therefore, in reconstruction of IRWRS for the purpose of solving urban water issues, local rural and controversial water uses have to be ensured, the priorities of water uses of different sectors have to be well balanced and in particular the priority of agricultural water uses has to be emphasized, and the importance of environmental water uses has to be considered as well.

Reconstruction of the available regional water resources systems implies to integrate these systems for the purpose of improvement of urban water supply capacity and reliability through more effective utilization of the water resources in the regional water resources systems that could not be effectively used before. This transformation from isolated to integrated water resources systems requires conceptual, theoretical and technological innovation and

24 transformation from hydrosovereignty to hydrosolidarity. It is not only an integration of the water supply systems, but also all the system components, including water sources and their protection, water storage and supply projects and their operation and maintenance, water-saving technology and water demand management, effective utilization of water resources, effective protection and restoration of water environment, authoritative and qualified water management institution, powerful water law and related regulations, etc.

ESSENTIAL SITUATION OF URBAN WATER SUPPLY IN CHINA

China has made remarkable achievements in its economic development and modernization and received international acclaim since 1978 with the onset of reform (Elizabeth Economy, 1997). Correspondingly, the pace of urbanization has been speeding up. The population in urban areas in China increased from 172 million in 1978 to 370 million in 1997. The percentage of urban to total population increased from 17.9% to 29.9% during the period of the two given years. GDP (Gross Domestic Products) of industry increased 19.8 times during the period. The average annual growth rate of industrial products was up to 10.5%. At the same time, the number of cities in China increased to 668 in 1997 from only 191 in 1978 (State Statistical Bureau, 1998).

Rapid urbanization in China causes serious conflicts between urban water demand and supply. Firstly, in the process of urbanization, water demand for residential uses inevitably increase with rapid population growth. On the one hand, people living in cities require persistent improvement of their living quality. In relation to water demand, popularization of piped water provides chances for wide uses of house showers and washing machines in cities. They are highly water- consumed compared to traditional living surroundings. On the other hand, with the improvement of living quality, the people living in cities desire more public water-related recreational facilities. It usually leads to rapid construction of water-related municipal infrastructures, such as swimming pools, water amusement parks, water landscapes, green land irrigation and municipal sanitation. Secondly, rapid industrialization in urbanized and urbanizing areas inevitably causes rapid increase in industrial water demand. According to a scenario of urban water resources planing, 270 cities in China suffered from moderate to severe water shortages in 1990. They were 57.8% of the total cities. Residential and industrial water demand in 1990 was 23.03 km3 while predicted demand in 2010 is 71.37 km3 (Water Resources Bureau of Ministry of Water Resources, 1995).

In order to meet increasing water demand in urban areas, China has been constructing and improving urban water supply systems. However, the speed of building urban water supply capacity has not yet kept pace with the increasing water demand due to relatively long construction periods of water projects, inadequate investments allocated to the projects, and some societal, economic, political and legislative reasons. The unbalance between the water demand and supply leads to water deficit in urban water resources systems. In the urban water resources systems of the aforementioned 270 water scarce cities, estimated total water deficit of residential and industrial uses will be up to 35.30 km3 by 2010 if there were no new projects to be put into service and only the currently available water supply projects in 1990 were used. Moreover, if all the planned new water supply projects for urban areas including those to be reconstructed and improved in the planning period were completed and put into full service, the deficit could not be completely filled and would still be in the range of 10.25 km3 by 2010 (Water Resources Bureau of Ministry of Water Resources, 1995). In fact, the number of water scarce cities may currently be counted at over 300 and up to 400. The countrywide urban water deficits are much higher than above figures.

In the improvement of urban water supply capacity and reliability, a large number of urban water resources systems have been enlarged and become IRWRS, such as the water resources systems for urban water supply to Beijing, Tianjin, Taiyuan, Xi'an, etc., in which Xi'an is a typical example in solving unitary water source induced urban water scarcity.

THE XI'AN WATER RESOURCES SYSTEM

The City and Its Water Problems

Xi'an, the capital city of Shaanxi Province, is one of the most water scarce large cities in China (Fig. 2). As an administrative region, Xi'an City consists of its urban, suburb and rural areas, in which the area of urban and suburb together is called capital district. Population in the capital district grown from 0.48 million in 1949 to 2.76 million in 1995. People lived in the urban area increased from 0.19 million to 2.09 million during the period. The city's GDP increased over 10 times in last two decades. With rapid societal urbanization and economic industrialization of the city, water demand in its urban area dramatically increased to over 500 Mm3/yr (million cubic meters per year) in 1990s from less than five Mm3/yr fifty years ago. Water scarcity has become one of the most crucial restrictions to the city and even the province's development (Shaanxi Statistical Bureau, 1996; Feng et al, 1999; Feng, 2000b).

In order to meet increasing water demand in urban area of the city, in the past several decades, local groundwater as only water source was withdrawn in high intensity on large-scale. By 1990s, the amount of over-withdrawal local groundwater from self-controlled wells in the urban area of less than 300 km2 was up to 0.14 Mm3/day or 51.10 Mm3/yr on average. This caused enormous over-withdraw of groundwater and persistent lowering of groundwater level, and induced severe geo-environmental catastrophes, such as disastrous ground subsidence and crack with the maximum subsidence of over 2,300 mm at the center of the subsiding area of about 200 km2, evident deterioration of water environment, and unexpected economical loss. Water scarcity once became the most severe stress to the city with a daily water deficit of over 0.40 Mm3 during the extreme drought period of 1994 to 1996 (Feng et al, 1999; Wang & Lu, 1999).

The Integrated Regional Water Resources System

For solving the severe water scarcity and water scarce induced social, economic and environmental problems, some possible solutions have been proposed. Of them reconstruction of IRWRS has been recognized to be the essential measure to the city (Feng et al, 1999, Feng, 2000c). An urban-rural combined and multi-water-source integrated regional water resources system has been under construction and part of the system has already been built up and put into operation.

The IRWRS for Xi'an City is commonly called Xi'an Water Resources System or Xi'an Water Supply System (Feng et al, 1999; Feng, 2000a). In planning, the system consists of all the water sources and users involved. The water sources include all the groundwater and surface water sources in the system. The groundwater sources include all the aquifers being capable of providing groundwater using all the wells that supply water to the urban area. The wells include over 500 self-controlled wells that are arbitrarily distributed in the urban area and managed by individual users, and seven riverside groundwater sources with intensive well groups that are managed by the city's water supply authorities, and all other wells distributed in rural area and

26 small towns such as the county seats. Surface water sources are all the rivers, streams and creeks belong to upstream of the Wei River within Xi'an City and the Shitou River in another prefectural administrative region. There are three reservoirs for urban water supply in the surface water subsystem. They are the Shibianyu Reservoir, the Shitouhe Reservoir and the Jinpen Reservoir respectively. The Jinpen Reservoir is under construction and the other two have already been in operation for years. The channel and pipe conveying surface water from its sources to the urban area were built up and the first drop of the surface water was transferred into the urban area through the system in June 1996. The IRWRS is shown in Fig. 2, which illustrates main surface water sources and water supply projects.

Role of the System in the City's Water Supply

Since the surface water outside the urban area was conveyed in the urban area of Xi'an City in 1996, its water supply status has been obviously improved. Notable social, economic and environmental benefits have been obtained. The groundwater table in the urban area has evidently recovered since then by gradually closing the self-controlled wells. Even so, some problems in the city's water resources system still need to be carefully solved. One crucial problem is rational allocation of the surface water in the system. This problem is recognized to be crucial because the allocation is not a simple share of the water among all the users involved under general rules but should take into account of the priorities of the original users that probably be neglected in the new system. Meanwhile, environmental water use should be considered as an important guarantee for environmental security in the system.

For the purpose of rational water allocation in the IRWRS, a series of simulating operation of the system under several restrictions and constrains are carried out (Feng et al, 1999; Feng, 2000a). A more detailed study is being dealt with. Some primary outputs of the study show that the IRWRS may considerably improve the water supply capacity and reliability of Xi'an City without negative effects on original users and even obvious improvement of the original water supply status in the originally isolated surface water systems, i.e. the small watershed systems. The simulation uses daily runoff records during the period of 27 hydrological years started in October 1968 and ended in September 1995. The irrigation water demands for original users are ensured within the design frequency of 75% and are proportionally reduced while actual frequency of the surface water in a given hydrological year is greater than 75% in order to ensure domestic uses in the urban area. Also, a quantity of stream flow that is equivalent to minimum ten-day daily average discharge that its exceedance probability is equal to 90% is considered as downstream environmental uses along and inside the rivers and streams for riverine ecosystems.

Results show that while the probability of reliability of the water supply to the urban area is equal to and greater than 95%, the design frequency of urban water supply, the ensured water supply would be 580-620 Mm3/yr including 220 Mm3/yr of groundwater from the riverside groundwater sources and part of the self-controlled wells in the urban area. The lower amount is the water supply before the Jinpen Reservoir is completed and the higher amount is the water supply after the Jinpen Reservoir is put into operation. The estimated amount of water supply will be capable of satisfying the increasing water demands in the next two decades in the urban area of Xi'an City and original users involved. While the Xi'an Water Resources System is completely reconstructed, it will play more important roles in the city's water security and sustainable development.

Reservoir in operation Reservoir under construction Water disposal system Surface water convey channel River, stream and creek

XI'AN The Wei River

Shitouhe

Jinpen Shibianyu

The Qin Mountains 10 0 10 20 km

Fig. 2. The Xi'an Water Resources System, where the groundwater sources are not illustrated.

CONCLUSIONS

The developing world is moving towards urbanization. As an obvious consequence of urbanization, water scarcity and even water crisis in urban areas are becoming serious social, economic and environmental issues that severely impact regional sustainable development.

Seeking for feasible solutions to urban water issues on a regional range would be very important for urban water security and regional sustainable development.

Lack of enough water sources with sufficient quantity and proper quality has been one of the most crucial stresses to urban water security. Integrated regional water resources systems with multiple water sources are recognized to be an essential solution to unitary water source induced urban water scarcity. This measure has played and is playing important roles in urban water supply in China and overall the world.

Water issues in urban areas are complicated multi-cross-boundary problems concerning almost all aspects of the society, economy and environment. Although IRWRS have obvious advantages over the isolated ones, the heightening of urban water supply capacity and reliability should not be the cost of benefit loss of original users and particularly of the traditional users. Special

28 solutions to possible impacts of the integrated regional water resources systems on traditional users should be further investigated in detail.

RFERENCES

Elizabeth Economy (1994). Reforms and Resources: The Implications for State Capacity in the PRC (Case Study of China). Feng, Guozhang and Li, Peicheng (1999). Optimal Water Regulation and Allocation in the Urban Water Resources Systems of Xi'an. A technical report to the National "95" Keystone Sci- Tech Research Program 96-912-05-02-01. Feng, Guozhang, (2000a). A model of simulating water distribution and allocation for regional water supply system. Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering, 31(9), 15-17. Feng, Guozhang (2000b). Impacts of and solutions to urbanisation on agricultural water resources. In Challenges Facing Irrigation and Drainage in the New Millennium (ed. by Deason et al.), Vol. I, 185-204, Fort Collins, USA. Feng, Guozhang (2000c). Promoting economic development of Shaanxi through intensifying construction of the blue engineering. Shaanxi Water Resources, (5), 4-7. Shaanxi Statistical Bureau (1996). Statistical Yearbook of Shaanxi. China Statistical Press, Beijing. State Statistical Bureau (1998). China Statistical Yearbook. China Statistical Press, Beijing. Wang, Gushi and Lu, Bo (1999). Analyses of water-related geo-environmental issues in urbanization of Xi'an City. In Proceedings of the Conference on Water Resources Development and Utilization in Shaanxi Province (ed. by Water Resources Bureau of Shaanxi Province and Water Resources Society of Shaanxi Province). Water Resources Bureau of Ministry of Water Resources (1995). A Brief Report to the Water Resources Planning of Water Supply for National Major Water-Short Cities.

SOCIETY AND WATER QUALITY: SELF-ORGANISED CRITICAL WATER SYSTEMS

Govert D. Geldof

Tauw (PO Box 133, 7400 AC Deventer, NL; [email protected]) & Water Resources Management, University of Twente (PO Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, NL; [email protected])

ABSTRACT

For a long time, urban water management was considered more or less similar to sewer management. Over the last years, this has changed as such management has come to be more widely oriented. Nowadays, the catchword is ‘integrated water management’. However, the realisation of integrated water management has proved to be difficult in practice because it is hard to abandon the safety of a limited sewer technical approach, i.e. optimising systems which have a mainly linear dynamics. Processes with non-linear dynamics are reduced to processes with purely linear dynamics, and this creates limitations that characterise the deadlock of urban water management, illustrated in this paper by the problem of polluting load and water quality. In other words, this deadlock is caused by an approach based on standards (‘standard approach’) that leaves many processes unconsidered, and this diminishes the social relevance to such an extent that public support for the necessary measures crumbles away. The hope for urban water management is characterised by non-linear dynamics, as complexity, subjectivity and uncertainty are no longer the enemy but even made useful. This is called an adaptive approach, which expressly looks at the interaction between water system and society, and takes seriously phenomena that characterise non-linear dynamics, such as self-organised criticality.

KEYWORDS

Adaptive approach, integrated water management, self-organised criticality, society, standard approach, water quality

INTRODUCTION

The title of this symposium is ‘Frontiers in Urban Water Management: Deadlock or Hope?’ This question will be answered by means of the problems concerning sewer systems and water quality as they occur in the Netherlands and many other countries. On the basis of experience in urban water management and insights gained from the science of complexity, two options have been worked out: the deadlock option and the hope option. The former is a standard - normative - approach, the latter an adaptive one. The immediate reason for studying the relationship between sewer system and water quality is the decreasing political readiness of many municipalities to invest in measures aimed at improving water quality. Since the 1970s, much has been done to improve water quality – e.g. water treatment facilities have been built and sewer systems

30 considerably improved – and this has contributed to improved water quality. However, the improvements now appear to have stagnated and this is creating a deadlock. The environment is no longer one of the main political issues and other problems are being given priority.

The 80/20 rule that is often used in practice applies here, i.e. 20% of the effort achieves 80% of the possible effect of a given approach, and the remaining 80% of the effort achieves 20% of the possible effect. The current approach to sewer systems and water quality (i.e. containment, standards, standardisation and uniformity) has seen better times. With this approach, water specialists have worked their way towards the edge of social interest. A new and fresh approach – by definition, an adaptive one – is required in order to get ahead and to safeguard the availability of clean water. This paper outlines such an approach, one characterised by much more interaction with citizens and administrators. Experience with this approach in the Netherlands is promising.

THE INTERACTION BETWEEN SOCIETY AND THE WATER SYSTEM

Before dealing with the aspect of water quality, attention is focussed on the interaction between society and water system. How does it work and how can we intervene?

Society

A. In theory

Water system

Society

B. In practice Standards

Water system

Figure 1. The interaction between society and the water system The theoretical course of this interaction is presented as ‘A’ in Figure 1. Society influences the water system and the water system influences society. Society places demands on the water system and, because the water system has its limits, the water system places demands on society. In a healthy management situation, these demands are geared to each other. The balance between society and water system is not static, but adapts itself to changing conditions.

In practice, however, often there is no healthy management situation. The water system clearly has its deficiencies as there will be either too little or too much of it, it will flow too quickly and/or will be too shallow or too polluted. Not all functions ascribed to the water system can be fulfilled this way. There are also times when water is life-threatening. Of course, society has its deficiencies, too. The water demand is too large due to wastage, water is discharged too quickly, the system is overused and people put unwanted substances in the water. In addition, society places unreasonable demands on the water system because we think we should be able to have

31 access to water wherever we want it. The establishment of businesses and residential areas used to be determined on the basis of the presence of surface water and drinking water, whereas nowadays establishment mainly depends on employment and the presence of traffic routes. The economy controls spatial planning and water management is supposed to adjust to it.

In the most unfavourable scenario, society and the water system become alienated. Technique veils the problems and ensures that the water runs from the tap and that wastewater is discharged into the sewer system. Just as many children in the Netherlands do not know that milk comes from cows, many people on our globe do not know where their drinking water comes from or what happens to their faeces after they flush the toilet. This clears the road for people to foul their own nest and transfer water problems to other areas and other generations.

What is the mechanism behind all this? ‘B’ in Figure 1 is an important example. Society places demands on the water system, and these are often very clear. For example, one person uses 100 litres of drinking water per day, or irrigation in the summer requires that 100 millimetres of water must be brought in. Clear demands are placed on the quantity and quality of the water management, and these are laid down in standards. When these standards have been established, it can be calculated how to meet them as efficiently as possible. Fixed standards allow for decisive action and obviate elaborate discussions. They are an expression of administrative simplicity. Standards take away the responsibility from society and place it with the water professional. The water professional will do his/her best to meet the standards, because assessment of these makes him/her vulnerable. This is how the standards begin to lead their own lives and, as it were, form a barrier between society and the water system.

The influence of the water system on society is often weak. There are some rare signals, but only in the case of catastrophes. In reality, any social behaviour is permitted and technological solutions to water problems are sought. Although this works, especially in the early phases, feasibility limits gain ground all the time. This does not mean that standards are a bad thing. On the contrary, they have a clear function. However, the water world handles standards too frenetically. For many water professionals, standards provide the only legitimate reason to want something in water management; their motto is ‘Give me clear standards and a purse full of money and I’ll solve all the problems’. This is remarkable, because this really expresses that the water professional thinks that administrators must lay down standards that give direction to all behaviour. Such standards should contain all profundities, and if they were met everything would be ideal. In other words, the standards themselves would have become the goal.

DEADLOCK: THE STANDARD APPROACH

The standard approach can clearly be recognised in the handling of the polluting load from the sewer system and in dealing with water quality. Administrators are asked to lay down clear standards for reducing the polluting load, and then technicians start to compose the ideal combination of measures in order to meet these standards. Such an approach is clear and offers useful starting-points. It reduces the integrated and complex ‘reality’ to a system of sewage pipes and surface water that can be described by means of a linear deterministic model (Figure 2). Overflows are simulated to show their possible effect on the surface water overflows. By creating limits for this effect (i.e. standards) one can discover the weak points in the sewer system and decide which measures are to be taken. The following steps are taken for mixed sewer systems:

1. The sewer system is schematised into overflows. 2. The receiving surface water is schematised into receiving basins with their levels of capacity, surface areas, cleansing capacities and contaminant background values. 3. Overflows are simulated to determine their effect, for instance, on the oxygen content. The effects of other contamination are also looked at. 4. Standards are used to limit the effects. For example, the oxygen content may not become lower than 3 mg/l. The level of such standards may depend on the function of the surface water. 5. Measures are proposed to meet the standards, such as removing and relocating an overflow.

Sewer syst. 1 Sewer syst. 2 Sewer syst. 3 Sewer syst. n

Surf. 1 Surf. 2 Surf. 3 Surf. n

O2 O2 O2 O2

t t t t

Figure 2. The principle of the standard approach. This approach seems logical but has some clear disadvantages. The integrated problem of sewer system and water quality is trimmed down to a system with a linear dynamics only. Linear dynamics means that few measures result in little effect and many measures result in much effect. The interaction between water system and society, however, is characterised by non-linear dynamics (Geldof, 1995), which means that both few and many measures can have both little and much effect. Below are some of the points of concern as encountered in practice with regard to the standard approach.

Background values One of the weak points of this approach is how to deal with background values. The system of sewage pipes and surface water is not an isolated one, as there are natural background values and other sources of contamination to take into account. For instance, how should overflows located in areas where the water quality is mainly determined by agricultural activities or by upstream municipalities be treated? The answer to this strongly depends on the points of departure that are assumed.

Water system as a whole? A water system is characterised by non-linear dynamics. There are stable situations – attractors – that do not change after measures have been taken. The effects of these measures are thus invisible to people living in the area concerned. The value of a watercourse, besides its water quality, is greatly determined by the structure of its banks and waterbed and by the way fish can migrate in it. For example, a watercourse may improve and so turn a bream system into a pike system. The water becomes clear; algae give way to water plants and the population of whitefish

33 decreases. But pike have a tendency towards cannibalism and if they cannot migrate to a larger area they will eat their own kind. Spawning territories, foraging territories and wintering territories vary from one species of fish to another. In addition, if there is an overflow in area x which causes fish mortality, the situation will be quickly restored if fish can migrate to the area from area y. The resilience of a surface water system comes from the coherent whole and not from an accumulated behaviour of subsystems.

Configuration system Employees at municipalities – and their consultants – often know the configuration of their sewer system very well. When they think sensibly about which measures should or should not be taken, their conclusions differ greatly from those based on the water quality analysis. This creates a field of tension. It is precisely the clarity of standards that renders it impossible to make creative solutions a subject of discussion with water quality managers, because ‘a standard is a standard’ and ‘if we make an exception in town x, people will want us to make exceptions all over the place’. In short, the introduction of clear standards results in a fear of precedents and a field of tension between standard solutions and common sense.

Simplicity: an advantage? In the background, social issues also play a role. This paper mentions two of such issues, both of which can be characterised as ‘rebound effects’ of linear interventions. Firstly, a simplification of the water quality issue makes it hard for water quality managers to retain good staff: any employee with high qualities will have tired of testing sewer system plans after a couple of years and will start looking for another challenge. This makes it hard to keep the desired level of interaction up to par. Secondly, administrators and citizens react to events. Public support for the improvement of the water quality tends to erode if the system does not ‘stimulate’ people, because priority is then given to other activities that can also have a positive effect on the quality of the living environment.

THE SCIENCE OF COMPLEXITY

The above-described mechanisms illustrate that the interaction between society and water system is important. However, linking them is not easy. Mutually dependent processes with different space and time scales manifest themselves. Nevertheless, the results from the science of complexity can be used to obtain insight into the interplay between processes.

Complexity is seen as a new branch of science. Its development started in the early 1990s (Waldrop, 1993) and its main feature is that people from different disciplines became actively involved: physicists, biologists, medical specialists, computer technologists, economists, sociologists, psychologists, linguists, political scientists, palaeontologists, etc. All these people are fascinated by learning or changing processes, evolution and revolution processes. The subject of research is the ‘complex adaptive system’, a model for all systems that learn and evolve (Gell- Mann, 1994). By studying the behaviour of complex adaptive systems one can gain insight into non-linear dynamics.

Water management calls for models of groundwater flows, hydraulics, erosion, irrigation works, crops, etc. These are all deterministic models, which help to predict what is going to happen under certain hydrological conditions. They also help to predict what the effects of certain interventions will be. All these models have linear dynamics. Some of the processes allow for

34 such models, but past a certain limit, the models become unreliable. This especially applies when biological, social and intellectual processes are included in the consideration because these have non-linear dynamics.

Studying the behaviour of complex adaptive systems does not enable us to make better predictions, though these systems do have a predictive value because patterns can be discovered in complex processes. These patterns help us to describe such processes, and because the patterns are repeated in many processes, we can learn from them. This paper deals with the pattern ‘self- organised criticality’.

SELF-ORGANISED CRITICALITY

The pattern of self-organised criticality was found by empirical observations and through simulations with complex systems (Bak, 1996). The behaviour of complex adaptive systems produces crises that result in large changes within a short period of time. Here, Cohen and Steward (1994) talk about catastrophes – referring to the catastrophe theory – and Bak and Paczuski (1993) talk about avalanches. Nevertheless, this paper will use the term crises. The occurrence of crises can be seen as annoying and difficult, but it is of vital importance to the development of complex systems.

Log (frequency)

Log (magnitude)

Figure 3. The relationship between self-organised criticality (line a) and possible consequences of measures (lines b and c) Bak (1996) uses the term self-organised criticality because of the relationship between crises, the development into a critical state and the self-organising nature. Self-organised criticality is subject to a clear pattern (see Figure 3, line a). Both small crises and large crises can occur, but the former occur more often than the latter. If the magnitude of crises is plotted against frequency on a logarithmic scale, the result is a straight line. Much research into self-organised criticality has confirmed the relationship presented in Figure 3.

In addition, it should be observed that the straight line may change due to external influences, but will always veer back towards a straight line because the system orientates itself towards this type of behaviour. Although people may have the inclination to suppress crises and to ‘force’ a system into a state of equilibrium, they will not succeed. The pattern persists. This is why Bak (1996)

35 proposes that it is better to learn to live with the occurrence of crises. Crises are characteristic of complex systems that can adjust to changing conditions in the environment. By taking measures to improve the water quality, line a can be shifted, but ‘rebound effects’ from society will reorganise the behaviour into a straight line again. If the new line is a rotation (see line b) this means that the risk of a small crisis is reduced, but that of a larger crisis is increased. For instance, there will not be frequent occurrences of fish dying from sewer system discharges, but when such does occur, the consequences will be greater. It is better to shift the line towards the position of line c.

HOPE: THE ADAPTIVE APPROACH

An adaptive approach does not involve a reduction of complexity, and all interactions between water system and society are taken into consideration. Although standards are still in the picture, they no longer play a decisive role. Thus, objectives and measures emerge in a natural way. The main point in water quality issues is to prevent undesirable events from happening in the surface water. There must be no fish mortality, the water must not smell and it must not infect swimmers. It is also desirable to develop the water system in such a way that the people appreciate it and that it has the potential to realise ecological values. Such values are more abstract than standards and are also of a subjective nature, but at the same time offer more room for variation. Measures taken within the context of an adaptive approach are therefore characterised by a greater degree of diversity and identity in comparison to the standard approach, which is based on standardisation and uniformity. The adaptive approach does not involve administrative simplicity. The measures are realised by actively participating in the interaction between society and its administrators. This interaction takes place on three levels: 1. The whole (society and water system as a complex adaptive system). 2. The water system (mainly surface water, groundwater and ecology). 3. The water chain (drinking water, water use, sewer system and treatment) and sewer systems as subsystems. Each level involves different patterns and values. Coherence is monitored on the first – and most abstract – level. At the level of the water system, contamination sources, structure, fish migration, potential for natural values, perception, etc. are looked at. The level of the water cycle deals with optimisation, giving the ‘thinking sensibly’ concept an emphatic role. When more knowledge is gathered about the relationships on the first level (the whole), guidelines can be drawn up for the other two levels. This does not yield the optimum solution, however, as the answer to the question ‘Which is worse, an accident every five years or a full- blown catastrophe once a century?’ remains subjective. Therefore, an adaptive approach to water quality issues does not involve deriving standards, but rules of play7, which mainly relate to the way in which involved actors exchange information and involve each other in the search process. The outcome of this search process can be surprisingly different each time.

7 For instance: for soccer matches, the outcome has not been standardised but there are fixed rules of play. These rules make it a different match every time.

Initial exploration in the Netherlands shows that an adaptive approach (the development towards line c) yields a wider distribution of qualities (see Figure 4) and that it fits ‘source control’ more than ‘end-of-pipe control’. By discussing water quality with citizens and politicians and by linking this to other activities with regard to spatial planning, better opportunities are created for retaining rainwater and treating it locally. There have even been cases in which the integration of urban water management has forced a breakthrough in the deadlock in the fields of traffic, spatial planning and public safety (Geldof, 2000). But there is a long road ahead of us.

Attractor 100% standard approach

Amount of Attractor watercourses adaptive exeeding this approach? water quality

Bad Good Very good water quality water quality water quality

Figure 4. Distribution of surface water of bad, good and very good quality

REFERENCES

Bak, P. (1996). How nature works. The science of self-organised criticality. Copernicus Springer- Verlag, New York. Bak, P. and Paczuski, M. (1993). ‘Why nature is complex’. Physics World. December 1993. Cohen, J. and Steward, I. (1994). Chaos geordend. De ontdekking van eenvoud in complexiteit. (Original title: The Collapse of Chaos. Discovering simplicity in a complex world). Uitgeverij Contact, Amsterdam/Antwerpen. Geldof, G.D. (1995). ‘Adaptive water management. Integrated water management on the edge of chaos’. Water Science and Technology, Volume 32, No 1, pp. 7-13. Geldof, G.D. (2000). Stormwater source control and pubic acceptance. An application of adaptive water management. Proceedings NATO ARW Workshop on Source Control Measures for Stormwater Runoff, St. Marienthal, Germany, Nov. 8-12. Gell-Mann, M. (1994). The quark and the jaguar. Freeman, New York. Waldrop, M.M. (1993). Complexity, The emerging science at the edge of order and chaos. Viking Books, London.

WATER QUALITY IN NETWORKS IN THE CONDITION OF SUBSTANTIAL DECREASE OF WATER CONSUMPTION

T. Koppel*, N. Kändler*, K. Tiiter** and A. Vassiljev*

*Tallinn Technical University, Ehitajate tee 5, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia E-mail:[email protected], [email protected] and [email protected] **Tallinn Water Ltd., P. O. Box 174, Ädala 10, 10502 Tallinn, Estonia E-mail:[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The analysis of the network of the Tallinn City Centre has been performed. The overall water consumption has decreased during the last 10 years approximately 2.7 times. The water network is oversized for the present consumption and this has caused critical decrease in the water quality of network. Flow velocities are very low, the age of water in the network before consumption is relatively high. This has facilitated intensive corrosion of metal pipes together with encrustation of pipes. The concentration of iron is high in the network water. The water quality deterioration in the network is mainly dependent on very low flow velocities. The rehabilitation strategy of network depends on several factors, including water quality and network geometry. Proceeding from the mean age of water consumed, the optimal number of water main pipes has been estimated with the help of the developed methodology for City Centre network.

KEYWORDS

Distribution networks; water quality; water age; rehabilitation.

INTRODUCTION

Drinking Water Distribution Systems (DWDS) are built to guarantee that good quality water is delivered to consumers at any time under sufficient pressure. Optimisation of the design, rehabilitation and operation of DWDS should include water quality considerations. Water quality as a rule changes during transport through the distribution network due to complex physical, chemical and biological processes taking place in the water and between water and sediments on the walls of the pipes in the network (Clark, 1995). Water quality could deteriorate in DWDS and this is a risk to the health of consumers (Clark, Grayman, Males & Hess, 1993). Serious water quality problems have been observed especially in dead-end pipes and in the network areas where intermittent flows could take place.

The most common disinfectant to guarantee the high quality of water in DWDS is chlorine, it is inexpensive and effectively controls a large number of disease causing bacteria. Residual concentration of chlorine within a set of limits is part of the solution: the lower limit is for pathogen control and the upper limit is to minimize potential health effects and to eliminate the complaints on taste and odour. The main parameters for considering water quality in DWDS are iron, aluminium, turbidity, faecal coliforms and trihalomethanes (THM). Social costs are associated with waterborne diseases, the risk of cancer due to disinfection byproducts THM

38 and the cost of poor aesthetic quality of the water (Dandy & Hewitson, 2000). Water quality has an important influence on the corrosion processes of metal pipes (Engelhardt et al., 2000). Encrustation of pipes will decrease pipe diameters and increase head losses. In addition they will affect the distribution of contaminated water in the network. Failure of water mains could be related to several critical factors including water quality. Water quality has played, and will continue to play an important role in any rehabilitation strategy of networks.

Computer modelling of water quality in DWDS is widely used nowadays. The simplest way to estimate water quality in DWDS is to calculate the consumed water age over the network geometry. Water age could forecast changes in water quality and should be considered in the development of the rehabilitation strategy of DWDS.

Resulting from the changes in the structure of the society in Estonia, the water consumption regime has changed there essentially in the last years. Decrease in water consumption has led to a situation when practically in all towns water networks are oversized. This has caused critical decrease in water quality. Obsolescence or lack of hydraulic systems increases the risk of environmental pollution. Therefore, extensive rehabilitation programs for water networks and sewerage systems should be applied.

The number of inhabitants in Tallinn has decreased and the same tendency is proceeding. On the other hand the price of water has increased 3 times in the last four years and this has a strong influence on water consumption. There is a good correlation between the price of water and the consumption of water per capita. Overall water consumption in Tallinn has decreased during the last 10 years approximately 2.7 times. The water distribution network has been constructed for the previous consumption rate and this has a severe influence on water quality in the network. Flow velocities are very low, the age of water in the network before consumption is high.

The network geometry of the City Centre of Tallinn is given in Figure 1, where pipes with diameter ≥ 300 mm are drawn and mains with diameter ≥ 500 mm are presented with bold lines. The water supply system of Tallinn uses mainly the surface water of Lake Ülemiste. Before injection to DWDS the lake water is treated in Water Treatment Works (WTW). The network of the City Centre is the most complicated part of the network of Tallinn, where some pipes date back to the year 1883. Unaccounted for water is equal to 28%. In order to characterize the age of the network, the pipes are grouped by age and the length of age groups is indicated in Figure 2. New pipes with age less than 10 years form the smallest group by length and the group of old pipes with age over 100 years account for a relatively big part of the network.

There is a SERVICE AGREEMENT between Tallinn Water Ltd. and City of Tallinn for ensuring the functioning and maintenance of the public water supply and sewerage system of Tallinn. A rehabilitation strategy has to be developed by the Company by September 30th 2004. This will enable an extensive underground asset rehabilitation and renewal programme for both sewerage and water networks to be implemented during the period from 2006 to 2010.

Water Treatment Works

Figure 1. The Network Geometry of the City Centre of Tallinn.

<10

30-10

50-30 Age (years)Age 100-50

>100

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Lenght 10-3 (m) Figure 2. Length of the pipes with different age.

HYDRAULIC AND WATER QUALITY NETWORK MODEL

The computer simulation of water networks can provide a powerful tool to help us understand the complex interactions between pressure, flow and water quality parameters that occur within the distribution system. Tallinn Technical University has developed water network models for most parts of Tallinn networks on the basis of EPANET 2.0 software. For the leakage distribution and calibration of the model, algorithms have been developed. Subprograms on the basis of these algorithms are linked to the EPANET 2.0 software (Ainola, Koppel, Tiiter & Vassiljev, 2000).

Comparison of calculated velocities for the present mean consumption (A) and to the 2.7 times increased consumption (B), which corresponds to the network design flow rate, are given in Figure 3.

B A >0.5 0.5 - 0.25 1% 7% <0.05 >0.5 13% 17%

<0.05 0.1 - 0.05 38% 14% 0.25 - 0.1 30%

0.5 - 0.25 26%

0.25 - 0.1 0.1 - 0.05 30% 24%

Figure 3. Velocities (m/s) in the network pipes of the City Centre of Tallinn (A – present consumption, B – 2.7 times increased consumption which corresponds to the network design flow rate).

The age of water in the network is directly dependent on the low values of the flow velocities. In Figure 4, the age of water for the present and network design consumption is given after a 54 hour simulation. The age of water consumed at present has increased substantially.

A B

36 - 24 > 36 < 6 0.4% 1.5% 36 - 24 > 36 24 - 12 5.0% 1.7% 0.7% 1.7%

< 6 24 - 12 35.4% 32.8%

12 - 6 12 - 6 59.0% 61.8%

Figure 4. The age of water (hours) in the network pipes of the City Centre of Tallinn (A – present consumption, B – 2.7 times increased consumption).

The network is oversized for the present consumption, flow velocities are too low and the age of water in some parts of the network is too high.

ESTIMATES OF WATER QUALITY

Tallinn Water Ltd. has an extensive programme of water sampling in the distribution network. Samples are analysed for a number of parameters, including iron, turbidity and colour. The concentration of iron is high in the network water. As the flow velocities are low, the network is acting as a sedimentation tank. The maximum concentration of iron currently stipulated in EU Drinking Water Directive is 200 µg/l. More than 50% of samples exceed this limit at present. Sedimentation effect of iron in the network can be seen from the relation between the simulated flow velocity and the iron concentration in the network water in Figure 5.

0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25 0.20

0.15 Iron (mg/l) Iron 0.10

0.05 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 Velocity (m/s)

Figure 5. Relation between the simulated flow velocity and the iron concentration in the network pipes.

Most consultancies are using a principle that the mains with maximum velocities above 0.5 m/s are ‘self-cleansing’ and will not collect sediments. On the basis of calculated velocities for the present mean consumption only 1% of pipes conform this criteria (Fig. 3). In spite of dispersiveness of data in Figure 5 the tendency of iron concentration to decrease in higher velocities could be noticed. We should consider that Tallinn Water Ltd. is using continuous flushing programme of network and the velocity values in pipes are simulated, not measured. These factors could have an influence on data in Figure 5.

NETWORK GEOMETRY AND REHABILITATION STRATEGY

The main problems in Tallinn DWDS are connected with the deterioration of water quality once it enters the distribution system. Water age is a parameter which characterizes possible water quality changes in the network and this is directly dependent on the distribution network capacity. Figure 6 characterizes the capacity of the City Centre Network where the capacity of

42 pipes with indicated and smaller diameter is given. The main amount of water is in the network pipes with diameters 500 mm or higher.

In order to estimate the influence of pipe diameters on the water age in network nodes several calculations had been executed by the network model. In Figure 7 three graphs are given showing the fraction of nodes in different water age categories. By using two nominal smaller pipe diameters instead of the existing network pipe diameters calculated water age in network nodes is decreasing. In reality the impact of small diameter pipes on the age of water in the network is very small. To improve water quality in DWDS water mains with diameter ≥ 500 mm are important in the rehabilitation process.

90 80

) 70 3 60 (m -3 50 40 30

Capacity 10 20 10 0 32 38 40 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 280 300 350 375 400 500 600 700 800 1000 Diameter (mm)

Figure 6. Capacity of the City Centre Network Pipes.

35 existing 30 d ≥ 200 mm (two nominals) 25 d ≥ 500 mm (two nominals) 20

Age (hours) Age 10

0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Cumulative Fraction of Nodes Below Age Value

φi

ρ.

0 1 Water mains Sectors border Figure 7. Influence of decreasing pipe diameters by two nominals on the water age in the network.

Figure 8. Scheme of City Centre Water Mains Geometry.

The network of City Centre of Tallinn is supplied with the water from WTW which is situated at the border of the City area (Fig.1). The logical scheme for mains is represented by a batch of pipes starting from WTW. The looped network is formed by connecting mains with smaller diameter pipes in some distances from the WTW. Consequently, the real geometry of City Centre water mains could be represented by the scheme given in Figure 8. Every main is supplying with water a sector of town and the optimal main diameter should be calculated on the basis of water consumption in the sector. As the consumption area is increasing, going further away from WTW, the calculated optimal main diameter is almost constant over a half length of the main. The mean water age coefficient τi in the network, covering a semicircular town area, could be determined from the next equation in polar coordinates

ϕ 4i 1 i τ = ρ 2 (1+ ϕ)dϕdρ , (1) i π ∫∫ 00 where i is the number of water mains, ρ is the nondimensional length of the main and φ is the angle (Fig. 8). If we solve the equation (1) we have the coefficient of mean water age in the network dependent on the number of water mains

2 π τ = + . (2) i 3 6i

The water will be delivered to all the consumers by the shortest way, first by the main pipe and then by radial direction pipes. The mean water age coefficients for a different number of water mains in the semicircular town area are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Mean water age coefficient τi for different number of water mains i i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ∞ τi 1.189 0.928 0.840 0.796 0.771 0.753 0.741 0.731 0.724 0.718 0.666

In Table 1 we can see that the 4 mains is an optimal number, onward increasing of the number of mains will not essentially influence the consumed water age. The following calibration of the coefficient of the mean water age τi has been used: at the end of water main ρ = 1 and τi = 1. To get a real mean water age in the network the coefficient τi should be multiplied by the following value: water main length divided by the mean flow velocity. As an example, considering the ‘self-cleansing’ velocity 0.5 m/s in the water main, the water age in the network of the City Centre of Tallinn (Fig.8), consisting of three water main pipes with the length of 6000 m, would be approximately 2.8 hours. The simulated mean water age in the same existing network according to the developed water network model, on the basis of EPANET 2.0 software, is equal to 8 hours.

CONCLUSIONS

The network of the City Centre of Tallinn is oversized for the present water consumption. Measurements and calculations are indicating that the capacity of network is too large, flow velocities are very low and this has facilitated intensive corrosion of metal pipes together with encrustation of pipes. The concentration of iron is high in the network water. The water quality deterioration in the network is mainly dependent on very low flow velocities. By the developed methodology, which is proceeding from mean age of water consumed, the optimal number of water main pipes has been estimated for network.

REFERENCES

Clark, R. M. (1995). Modeling water quality changes in distribution systems: a U. S. perspective. In Improving Efficiency and Reliability in Water Distribution Systems, eds. Enrique Cabrera & Antonio F. Vela, pp. 395-14. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Clark, R. M., Grayman W. M., Males R. M. & Hess A. F. (1993). Modeling contaminants propagation in drinking water distribution systems. ASCE J. Environ. Engr., 114(4), 454-66. Dandy, G. & Hewitson, C. (2000). Optimising hydraulics and water quality in water distribution networks using Genetic Algorithms. In ASCE 2000 Joint Conference on Water Resources Planning & Management, eds. Rollin H. Hotchkiss and Michael Glade, CD-rom, 10 pp. Engelhardt, M. O., Skipwoth, P. J., Savic, D. A., Saul, A. J. & Walters, G. A. (2000). Rehabilitation strategies for water distribution networks: a literature review with a UK perspective. Urban Water, 2, Issue 2, 153-70. Ainola, L., Koppel, T., Tiiter, K. & Vassiljev, A. (2000). Water network model calibration based on grouping pipes with similar leakage and roughness estimates. In ASCE 2000 Joint Conference on Water Resources Planning & Management, eds. Rollin H. Hotchkiss and Michael Glade, CD-rom, 10 pp.

COMMUNITY-BASED URBAN WATER MANAGEMENT UNDER SCARCITY IN DAR ES SALAAM, TANZANIA

Alphonce G. Kyessi∗

ABSTRACT

Diminishing state resources coupled with inadequate urban management capacity and insufficiency of conventional approaches have rendered it impossible to provide basic infrastructure in urban areas in developing countries such as in the city of Dar es Salaam. However, a notable phenomenon has emerged in many informal and formal settlements where the communities, through self-help and local governance in their own neighbourhood associations, have organised to fill the gaps in services left by the central and local governments. Among other things, community groups mobilise and organise fund-raising, mutual self-help and external technical assistance to provide water supply and sanitation, roads and drainage channels within the immediate area. This seems to be a trend in infrastructure improvement in poor neighbourhoods, that need to be enabled by interested parties including the public and private sectors, training institutions and donors. The community-based water management in Tabata, Dar es Salaam is taken as a case to explain this paradigm shift.

Note: Due to length limitation, the sections, “The case of community-based water management in Tabata, Dar es Salaam; and Lesson of eperience” of this paper are not included here, but the full paper appears in the companion CD-ROM.

INTRODUCTION

Since independence the public sector in many developing countries, especially those in Africa, had adopted the role of provider of infrastructure services, treating infrastructure as a social service provided either free of charge or highly subsidised (Kreibich, 1998). With fast urbanisation, the task of providing, operating and maintaining community basic infrastructure services has grown beyond the capacities of both central and local governments that have had little control over the urban development process (Majani, 2000). The result was increasing shortfalls in basic technical infrastructure provision, such as water supply and sanitation, roads and drainage, and solid waste management, in the face of rapid urbanisation and the degradation of existing systems due to under-investment in maintenance and poor management (Kyessi, 1999).

While the need to provide basic urban technical infrastructure has been recognised since Tanzania’s independence in the 1960s, there are multitudes of factors that have prevented actions to change present conditions in human settlements in urban centres. The primary ones include rapid urban growth, prevalence of urban poverty, insufficiency of conventional policies and concepts that disregard community participation8 and ignoring the principles of economics of

* Alphonce G. Kyessi is a Research Fellow at the Institute of Human Settlements, University College of Lands and Architectural Studies, University of Dar es Salaam, P.O. Box 35124, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. E-Mail: ihsbr@ uclas.ac.tz

46 infrastructure, urban management deficits and application of inappropriate technology and rigid standards that do not reflect the severe resources constraints and existing settlement situations. These factors have led to the growing gap between demand and supply of infrastructure services in urban areas. Three major factors are discussed in the subsequent sections:

PREVALENCE OF URBAN POVERTY

The Tanzania National Poverty profile (World Bank, 1993) showed that in general, poverty is concentrated more in rural areas where it is also widespread and more severe. Some 59 per cent of the people living in rural areas were shown to be poor, as compared to 39 per cent of those in urban areas. Although the situation in urban areas may appear to be better, the continued rapid growth of these urban areas partly caused by the movement of people from rural areas is, however, increasing urban poverty (Kironde, 1999). In the absence of reliable statistics on urban poverty, based on people’s incomes and assets, one possible way of estimating the scale of poverty is to base it on how many people live in poor-quality homes or settlements that lack the basic infrastructure and services (UNCHS, 1996). Many urban areas in Tanzania are characterised by paucity and poverty of infrastructure and poorly delivered. Urban poverty could also be conceptualised in terms of policies affecting employment and income generating activities; the enforcement of a minimum wage, and controlling prices of basic goods and services such as food and housing. The other approach has been the drive to offer free basic education, health, water services and other municipal services. However, poor national economic performance and Structural Adjustment Programmes torpedoed many of these policies (Kironde, 1999). Urban areas are growing at a rate that public authorities cannot ensure the necessary employment and income earning opportunities, or the expansion of the necessary infrastructure, social and economic services.

From the above discussion it is presumed that improving infrastructure will have a positive impact on poverty reduction. Lack of access to infrastructure services, for example water and sanitation services, is at the heart of the poverty trap as is the poor who pay the most for the services and who suffer the most in terms of health and lost of economic opportunities (World Bank, 1999:27). If infrastructure is made available funds saved could be diverted to other productive activities. The critical challenge facing Tanzania is to keep up the pace at which the poor are gaining improved access to sustainable infrastructure services. Meeting the challenge through demand-based approaches will require updating of policy frameworks, effective decentralisation and institutional co-ordination, broader involvement of communities9 and mobilisation of the local resources including those of the private sector.

8 Community participation refers to substantive involvement of residents of a settlement in defining their priority needs; in mobilising their financial, human and material resources in fulfilling their priority needs; in decision making towards planning (design), implementation (including construction) and operation and maintenance of provided services in their settlement 9 The National Poverty Eradication Strategy identified four reasons that had also prevented the efforts of the government in eradicating poverty, they include low level of peoples' participation in different stages of planning which resulted in lack of support and hence made the plans unsustainable. In addition, these efforts were implemented as campaigns and not as part of the overall development plans and therefore could not be sustained after the campaigns were over. There were also lack of guidelines for all stakeholders and the absence of a co- ordination mechanism for poverty eradicating initiatives (URT, 1998).

INSUFFICIENCY OF CONVENTIONAL APPROACHES AND CONCEPTS

In general terms, infrastructure services are key intermediate inputs to most production as well as being indispensable for human survival. However, administrative culture prevailing at all levels of government and its agents in urban management can be characterised as passive, procedural and prescriptive (Halla 1997). This situation is often compounded by rules, procedures and regulations imposed by central government based upon ‘borrowed models and concepts’ dating back to several decades that often discourage innovation, risk-taking and delegation of authority. Although urban authorities are empowered by law to provide the various services in areas of their jurisdiction, the central government, and national agencies have almost unfettered powers of operation within urban areas. Major public utilities such as water, energy, major roads and central sewer systems in urban authorities fall under the responsibility of authorities without local financial base. This has incapacitated urban authorities in the operation and maintenance of these services. However, urban authorities are greater providers of ancillary services to such utilities. These ancillary services include street cleaning, sanitation, street lighting and drainage. However, urban authorities have recovered costs neither from these outside agencies responsible for those utilities nor from the public. The marginalisation of urban authorities in the provision of such essential public utilities, apart from weakening the revenue base of urban councils, has also led to uncoordinated provision of these services with actual urban development. The result has been gross under-provision of urban services through the public sector.

On the planning and development part, there has been a problem of inefficient use of resources caused by selection of inappropriate technology, relying on rigid standards and non-link and co- ordination of local actors for their effective participation. Traditional or conventional practices based on outdated and inappropriate legislation have continued to be applied in urban settlement planning, development and management in Tanzania. Much emphasis is on well-planned neighbourhoods based on conventional surveying techniques. The urban planning practice in Tanzania is unable to address the specific problems of human settlements (Nnkya, 1999). A major negative feature in the process includes urban development without guidance: Urban development and infrastructure provisioning in Tanzania is increasingly proceeding without regulation. This is indicated by inter alia: mushrooming of informal settlements on marginal lands to include areas liable to flooding, steep slopes, areas left for recreational purposes and relocation of development from the designated areas to the informal settlements or other strategic areas as determined by the developers (Kyessi, 1990). As a result, large numbers of citizens are left without legal tenure and access to safe water and quality sanitation or accessibility, while the increase in the haphazard patterns of urban growth has caused economic inefficiency, environmental degradation and human misery.

A large spectrum of technical planning concepts incorporating rigid and unaffordable standards have been proposed through different ‘planning schemes’ including master plans and squatter upgrading programmes to meet the growing demand for land and infrastructure. High standards in upgrading have created a situation where more property had to be demolished especially in informal settlements such as in Manzese and Mtoni/Tandika in Dar es Salaam (Kironde, 1995). Decreasing budgets and increasing demands for compensation have created situations where some of the infrastructure services have had to be foregone or standards reduced during the planning stage or in the implementation stage (Materu, 1986).

There is missing co-ordination and linkages of infrastructure providers and users exactly what planning should be for. For about four decades since independence, each institution offering

48 infrastructure utilities has usually concentrated on its own sector in terms of planning and implementation of projects without co-ordination with other parties and the result has been complete chaos. The whole planning system and procedure has been top-down and very sectoral, a process that has created deficiencies in urban development and management in the country. In fact, potential developers acquiring plots (formally or informally) in urban areas have usually taken their own initiatives, at exorbitant costs, to secure the services for water and electricity on an individual basis. This practice is also found in the informal settlements. It is common to find one developer or house owner financing the installation of a kilometre of water pipe, sewerage pipe, electricity power line and a road to his single plot/house. Technical services have been provided to different users in various parts of the city of Dar es Salaam without proper plans necessitating spaghetti type of supply of these services. This, in a way, increases the cost of supply of the services per area and per capita respectively. Again, costly investments in roads, drainage construction and other technical infrastructure have been wasted for lack of maintenance. If all the several developers/house owners along those utility lines were mobilised and linked, the cost for the installations per plot would definitely be a fraction of the total cost that they all end up paying. Due to limited budgets, inability of the agents to recover costs of infrastructure provision and absence of co-ordination of land developers and consumers has led to under supply to urban residential areas.

INEFFECTIVE COST RECOVERY MECHANISMS AND SOCIALLY ORIENTED POLICIES

There has been a practice of heavy reliance on external funding and transfer of central government grants for infrastructure projects for example the squatter-upgrading programme of the 1970s and municipal services respectively, with limited or no effective local mechanisms for recovering infrastructure capital and operating costs. Service cost recovery mechanism has never been efficient within parastatal agencies and the local authorities. There has been an absence of realistic cost-recovery system - rich and poor have been treated equally. In Dar es Salaam City residents, mostly the rich, have capitalised on this inefficiency by not paying for the service charges. User charges for example of water supply are often based on elaborate system of central government subsidies and based on a flat rate with no meters for control, therefore, in the strictly economic sense, the services run at a loss (URT, 1997). This has a negative impact on the 'eternal-linkage triangle' of efficient, effective and sustainable provision of urban infrastructure involving costs, service level and cost recovery respectively.

The traditional system has limited the prospects of re-investment in the concerned sectors and has constrained the expansion of services to other settlements putting to an end the possibilities of replication.

On the other hand there has been a belief by the government that the poor cannot pay for improved services, so services such as water supply is not extended to their areas. On the contrary various studies have shown that water vendors are benefiting from poor households because the poor are paying more than those connected to the facilities such as water supply (see Table 1)

Further analysis of the above statistics indicate that if water services were provided in low income settlements (depending on a number of factors viz. mode of delivery), the poor communities may be able to access the services at lower prices normally entailing a saving in spending on the service. Paying for the service means recovering costs incurred in the

49 construction or provision of a service and meeting the cost of operation and maintenance. This is one of the key elements in an effective, efficient, and sustainable infrastructure provision and essentially in a market-led economy. On the other hand, there is clearly a problem of willingness to pay, especially by the poor households. The question which needs to be answered is, How will the initial cost of provision be mobilised in a poor society and suffocating state. Could community participation initiatives reduce cost of infrastructure provision?

Table 1: Differentials in the Cost of Water in Selected Cities (ratio of price charged by water vendor to prices charged by the public water utility)

City Price ratio (Private vendors to public agents) Surabaya (Indonesia) 20:1 to 60:1 Dhaka (Pakistan) 12:1 to 25:1 Karachi (Pakistan) 28:1 to 83:1 Port-au-Prince (Haiti) 17:1 to 100:1 Lima (Peru) 17:1 Abidjan (Cote d’Ivore) 5:1 Lagos (Nigeria) 4:1 to 10:1 Kampala (Uganda) 4:1 to 9:1 Nairobi (Kenya) 7:1 to 11:1 Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) 3:1 to 17:1

Source: World Bank (1988), Field study in Dar es Salaam in 1999

A SEARCH FOR STRATEGIC APPROACHES: A PARADIGM SHIFT

In recent years, community participation and self-help have emerged as notable phenomena in infrastructure improvement in many formal and informal settlements. For example, in 1999, 30 (55 per cent) out of 54 major informal settlements in Dar es Salaam had registered local groups addressing a different technical infrastructure in their neighbourhoods10. Institutional performance in service provision rests on the strategic actions to bridge the growing gap between demand and supply. In addressing this problem of shortage of services, one of the major challenges is to promote a demand orientation to the provision of urban infrastructure services that focuses on users, user ownership and management and cost recovery. In the upgrading and extension of existing services and the installation of new services, the potential for dividing responsibility and linking actors involved could be considered from the priority setting, planning and design stage, and implementation, operation and maintenance.

Of late, there has been a major paradigm shift in thinking about provision of urban community infrastructure services, such as water supply, sanitation, solid waste disposal and road and drainage maintenance. It is no longer considered that these services have to be provided by the national or local authority as free public goods or as obligatory service offered in return of

10 Information was obtained from the Ministry of Home Affairs where civil organisations are registered. There are, however, many informal groups observed in informal settlements that are unregistered and address a specific infrastructure problem after which it is dissolved or continue to address another as need arises.

50 general taxes levied by the national or local governments. Increasingly, these services are being viewed as commodities that a service charge or user fee has to be paid, in addition to the development levy or general tax paid by urban inhabitants. The service charge or user fee is in the long-run expected to be adequate to meet the entire cost of supplying these services, that is both capital cost and operation and maintenance cost.

Again, of late, there has been increased realisation by the central and local governments that local (settlement) development and related problems are best handled by locally based agencies. For example, the Water Policy adopted by the government in the 1990s clearly states that community-based approach should be the strategy for achieving the Sector goals. Recently, many NGOs, CBOs and private collectors have been admitted in the collection system of solid waste in urban centres. In Dar es Salaam there are about 60 institutions including the Dar es Salaam City Council (Majani, 2000). Their participation has greatly improved the waste collection and disposal especially in informal settlements although many households are not paying for the service. Generally, organised, registered and non-registered CBOs and NGOs have been on the increase in urban areas (Kyessi, 1999).

A lot of discussion is going on in the world on community infrastructure and how to provide it to the poor, what techniques and ways to use/apply to reduce the cost of provision, operation and maintenance. On the one hand, in a situation of urbanisation in poverty, a major issue is 'how will the improved basic infrastructure services generate employment and incomes and provide incentives to low-income households to improve their shelter and settlement condition'. On the other hand, 'what kind of provision process to adopt and how to enable all key actors in the public, private and community sectors to play an effective role to ensure the provision of technical infrastructure in informal settlements'? The demand to follow market-oriented principles poses another problem on how privatisation and improving infrastructure services for low-income settlements relate to private commercial enterprises. Cost recovery of infrastructure provided is as important as ability to pay for the operation and maintenance. In reality, there is a need for a new paradigm for urban infrastructure service provision policy, which will be responsive to the market-led economy and settlement condition and most importantly, benefit a wider section of the growing urban population.

COMMUNITY-BASED PROVISION PROCESS: WHY DOES IT WORK?

Faced with failures of the conventional prescriptions, most urban dwellers in developing countries have to rely on their own initiative in order to access infrastructure. The question is how, or more precisely, which process emerges? The deficiencies in the public sector infrastructure delivery have prompted an increasing role of the private sector, NGOs and CBOs. In fact the role of the public sector is changing slowly. The success stories from the Kampungs improvement in Indonesia and the Katchi Abadis improvement in Pakistan explain the situation of changing roles of local actors (Suselo et al., 1995, Hasan, 1997) and these promulgate the concept of helping people to help themselves as a way of making the poor to get access to basic infrastructure and ultimately tackling poverty.

Participation of local actors and self-help has been on the increase especially in informal settlements in Dar es Salaam (Kyessi, 1999; Lückenkötter, et al., 1994)). On the one hand, neighbourhood residents have come together in certain parts of urban areas to enforce some building and land use regularisation and to contribute toward road and drainage construction and maintenance. Also, tapping water from wells and from the public provided system (through

51 vendors or individual households), and sanitation improvement. There is considerable presence of the private sector, be it corporate or small scale or individual, rendering different services or offering specialised consultancy (Kombe, 1999). On the other hand local authorities and other state agencies and donors have been offering technical and financial support to enable the communities to implement the specific infrastructure improvement.

It would be noted there is a growing acknowledgement that the only feasible way for urban communities and overburdened public sectors to meet the urban poverty challenge is to build on local initiatives and co-operative partnership. In fact leaving all urban development to self-help efforts would be unrealistic and assume that the governments have abdicated their own major areas of responsibility (Lyby, et al., 1991). The secret to success stories is that: i) Some funding is being channelled more or less directly to CBOs and/or NGOs working in urban areas particularly at the level of community (Atkinson, 2000), ii) Projects are always small in terms of resources, in most cases addressing rather specific local problems predominantly in poor settlements, iii) Infrastructure is being provided on a step-by-step development resembling the progressive improvement model obtained in informal housing development (see Choguill, 1999), but in some cases adopting a broader community development approach. iv) Cost recovery is embedded in the process of provision and operation and maintenance is based at settlement or community level

However, the emerging procedure of providing infrastructure to urban areas seems complex with potentials and constraints requiring revision and policy direction. On the one hand many urban services are being privatised with an element of encouraging a holistic approach to infrastructure provision at the community rather than national level, however, without the knowledge of affordability levels. Although some successes have been recorded where implemented, yet the approach has been more ideologically driven rather than growing out of any demonstrable superiority of the quality of services once privatised. In most cases willingness to pay was not considered. Again, capacity of local authorities to monitor the system and the private entities to render quality services have not been there. On the other hand grassroots continue to provide some of the services at the local (settlement) level because of deficiencies in the current public and privatised system of provision. It would be interesting to understand how the technical infrastructure for example potable water is being provided to informal settlements in Dar es Salaam for the purpose of efficiency, effectiveness and sustainability. Other interesting issues include what technology and procedures are being applied and followed and how cost is being recovered and/or reduced to bring-in the element of affordability.

If poverty is to be reduced in low-income settlements, economic growth is certainly necessary, but as a strategy it is not enough. There is no automatic trickle-down. Growth strategy and the provision of services must be linked. The strategy should aim at organising the economic process in such a way that earned value added reaches all participants in the economy directly, because all play a part in it. This is called "growth with equity" or "pro-poor growth" (Thiel, 1999). A pro-poor policy is not primarily about "provision of services for the poor", but about the poor participating in society's value added process. But if they have to participate in this process they must have the chance to work. The capacity to work is the capital of the poor. Every policy aimed at poverty alleviation must be oriented on work, create jobs and promote labour-intensive projects (Thiel, 1999). This phenomenon was part of the early development policy but was forgotten under the influence of technological developments but it has now come into focused attention again, especially in urban areas. At the same time, self-help or voluntary contribution in

52 the provision process, apart from assisting to bring down the cost of provision, would also allow a step-by-step or progressive improvement (Choguill, 1999).

CONCLUSION

As described above, the time taken to fetch water had decreased dramatically and the price of water reduced five times from an average of 5 to 1 Tanzania shilling per 1 litre of water. Also, the burden of women and children using many hours of the day looking for water, sometimes during the night has been reduced tremendously through this initiative. This may be explained as benefits of economics of scale. As identified by other Scholars in other studies it is hoped that the time and money saved by households in Tabata will be used in other activities and services. In fact "time is money" and this is a road toward poverty eradication.

The provision of one type of infrastructure trickles out (supports) the provision of another. The initiative has managed to convince and encourage the Tabata community to continue contributing both cash and labour and in kind in upgrading their settlement infrastructure such as community roads, drainage system and solid waste disposal in the settlement. Contributions are being carried out to improve the Neighbourhood roads through a major community-based infrastructure programme initiated in the settlement. This programme is being implemented under partnership arrangements between the community of Tabata through TDF and the Dar es Salaam City Commission through its Community Infrastructure Programme. The major access road to the settlement is under-construction through funding from the central government, a complement to the efforts of Tabata Community. It is hoped that Community participation combined with self- help and state support through the CIP should be possible to meet some of the needs of the Tabata residents and elsewhere in other informal settlements. In fact after construction is completed, the Tabata community through TDF will continue to maintain all roads and drainage provided. TDF also plans to use part of the funds obtained from water sales and invest in ‘solid waste collection’. It is planned that the “water committee” will pay for the collection services and the community members will be charged collection fees for the services creating an infrastructure linkage. The planned process entails more community mobilisation and devolution of financial powers from the DCC to TDF or at the settlement level.

Lastly development process through participatory approach needs time and patience. CIP and the TDF have been in dilemma on how to adhere to the project implementation schedule without restraining participatory approach demands. Again, infrastructure projects are capital intensive, which require mandatory community contribution. In improving infrastructure, members of the community need to make contribution in order to increase capacity of dealing with the project, ensure sustainability and enhance sense of ownership. On the other hand, the community contribution should be based on community's economic position rather than contribution based on a fixed percentage without due regard to community ability. Most of the time people are not ready or willing to contribute. The challenge is how to internalise the concept of cost sharing for improved infrastructure where there exists no policy and other instruments for ensuring community participation. All in all, the TDF experience makes us to conclude that substantive participation of infrastructure users in all levels of development with a modest external assistance is likely to become centrepiece of development discourse in the future.

REFERENCES

Atkinson, A. (2000): "International Cooperation in Pursuit of Sustainable Cities", Unpublished Paper Presented in an International Conference on Cities of the South: Sustainable for Whom? Geneva, 3-6 May 2000. Choguill, C.L. (1999): "Community Infrastructure for Low-Income Cities: The Potential for Progressive Improvement". In: Habitat INTL. vol. 23, no. 2 pp.289-301. Suselo, H., Taylor, J.L. and Wegelin, E.A. (1995): "Indonesia’s Urban Infrastructure Development Experience: Critical Lessons of Good Practice", for UNCHS, Nairobi. Halla, F. (1997): "Institutional Arrangements for Urban Management: the Sustainable Dar es Salaam Project". PhD Thesis, University of New Brunswick, New Jersey Hasan, A. (1997): "Working with Government", The story of OPP's collaboration with state agencies for replicating its Low Cost Sanitation Programme, City Press, Karachi Kironde, J.L (1999): "Mainstreaming Urban Poverty Reduction in Tanzania: Problems and Prospects". In: Urban Poverty in Africa: Selected Countries Experiences, UNCHS, Nairobi, Kenya, pp. 105-113. Kironde, J.L (1995): "The Evolution of the Urban Land-Use Structure of Dar es Salaam 1890-1990: A Study in the Effects of Land Policy", PhD Thesis, University of Nairobi. Kombe, W.J. (1999), "Stakeholder Participation in Urban Infrastructure Design and Implementation, Experiences and Challenges, A case of Hanna Nassif Project, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Kreibich, V. (1998): “Limited Budgets, Growing Demand: How to Provide Social Infrastructures”. In: Jensen J. (ed.), Planning as a Dialogue: District Development Planning and Management in Developing Countries, Spring Centre, University of Dortmund, pp. 203-210. Kyessi, A.G. (1990), "Urbanisation of Fringe Villages and Growth of Squatters: The case of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania". Unpublished MSc Thesis, ITC, the Netherlands. Kyessi, A.G. (1999): "Community-Based Environmental Management in Urban Tanzania". In: Atkinson, A., Davila, J.D., Fernandes, E. and Mattingly, M., The Challenge of Environmental Management in Urban Areas, Ashgate Publishing Ltd, England, pp. 287-298 Lückenkötter, J., Fieger, F. and Roger, F: (1994): "Improvement of Squatter Settlements: Between Successful Community Organisations and Lack of Co-operation, A case Study of Self-help Activities in Squatter Settlements of Dar es Salaam", Munchen. Lyby, E., Tournee, J. and Nnkya, T. (1991): "Employment generation in urban works programmes in Tanzania", for UNDP and ILO, Dar es Salaam. Majani, B.B.K. (2000): "Institutionalising Environmental Planning and Management: The Institutional Economics of Solid Waste Management in Tanzania", Spring Research Series, no. 28, Dortmund. Materu, J.S. (1986): "Sites and Services Projects in Tanzania: A Case Study of Implementation", Third World Planning Review, vol. 8, no. 2. pp. 121-138. Nnkya, J.T. (1999): Land Use Planning Practice Under the Public Land Ownership Policy in Tanzania. In: Habitat INTL. vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 135-155. Thiel, R.E. (1999), "Towards a Comprehensive Anti-Poverty Strategy: Considerations and Proposals". In: Development and Cooperation (D+C), No. 1/1999, January/February, pp. 17-19. United Republic of Tanzania (URT, 1998): "The National Poverty Eradication Strategy", Vice President's Office, Dar es Salaam. United Republic of Tanzania (URT, 1997): "Preparation of the Strategic Plan for the Restructuring of the City Council of Dar es Salaam", vol. II: Strategic Plan, Dar es Salaam. UNCHS (1996), "An Urbanising World: Global Report on Human Settlements, 1996", Oxford University Press for UNCHS, Oxford. World Bank (1999): "Water and Sanitation Program Report, World Bank, Washington DC. World Bank (1993): "World Development Report", Oxford University Press for the World Bank, Oxford. World Bank (1988): Infrastructure and urban development department, FY 88 Annual Sector Review: Water Supply and Sanitation, World Bank, Washington, D.C.

WATER CRISIS IN IRAN: CODIFICATION AND STRATEGIES IN URBAN WATER

Dr H.Motiee*, GH. Manouchehri**, Dr M.R.M. Tabatabai***

* Assistant Professor, Water and Wastewater Eng. Dept., PWIT, P.O.Box 16765-1719, Tehran, Iran.E- mail: [email protected] ** Director of Water and Wastewater Company, Tehran, Iran *** Assistant Professor, Water Eng. Dept., PWIT, P.O.Box 16765-1719, Tehran, Iran

ABSTRACT Human civilization has always been in evolution by having direct access to water resources throughout history. Water, with its qualitative and quantitative effects, plays an important role in economic and social develoments. Contrary to other sources, water is not replaceable. By increasing world population and also growth of communities, water and its consumption has become important. This may even become more significant in those countries where the volume of rainfall is limited. Water consumption per capita depends on the culture, kind of activities and climate conditions, which varies in different areas. These differences are such that the variation in water consumption per capita may range between 3.0 to 700 liters per day. Iran is located in southwest Asia with an average annual rainfall of 250 millimeters. It has an arid and semi-arid climate. Water crisis has appeared in Iran as a serious problem. There are mainly two reasons for that: (1) Lack of proper water management and (2) Occurrence of drought. In fact, water crisis can be defined as an unadjustment between water resources and rate of consumption. In this paper attempts have been made to identify factors influencing water crisis in Iran. Solutions are also put forward to control and reduce this for the future.

KEYWORDS: Iran, Urban water, Water crisis, Drought, Water management, Water resources

1. INTRODUCTION

Iran with an arid and semi-arid geographic specification is located in Southwest Asia. The normal annual average of precipitation is 250 mm. The geographic and climatic variation of the country is very extensive. For instance, annual average rainfall in the north is more than 1000 mm, while this figure is less than 100 mm for central and southeast of the country.

Existing of mountainous areas in the north and west have caused the flows of several main rivers. At the same time vast desert spread in the Central and Southeast. For this reason water resources diversity is quite visible. These conditions lead to uneven distribution of population. More than 50% of population lives in the west and north, while about 70% of water resources is located in these areas (Bitaraf, 2000). The sum of annual water resources is estimated 135x109m3, the consumption rate in the three main sectors are as follows: 1- Domestic urban consume sector : five percent (5%) 2- Industrial sector : twenty percent (20%) 3- Agricultural sector : ninety three percent (93%)

Construction and performance of hydraulic structures such as dams, kanats, and conveyance channels for reservoirs, transmission and distribution systems have been experience by Iranian people since 3000 years ago. Three decades ago, before 1970, because of low population, agricultural nature and low rate of urban population, water supply was not considered as a critical problem of the country. During the last three decades, large dams have been built around the big cities such as Tehran, Isfahan, Ahvaz, etc, in order to supply water for urban, industrial and agricultural consumption. Where surface water has not been available, ground water has also been used as water resources for supply. Since 1980, a rapid population growth as well as rapid economic change has lead to significant agricultural and industrial development and consequently increasing urban population (Manouchehri 2000). Consequently, dramatic changes have been encountered in water demand. Until 1990, water supply was not a critical problem and there was a reasonable ratio between available demand and supply. In recent decade, water supply has appeared as a critical national problem, which is explained in the followings:

2. CAUSES OF WATER CRISIS OCCURRENCE

There are mainly four reasons for which water crisis occurs (Manouchhri, 2000): 1- Rapid population growth which is improprotional to the environmental capacity, 2- Development of different parts of agriculture, industry and urbanization, 3- A decrease in the number of appropriate structures to store, distribute and convey water. This is due to the lack of financial sources, which has led to the less investments, 4- Worldwide occurrence of drought (i.e. Iran) since 1995.

2.1. A Progressional Increase in Population

Since 1979, due to the cultural, social and economic change in Iran, there has been a progressional increase in population in such a way that during the last 20 years the population has increased from 30 to 60 million people. This has caused an increase in urban population by 3.5 percent. Migration of people from rural areas to big cities and the suburbs has also caused an increase in urbanization from one year to the next. This has culminated on a water demands increase. The urban population of Iran was estimated 17 million in 1980, and the number of people who used urban water services were estimated 13 million. This statistics has now risen to 40 million urban population of which 38 million people take benefit of water services.

On the basis of available reports, city migrants have been divided into two classes: economic and environmental migrants. Environmental migrants are those who had to leave their lands due to the droughts (i.e. central and southwest of Iran) while economic migrants are those who have moved to big cities (i.e.Tehran) for better conditions and facilities of life.

Recently, regional water management of Tehran have announced that they might not be able to provide water for Tehran in the near future. In this context, there are migrants who used to consume water 10 Liters/day, but now, they tend to consume more of that in big cities rather than using other urban services. Most of these migrants reside in suburbs where urban services are much cheaper than central and inner zones. In order to reduce population growth rate and migrations, the followings have been designed and applied:

• Cutting down the rate of birth from 3% to 1% by applying the adequate population control policy, • Controling migration from rural areas to big cities by constructing urban infrastructural and facilities. For instance, lots of attempts have been made, in addition to other services, in order to convey water to the rural areas by canals and pipelines through dam construction. In big cities of Iran, the rate of capacity of population is challenging which is neither compatible to environmental potentials nor to the rate of economic growth. It is anticipated that the Iranian population will reach about 100 million by year 2020 and the number of urban areas vary from 600 to 1000.

2.2. Development of Different Sectors: Agriculture, Industry and Urbanization

In present decade (1990-2000) water demand has been increased very rapidly in different sectors in agriculture, industry and urban services. This demand is not only due to the population increase but also due to an increase in the three so-called sectors. In the agriculture, with the most water consumption, there is the highest loss, which has been noticed by the people in charge in irrigation and drainage Department. Though urban water demand consumes only 5% to 6% percent of the country water resources, however, due to the high rate of consumption in those catchments, water supply has become serious problems.

Industrial growth can be a serious threat to Iranian water resources for two reasons: On one hand, as the industrial rate of growth increases, the demand for water is also growing in parallel. On the other hand the wastewater resulted from industrial activities may cause surface and groundwater pollution, which makes Iranian water resources problems two folds. Finding rational solutions for industrial effluent treatment is another environmental issues, which have been on the Water and Wastewater Department Agenda.

2.3. Lack of Financial Sources for New Investments

Iran is classified as those countries which have been dependent on the financial sources resulted from sales of oil. The revenue from the sales of oil on the National economy has appeared by an increase in oil prices in international markets, which has caused government to run a lot of projects in reservoir dams as well as water distribution and conveyance systems. On the contrary, as a reduction in oil prices comes to effect in the international markets, a lot of projects are implemented slowly or even stopped. Presently, Reservoir Dam Karkheh with a storage capacity of 7×10 9 cubic meters and Karoun 2 with a storage capacity of 3×10 9 cubic meters are the biggest reservoir dam construction projects. The vitality of water and its storage for Iran, with an estimation of population to be 100 million people by 2020, is so important that several dam construction projects are in progress in most of the rivers. Currently there are 84 dams in operation, 68 dam projects are in progress and 120 are being studied in their early phases. However, the lack of financial sources may cause a long delay in the operation of these projects. This is clearly noticed in Karkheh Dam construction project whish is supposed to be ready for operation in two to three years time but may take a long time for that. This can partly be overcome by selling the shares of these projects in stock market. Therefore, people are encouraged to investe in these kinds of projects to company the government in such national projects. Bearing in mind, that foreign funds have also played very important roles in some projects like the World Bank credit for 145 million Dollars for Tehran sewage Network.

2.4. Appearance of Droughts in the World and Iran Since 1995:

Currently, debates on water crisis currently fall into two categories: • Water scarcity, in general • Drought in particular. These categories are completely different, however what is so positive in that respect is that, Iran is exposed to the continuous drought which with authorities have been fighting for a long time. Thus, the plans and programs have to be made to reduce the damages resulted from drought to a minimum. As water consumption increases during wet years consumption exceeds the natural resources, the vulnerability to drought therefore, tend to appear more intensive (i.e. Tehran). This has also appeared in some other areas where reservoir dams have completely been emptied and dried out. In year 98-99 government has devoted 300×10 9 Rials (about 10 million dollars) credit for droughts compensation. These recent droughts have been nightmares throughout Iranian water history, particularly, in 2000. In this year, many rivers such as Zayandeh Rud and Hirmand dried out as well as some swamps and marshlands. A large river like Karoun with an average daily discharge of 500 m3/s during last summer (2000) had an average discharge of 100 m3/s during summer 2000. This, in turn, caused an increase in water concentration of the river and degradation of its quality, which converted the river into a saline one. This still had further undesirable consequences which ended up with the ban of supplying water to adjacent cities, such as Ahwaz, Abadan and Khorramshahr, in the south of Iran. Under these circumstances, government had to supply drinking water for these towns from other other parts of the country with tankers and cargo trains. Serious objections were raised by local people, bring about political problem for the government. So if the drought occurrence continues in the future, it may raise social crisis as well as political issues in some areas.

3. CRISIS MANAGEMENT AND SOLUTIONS

In the view of the problems cropped up from water crisis, the followings have been recommended as solution to water crisis.

3.1. Establishment of Independent Water and Wastewater Companies under a Centralized Unit

Before 1990 urban water and sewage used to be administrated by municipality in large areas while small independent units in small areas could manage that by themselves. Since then independent Water and Wastewater Companies under a centralized unit supervised by Ministry of Energy have been organized so that the urban water and sewage authorities could organize urban water supply under a united management.

3.2. Construction of New Projects

There are several large dams built in Iran before 1980 (Table1), however, in recent decade some new dam construction projects have started (Table 2, Motiee et. al. 2000).

Table 1. Dams constructed before 1978

Order Name River Locatin Dam Reservoir Crest Height Construction Period Type Volume Length (m) Start End (MCM) (m) 1 Dez Dez North of Dezful Concrete 3340 212 203 1960 1963 Arch 2 Karoun I Karoun NE Masjed Concrete 2900 380 200 1970 1976 Soleyman Arch 3 Doroud Kor Doroud Zan Rockfill 993 700 60 1966 1972 Zan 4 Sefid Rud Sefid Rud Manjeel Concrete 1800 425 106 1958 1962

5 Aras Aras Qeshlagh Earthfill 1350 945 42 1967 1970

6 Zayandeh Zay.Rud Issi Sou Concrete 1450 450 100 1965 1970 -Rud Arch 7 Amir Karaj 23 km to Karaj Concrete 205 390 180 1959 1963 Kabir Arch 8 Zarineh Zari. Rud Yamin Abad Earthfill 650 720 50 1967 1971 Rud 9 Mahabad Mahabad Mahabad Rockfill 230 700 46.5 1967 1970

10 Latian Jajrud Latian Concrete 95 450 107 1963 1968

11 Golpayga Golpayga Akhte Khan Earthfill 56.6 360 56 1947 1950 n n 12 Ekbatan Abshineh Yalfan Concrete 8 286 53 1959 1963

13 Voshmgir Gorgan Sangar Savar Earthfill 79 430 19 1964 1970 Rud 14 Chah Sisstan Sisstan Earthfill 45 128.5 17 1972 1978 Nimeh

Table 2. Dams under construction and/or study during last two decades

Order Name River Location Dam Reservoir Crest Height Construction Period Type Volume Length (m) Start End (MCM) (m) 1 Jiroft Halil Rud Tange Concrete 430 250 134 1976 1983 Narab Arch 2 Saveh Ghareh SW Saveh Concrete 290 265 128 1983 1993 Chay Arch 3 Lar Lar Polour Earthfill 960 1170 105 1975 1981 4 Esteghlal Minab Minab Concrete 344 450 604 1975 1983 5 Pishin Sarbaz Chah Bahar Roskfill 250 400 63 1978 1992 6 Torogh Torogh Torogh Concrete 40 322 75 1982 1988 Arch 7 Kardeh Kardeh Kardeh Concrete 282 144 67 1982 1987 Arch 8 Vahdat Gheshlag Sanandaj Earthfill 224 300 80 1973 1983 h 9 Kohrang II Kohrang Kohrang Concrete --- 73 22 1972 1985 Gravity 10 Chaqakhor Gandoma Boroujen Earthfill 45 200 10 1988 1993 n

There are also a number of water conveyance projects to supply water to large cities. These projects were done for the cities, where they are the centres of their provinces, without which they could have encountered serious water supply. On the basis of available data during decade 1990 to 2000, the condition of water conveyance in Iran is in the following diagram (Elahipanah- 2000).

Q=403 Q=366.2 MCM/Y Q=219.1 MCM/Y

First Programm (1987-1992) H=208m H=413.3m L=644.2 km H=452m Second Programm

L=1135 km Third Programm (1997-2001)

L=1905km km

Figure 1 - Variation of Water Transmission with Distnace

3.3. Unaccounted Flow of Water Since 1990 a series of serious attempts have been made to identify existing urban water networks. This has been accompanied by the investigation of unaccounted water quantity to be estimated about 30%. Lots of attempts are now being made to reduce this to something less than 10%. This can be achieved by reconstruction of water networks as well as installation of modern necessary equipment.

3.4. Separation of Urban Water Network One of the projects currently being researched on is the separation of drinkable water from undrinkable one in urban areas (Mahvi et. al.- 1998). This was done in some southern parts of the country in the last decades, however, it has not been proceeded beyond the research due to its high cost.

3.5. Training and Modification of the Water Consumption Culture Urbanized people have come to realize life with less water consumption, and get to know the approach by which it can be achieved. This is required an intensive training. Currently, without realizing the concept of water crisis and also having 24 hours access to it, water consumption in some urban areas may be in the range of 300-400 litres per second. The strategy of the water and wastewater industry for the settlement of appropriate patterns is planned as follows: 1. In the new water consumption pattern, families classified according to the number of members. An average annual consumption is defined for each family class, hence those families that consume more than what is determined by authorities are counted as overconsumers and have a lot more for their extra-water consumption. In this context, research has shown that if the overconsumer family class reduce their consumption to that of normal consumes class, one and a half times of the present population may be easily supplied with current water resources. Bearing in mind that the urban population of Iran is now approximately 40 million people. 2. Determination of an appropriate consumption pattern for arid and semi-arid environments, as Iran is one of those countries with various climates.

3. Determination of an appropriate consumption pattern for drought years, which requires promotion of public education in water consumption: ♦ Applying new technology for water consumption (i.e. water taps in houses), ♦ Visiting and monitoring household water networks, ♦ Changing water metres in tower block into individual household ones, ♦ Enlightening people by the press regarding less water consumption and its benefits

3.6. Bottled Water Production Production of bottled water in internal markets may save water consumption, besides it can turn into an export product and become a source of income. Undoubtedly, bottled water becomes increasingly important and extensively significant due to the lack of water resources as well as their pollution. This has led to the mass production of bottled water, which is done by various manufacturers in Iran now.

4. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE STRATEGIES

The challenge in urban water and wastewater section in Iran may be summarised as follows: 1) People’s demands and their expectation of authorities to supply drinking water from new resources, which have already been identified. This may be achieved by transmitting water from upland rivers to central cities of Iran as well as desert areas (i.e. water transmission from upstream of Karoun River), 2) 2-The danger of an extensive water resources pollution, particulrly in the watersheds where urban water is supplied by, 3) 3-Restriction of high quality drinking water resources in many areas and also reduction of water consumption per capita by increasing population, i.e. this has already occurred in some areas where consumption per capita reduced to one –sixth, 4) Conflicts due to the competition for demand between differnet sectors, 5) The lack of knowledge and adavanced technology requirement, 6) Problems resulted from modification and movement of urban water treatment plants due to qualitative and quantitative loss in local resources, 7) Improportional rate of growth of population in the country; urbanisation has added to this problem, 8) Lack of single rigid policy with appropriate direction for self-administration of Water and Wastewater Companies and also limitation in fixing water rate, 9) Increasing the cost of water transmission for long distances, 10) Breaking down of water networks and equipments.

The following three principles are considered for encountering the supply, distribution and consumption of drinking water challenges, a) An effective water resources management to take advantage of the available potential resources and protection of them, b) Proper management of transmission and distribution of water to avoid losses in the pipes and promote distributions, c) Proper consumption management to optimise water consumption and popularise the right consumption.

On the basis of worldwide definition, it is admitted that Iran is on the borderline of water crisis and the country is vulnerable to water supply. Various research and analysis have shown that latest water supply projects comparing to those of the last decade are more expensive, they require higher technology and skills in designing, construction and operation.

REFERENCES

Bitaraf, H. (Minister of Energy) (2000) Protecting Water Resources in Iran. Iranian Water and Wastewater Journal (Shahrab) No. 223. Elahipanah, N. (2000) Progressive Changes in Urban Water, Iranian Water and Wastewater Journal (Shahrab) No. 227. Karamooz, M. (1998) Water Resources Management in Iran, Asian Conference on Water and Wastewater Management, Tehran, Iran. Manouchehri, G. H. (2000) Water Crisis in Iran, Iranian Water and Environmental Journal, No. 39. Ministry of Energy (1997) Iranian Water and Wastewater Manual, Tehran, Iran. Mahvi, A. Neirizi, S. (1998) Importance and Necessity of Separation of Urban Water Network, Asian Conference on Water and Wastewater Management, Tehran, Iran. Motiee, H. and Darakhani, J. (2000) Dam Construction Development in Iran During the 90’s. Third Canadian Dam Assocaiation, Regina, Canada.

GIS "HYDRO-MANAGER" FOR URBAN AREAS WATER CONTROL

A.A.Tskhay, Y.S.Morozova

Altai State Technical University, 46, Lenin Str., Barnaul 656099 Russia. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The mechanism of water quality management in river basin is proposed. This integrated approach is oriented to resources conservation and sustainability and contains administrative and economic actions of exposure to water users. These goals are certainly actual for countries going through transition period from central planning to the market economy as Russia. The GIS "Hydro- manager" is elaborated for water quality assessment and forecasting in basin scale under different sets of management mechanisms impact. "Hydro-manager" includes information- modelling system of water quality in basin scale and is realized for the Upper Ob-river basin on the territory of Altai administrative region.

KEYWORDS

Economic, management, modelling, monitoring, river, water quality

INTRODUCTION

The top priority task for every water resources goal-related programme is creation of effective management mechanism including such elements as: (a) the detailed order of interaction between water users themselves and with control organizations according to normative base in Russia; (b) the procedure of economic regulators definition for water users behaviour: principles of regional ecological foundations (briefly, REF) resources distribution and so on; (c) the definition order of the enterprise as "ecological bankrupt", the analysis and forecasting of ecological consequences for its closing; (d) the additional measures for reduction of prior contaminants concentrations in control river sections; (e) the procedure substantiation of "long-term projects" investment (the results of this realization will be observed only in a few years); (f) the interaction in the system "industrial subscriber - enterprise of water municipal economy - environment protection organization"; (g) the control of non-point sources of anthropogenic pollution; (h) the development of information base for water quality monitoring and management in the river basin; (j) the scheme for water quality management in basin-scale.

The creation problems of such mechanism with necessary decision support system (GIS "Hydro- manager") are considered in this paper.

THE GEOINFORMATION SYSTEM OF WATER QUALITY IN THE RIVER BASIN

The geoinformation system is elaborated for support of management decisions on the base of regional economic mechanism on water quality in the river basin (Tskhai, 1995; Tskhai & Dorotshenkov, 1995). The information block of system consists of three parts: text data base; map-graphical data base; modelling data base.

The text data base is intended for gathering, keeping and use of monitoring information of the river basin and data on the corresponding water-technical complex. There are the observed hydrological and hydrochemical data, the information on intensity and composition of the point and diffuse sources of the watershed pollution in this data base. This information is stored in the files of DBF BDMS dBASE III+ format.

The map-graphical data base is realized on the example of the real watershed and is intended for holding the map-diagrams of administrative and river basin boundaries, the places of towns and settlements, the posts of hydrological and water quality observations, the morphometry of rivers and so on.

Water quality model simulates the river spatial distribution for the values of twenty contaminants: (1) BOD, (2) oxygen deficit, (3) suspended matter, (4) COD, (5) ammonia, (6) nitrite, (7) nitrate, (8) synthetical surface-active matter, (9) oil-pollution, (10) phenol, (11) hexachloran, (12) chloride, (13) sulphate, (14) magnesium, (15) calcium, (16) lindane, (17) iron, (18) copper, (19) lead, (20) phosphate for 18 periods of the year (Tskhai et al, 1994). Our GIS- model uses standard data of Russian State Service for Observations as input information.

For estimation of point sources of pollution the ecologico-economical model for enterprise - typical water user - was developed in accordance with present Russian normative basis. Then the method of integer optimization and the production functions approach are used for decision of this problem.

The observation data on 1984-89 for hydrochemical regime are used for the calibration of GIS- model. These data correspond to the Ob-river part limited by two cross-sections: 7 km above and 13.7 km below Barnaul - centre of Altai administrative region. The dependencies of the model coefficients on hydrologic characteristics, the parameters values in the nonconservative coefficients were estimated by means of the non-linear method of the smallest squares. The contaminants concentrations in lateral inflow were estimated by means of regression method (Behrendt & Bohme, 1992) according to the concentrations and loads dependencies on river discharge rates in the river-section above Barnaul.

At the close of simulation modelling data base is created and used for the presenting of temporary and spatial distribution for the contaminants concentrations (see Fig.1).

THE SCHEME FOR REGIONAL WATER PROTECTION MANAGEMENT

The advanced experience shows that the most effective environment management is in reasonable combination of administrative and economic methods. It seems that another approach for country passing from directive planning to market would be unsuccessful. In our scheme of regional water quality management some special administrative procedures are realized. One of

64 the first things the Decision-Maker (briefly, DM) has to deal with is closing the number of enterprises in the analysed region by the Law (1992) requirement. The case in point, when the enterprise pollution payments exceed its net profit after paying taxes to the budget. Let's call such enterprise insolvent. Moreover, recent time we see the following situations frequently turned up: the prime cost of the enterprise exceeds its gain, i.e. the enterprise is unprofitable; however, such enterprises continue their activity because of the social factor: striving for avoiding total unemployment.

In real whole complex of social factors must be taken into account when decision about closing of enterprise is making. Our target is information support of DM in the question about the variants of solutions, in principle, and the ecological consequences too. The comparison of "price" for ecological and social consequences is out of our investigation limits and completely is relied upon DM.

In GIS "Hydro-manager" varied economic parameters are coefficients of ecological situations and "return-parts" of payments for water pollution on enterprises environmental protection activity.

The values Li and Ki are payment rates for i-th contaminant pollution in boundaries maximum of allowable and temporarily been agree contaminants masses, correspondingly, defining in accordance with present Law as Li =a⋅li , Ki = b⋅ki, where li and ki are federal basis norms for i- th contaminant pollution; a and b are coefficients of ecological situations being established by regional authorities and changing in fixed boundaries [ao, al] and [bo,bl].

For Altai administrative region the interval of a and b variation is determined as [1,02; 1,06]. In general case the coefficients of ecological situations may be determined as ak and bk, i.e. are different for various enterprises of region. The values ak and bk for zones with high ecological stress and profitable enterprise with large masses of waster pollution may be increased. In this research, for simplification, the both types of coefficients for all enterprises are considered as equal to a. The best solution is found by exhaustive method with a=aα where α varies from 1 to M1 with step ( al - ao)/ M1.

The principle of REF resources distribution is not determined by normative base at present. The simplest way is to determine d as the same "return-part" of payment for all enterprises on environmental protection activity. In this case REF subsidies to the k-th enterprise are calculated as Tk=d⋅Rk, where Rk is payment of this enterprise for its water pollution. The value d is varied from 0≤do to dl≤0,9 (here 10% - part of REF resources transition to Federal foundation is taken into account). The cases d =dβ where β varies from 1 to M2 with step (dl - do)/ M2 are considered. Such pairs (α, β ) which lead to overdraft of the REF financial balance or rise of new insolvent enterprise must be excepted. Thus varied parameters is proposed scheme of management are indexes α and β changing from 1 to M1 and from 1 to M2 , accordingly.

Figure 1. Interface of GIS “Hydro-manager” for water quality control in river basin

In the control simulation as comparison criterion Cr we have chosen the following value

Cr=maxh{γ[C1h(B)/P1+C2h(B)/P2+...+C20h(B)/P20]+

+(1-γ)[C1h(K)/P1+C2h(K)/P2+...+C20h(K)/P20]} → min (1) where Cih(B) and Cih(K) - concentrations of i-th contaminant during h-th time period near Barnaul and Kamen-on-Ob - the boundary point between Altai and Novosibirsk administrative regions; γ.- level of river-section importance; Pi - maximum allowable concentration of i-th contaminant. The mechanism of waste management includes series of procedures:

(a) the DM determines the characteristics of ecological situation coefficient: number of levels M1, limits of its variation ao and al; also he defines the "return-part" of enterprise payment - analogously, M2 , do and dl. It must be mentioned, that in next simulation iteration it's possible to narrow the variation field of manage parameters and increase the number of levels, with the purpose to achieve local minimum pollution of the river basin;

(b) during the estimation of optimal behaviour for each of m basin enterprises - let's assume their number equal to mn - for the individual pair (α, β) from the set contains (M1×M2) possible pairs, DM determines the enterprises which are unable to pay;

(c) after assessment of consequence of closing some enterprise group DM declares that ms enterprises are ecological bankrupts, which must be closed; (mn-ms) enterprises receive the "conditionally closed" status;

(d) from (M1×M2) pairs (α, β) we exclude those, which suppose the number of unable-to-pay enterprises to be more than (mn-ms) . The number of remained pairs is labelled as (M1×M2)*;

(e) DM chooses the set of "prior" contaminants actions (with the cost Y(p)), and the set of "long- term" actions (accordingly, Y(d)) for unconditional financing. Let's denote the total expenses for carrying out the actions of these sets as Y(i);

(f) in order to build discrete production functions of remained (mn-ms) enterprises, in each point (α, β) from remained (M1×M2)* pairs modificated optimization problems are solved. "Long - term" and "prior" actions are sure to be contained in optimal enterprise plan, therefore they are not contained in the number of varied actions. During this, the result of their installation is taken into account on calculating all characteristics;

(g) as the result productions functions are built for each acting enterprise of the basin. They make it possible to set into accordance for each point (α, β) from the feasible area of the manage parameters - optimal for enterprise action set, which defines corresponding enterprise's waste set. Thus for each variant of manage parameters from the feasible area becomes possible to point out intensity and composition of point sources in the river basin which is considered - using composed production functions;

(h) in each point (α, β) from remained (M1×M2)* pairs Y(r) - real value of REF (after closing ms "ecological bankrupts" and resources transition to Federal foundation) is estimated as Y(r)=0,9(R1*+R2*+...+Rm-ms,*). Here sign "*" distinguishes characteristics of optimal for according enterprise actions set. Because of overload in symbols further index "s" referring to integrated in basin-scale values is omitted;

(i) in each point (α, β) from remained (M1×M2)* pairs the satisfaction of the following condition of financial solvency of REF is checked: dβY(r) ≤ Y(r) - Y(i), i.e. REF can't return to enterprises means in total amount more than it has at disposal after subsidising "long-term" and "prior" actions. Points (α, β), in which it doesn't obey, are excluding from further consideration. Remained (M1×M2)** pairs are considered to be feasible are of the solving;

(j) applying the forecasting module of GIS "Hydro-manager" accordingly (M1×M2)** time- spatial distributions of contaminants in the river basin are built. From obtained distributions the pair (α, β), which we are looking for, is chosen using the criterion (1);

(k) the following information is outcoming on defined set of varying information: data on optimal for acting enterprises actions, economical indicators and wastes; data on REF: amounts of foundation resources and financing "prior" and "long-term" actions, remainder of means after investing all environmental protection activity.

The manage parameters being varied are s, α, β , as well as lists of "long-term" and "prior" actions which is formed by DM. As the result of simulation for each s-th variant, being considered by DM, model defines proper values of manage parameters - economical norms: ecological situation coefficient and "return-part" of payment, which give rise to special actions set by the whole basin and according time-spatial distribution of pollution in the river.

APPLICATION OF GIS "HYDRO-MANAGER" FOR THE UPPER OB-RIVER BASIN

Bellow are given the results of GIS "Hydro-manager" simulation concerning reduction of the Upper Ob-river basin pollution on the territory of Altai region.

The data of observations of average 1985 water year (hydrological discharges and temperatures); of 1993 year (set of background concentrations of contaminants in river with its tributaries and the fifteen largest enterprises economic and waste characteristics) are used. In control simulation it's supposed the coefficient of ecological situation a is equal to 1,02 and 1,06; the "return-part" d - 0,2 and 0,6.

The different strategies of DM were realized. The first variant is characterised "hard" politics of DM: in accordance with the Law requirements the activity of five from six insolvent enterprises was closed. The sixth enterprise (the Biisk water treatment enterprise) must work, because now it even though slightly treats wastewaters of Biisk's enterprises. If we assume, that direct investments of REF are not in this variant, as result the best from analysed set of variants of economic varied parameters was such: a=1,02; d=0,2 with criterion value Cr=27,188.

In the second variant the another extreme approach was realized (it corresponded to reality): all insolvent enterprises continued to work. Then criterion value is essentially worse, than previous: Cr=113,943.

It's clear that in practice DM must to find some intermediate variant. Using the opportunities of GIS "Hydro-manager" allows to estimate impact of different variants choice for manage parameters on water quality. It's turned out: closing of only two enterprises: "ALTTRAK" (Rubtsovsk) and "TETS-1" (Biisk) in accordance with the Law requirements leads to same result as in first case, Cr=27,188.

When REF directly invests the "long-term" treatment reconstruction of proposed Barnaul's, Zarinsk's, Belocurikha's and Rubtsovsk's enterprises, in conditions of the first variant the GIS- simulation shows: REF financial resources are sufficiently for receipt the same result, Cr=27,188.

Finally, in conditions of the first variant we simulated situation with REF unconditional financial support of "prior" for Altai contaminants: oil-pollution and phenol. Then using the same pair of economic parameters a=1,02; d=0,2 leads to some improvement of water quality in control sections: Cr=27,185.

CONCLUSIONS

1) The scheme of regional water quality management in basin scale is proposed. 2) GIS "Hydro-manager" information supporting of the management decision choice is elaborated and realized for the Upper Ob-river basin on the Altai region territory.

REFERENCES

Behrendt, H. & M.Bohme (1992) Point and diffuse loads of selected pollutants in the Rhine-river and its tributaries. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria, Working Paper 92-15. The Low (1992) About environmental protection (in Russian). Respublika, Moscow. Tskhai, A.A., V.Yu.Ageikov, K.B.Koshelev, M.A.Leites, T.V.Tskhai (1994) Models for Water Monitoring and Optimization of Enterprise Water Protective Activity in Present-Day Conditions. In: Water: Ecology & Technology (Int.Congress, Moscow), 1090-1115. Tskhai, A.A. (1995) Monitoring and Water Quality Management in River Basin: Models and Information Systems (in Russian). Altai Publishing-House, Barnaul. - 174 p. Tskhai, A.A., O.P.Dorotshenkov (1995) Model Approach and Application of Water Quality Management for Urban Areas. In: Integrated Water Management in Urban Areas - searching for new, realistic approaches with respect to developing world (ed. J.Niemczynowicz & K.Krahner, Int. Symp, Sweden), 203-213. Tskhai, A.A., S.L.Shirokova, D.G.Konev, K.B.Koshelev, T.V.Tskhai (1995) GIS "Hydromonitoring" and Optimization Model of Enterprise Water Protection Activity. In: Modelling and Management of Sustainable Basin-Scale Water Resource Systems, IAHS Publ., N 231, 263-270.

Abstracts of Poster Presentations

THE TUUL RIVER WATER RESOURCES CHANGES AND WATER USE IN ULAANBAATAR CITY, MONGOLIA

N.Batnasan Institute of Geography, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, P.O.Box-664, Ulaanbaatar-24, Mongolia, e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Presented annual and long-term hydrological regime of the Tuul river, which is flowing through the capital city of Mongolia. Its total length is 704 km and mean annual discharge near Ulaanbaatar city is varying from 24.1 to 26.6 m3/s. In this river basin concentrating about 30 % of all population of Mongolia, and most water users, like light and heavy industry, coal gold mining and irrigated agricultural farming. Thus, the Tuul river basin is most polluted and effected river basin in Mongolia by human activities. The river water resources varies significantly over the basin and has a great differences in seasons and long-term period. Most of the annual runoff is formed during the summer period between June to September, because most (about 80%) precipitation is falling during this period. For about 140-170 days of the year, the river is covered by ice. Analyzed present situation of water use of the Ulaanbaatar city. Discussed some negative effects and possible improvements for water use in this region. Water use of the Ulaanbaatar city is continuously increasing with relation to population growth. For instance, total water use of this city in 1968 was 25000 cub.m, in 1998 increased to 170000 cub.m, and in 2010 expected to increase about 280000 cub.m., which means that, in near future the ground water resources will be not enough for water supply and we must find another solution and put more emphases on water resources management of this region.

KEYWORDS: Climate, discharge, Hydrology, human activity, river flow, pollution

IMPACT DES EAUX URBAINES SUR LA QUALITE DES EAUX DE L’OUED SEYBOUSE

L. Djabri*, A. Hani*, J. Mania**, J. Mudry***

* 11, Rue Asla Hocine, Annaba 23000, Algérie - Tél: 213.038.84.28.21, Fax: 213.0.38.87.14.48 - E-mail: djabri_larbi @ yahoo.fr ** Département Géotechnique et Génie-Civil, Cité Scientifique Avenue Paul Langevin, 59655, Villeneuve d'Ascq, Lille, France. *** Laboratoire de Géologie Structurale et Appliquée, 1 Place Leclerc, 25000 Besançon, France.

RESUME L’oued Seybouse était un plan d’eau très propre. La pêche et le sport (Aviron Club Annabi) se pratiquaient sans problème. Mais avec le temps, la qualité des eaux de cet oued a commencé à se

70 dégrader jusqu’à l’eutrophisation. Parmi les facteurs qui ont engendré cette situation, nous notons: Le climat, la matrice rocheuse, les rejets industriels et les rejets urbains. - Le climat: Ces dernières décennies ont été marquées par la dominance de la sécheresse, ce qui a eu pour effet une baisse du niveau (quantité) d’eau dans l’oued. Les précipitations qui avoisinaient 800 mm/an n’excèdent plus 500 mm/an. - La matrice rocheuse, par le biais des phénomènes de lessivage et de dilution, a contribué à l’enrichissement et à l’appauvrissement de l’eau en éléments chimiques, ce qui explique en partie la présence ou l’absence de quelques éléments chimiques. - Les rejets industriels: les industries installées dans la région (sidérurgie, conserverie, laiterie, levurerie, cycles, céramique, ...) rejettent leurs eaux dans l’oued. Les eaux rejetées dans l’oued ne subissent pas en général de prétraitement, ce qui augmente la dégradation de la qualité des eaux. - Les rejets urbains: Avant de donner un aperçu sur la qualité des eaux des rejets urbains, nous avons jugé utile de faire un historique sur l’évolution de la région. Au lendemain de l’indépen- dance, l’industrie s’est installée dans la région, ce qui a eu pour conséquence un exode rural massif vers les grandes villes telles que Annaba, Guelma et Bouchegouf. Ces dernières ne pouvant contenir une telle population, cela a entraîné l’apparition de beaucoup de villages(Chbaïta, Boukhamouza, Belkhir, ...) sur l’axe de l’oued. Les réseaux urbains n’étant pas réalisés, le raccordement s’est fait à ciel ouvert vers l’oued; on a adopté la solution la plus facile.

Les eaux des rejets prélevées et analysées (1999) montrent des concentrations assez élevées particulièrement en chlorures (1600 mg/l), nitrates (80 mg/l), nitrites (20 mg/l) et ammonium (70 mg/l). Ces éléments indicateurs de pollution parmi d’autres caractérisent particulièrement les rejets urbains. Les valeurs obtenues sont très significatives de pollution par les rejets urbains. Cette pollution par les nutriments est à l’origine de l’eutrophisation observée. Ce constat peut être étendu à la majorité des oueds algériens car l’exode rural s’est réalisé d’une manière massive à travers tout le pays. La présence des nutriments, particulièrement les nitrites et l’ammonium est un bon indicateur de rejets urbains, car ces éléments sont présents dans les urines. Le passage de l’un à l’autre est accéléré car les conditions d’oxydo-réduction sont favorables. Nous venons de donner une conséquence du développement rapide qu’a connu le pays. Aujourd’hui, un autre problème se pose; c’est la rareté de l’eau, ce qui doit inciter les responsables à proposer un plan d’aménagement des cours d’eau. En ce qui nous concerne, nous préconisons la technique de lagunage qui est efficace et peu coûteuse, surtout pour un pays comme l’Algérie où les terrains sont très vastes et le soleil abondant

MOTS CLES: Algérie, Urbain, Eutrophisation, Seybouse, Nutriments, Rejets.

MASTERPLAN TOOLS FOR WATER SUPPLY NETWORK

K. Odeh (1), F. Fotoohi (1), P. Feron (2)

(1) Lyonnaise des Eaux – CIRSEE (Centre International de Recherche sur l’Eau et l’Environnement), 59, Avenue Emile Thiébaut, 78110 Le Vésinet, France. Email : [email protected] , [email protected] (2) Lyonnaise des Eaux – SAFEGE (Société Anonyme Française d'Etudes et de Gestion), B.P. 727, 92007 Nanterre Cedex, France. Email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT

In this paper we propose decision-making tools for strategic development planning of drinking water production and distribution system in order to best meet future needs and to guarantee a high reliability. These tools gather and organise all the information required for a masterplan study and facilitate the follow and the update of the master plan.

KEYWORDS: Masterplan, reliability, drinking water, planning, software

IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIONAL TECHNOLOGIES AND KNOW-HOW FOR IMPROVEMENT OF WATER SUPPLY IN ALYTUS, LITHUANIA

B. Paukstys*, E. A. Hansen** and Rimantas Mockus***

*Hydrogeological Company “Grota”, Eisiskiu plentas 26, LT-2038 Vilnius, Lithuania, e-mail: [email protected] ** DHI Water and Environment, Agern Alle 11, Copenhagen, Denmark, e-mail: [email protected] *** Company "Dzukijos vandenys", Pulko street 75, LT-5840 Alytus, Lithuania

ABSTRACT

This paper describes preliminary results of an international project, conducted in co-operation between Denmark and Lithuania to solve complicated municipal drinking water supply problems. A decrease in industrial production has led to a drastic drop in water consumption, and previously designed water supply and treatment facilities are too large. Natural hydrogeological conditions cause clogging and shorten the lifespan of groundwater extraction wells. Ways to optimise water supply and improve water quality in the city are sought. International experience and funding are used to address these and many other issues.

KEYWORDS: Groundwater, leakage, water supply, international co-operation, well field.

URBAN THERMAL CLIMATE EFFECTS ON STORMWATER IN COLD REGIONS?

A.F. Semadeni-Davies*, L. Bengtsson**, A. Lundberg*** and W. Schilling*

* Department of Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, S.P. Andersens vei 5, N 7491 Trondheim, Norway. E-mail: [email protected] and [email protected] ** Department of Water Resources Engineering, Lund University, Box 118, 22100 Lund, Sweden. E-mail: [email protected] *** Division of Water Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, 971 87 Luleå, Sweden. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

In cold regions spring causes high water loading at a time when the drainage system is least able to cope. Floods in Norway have prompted a call for improved winter simulations of water delivery (i.e., snowmelt) and runoff generation for planning and management applications. Snowmelt and runoff data from Luleå, Sweden, are used to illustrate how the town climate can influence stormwater. A literature based discussion of snowmelt and infiltration processes is followed by a modelling exercise to show how uneven melt and runoff conditions could be handled in an urban drainage model. Five index models for snowmelt ranging from estimates made from the average daily air temperature to one that simulates hourly melt from hourly temperature and net allwave radiation are tested. A simple soil water accounting scheme is altered to mimic changes in storage that can be expected in frozen soil. Further work is outlined and a forum for discussing the special modelling needs of urban catchments is suggested.

KEYWORDS: Cold regions, flood, snowmelt indices, net all wave radiation, soil frost, infiltration, runoff

EUROPEAN SIDE WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN ISTANBUL

Zekai Sen* and Veysel Eroglu**

*Istanbul Technical University, Civil Engineering Faculty, Hydraulics Division, Maslak 80626, İstanbul, Turkey. **General Director, Istanbul Water and Sewerage Department, Aksaray, Istanbul.

ABSTRACT

Urban water requirement for domestic, industrial and other uses is supported by the existing surface water impoundment around the European part of Istanbul which includes the historical and trade centers of the city. Water problems arise on the most densely populated European side as it has always been in the history. Nineteenth century Durusu (Terkos) dam has become more significant from water management of view for Istanbul city, because out of 11 reservoirs, 7 have to transmit their surface waters first to this dam, and then through the supply pipes to two major water treatment centers before pumping to the city water distribution network. The climate

73 regime of the city has shown from the past records that there are severe droughts almost every 8 to 10 years and if the reservoirs enter such a dry spell in lower fullness ratios then the water shortages to the city are unavoidable. This paper explains the basic philosophy, logical structure and dynamism of an optimum operation program which is special for the European side water dams of Istanbul. The main purposes of the program are to reduce the spillages especially from the Durusu dam to the Black sea, to keep reservoirs as much full as possible in the beginning of November which corresponds to the start of wet period in Istanbul region. The software named shortly ISTWATER shows which dams should be given priorities under different circumstances. Hence, it is possible to save about 20 million cubic meter of water spillage to the Black sea. Although the software does not have genuine fuzzy system logic but has its imprints through the control of reservoir fullness indices by certain percentages. In this manner flood control, spillage reduction and drought periods are taken into consideration.

KEYWORDS: Demand; fullness ratio; fuzzy; Istanbul; optimization; water management.

Workshop 2

RECYCLING AND REUSE AT DIFFERENT SCALE

Convenor: Conseil Régional Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur

PROTECTING URBAN WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTH-CENTRAL KANSAS BY INTEGRATED GROUNDWATER-SURFACE WATER MANAGEMENT TO MEET MUNICIPAL, AGRICULTURAL AND ECOSYSTEM WATER NEEDS

Robert W. Buddemeier*, Hillel Rubin**, and David P. Young*

*Kansas Geological Survey, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, U.S.A. E- mail: [email protected] and [email protected]. ** Faculty of Civil Engineering, Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT A key area of south-central Kansas depends heavily on groundwater for a mixture of municipal, agricultural, and environmental needs. Groundwater quality is threatened by natural salt intrusion that is being enhanced and expanded by groundwater pumping. Municipal water supplies face an uncertain long- term future. A regional water management structure is proposed that would make effective use of treated municipal wastewater to modify groundwater flow patterns, mitigate salt intrusion, and meet presently unsatisfied demands for water in a major wildlife refuge. Implementation of a regional water management system designed to address the problems of all users over hydrologically-appropriate scales of time and space would have additional benefits, such as increasing the feasibility of using advanced waste treatment or desalination techniques to augment the regional water supply.

KEYWORDS

Multiple use, regional management, salinity, wastewater injection

BACKGROUND

This study develops the conceptual design of an integrated regional water management system. Its objective is to provide a range of options to stabilize and protect long-term urban water supplies in an area where the primary water source is an aquifer subject to a variety of threats and demands, and the primary uses are non-urban. The region considered is the eastern portion of the High Plains aquifer in south-central Kansas (Figure 1). Critical characteristics of this region include: • A west-to-east transition from predominantly agricultural to largely urban water demands, and (at the state-wide scale) from semi-arid to sub-humid conditions. • Dependence on groundwater extraction and on surface flow that results from groundwater discharge for most of the water use in the region. • Fully-appropriated groundwater in most areas (no new water rights are available), with some areas exhibiting groundwater depletion. • Geologic bedrock formations that are a natural source of salt contamination to portions of the overlying High Plains aquifer. • Two major wildlife refuges (one state, one federal) that have significant water requirements and rights. • A wide range of human threats to water quality, including enhancement of natural contamination processes, agricultural contamination (primarily nitrates) and irrigation- induced salinization, urban and industrial wastes, brine wastes from salt mining and oil production, and the possible introduction of high-density livestock production facilities.

Figure 1: Study area, showing the locations of the major communities, the groundwater salt sources, the wildlife refuge, and the possible saltwater and wastewater distribution and injection or extraction systems proposed in this paper.

The agencies responsible for groundwater management in the region operate under a policy of "safe yield" (i.e., withdrawal should not exceed long-term recharge, with allowance for stream baseflow needs). However, groundwater resources are fully appropriated in most areas, water demands are either stable or increasing, and gradual deterioration of water quality has the effect of further limiting the available resources. The varieties of problems, the varieties of water use, and the existence of both governmental and non-governmental bodies committed to avoiding

78 conflicts due to competing water demands, make this region an ideal test-bed for innovative integrated management approaches.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

The proposed integrated solution developed in the framework of this research arises from studies of mineral intrusion into the freshwater aquifers of the region. The most recent investigations addressed potential long-term threats to the municipal wells of the cities of Hutchinson and Nickerson (see Figure 1) due to encroachment of natural salinity underneath the Arkansas River from the south (Young et al. 1998, 2000; Rubin et al., 2000). The salt is of natural origin, originating in unconfined Permian bedrock deposits that underlie and are hydraulically connected with the alluvial freshwater aquifer system (Layton & Berry, 1973; Fader & Stullken, 1978; Young, 1993). Salt intrusion is greatest in the western part of the region (north-central Stafford county -- Figure 1), but it occurs sporadically throughout the region, probably associated with low points, paleochannels, and fractures in the bedrock surface (Gillespie & Hargadine, 1993; Rubin & Buddemeier, 1997; Young et al., 1998).

Salt transport is a critical factor in regional water quality problems, and is also the aspect of the problem that is most susceptible to deliberate or inadvertent modifications by humans. Some salt is brought into the region from the west by Arkansas River flow, but far more leaves the area in surface flow after discharge from the deep aquifer source (Quinodoz & Buddemeier, 1997). The balance between discharge to surface water and groundwater transport is a critical factor in the salt balance of the area, with salt remaining in the groundwater being redistributed both vertically and horizontally by regional groundwater flow (Rubin & Buddemeier, 1997) and probably by more rapid and concentrated transport in paleochannels (Rubin & Buddemeier, 1997; Rubin et al., 2000). The groundwater in the area south of the Arkansas River and southwest of the Hutchinson-Nickerson corridor (Figure 1) is largely unusable because of its salinity, which preliminary budget estimates suggest is from a combination of salt transported from source areas in Stafford county to the west and from local bedrock discharge within the region.

Water quality in the freshwater portion of the shallow aquifer is affected by water table changes resulting primarily from large-volume pumping. Irrigation pumping in the Rattlesnake Creek basin has been shown to result in upconing of salt and subsequent dispersion into the freshwater aquifer (Young, 1995; Ma & Sophocleous, 1996). Pumping in this area also has the potential to reduce streamflow, which is a critical water supply for the Quivira National Wildlife Refuge, and is an important outlet for discharged salt that helps to mitigate the effect of bedrock discharge on groundwater salinity (Quinodoz & Buddemeier, 1997).

In the Hutchinson-Nickerson region, combined agricultural, industrial and municipal pumping has lowered the water table north of the river to the point where saline water intrusion beneath the river has been observed (Young et al., 2000). Combined with the potential for long-term increases in the groundwater salinity (see preceding paragraph), this implies serious threats to the municipal water supplies on a scale of decades. At the same time, application of federal standards for surface water quality has caused heightened awareness of contamination issues and requirements for resource protection and wastewater treatment and discharge throughout the region.

PROPOSED MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

The fundamental assumptions are that problems of regional origin are best addressed by regional solutions, and that such solutions will be practical only if all of the water-user communities in the region perceive the necessary changes as beneficial. The proposed overall conceptual design is therefore composed of components that could be assembled in various combinations, or implemented over time. A key aspect is the use of treated municipal wastewater (presently discharged to the Arkansas River) for beneficial modification of the groundwater regime to optimize the quantity and quality of water available for various uses. The volumes and qualities of these resources are comparable to those of some of the critical components of the natural system (see Table 1).

Table 1: Inventory/Flux Comparisons -- Approximate Annual Volumes Q Q [Cl-] Wastewater: Pop. acre-ft/yr m3/yr mg/L Notes Hutchinson 40000 6300 7.8E+06 ~400 Nickerson 1000 100 1.2E+05 Great Bend 15000 1800 2.2E+06 ~370 Total 56000 8200 1.0E+07

Water use: Mostly groundwater Hutchinson- Nickerson Area 16000 2.0E+07 N Stafford Co. 10000 1.2E+07 not incl. QNWR

Permian Saltwater Inflow: N Stafford Co. 2400 2.9E+06 40,000

Quivira NWR water right 14600 1.8E+07 Surface water

Wastewater as a Resource

The city of Hutchinson generates approximately 7.7 million m3 of treated wastewater per year; Great Bend generates about 2.2 million m3, and the other communities of the region produce individually smaller amounts that are cumulatively significant. Budget model estimates indicate that the volume of the Great Bend wastewater is comparable to that of the high-salinity brine discharged at the base of the aquifer between Great Bend and Rattlesnake Creek, and the treated municipal wastes are generally of better water quality than the salt-affected groundwater or the Arkansas River. Figure 1 illustrates some of the possible components of a regional management program, including: • Injection of treated wastewater along the Arkansas River corridor to create a local barrier to salt penetration beneath the river, with or without modification of the irrigation regime. • Use of treated wastewater to replace groundwater extraction for irrigation or industrial use in the Hutchinson-Nickerson corridor. This could reduce or eliminate the gradient enabling northward flow of saline water. • Use of treated wastewater for augmentation of the freshwater supply not available to the wildlife refuge, mitigating the effects of groundwater pumping.

• Injection of treated wastewater into the aquifer to replace a similar amount of saltwater extracted, and dilution of the extracted saltwater to a quality suitable for enhancing the wildlife refuge supply from Rattlesnake Creek.

The last option is by far the most elaborate, but it promises the greatest benefits. By pumping saltwater from the deep aquifer in primary saltwater intrusion areas and injecting wastewater to replace it, the salinity of the aquifer water will be reduced over time even if irrigation pumping continues at present levels. By managing the relative volumes of groundwater and wastewater discharged to Rattlesnake Creek as a function of flow and salinity, the water supply to the refuge could be increased while keeping it within acceptable salinity limits. Enhancing salt extraction and stream discharge in the Stafford county area will also protect and improve the quality of the groundwater flowing eastward into the region of concern for the municipal supplies.

As a result of agricultural practices, much of the fresh groundwater in northern Stafford county exceeds the drinking water standard for nitrate concentration. Injection of treated wastewater there, or its direct diversion to the Quivira National Wildlife Refuge, will thus not result in degradation of the water or environmental quality in this regard (Rubin et al., 2000).

Future opportunities

Continued consumptive use of water in the region, particularly in view of the high salt loads already present, will result in some continued deterioration of water quality. Water demands, particularly in the larger urban areas, can be expected to increase. A regional water management program will be necessary to implement the approach described above, and it will also expand the resource base available to address other problems. Further aspects of the proposed management plan include: • Extension of public water supplies to the rural areas and small communities, which are presently ill-equipped to deal with the extensive non-point nitrate contamination associated with irrigated agriculture; • Waste stream management and segregation to enhance the quality and recycling effectiveness of the treated municipal waste water; and • Selective use of desalination to maintain the overall quality of the public water supplies as a long-term option.

Waste stream segregation and desalination are both practical because the region already has deep waste injection wells, which permit brine disposal without contaminating surface resources. Although these are rather expensive options, they can be applied as part of a large-scale management system because of the potential for wide distribution of both costs and benefits. The region has a large supply of marginal-quality water available; complete desalination would not be required, as a relatively small proportion of high-quality water could be blended to make a much larger volume of water comply with (for example) standards for municipal use.

SUMMARY AND OVERVIEW

Municipal water supplies are faced with combined problems of quality deterioration, increasing demand, and extremely limited options for additional supplies of good-quality water. Agricultural and environmental needs continue to be high, and present patterns of use are

81 probably not sustainable. Enhancing surface flow and groundwater quality in the major salt source region will address the underlying salinity problems on time scales of decades, while local water table manipulation closer to the cities can mitigate problems on shorter time scales. Municipal wastewater is an unused resource in the area, and is available in volumes that would make it effective for high-leverage applications like brine replacement or local flow modification. Agricultural demands are highly seasonal and the surface relief of the region is too low to provide good opportunities for surface storage of water. This also serves to make aquifer injection of the wastewater an attractive option for environmentally effective use to protect against the salinity transport induced by transient water table reduction due to irrigation pumping.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge the cooperation and assistance of GMD5, GMD2, the Bureau of Reclamation, the US Geological Survey, the Kansas Water Office, and cooperating landowners in the study area. Dr. D. O. Whittemore contributed to the project as a co- investigator. Mark Schoneweis, Melany Miller, and Sharon Vaughn provided staff support. The Mineral Intrusion studies were funded in part by the Kansas Water Plan Fund.

REFERENCES

Fader, S.W. & Stullken, L.E. (1978). Geohydrology of the Great Bend Prairie, south-central Kansas. Kansas Geological Survey Irrigation Series 4, Lawrence: Kansas Geological Survey. Gillespie, J.B. & Hagadine, G.D. (1993). Geohydrology and saline ground-water discharges to the South Fork Ninnescah River in Pratt and Kingman Counties, south-central Kansas. Report 93-4177 Water Resources Investigations, U.S. Geological Survey, Lawrence, Kansas. Layton, D.W. & Berry, D.W. (1973). Geology and ground-water resources of Pratt County, south-central Kansas, Kansas Geological Survey Bulletin 205, Lawrence: Kansas Geological Survey. Ma, T.-S. & Sophocleous, M.A. (1996). Dynamic simulation of saltwater intrusion at the Siefkes site Stafford County Kansas and decision support for saltwater vulnerability assessment. Kansas Geological Survey Open-File Report 96-18, Lawrence: Kansas Geological Survey. Quinodoz, H.A.M. & Buddemeier, R.W. (1997). Budgets and fluxes of salt and water – model approaches and examples from the Great Bend Prairie and Equus Beds regions of south- central Kansas. Kansas Geological Survey Open-File Report 96-25, Lawrence: Kansas Geological Survey. Rubin, H. & Buddemeier, R.W. (1997). Approximate analysis of aquifer mineralization by paleodrainage channels. Kansas Geological Survey Open-File Report 97-96, Lawrence: Kansas Geological Survey. Rubin, H., Young, D.P. & Buddemeier, R.W. (2000). Sources, Transport, and Management of Salt Contamination in the Groundwater of South-Central Kansas. Kansas Geological Survey Open-File Report 2000-60. Lawrence: Kansas Geological Survey. Young, D.P. (1993). Mineral Intrusion—geohydrology of Permian bedrock underlying the Great Bend Prairie aquifer in south-central Kansas. Kansas Geological Survey Open-File Report 93-44. Lawrence: Kansas Geological Survey.

Young, D.P. (1995). Effects of groundwater pumpage on freshwater-saltwater transition zone characteristics water quality and water levels at the Siefkes intensive study site – Stafford County Kansas, Kansas Geological Survey Open-File Report 95-45c. Young, D.P., Buddemeier, R.W., Whittemore, D.O., Dealy, M., Kochi, D., Boese, T., & Zehr, D. (1998). Equus Beds mineral intrusion project report FY 1998. Kansas Geological Survey Open-File Report 98-24. Lawrence: Kansas Geological Survey. Young, D.P., Buddemeier, R.W., Whittemore, D.O., & Rubin, H. (2000). The Equus Beds Mineral Intrusion Project: Final Summary and Data Report. Kansas Geological Survey Open-File Report 2000-30. Lawrence: Kansas Geological Survey.

XENOBIOTIC ORGANIC COMPOUNDS IN GREY WASTEWATER: A MATTER OF CONCERN?

E. Eriksson*, M. Henze and A. Ledin

Environment & Resources DTU, (Formerly Department of Environmental Science and Engineering,) Technical University of Denmark, Bygningstorvet, Building 115, DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark. E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] *Corresponding author

ABSTRACT

A crucial point with respect to alternative handling of grey wastewater is the risk related to the presence of different types of pollutants including xenobiotic organic compounds (XOC’s). Low and variable efficiency in the treatment could be the result when biological methods are used in the treatment steps before reuse for e.g. toilet flushing. Contamination of soil and receiving waters will be of importance when grey wastewater is either used for irrigation or infiltrated. It is necessary to know which compounds and concentration ranges that are common in order to be able to evaluate the risk related to alternative handling of grey wastewater. In this work, grey wastewater from bathrooms was analysed with respect to XOCs, both qualitatively and quantitatively. The qualitative analyses positively identified 180 different XOC’s where the dominating compounds were long chained fatty acids and esters. The quantitative analyses included 99 different compounds and summary parameters. Among them were e.g. anionic detergents (up to 125 µg/l), cationic detergents (up to 2100 µg/l), di-(ethylhexyl)-phthalate (up 39 µg/l) and 2,4- and 2,5-dichlorphenol (up to 0.13 µg/l). A number of the compounds identified may present a risk to the environment if the wastewater is infiltrated or irrigated without any previous treatment or to the active micro-organism population in a biological filter that usually are used for treatment of grey wastewater before reuse.

KEYWORDS

Grey wastewater; greywater; alternative handling; reuse; xenobiotic organic compounds

INTRODUCTION

There is a growing demand in the society for introducing integrated decentralised sanitary systems providing opportunities to save and reuse wastewater. The awareness that the centralised urban sanitation systems used for treatment of wastewater today may well be very effective, but may also be expensive and resource consuming, is probably the main reason behind this interest. Another reason to look for alternative handling of wastewater is the water shortage, which is a problem in several parts of the world. One way to reduce the need for freshwater is to reuse wastewater, after some decentralised, low or high tech treatment or without any treatment at all depending on the sources and the reuse applications.

There is a focus today on the possibility for reusing the grey wastewater. The term refers to wastewater produced in households, office buildings, hotels, schools as well as some types of industries, where there is no contribution from toilets or heavily polluted process water. This means that grey wastewater corresponds to wastewater produced from bath tubs, showers, hand basins, washing machines, commercial laundries and dish washers, as well as kitchen sinks. This fraction of wastewater has been estimated to account for roughly 75 volume-% of the combined residential sewage (Hansen and Kjellerup, 1994 and references therein).

One possibility for recycling of grey wastewater is to use it for urinal and toilet flushing. It has been estimated that 32 % of the total household water consumption could be saved by reusing grey wastewater for flushing toilets (Karpiscak et al, 1990). Vehicle and window washing, fire protection and concrete production are examples of other suggested usages. Outdoor reuse like infiltration into the ground and thereby making a shortcut in the hydrological cycle is an obvious alternative. The grey wastewater could also be used for garden irrigation and in agriculture, and to develop and preserve wetlands.

The major problem related to all the suggested alternatives for reuse of grey wastewater is the different types of risks related to handling and exposure (humans, animals, crops and ornament plants) to grey wastewater. The risk for spreading of diseases, due to exposure to microorganisms in the water will be a crucial point for almost all alternatives suggested above and has been given attention in published literature as well as in the regulations from authorities (see e.g. Christova-Boal et al, 1996; Feachem et al, 1983). However, contamination of soil and receiving waters (primary groundwater) as well as growing crops, due to the content of different types of pollutants including XOC’s is another risk, that has not yet been deeply discussed. This could e.g. lead to a deteriorating quality of the groundwater. Reuse of grey wastewater for e.g. toilet flushing will require some treatment. Usually decentralised, low-tech solutions are selected, like biological filters. However, there is an obvious risk for low and variable efficiency of these filters due to the presence of toxic XOCs, that will negatively affect the active micro-organism population in the filters. Other risks not yet discussed are the possible development of resistant bacteria due to the continuous exposure to preservatives that originates from the household chemicals.

In general terms, grey wastewater has lower concentrations of organic matter (measured as the summary parameters BOD and COD), some of the nutrients (N and K) and micro-organisms compared to traditional municipal wastewater (Ledin et al., 2001). The concentration of phosphorus varies in a relatively broad range depending on the contribution from washing detergents, which is the primary source for P in grey wastewater. The variations are a function of the product used as well as the laws and regulations in the country. The concentrations of heavy metals have been reported to be relatively low according to data compiled by Ledin et al. (2001). No information with respect to the quantities of xenobiotic organic compounds (XOC’s) has been found in the literature. However, two studies, reporting on the presence of XOC’s in grey wastewater was found (Ledin et al., 2001). Santala et al. (1998) used a screening method with GC-MS and showed that the major part of the organic compound consisted of detergents and their amount corresponded to 60% of the measured COD. The other study, also describing the results from a GC-MS screening of shower wastewater, revealed that the even-numbered long chain fatty acids of C10 to C18 originating from soap were present (Burrows et al., 1991).

These very limited results concerning the presence of XOC’s in grey wastewater are not representative for the number of XOC’s that could potentially be present. There were 18 million

85 synthetic substances known by science in 1998 (Platt McGinn, 2000) and it has been estimated that some 20 000 substances are circulating in the Swedish technosphere (Kemikalieutredningen, 2000). In municipal wastewater have at least 500 different compounds been identified and quantified (Eriksson et al., 2001) and some these compounds could be expected to be present in grey wastewater as well, since the main sources for the XOC’s are different types of chemical products, such as laundry detergents, soaps, shampoos, toothpaste’s and perfumes. It has been found from the information available in the declaration of contents present on common household products that at least 900 different substances or groups of substances could be present in grey wastewater (Table 1). The major compounds were fragrances and flavours. Other large groups were preservatives, solvents and surfactants used in detergents, dishwashing liquids and products for personal hygiene i.e. non-ionic, anionic and amphoteric surfactants.

Table 1. Groups of compounds found in common household chemicals in Denmark and Sweden (from Eriksson et al., 2001).

Compound group Number of substances in the group

Amphoteric surfactants 20 Anionic surfactants 73 Cationic surfactants 34 Nonionic surfactants 65 Bleaches 16 Dyes 26 Emulsifiers 28 Enzymes 4 Fragrances & flavours 197 Preservatives 79 Softeners 29 Solvents 67 UV filters 23 Miscellaneous 238

211 of these approximately 900 different substances were selected to assess an environmental risk assessment. This selection was based on the information possible to compile with respect to fate (e.g. toxicity, bioaccumulation, biodegradation and mobility) in the environment. Out of these identified to be potentially present in household chemicals. Out of them 66 were categorised as priority pollutants. Among these were different types of surfactants (anionic, nonionic, cationic and amphoteric), preservatives and softeners.

The objective for the present study was to evaluate the risk related to alternative handling of grey wastewater with respect to the presence of XOCs. In order to be able to do that, it is necessary to have a good characterisation of grey wastewater with respect to this very heterogeneous group of compounds and that is why the major focus has been on analyses for XOCs in grey wastewater form bathrooms.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Sampling

Grey wastewater samples were taken in Bo90, a tenant owner’s society located in the central part of Copenhagen, Denmark. The building has 17 apartments, where 38 inhabitants are living; 22 adults (age 18-74) and 16 children (age 2-15). The grey wastewater produced originates from the showers and hand basins in the building, where the daily production is approximately 750 L. All samples were taken at the inlet to a grey wastewater treatment facility that has been installed in order to treat the wastewater on-site and reuse it for toilet flushing. The samples were taken in glass bottles and transported cold and in the dark to the laboratory, where the analyses started immediately.

Analyses

The grey wastewater was analysed with respect to; i) screening analyses with purpose to identify the XOCs present and ii) quantitative analyses for a selected number of XOCs.

The analyses in the first part included solid phase extraction with four different solid phases. The neutral polar organic compounds were extracted and pre-concentrated on C18 (IST Isolute) and HLB (Waters Oasis) and were sequentially eluted with hexane, hexane:diethyl ether (1:1), diethyl ether, methanol:water (1:1), methanol:water (8:2) and methanol according to the procedure described by Paxéus and Schröder (1996). SCX (IST Isolute) columns were used for extraction and pre-concentration of bases and the compounds were sequentially eluted with acetonitrile and methanolic ammonia. All extracts were reduced to a volume of 200 µL by a stream of pure nitrogen gas or by rotary evaporation. The organic acids were extracted and pre-concentrated on Empore anion exchange discs (Chrompack) and in-vial-derivatised with methyliodide (Eriksson and Ledin, 2001). A Hewlett-Packard 6890 Series chromatograph and a HP 5973 MS detector were used for the GC analysis, while the injections were performed with a Varian 8200 CX Autosampler. Tentative identification of the organic compounds were obtained from searching in the NIST MS-library (Version 1.1a) and the library NBS75K in the Enhanced ChemStation G1701AA. The compounds were considered positively identified if their spectra and retention time correlated with that of an external standard or if the spectra corresponded with the spectra’s from the two libraries.

Quantitative analyses were performed, in the second part of the study, either in our laboratory according to the methods give above, after calibration of the GC-MS signals with known concentrations of standards or by a commercial laboratory according to their standard methods. The analyses included 99 different compounds and summary parameters. Furthermore, semi quantitative results were obtained from the qualitative analyses by comparison between the chromatographic area of the selected compounds and the chromatographic area of the internal standard with a known concentration.

General hydrochemical characterisation (pH, temperature, alkalinity, electrical conductivity, oxygen content, BOD, COD, tot-N, and tot-P) was also included in the sampling protocol.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Qualitative analyses

180 different XOCs were positive identified in the grey wastewater from the qualitative analyses. The dominating compounds were the long chained fatty acids (C10-C24) and their esters e.g. methyl-, butyl-, hexadecyl- and octadecyl-esters. Other important groups of compounds were the fragrances and flavourings e.g. Eucalyptol, Eugenol, Coumarin, Menthol and Hexyl cinnamic aldehyde, where in total more than 40 fragrances and flavours were identified (Table 2). It can also be noted that several miscellaneous compounds, which not directly were deriving from the household chemicals have been identified e.g. medicinal residuals, flame-retardants as well as the drugs nicotine and caffeine. Notably was also the insecticide Malathion, which was found in a number of samples.

The presence of medicine residuals and drugs can be explained by excretion from humans during showering, tooth brushing and washing (present on the skin or in the mouth or urination (during showering)). Flame-retardants could be originating from clothes and therefore also be present on the skin, while Malathion is used as the active ingredient in a louse shampoo and can be purchased at the Danish pharmacies. It was later confirmed that the tenants had used this type of shampoo during the sampling period.

Table 2. Groups of compounds found by screening in grey wastewater from Bo90.

Compound group Number of substances in the group

Emulsifiers 8 Fragrances & flavours 40 Preservatives 8 Softeners 9 Solvents 29 Surfactants 21 UV filters 1 Miscellaneous 65

The group “Preservatives” consists of six preservatives and two antioxidants. The antioxidants found were butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and Ethyl antioxidant 762. Among the observed preservatives were e.g. citric acid and phenoxy acetic acid as well as Triclosan. The latter is mainly used as antibacterial agent in toothpaste. A semi quantification indicated an average concentration of 0.6 µg triclosan/L. The emulsifiers identified were long chained fatty esters, alcohols and amines e.g. hexa- and octadecanol and N,N-dimethyl-1-dodecaneamine.

The three plasticizers; di-(ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEPH), di-(ethylhexyl) adipate (ester of hexanedioic acid) and di-(ethylhexyl) sebacate (ester of decanedioic acid) were positively identified as well as one UV-filter/sun screen agent, Parasol MOX.

Quantitative analyses

Quantitative analyses for the fatty acids (C8 to C18) showed that the dominating acids were lauric acid (C12), oleic acid (C18:1) and stearic acid (C18:0) (Table 3). It was also shown that some of the chlorophenols, which are preservatives and pesticides were present, as well as four phthalates.

Relatively small amounts of the BTEX’s were measured in the inflow to the treatment plant (Table 3). They are e.g. used as solvents for organic fragrances and dyes in the otherwise water based chemicals.

Table 3. Concentration ranges (µg/L) for some XOC’s quantified in the grey wastewater.

Compound Compound Concentration Group range (µg/L) Fatty acids (C8) <1 – 639 (C10) <1 – 1190 (C12) <1 – 6900 (C14) <1 – 1890 (C16) <1 – 260 (C18:1) 27 – 3580 (C18:0) 2 – 27100

BTEX’s Benzene N.D. Toluene 1.4 - 1.6 Ethylbenzene 2.0 m-Xylene 3.4 - 3.6 o-Xylene 0.5 - 0.7 p-Xylene N.D.

Phthalates Di-(ethylhexyl) phthalate 11 – 39 Dibutyl phthalate <1 – 12 sqa. Diethyl phthalate <1 – 13 Dimethyl phthalate <1 – 15 sqa.

Chlorophenols 2,4- & 2,5-Dichlorophenol 0.06 - 0.13 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol <0.02 – 0.10 2,3,4,5-Tetrachlorophenol <0.02 2,3,4,6-Tetrachlorophenol <0.02 Pentachlorophenol <0.02 – 0.04

Nonionic Nonylphenol <0.5 detergents Nonylphenolethoxylates <5.0 Octylphenol <0.25 Octylphenolethoxylates <3.0

Anionic LAS <25-125 detergents

Cationic detergents Summary of several cationic <100-2100 detergents

N.D. = not detected sqa. = semi quantitative analyses

The anionic detergent LAS were found in the concentration range from <25 to 125 µg/L in the grey wastewater (Table 3). Corresponding values for the cationic detergents were <100 to 2100

µg/L. In this case will the cationic detergents mainly derive from hair conditioners and not from fabric softeners, since the laundry wastewater were not included. The content of the nonionic detergents included were below the detection limits for the applied methods.

A majority of the compounds found by quantitatively and qualitatively analyses were also found to be on the list of possible present compounds deriving from household chemicals (Eriksson et al., 2001). Among these were the long chained fatty alcohols and acids, as well as the long chained fatty esters. Several fragrances as citronellol, coumarin, eugenol, farnesol, geraniol, isoeugenol and hexyl cinnamic aldehyde and some preservatives e.g. citric acid, salicylic acid and triclosan were identified in the grey wastewater as well as present on the list over potential compounds. Other examples are the phthalates e.g. dibutyl and dimethyl phthalate and methyl phenol.

The major differences were that the grey wastewater also contained a number of chemicals not deriving from household chemicals e.g. medicinal residuals as well as degradation products mainly caused by hydrolyzation of some XOCs.

CONCLUSIONS

Almost two hundred different XOCs were identified in grey wastewater from bathrooms in a building with apartments (i.e. grey wastewater originating from showers and hand basins). A majority of these compounds were among those compounds that earlier had been proposed as potentially present compounds e.g. the long chained fatty alcohols and acids, e.g. hexa- and octadecanol and octadecenoic acid as well as the long chained fatty esters e.g. isopropyl myristate. Several fragrances like citronellol, coumarin, eugenol, farnesol, geraniol, isoeugenol and hexyl cinnamic aldehyde were identified as well as some preservatives e.g. citric acid, salicylic acid and triclosan. Other examples are the phthalates e.g. dibutyl and dimethyl phthalate and methyl phenol. The measurements also showed that unwanted and unexpected compounds like biocides and insecticides could be present as well as chemicals not directly deriving from household chemicals e.g. flame retardants and medicine residuals.

Among the XOCs found in the grey wastewater were several characterised as high priority compounds i.e. with high environmental impact. Among those compounds were e.g. fragrances like hexyl cinnamic aldehyde. This means that the presence of XOCs in grey wastewater may constitute a risk to the environment if the water is infiltrated or irrigated without any previous treatment. However, the information about toxicity, bioaccumulation and biodegradation for these compounds is limited and the number of compounds classified as priority compounds may drastically increase if more information will become available. Furthermore the number of XOCs could also be expected to increase if other analytical methods are applied in the work for characterisation of grey wastewater.

REFERENCES

Burrows, W.D., Schmidt, M.O., Carnevale, R.M., and Schaub, S.A. (1991) Nonpotable reuse: Development of health criteria and technologies for shower water recycle. Wat. Sci. Tech. 24 (9) 81-88. Christova-Boal, D., Eden, R.E., and McFarlane, S. (1996) An investigation into greywater reuse for urban residential properties. Desalination 106: 391-397. Eriksson, E. and Ledin, A. (2001) Analyses of organic acids by solid phase extraction in combination with in-vial-derivatisation and elution. (Manuscript in preparation). Eriksson, E., Auffarth, K., Henze, M. and Ledin, A. (2001) Characteristics of grey wastewater. (Manuscript in preparation). Feachem, R.G., Bradley, D.J., Garelick, H., and Mara, D.D. (1983) Sanitation and disease Health aspects of excreta and wastewater management. Published for the World Bank, John Wiley & Sons, p. 16-21. Hansen, A.M. and Kjellerup, M. (1994) Vandbesparende foranstaltninger. Copenhagen: Teknisk Forlag. (In Danish) Karpiscak, M.M., Foster, K.E., and Schmidt, N. (1990) Residential water conservation: Casa Del Agua. Wat.Res. 26 (6): 939-948. Kemikalieutredningen (2000) Varor utan faror. SOU2000:53. Stockholm, Miljödepartementet. (In Swedish) Ledin, A., Eriksson, E. and Henze M. (2001) Aspects of groundwater recharge using grey wastewater. Decentralised Sanitation and Reuse, DESAR EURO Summer School in Wageningen The Netherlands, ed. Lens P., Lettinga G. and Zeeman G. (In Press) Paxéus, N. and Schröder, H.F. (1996) Screening for non-regulated organic compounds in municipal wastewater in Göteborg, Sweden. Wat. Sci. Tech. 33 (6): 9-15. Platt McGinn, A. (2000) Avveckling av persistenta organiska föroreningar (POP). Tillståndet i världen 2000, Naturvårdsverket. (In Swedish) Santala, E., Uotila, J., Zaitsev, G., Alasiurua, R., Tikka, R., and Tengvall, J. (1998) Microbiological greywater treatment and recycling in an apartment building. AWT98 - Advanced Wastewater Treatment, Recycling and Reuse: Milan 14-16 September 1998. pp. 319-324.

WASTEWATER REUSE - INTEGRATION OF URBAN AND RURAL WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

E. Friedler

Juanico and Friedler - Mediterranean Ltd, Kibbutz Dalia 19239, Israel Phone: +972-4-989 7038 Fax: +972-4-989 7037, E-mail: [email protected], Site: www.jandf.co.il

ABSTRACT

Scarcity of water is increasing globally mainly due to population growth, which leads to increasing agricultural demand. Treated wastewater can be considered as a ‘new’ resource that can substitute conventional water used for irrigation. This resource can be added to a regional water balance and integrated with its conventional water resources. The paper discusses the introduction of reclaimed wastewater in water-short and water-abundant countries, its contribution to the protection of water resources in particular and environmental protection in general. Further, it describes the benefits derived by the urban and rural sectors from agricultural wastewater reuse in water-short countries, and suggests a feasible beneficial agricultural wastewater reuse scheme for water-abundant countries.

KEWORDS

Rural areas, urban areas, wastewater irrigation, wastewater reuse, integral water resources management

INTRODUCTION

Over a century ago Benjamin Franklin wrote, "When the well is dry, we know the worth of water”. Those words have been prophetic. “Water-short countries” are countries in which the water resources amount to less then 1,000 m3/capita/y. At present about 30 countries in the world belong to this group, which roughly includes 260 million people, while many more countries are “candidates” to be included in this “elite club” in the near future. The major reason for the increasing water scarcity in the world is population growth and the resulting agricultural water demand. While in 1940 mankind utilised about 1,000 km3/y of water (11% of the readily available water), today we consume more then 5,200 km3/y, i.e. over 55% of the global annual budget of the readily available water.

There are five major possibilities to increase the amount of available water: to improve the efficiency of water utilisation, to build more reservoirs in order to increase the storage capacity of surface water, to further develop and utilise groundwater resources, to reuse treated wastewater, and finally to desalinate seawater. Each of these above possibilities has its economic, environmental and social advantages and disadvantages, which will not be discussed here. This paper focuses only the fourth option - wastewater reuse - which is spreading at an increasing rate around the world.

Wastewater reuse for agricultural irrigation is a rapidly growing practice in arid and semi-arid regions around the world, where treated wastewater serves as an extra source of water available for the rural sector. In these water-short regions, treated wastewater is especially important since it helps ease the economic (and cultural) stress on the rural sector. Such a stress is caused by the increasing urban water demand, which reduced water supply for irrigation in the rural sector. New reclamation and reuse projects have been reported in many countries all over the world, including: African countries, Australia, China, Middle East and Mediterranean countries, South American countries, and USA (e.g., Angelakis et al., 1999; Bahri, 1999; Bonomo et al., 1999; Faby et al., 1999; Mills et al., 1992; Salgot and Pascual, 1996). Wastewater reuse practice is not unique for water-short regions, because new reuse initiatives (mainly in the urban sector) are emerging in temperate climate regions as well (Dixon et al., 1999a & 1999b; Kubik, 2000; Nolde, 1995; UK Environment Agency, 2000; WRAS, 1999; and others).

TREATED WASTEWATER AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF WATER RESOURCES

Treated wastewater may be considered as a ‘new’ water resource, which can be added to the general water balance of a region. This ‘new’ source can substitute ‘conventional’ water used in applications that do not require water of drinking quality, while reducing the pressure on the conventional resources. Thus, reclaimed wastewater may help close negative water balances in countries where all the conventional water resources are exploited to their full capacity. Israel, for example, is presently reusing more than 65% of the total municipal and domestic sewage, and it is planned to increase this reuse to 90% during the next decade (Shevah & Valdman, 1999; Shwartz, 1996).

Water-short regions. In regions, which suffer from water scarcity, water resources are exploited to their maximum safe capacity (or beyond). Thus, the stored volumes of both groundwater and surface water are becoming smaller, which leads to shorter retention times. This is generally followed by deterioration of water quality by pollution. Wastewater reuse practice contributes to the enhancement of the quality of conventional water resources by two means: 1. Reducing the pressure on the conventional resources, resulting in larger water bodies and longer retention times. 2. Eliminating one of the main sources of pollution: municipal sewage.

Water abundant regions. Regions with abundant water resources are mostly those regions where no apparent water shortage is observed. Here, the negative effect of pollution may be reduced by dispersion of pollutants in large water bodies where longer retention times facilitate degradation of some of the pollutants. It should be emphasised, however, that the negative effects are reduced, but not eliminated. In these regions, wastewater reuse contributes to the sustainability of the urban sector in several aspects, including the three major ones listed below: 1. By alleviating the stress on conventional water resources 2. By reducing the quantities of water that have to be conveyed over longer and longer distances 3. By reducing the pollution caused by effluents released to the aquatic environment.

WATER AND WASTEWATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Similarities

Wastewater management exhibits several aspects, which are common to the management of conventional water resources as well:

• Seasonal storage - wastewater is produced throughout the year while irrigation in many arid and semi-arid regions is practised only during dry summers. Thus, seasonal wastewater storage is required in a similar manner as for raw potable water.

• Multi-year storage - conventional water resources flow varies between years. This variation is a result of differences in the total annual precipitation, distribution of rain events, and the intensity (or total precipitation) of each event. Thus, the use of multi-year storage may optimise the utilisation of these resources. As with conventional water resources, some multi- year storage capacity can be used to optimise the exploitation of the wastewater resource. This is especially important in water-short regions, where wastewater can substitute depleted conventional resources in dry years.

• Spatial extent - like schemes for conventional water resources utilisation, wastewater reclamation projects may be local, regional or even inter-regional.

• Multiple sources - wastewater reclamation schemes may employ wastewater from a single source or from several sources. Schemes with multiple sources are designed to utilise their inputs in an optimal way, in order to obtain the best water quantity and quality.

• Multiple uses - reclaimed wastewater can be reused in several sectors: • Urban sector - the main uses of reclaimed wastewater are for irrigation of municipal parks and gardens, firefighting, and reclamation of urban streams and rivers. In recent years, some new uses, such as toilet and urinals flushing, and air conditioning in multi-storey buildings, were reported. • Industrial sector - the main reuse of wastewaters is for cooling and heating. However, wastewater can be reused for many other purposes in industrial processes where the product does not pose a health risk to the consumers. Reports of wastewater reuse in paper production, chemical industry, industrial concrete production, etc. are becoming more common in recent years. • Agricultural sector is the main consumer of reclaimed wastewater, especially in water-short regions. Crops range from industrial crops to freshly-consumed ones, depending on the quality of the treated wastewater.

Reclaimed wastewater can be reused more than once as part of an integrated water resources management. For example, wastewater can be reused for river/stream reclamation, and then withdrawn and reused again for irrigation (Asano et al., 1996; Juanico & Friedler, 1999).

Dissimilarities

Wastewater resources management differs from conventional water resources management in several aspects, the most important of which are listed below:

• Constant and reliable supply - since this ‘new’ water source depends only on municipal sewage production and not on precipitation, one of its main characteristics is high reliability. Not only its ‘production’ is relatively constant during the year, but also it is almost constant between years. This consistency differs from the climate/weather dependent supply of potable water.

• Increasing annual flow - urban water demand is generally increasing as a result of increasing urban population. Consequently, the wastewater production in the urban sector is also increasing. This is a reverse trend to the situation of the conventional water resources, many of which are becoming depleted due to over exploitation.

• Quality and treatment - the quality of wastewater makes it unsuitable for reuse without proper comprehensive treatment. For the same purposes, water from ‘conventional’ resources is usually suitable without any treatment. This is especially true for agricultural irrigation, which is the main consumer of treated wastewater in water-short countries. To reuse the reclaimed wastewater in agricultural irrigation, it has to comply with agrotechnical, environmental and public health quality requirements, which may differ. Table 1 presents the main requirements of the above three categories. It can be noted in the table that the quality required for irrigation with treated wastewater is different from the quality requirements for the release of reclaimed wastewater into the environment. Thus, sewage treatment technologies employed in wastewater reuse projects may differ from those used for ‘conventional’ sewage treatment and disposal. As a result of local constraints, sewage treatment and disposal projects for large urban areas are usually based on intensive treatment technologies. In schemes of wastewater reuse in agriculture, the storage capacity is essential, as discussed below. Thus, in agricultural reuse projects, at least one component, which is an extensive treatment unit providing both storage and effluent polishing, is commonly employed (Friedler & Juanico, 1996).

Table 1: Agrotechnical, Environmental and Public Health Quality Requirements - Relative Importance of Various Parameters Parameter Agrotechnical Environmental Public health Salinity 3 0-3 0 Depending on the receiving water body Clogging potential 3 0 0 Especially in drip irrigation Pathogens 2 1 3 Farmers and consumers health Heavy metals 2 3 1 Plant uptake Non-potable uses Xenobiotic compounds 2 3 0 Non-potable uses Nutrients 0 3 0 Nutrients can replace Eutrophication costly fertilisers Odours 1 3 0

0 - Not relevant; 1- Low importance; 2- Medium importance; 3- High importance

It should be noted that controlled reuse of wastewater may improve public health instead of endangering it. This is especially true in regions that suffer from water shortage, where illegal irrigation with raw sewage, poorly treated effluents, or water from heavily contaminated rivers and lakes is a common practice. In many cases, discharge of wastewater to water bodies implies unwanted and uncontrolled wastewater reuse in downstream areas.

• Simultaneous storage and treatment - the goal of storage of conventional water is solely to balance supply and demand, while storage of wastewater has two goals: 1. To balance supply and demand. 2. To perform additional treatment and equalise wastewater quality. When the storage units are designed and operated to maximise effluent quality, the long residence time enables the slow-rate bio-chemical reactions to become relevant. These reactions are responsible for the removal of ‘hard’ pollutants remaining in the effluent of the intensive treatment units (Ernst et al., 1983; Juanico et al., 1995; Friedler, 1999; Muszkat, 1999; and others). Common storage and treatment units are wastewater reservoirs and SAT (Soil Aquifer Treatment) units.

Dual distribution lines - significant differences between the quality of water and wastewater favour the adoption of dual distribution systems. However, the risk of accidental cross- connection between the two distribution systems is higher in practice than it seems theoretically possible. Some regulations have been developed to avoid these cross- connections, however, these regulations have to be further refined.

INTEGRATION OF THE URBAN AND RURAL SECTORS

Wastewater reuse practice results in higher environmental and public health protection, from which both the urban and rural sectors will benefit. However, in order to be successful, wastewater reuse schemes have to be beneficial for both the urban and rural sectors. The benefits to the urban sector are obvious - reduced wastewater treatment and disposal costs. In water-short countries the rural sector will usually benefit directly from this practice, while in water abundant countries the rural sector will benefit indirectly by adopting a role in urban sewage reclamation.

Water-short Countries

Sewage treatment and disposal have been traditionally paid for by the sewage producer - the urban sector. Irrigation with wastewater presents a new element in the financial equation - the farmers who benefit from the treated wastewater. Under several potential different schemes involving the urban and rural sectors, the farmers may purchase the treated wastewater from the urban sector, invest in the sewage treatment plant, or cover the operation and maintenance costs. Thus, the total costs of treatment are shared by both sectors:

• For the urban sector this means reduction of the costs of sewage treatment and disposal. A second benefit is the release of some potable-quality water used by the rural sector to meet the increasing urban demand and to reduce water conveyance costs from distant resources. • For the rural sector this means access to a reliable source of water for irrigation at a lower cost than the cost of importing conventional water from distant sources. This enables further agriculture development, which will result in economic benefits to the rural sector.

In countries where potable water supply for irrigation is substituted by reclaimed wastewater as a result of increasing urban demand, some decrease in crops may occur. It is obvious that in this case the farmers should be compensated for the decrease in their revenues.

Water abundant countries

In water abundant countries, wastewater reuse in irrigation is directly beneficial only to the urban sector. In this case agricultural reuse may serve as a polishing treatment of the effluent before its release to the environment, and thus reduce the treatment costs for the urban sector. The rural sector does not have a direct benefit, since the treated wastewater is not needed for agricultural production. Conversely, because of irrigation with reclaimed wastewater, the rural sector may suffer from some decrease in crop yields. In this case, the rural sector should be recognised as an entity which reclaims urban sewage, by further treating urban effluents and reducing the conventional treatment costs. Thus, the urban sector has to pay the farmers for these services. Unless this compensation is implemented, wastewater reuse schemes in water abundant countries will not succeed.

REFERENCES

Angelakis A., Marecos M., Bontoux L., and Asano T. (1999). The status of wastewater reuse practice in the Mediterranean basin: need for guidelines. Wat. Res. 33(10), 2201-2218. Asano T., Maeda M., and Takaki M. (1996). Wastewater reclamation and reuse in Japan: overview and implementation examples. Wat. Sci. Tech. 34(11), 219-226. Bahri A. (1999). Agricultural reuse of wastewater and global water management. Wat. Sci. Tech. 40(4-5) 339-346. Bonomo L., Nurizzo C., and Rolle E. (1999). Advanced wastewater treatment and reuse: related problems and perspectives in Italy. Wat. Sci. Tech. 40(4-5), 21-28. Dixon A., Butler D., and Fewkes A. (1999a). Water saving potential of domestic water reuse systems using greywater and rainwater in combination. Wat. Sci. Tech. 39(5), 25-32. Dixon A. M., Butler D., and Fewkes A. (1999b). Guidelines for greywater reuse: Health issues. J.IWEM 13, 322-326. Ernst D., Moore J., Frieze T. and Scherm M. (1983). Efficiency of waste stabilisation ponds in removing toxic organics. Wat. Res. Symp., 10 (Toxic Materials), 95-107. Faby J. A., Brissaud F., and Bontoux J. (1999). Wastewater reuse in France: water quality standards and wastewater treatment technologies. Wat. Sci. Tech. 40(4-5), 37-42. Friedler E. (1999). The Jeezrael Valley project for wastewater reclamation and reuse - Israel. Wat. Sci. Tech. 40 (4-5),347-354. Friedler E. and Juanico M. (1996). Treatment and storage of wastewater for agricultural irrigation. Int. Wat. & Irrig. Rev. 16(4), 26-30. Juanico M. and Friedler E. (1999). Wastewater reuse for river recovery in semi-arid Israel. Wat. Sci. Tech. 40(4-5), 43-50. Juanico M., Ravid R., Azov Y. and Teltsch B. (1995). Removal of trace metals from wastewater during long-term storage in seasonal reservoirs. Wat., Air & Soil Pollut. 82,617-633. Kubik K. (2000). The city of San Francisco's dual plumbing ordinance. IWA - Specialist Group on Wastewater Reclamation, Recycling & Reuse Newsletter. Mills S. W., Alabaster G. P., Mara D. D., Pearson H. W., and Thitai W. N. (1992). Efficiency of faecal bacterial removal from waste stabilisation ponds in Kenya. Wat. Sci. Tech. 26(7-8), 1739-1748. Muszkat L. (1999).Degradation of organosynthetic pollutants. Chapter 14 In: Reservoirs for wastewater storage and reuse: Ecology, performance and engineering design, ed. Juanico M. & Dor I. , pp. 205-218. Springer. Nolde E. (1995). Greywater reuse in households - Experience from Germany. Proc. of the 2nd Int. Conf. On Ecological Engineering or Wastewater Treatment, Waedenswil, Switzerland. Salgot M. and Pascual A. (1996). Existing guidelines and regulations in Spain on wastewater reclamation and reuse. Wat. Sci. & Tech. 34(11), 261-267. Shevah Y. and Valdman M. (1999). Research and development policy. In: Reservoirs for wastewater storage and reuse, eds. Juanico M. and Dor I., pp. 3-11, Springer Env. Sci. Series. Shwartz Y. (1996). Master Plan for the water sector. Wat. Eng. 28, 5-12 (Hebrew). UK Environment Agency (2000). A study of domestic greywater recycling. National Water Demand Management Centre. WRAS (1999). Reclaimed water systems -information about installing, modifying or maintaining reclaimed water systems. Water Regulations Advisory Scheme (WRAS), UK. 1999.

WASTEWATER AS A SOURCE: PERSPECTIVES AND CHALLENGES

A. Hamdy

Director of Research, Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari, Via Ceglie 9, Valenzano (BA), Italy. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Treated and re-used sewage water is becoming a common source for additional water in some water scarce regions and many countries have included wastewater re-use in their water planning. Policies have been formulated but few have had the capacity to implement them in their water management practices in terms of actions to deal with water pollution control and waste disposal. In arid and semi-arid countries, particularly the developing ones, the full utilization and re-use of sewage water is still far from our final goal, i.e. to be used as a water source, in spite of the vital role it could play in reducing the high pressure imposed on the limited available freshwater. There are many obstacles restricting the sustainable and safe re-use and recycle of wastewater which require concerted efforts supported by regional and international organizations, if real change and beneficial results are to be realized in the near future.

KEYWORDS

Wastewater re-use, water management.

INTRODUCTION

Expansion of urban population and increased coverage of domestic water supplies and sewage network will give rise to greater quantities of municipal wastewater which can become a new water source, particularly for irrigation. The re-use of such marginal quality waters can be significant in terms of national water budgets, particularly when good quality water is limited. Although there is no universal definition of what constitutes “marginal quality” water, for all practical purposes it is water with characteristics that can cause problems when used for certain purposes, mainly due to associated health hazards.

Consequently, the re-use of municipal wastewater will require more complex management practices and stringent monitoring procedures than when good-quality water is used. Treatment and re-use of sewage waters is becoming a common source for additional water in some water scarce regions. Re-use of sewage waters, when properly managed, has the benefit of reducing environmental degradation. For many of those arid and semi-arid countries, re-use of wastewater may contribute more future water availability than any other technological means of increasing water supplies. Treated wastewater can be used effectively for irrigation, industrial purposes and groundwater recharge and for protection against salt intrusion in groundwater aquifers. Furthermore, the wastewater treatment and possible use of sewage effluents is a health and environmental necessity to the civil society, specially in urban areas. Therefore, for those countries, the use of appropriate technologies for the development of alternative sources of water is, probably, the single most

99 adequate approach for solving the problem of water shortage, together with the improvements in efficiency of water use and adequate control to reduce water consumption. Our water management policy should be fundamentally directed to support that “no higher quality, unless there is a surplus of it, should be used for a purpose that can tolerate a lower grade”. This is what we are challenging for and we have to find the key-recommendations and solutions for action.

WASTEWATER AS A SOURCE: MAJOR ISSUES

Integrating waste and water management

Economic growth in most of the countries of the world has been vigorous, especially in the so- called newly industrializing countries. Nearly all new development activity creates stress on the pollution carrying capacity of the environment. Many hydrological systems in developing regions are, or are getting close to, being stressed beyond repair. Industrial pollution, uncontrolled domestic discharges from urban areas, diffuse pollution from agriculture and livestock rearing and various alterations in land use or hydro-infrastructure may all contribute to non-sustainable use of water resources, eventually leading to negative impacts on economic development of many countries. Lowering of water tables (e.g., Middle-East, Mexico), irreversible pollution of surface water and associated changes in public and environmental health are typical manifestations of this kind of development.

Wastewater treatment technology

Technology, particularly in terms of performance and available wastewater treatment options, cannot be expected to find a solution to each problem. Wastewater systems are generally capital-intensive and require expensive, specialized operators. Therefore, before selecting and investing in wastewater treatment technology, an analysis of cost effectiveness needs to be made and compared with all conceivable alternatives. The selection of technologies should be environmentally sustainable, appropriate to the local conditions, acceptable to the users, and affordable to those who have to pay for them. In developing countries, western technology can be a more expensive and less reliable way to control pollution from human domestic and industrial wastes. Simple solutions that are easily replicated, that allow further up-grading with subsequent development and that can be operated and maintained by the local community, are often considered the most appropriate and cost effective.

Best available technology

In the developing countries usually characterized by high population density and notable shortfall in available water resources, the proper waste water technology to be adopted under the prevailing local conditions is one of the critical issues which should be well defined. Technologies available are many and well known, but any choice should rely on those not entailing excessive costs and providing the best environmental practice and option.

Indeed, the selection of the best available technology is not an easy process: it requires comparative technical assessment of the different treatment processes which have been recently and successfully applied for prolonged periods of time, at full scale. However, this is not sufficient, the selection should be carried out in view of well-established criteria comprising: average, or typical efficiency and performance of the technology; reliability of the technology;

100 institutional manageability, financial sustainability; application in re-use scheme and regulation determinants. Furthermore, for technology selection, other parameters have to be carefully considered: wastewater characteristics, the treatment objectives as translated into desired effluent quality which is mainly related to the expected use of the receiving water-bodies.

Treated wastewater quality and health issues

Among the main obstacles to the use of re-used water are health fears and hazards. Uncontrolled discharge of wastewater leads to an alarming degree of biological pollution in receiving water bodies and groundwater. The implications of sanitation are alarming, because these water bodies are used either as source for drinking or service or, in the case of surface water for recreational purposes or for food production. On average, half of all the municipal wastewater comes from diffuse domestic sources. Factories in surrounding areas without adequate legal requirements and, therefore, not fitted with equipment for reducing pollutant discharges are identifiable point sources of pollution. Traffic and uncontrolled waste accumulation also generate large-scale contamination of surface and groundwater.

Only a few large cities in developing countries and newly industrializing countries have adequate sewer systems and treatment plants, which is not the case for the majority of developing countries. In any case, usually, only a small portion of the wastewater is treated and purified even when it is channeled through a sewer system. Existing sewage treatment plants rarely operate satisfactorily and, in most cases, wastewater discharges exceed legal and/or hygienically acceptable maxima.

This does not necessarily lie in the treatment plants themselves, but in the frequent lack of adequately trained technicians capable of technically operating such treatment plants. The discharge of untreated wastewater and/or minimally treated municipal ones in water sources has resulted in a substantial economic damage and has posed serious health hazards to the inhabitants, particularly in the developing countries. In many countries, various diseases are particularly prevalent and the consequential costs for the health care system are considerable.

Considerable sums have been spent on water and wastewater treatment in both the developing and developed regions of the world to substantially reduce waterborne diseases and meet commonly accepted environmental and ecological objectives. Yet, statistics indicate that in spite of such enormous investments in water quality improvement and protection, in the less developed countries, nearly 2 billion people are suffering from the lack of clean drinking water and sanitation facilities. This is now the case in many mega-cities where the drinking water supplies from rivers or local groundwater sources are no longer sufficient, mostly because of their poor quality. As a matter of fact, water quality problems are certainly not restricted to urban areas. The lack of sanitation facilities and the too often associated unsafe drinking waters remain among the principal causes of disease and death, especially in rural areas. Specific measures to counteract water-related threats are often needed, but, lack of investments and inadequate local management often lower their effectiveness.

Institutional manageability

In developing countries, few governmental agencies are adequately equipped for wastewater management. In order to plan, design, construct, operate and maintain treatment plants, appropriate technical and

101 managerial expertise must be present. This could require the availability of a substantial number of engineers, access to a local network of research for scientific support and problem solving, access to good quality laboratories and monitoring system and experience in management and cost recovery. In addition, all technologies, included the simple ones, require devoted and experienced operators and technicians who must be generated through extensive education and training. For adequate operation and minimization of administrative conflicts, a tight coordination should be well defined among the Ministries involved such as those of Agriculture, Health, Water Resources, Finance, Economy, Planning, Environmental Protection and Rural Development. The basic responsibilities of such inter-ministerial committees could be outlined in: developing a coherent national policy for wastewater use and monitoring of its implementation; defining the division of responsibilities between the respective Ministries and agencies involved and the arrangements for collaboration between them; appraising proposed re-use schemes, particularly from the point of view of public health and environmental protection; overseeing the promotion and enforcement of national legislation and codes of practice; developing a national staff development policy for the sector;

Financial sustainability

The lower the financial costs, the more attractive the technology. However, even a low cost option may not be financially sustainable because this is determined by the true availability of funds provided by the polluter. In the case of domestic sanitation, the people must be willing and able to cover at least the operation and maintenance cost of the total expenses. The ultimate goal should be full cost recovery although, initially, this may need special financing schemes, such as cross subsidization, revolving funds and phased investment programmes. In this regard, adopting an adequate policy for the pricing of water is of fundamental importance in the sustainability of wastewater re-use systems. The incremental cost basis, which allocates only the marginal costs associated with re-use, seems to be a fair criteria for adoption in developing countries. Subsidizing re-use system may be necessary at the early stages of system implementation, particularly when the associated costs are very large. This would avoid any discouragement to users arising from the permitted use of the treated wastewater. However, setting an appropriate mechanism for wastewater tariff is a very complex issue. Direct benefits of wastewater use are relatively easy to evaluate, whereas, the indirect effects are “non monetary issues” and, unfortunately, they are not taken into account when performing economic appraisals of projects involving wastewater use. However, the environmental enhancement provided by wastewater use, particularly in terms of preservation of water resources, improvement of the health status of poor populations in developing countries, the possibilities of providing a substitute for freshwater in water scarce areas, and the incentives provided for the construction of urban sewage works, are extremely relevant. They are also sufficiently important to make the cost benefit analysis purely subsidiary when taking a decision on the implementation of wastewater re-use systems, particularly in developing and rapidly industrializing countries.

Monitoring and Evaluation

Monitoring and evaluation of wastewater use programmes and projects is a very critical issue, hence, both are the fundamental bases for setting the proper wastewater use and management strategies. Ignoring monitoring evaluation parameters and/or performing monitoring not regularly

102 and correctly could result in serious negative impacts on health, water quality and environmental and ecological sustainability. Unfortunately, in many countries that are already using or start using treated wastewater as an additional water source, the monitoring and evaluation programme aspects are not well developed, are loose and irregular. This is mainly due to the weak institutions, the shortage of trained personnel capable of carrying the job, lack of monitoring equipment and the relatively high cost required for monitoring processes. In the developing countries, two types of monitoring are needed: the first, process control monitoring to provide data to support the operation and optimization of the system in order to achieve successful project performance; the second, compliance monitoring to meet regulatory requirements and not to be performed by the same agency in charge of process control monitoring. In the developing countries, to avoid failure in wastewater use and attain the desired success, the monitoring programme should be cost effective, and should provide adequate coverage of the system. Equally so, it must be reliable and timely in order to provide operators and decision making officials with correct and up-to-date information that allows the application of prompt remedial measures during critical situations.

Public awareness and participation

This is the bottleneck governing the wastewater use and its perspective progress. To achieve general acceptance of re-use schemes, it is of fundamental importance to have active public involvement from the planning phase through the full implementation process. Some observations regarding social acceptance are pertinent. For instance, there may be deep- rooted socio-cultural barriers to wastewater re-use. However, to overcome such an obstacle, major efforts are to be carried out by the responsible agencies. Responsible agencies have an important role to play in providing the concerned public with a clear understanding of the quality of the treated wastewater and how it is to be used; confidence in the local management of the public utilities and in the application of locally accepted technology, assurance that the re-use application being considered will involve minimal health risks and minimal detrimental effects on the environment. In this regard, the continuous exchange of information between authorities and public representatives ensures that the adoption of specific water re-use programme will fulfil real user needs and generally recognised community goals for health, safety, ecological concerns programme, cost, etc. In this way, initial reservations are likely to be overcome over a short period. Simultaneously, some progressive users could be persuaded to re-use wastewater as supplementary source for irrigation. Their success would go a long way in persuading the initial doubters to re-use the wastewater available.

103

WASTEWATER AS A SOURCE: MAJOR NEEDS

Applying realistic standards and regulations

An important element in the sustainable use of wastewater is the formulation of realistic standards and regulations. However, the standards must be achievable and the regulations enforceable. Unrealistic standards and non-enforceable regulations may do more harm than having no standards and regulations because they create an attitude of indifference towards rules and regulations in general, both among polluters and administrators. In arid and semi-arid countries where wastewater is recognized additional water source standards, guidelines and regulations in the majority of developing countries do not consider the re-use aspect as an integrated part of the treatment process; they are only intended to control and protect the quality of water bodies where the reclaimed water is discharged. In reality, in the arid regions of the Near-East, North-Africa and Southern-Europe, not all countries have developed guidelines and regulations for reclaimed water use. For those countries, standards and regulations for the re-use should be tailored to match the level of economic and administrative capacity and capability standards should cope with the local prevailing conditions and should be gradually tightened as progress is achieved in general development and in the economic and technical capability of the involved institutions and of the private sector as well.

Formulation of national policies and strategies

It is now widely recognised that wastewater re-use constitutes an important and integral component of the comprehensive water management programs of the majority of countries, more so in the water scarce ones. This implies that these countries should have national policies and strategies relating to wastewater management in general and wastewater re-use for agriculture, in particular, in order to guide programmes, projects and investments relating to wastewater collection, treatment, reuse and disposal in a sustainable manner. This requires the establishment of a clear policy with regard to wastewater management. This policy should be compatible with a number of related sectoral or sub-sectoral policies such as national water management and irrigation policy, national health, sanitation and sewage policy, national agricultural policy and national environmental protection policy. Such policy should give guidance on the following issues: the current and future contribution of treated wastewater to the total national water budget; criteria required to achieve maximum benefit of wastewater-reuse for the different water sectoral uses; modalities for strengthening the national capacity building in this sector.

Such policy should be accompanied by an appropriate national strategy for wastewater reuse characterized by the following features: spelling out ways and means of implementing policy directives; defining the nature and mechanisms of inter-institutional collaboration, allocation of funds, establishment of pilot wastewater reuse demonstration sites of good management practices and phasing the implementation of wastewater programmes; fostering the share of responsibilities between involved ministries, agencies and authorities, and the way to link and integrate the activities among them, individually and in combination;

104

identifying an economically feasible, safe and socially acceptable set of standards, regulations and codes of practices for sustainable use. Ideally, policies of wastewater reuse and strategies for its implementation should be part of water resources planning at the national level. At the local level, individual reuse projects should be part of the overall river basin planning effort.

Verifying institutional/administrative responsibilities and duties

Safe water treatment, disposal and reuse are the responsibility of different organizations such as authorities, cooperatives and communities operating under the jurisdiction of the ministries of agriculture, water resources and others. The responsibilities of these organizations must be considered and reconciled. To tackle the range of institutional levels involved and to allocate responsibilities in both treatment and reuse stages, several actions are needed, including: identifying the agencies and user organizations that would have an interest in the project and list their responsibilities as well as the leading agency for project planning and implementation; identifying/developing monitoring programmes and legal measures for their implementation, to ensure adherence to public health organization; ensuring opportunities for wastewater users to participate in project development for them to be aware of the benefits and requirements of wastewater use; evaluating the organization management of implementing agencies and propose improvement as necessary;

Training and human resource development

Lack of skills and knowledge and poor training opportunities can lead to failure in project implementation and in the case of wastewater reuse projects can potentially increase the public health risks. Training programmes should be an integral part of the projects and should include technical, environmental and socio-economic aspects. The educational input must provide the users with an understanding of the details of techniques and their associated hazards as well as the precautions to be taken so that the operations take place within acceptable safety levels and at reasonable cost. The timing of a training programme is of crucial importance. The provision for training is required not only before commissioning the system, but from time to time thereafter, since refreshing and/or up-dating of skills and training of new personnel should be a continual process.

CONCLUDING REMARKS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

• One of the prerequisites for any cure is an adequate information base. This includes inventorying water stocks, on one hand, and ascertaining the demand at local and regional level, in quantitative and qualitative terms within the framework of national water strategy, on the other one. Economic, social and environmental concerns must all be taken into account in accordance with the goal of sustainability.

• It is important to strengthen the capacity of national and local hydrological research institutes to improve their links to environmental research as well as to institutes in the field of economic

105 and social science, particularly in the field of urban studies and planning. The transfer of knowledge to local government decision-makers must be improved.

• Local governments must focus their policies on treating municipal wastewater to eliminate the rapid degradation in both surface and groundwater quality. In this regard, simple methods of wastewater treatment are to be recommended as realistic solutions; equally so, governments have to operate as well to strengthen the capacity of both institutions and users. Efforts concerning domestic sewage must center on promoting and further developing low cost, easy-to-handle and, in general, regionally developed technologies with a low degree of complexity. Special weight must be placed on minimizing the energy needs for these technologies.

• The failure of governance at local government level should be counteracted by improving the efficiency of public administration at the local level. The measures required include the building of responsibilities, combining management and financing functions, improving environmental legislation and monitoring, dismounting bureaucraticism, decentralizing tasks to the lowest levels possible, increasing the transparency of government activities as well as enhancing the skills of the public administration employees.

• Enhancing and improving cooperation between local governments and the informal sector which is far below the level required. The informal sector should be exploited to a greater extent and integrated with decentralized public administration to find more rapid, appropriate and flexible solutions to the existing and raising problems. In this regard, the involvement of the NGOs has to be strengthened in the management of infrastructural institutions and the mobilization of public participation and individual responsibility within the framework of urban supply and wastewater treatment and use projects.

• Existing water charges must be changed so that they reflect scarcities and increase the reliability of supply. Most of the water tariff systems in both developed and developing countries do not reflect the economic and environmental scarcity of water. To be environmentally and economically viable, water tariff systems should ensure that the costs of collecting, treating and using water are recovered. Low income users should be able to reduce the amount they have to pay through active participation in systems of water collection, water supply and wastewater disposal and treatment. The demand of major polluters or large consumers should be controlled using the instrument of marginal cost tariffs. Taxing consumption in this way is a financial incentive to water sustainability.

CITED REFERENCES

F.A.O., 1992. Wastewater treatment and use in agriculture. M.B. Pescod. Irrigation and drainage paper 47. FAO, Rome 125 pp. F.A.O., 1997. Quality control of wastewater for irrigated crop production. D.W. Westcot. Water reports 10. FAO Rome, 86 pp. F.A.O., 1998. Proceedings of the expert consultation on Re-use of low quality water for sustainable agriculture. 15-18 Dec., 1997, Amman, Jordan, 285 pp. U.N., 1987. Non-conventional water resources use in developing countries. Natural resources water series, 22, 515 pp.

106

U.N. E.C.E., 1993. Protection of water resources and aquatic eco-systems. Water series, 1, UN, New York. W.H.O., 1989. Health guidelines for the use of wastewater in agriculture and acquaculture. W.H.O. Technical report series no. 517, World Health Organization, Geneva. W.H.O., 1992. The International drinking water and sanitation decade. Review (as at December, 1990). W.H.O./CW5/92.12. World Health Organization, Geneva. W.H.O., 1990. Legal issues in water resource allocation, wastewater use and water supply management. Report of consultation of FAO/WHO working group on legal aspects of water supply and wastewater management. Geneva 27 Sept. 1990. World Health Organization, Geneva.

107

RECYCLED WATER: TECHNICAL-ECONOMIC CHALLENGES FOR ITS INTEGRATION AS A SUSTAINABLE ALTERNATIVE RESOURCE

V. Lazarova

Lyonnaise des Eaux- CIRSEE, 38, rue du Président Wilson, 78230 Le Pecq, France E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Growing water scarcity, population growth, rapid urbanisation and the spread of megacities, increasing competition among users and growing concern for health and environment protection are the main trends that may seriously challenge the water industry in this new millennium. To manage and safeguard water resources for coming generations, integrated management of water resources is becoming the leading strategy worldwide. In this context, wastewater reuse is becoming a key factor for counteracting the negative quantitative and qualitative impacts between the anthropogenic and natural water cycles, for preventing any increase in pollution of natural freshwater resources and for providing low-cost alternative resources for human activities, and in this way integrating the two water cycles.

The main purpose of this paper is to present and discuss the main socio-technical-economic challenges for developing water reuse, with emphasis on the choice of treatment trains, economics, water quality issues and the social value of recycled water.

KEYWORDS

Recycled water, wastewater reuse, treatment trains, economics, decentralised treatment, multiquality water production, public acceptance

INTRODUCTION

The increasing scarcity and pollution of freshwater resources create a monumental new challenge for water managers and policy makers: to satisfy increasing water demand from an ever-growing population, while protecting the environment and public health and avoiding sectoral, regional and international conflicts over water. In this context, wastewater reuse is becoming an essential factor for developing sound water and environment management policies. In arid and semi-arid regions, recycled water is a vital component, providing an alternative water resource, ensuring sustainability, reducing environmental pollution and protecting public health. In temperate regions, wastewater reuse contributes towards environmental protection and is an alternative resource for water crisis management in the event of drought. The new challenges for the water industry in successful implementation of wastewater reuse projects around the world are: innovative global water management; increasing the cost-efficiency of water reuse systems, including treatment processes, distribution networks and storage reservoirs; controlling water quality; educating and informing the public; reorganising institutional structures; and developing and enforcing new policies.

Requirements for integrating wastewater reuse into the natural water cycle are appropriate treatment technologies, stringent quality control and a better understanding of the risks inherent to each type of reuse. These new requirements, which all concern the quality of the reclaimed

108 water, make it necessary to combine wastewater and potable treatment techniques. There are now technical advances that make it possible to produce recycled wastewater of a quality suitable for almost all types of use. However, there are still economic constraints; for example, recycled water is not competitive compared to other resources. Water reuse will only be able to fulfil a major role in overall water management policy once the appropriate administrative, regulatory and financial mechanisms have been established.

A flexible water management policy can ensure the competitiveness of reuse as: (1) a lower-cost, drought-proof alternative resource available near the point of use, (2) a unique and inexpensive solution for pollution control, (3) a complementary resource for coastal areas, where discharges into the sea are irreversible, (4) a viable alternative to transporting natural resources over long distances, (5) a balancing factor in conflicts between different sectors' requirement, ensuring independence in water resources, (6) an important element for developing major urban and rural settlements, (7) a solution for restoring polluted resources and lost wetlands.

DECENTRALISED APPROACH: AN INNOVATIVE SOLUTION TO WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND REUSE

Decentralised wastewater management is a new and growing trend in Europe and the United States, where it has been developed in response to the new requirements of integrated resource management and sustainable development. The conventional centralised approach, which consists in the construction of large sewers and centralised treatment facilities, is not only an expensive solution for both small and large municipalities, but also has negative impacts on the environment.

By definition, the decentralised wastewater concept requires the use of appropriate treatment and disposal technologies, taking into consideration the current and future needs of the community. This new solution makes it possible to address the needs of both sewered and unsewered areas in a more comprehensive, cost-effective and environmentally friendly way. The main advantages of this approach are as follows: • watershed and water resource protection, avoiding transfer of wastewater on a large scale; • greater flexibility and the ability to provide the most appropriate solution for specific site conditions, e.g. high population density, shallow bedrock or shallow aquifers, including the possibility to use individual septic tanks, shared or clustered treatment systems or even centralised systems where appropriate; • a cost-effective option for rural areas and low-density communities, avoiding the expense of large sewerage systems and allowing for the use of low-tech extensive treatment processes; • environmental protection combined with a cost-effective technical solution for urban and ecologically sensitive areas, by the use of advanced treatments in compact, covered buildings, including odour treatment, nutrient removal and disinfection; • favouring wastewater reuse and recycling for various purposes near the point of use.

The last two points are crucial for the development of water-scarce regions. Significant benefits and cost saving can be achieved, especially in unsewered areas.

109

TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCE AND TECHNICAL CHALLENGES FOR WATER REUSE

There are numerous state-of-the-art technologies that can be used to make wastewater a competitive alternative resource to replace water from the natural environment. Reliable and effective treatments can be easily adapted to the specific needs of different uses. The inclusion of such systems into long and medium-term water planning is an indispensable condition for the successful development of wastewater reuse practices.

The level of treatment is chosen according to standards, legal requirements and the type of reuse envisaged (Fig. 1). In this way, the same treatment objective can be met by using either intensive technologies or extensive technologies, which are similar to natural treatment processes. The final choice of process will depend on technical and economic considerations as well as local conditions (infrastructure, uses, available space, plant capacity, etc.). The concern for public health has led to the concept of “multibarriers”, essential to the production of ultra-pure water: each type of pollutant is targeted by different treatment techniques, which are carried out in succession.

The main technical challenges for the Fig. 1 Treatment levels required for the main water reuse applications successful development of wastewater reuse projects are as follows: 1) Ensure high operational reliability, not only of treatment facilities but also of storage reservoirs and distribution networks, to guarantee good water quality at the point of use. A high level of sample conformity is required for all types of wastewater reuse, to minimise health risks and bacterial regrowth. 2) Improve treatment process design and integration to meet specific water quality requirements. Improvements are needed for greater economic efficiency and to minimise by- products. Innovation should be promoted to identify new combinations of treatments, including emerging advanced technologies, in order to improve operational reliability, salt removal and disinfection efficiency. Finally, satellite treatment facilities should be considered to improve water quality at the point of use at minimum cost. 3) Enhance water quality monitoring to demonstrate the compliance of recycled water with existing standards. Rational monitoring programs should be developed, as well as standardised, simple, low-cost analytical tools for monitoring pathogens. Advanced analytical tools developed for monitoring drinking water should be applied, to determine the occurrence of organic micropollutants and emerging pollutants (endocrine disrupters, drugs, etc). New research is needed to assess health risks. 4) Develop best practices for wastewater reuse to guarantee public health safety, decrease water losses and improve economic efficiency.

110

As regards specific treatment requirements, a high rate of removal of suspended solids is essential to ensure that the subsequent processes are more effective. Particles are particularly troublesome for disinfecting pathogens, which cling to solid matter and are then more resistant to the action of disinfectants. For safe reuse of wastewater containing carbon and nitrogen pollutants as fertiliser for irrigation purposes, effective particle removal and disinfection are imperative.

In almost all cases, secondary treatment is required to guarantee the reliability and effectiveness of the disinfection step. In this context, the choice biological treatment also plays a very important role. Extended aeration, for example, produces easily-disinfected effluents that high rate activated sludge. Membrane bioreactors are a very promising emerging technology, producing high quality and fully-disinfected effluent.

With the increased concern for public health and environment protection, the choice of disinfection technologies is one of the critical steps in a treatment scheme. It must be stressed that treatment quality upstream of disinfection has a major impact on the dosage required to achieve a given disinfection level. If a stringent regulation must be met, disinfection cannot cope with water from a less efficient upstream treatment and often has to be coupled with tertiary filtration or some other advanced treatment process such as ultrafiltration or microfiltration. The increasing use of UV technologies in wastewater reuse schemes is largely attributable to low costs, as well as the absence of toxic by-products (Lazarova et al., 1999). Compared to chlorination, the other main advantages of UV technology are low maintenance requirements, ease of use, suitability for automation, and small foot print. Ozonation, and in particular the recent progress in ozone generation and other equipment, are not well known among technical experts and consultants because large scale experience has so far been limited. However, several recent studies described in the literature and R&D experimental results point to some applications when ozonation should also be considered as a promising treatment, would compete well with UV irradiation, and bring several other advantages (Lazarova et al., 1999).

Membrane treatment is an efficient and reliable solution for producing high-quality recycled water (Adham et al., 1998). As a new application, the use of low-pressure membranes as a pretreatment to reverse osmosis is being investigated and implemented for indirect potable reuse in California, USA.

MULTIQUALITY RECYCLED WATER PRODUCTION: THE WEST BASIN EXPERIENCE

Another new concept developed for successful implementation of integrated resource management in urban and protected areas is the production of multiquality recycled water for different reuse purposes. With this approach, wastewater treatment costs are optimised by producing alternative water resources of different qualities for different reuse purposes. One of the largest water reclamation facilities in existence, in West Basin, California (in operation since 1995, final design capacity of 340,000 m3 d-1), is a good example.

The West Basin Water Recycling Plant (WBWRP), located in El Segundo, California, is owned by West Basin Municipal Water District (WBMWD), a public agency providing wholesale water to local water utility companies and municipal water departments (17 cities and unincorporated areas of Southwest Los Angeles County). WBMWD has implemented a water recycling program that so far includes a pump station that pumps secondary effluent through a 4.5 km long force main to the Recycling Plant. Advanced tertiary and quaternary treatment (Fig. 2) is carried out to produce high quality recycled water. Reliable

111 plant operation and guaranteed water quality are ensured by means of a private/public partnership with United Water Services, a subsidiary of Lyonnaise des Eaux.

The WBWRP treats secondary effluent from the City of Los Angeles’ Hyperion WWTP and produces four types of recycled water. The first type meets Title 22 standards, referring to the California Code of Regulations for wastewater reuse. This type of recycled water is typically used for landscape irrigation and industries such as dye works and oil refineries. The processes used to treat the secondary effluent to Title 22 standards include coagulation, flocculation, filtration and chlorine disinfection. The water is further treated to a second type of water quality − ammonia-free Title 22 effluent − at two satellite nitrification plants, for use in refinery cooling towers

Industrial reuse, 51%

MF Reverse Osmosis

HYPERION WWTP Boiler water secondary effluent Biofor Cl 114 000 m3/d Cooling water

Disinfection Tertiary nitrification Urban uses, golfs, 11% Filtration Coagulation (Cl) (Biofor reactors) flocculation Title 22 effluent Lime Clarification Drinking 35 65 water, MWD Recarbonatation Filtration Reverse Disinfection multimedia Osmosis % % (Cl) Aquifer recharge, 38% MF Reverse Osmosis Barrier effluent

Fig. 2. Multiquality recycled water production: main treatment train and reuse purpose in West Basin Water Recycling Plant, California

The third type of water produced at the plant is distributed to the West Coast Basin Barrier, a series of wells that inject a blend of potable and recycled water into the groundwater basin to protect it from seawater intrusion. Barrier water must meet all drinking water standards. Reverse osmosis (RO) is used as a final treatment process after two types of pretreatment by conventional lime clarification and microfiltration (MF).

Table 1. Annual average water quality data of the West Basin Reclamation plant

Parameter Unit Influent Title 22 Water Barrier Water Permitted Measured Permitted Measured Permitted Measured Turbidity NTU - 5.4 2 1.8 2 0.39 PH pH units - 6.7 - 6.9 - 8 TOC mg/L 20 10.6 - - 2 0.7 TSS mg/L 30 14 20 1.2 - 0.1 BOD mg/L 30 27 - 1 - - TDS mg/L - - 1000 789 - 124

The fourth type of ultra-pure recycled water is MF/RO effluent, produced in a new satellite treatment plant for use as boiler water in the petroleum industry.

112

Table 1 presents the average annual data for the influent and the final effluent water quality for the Title 22 and barrier treatment trains. The data clearly show the differences in water quality: the low TDS, TOC and turbidity values of the RO advanced treatment train are indicative of its high treatment efficiency.

NEW CHALLENGES FOR RECYCLED WATER QUALITY

The water quality issue has high impact on water reuse projects because of public perception, liability and public health concerns. Both conservative wastewater reuse standards and inadequately low legislative requirements can affect wastewater reuse development. Guidelines taking account of recent advances in scientific research rather than conservative standards would also need to take cultural and social habits, existing infrastructure and local conditions into consideration. Moreover, the development, application and enforcement of best reuse practices could be the critical step for rational use of recycled water and successful health and environment protection.

In some cases and countries, wastewater reuse quality issues, especially for potable reuse purposes, are becoming a major national problem and a subject of controversy. However, unplanned, indirect potable reuse occurs in many European countries and parts of the United States, with less oversight, whenever discharged wastewater quality is subsequently lower and the wastewater percentage is higher. Moreover, in many emerging countries, natural resources used for water supply are heavily polluted with raw, untreated wastewater. The rational solution for wastewater reuse to augment potable water supply is to employ appropriate treatment lines and appropriate monitoring procedures developed for and applied to water resources and drinking water. Among the most important parameters are pathogens, trace organics and endocrine disrupters.

High-purity recycled water with efficient removal of trace organics can be produced using the combination of low-pressure membrane pre-treatment (ultrafiltration or microfiltration) followed by reverse osmosis. This advanced treatment is applied in the West Basin Recycling Plant to produce recycled water for aquifer recharge. A number of R&D studies have demonstrated that with this membrane combination, up to 90% of trace organics can be removed from secondary effluents (Levine et al., 2000). The first stage of UF or MF treatment removes all the larger compounds from the influent and the RO unit remove the smaller compounds, such as base neutral organics and salts.

ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL CONSTRAINTS

A critical factor for the success of any water reclamation project is its affordability and financial viability. In general, lack of funding is the major impediment to adopting wastewater reuse. For this reason, the majority of water reuse projects have been developed with the help of subsidies and grants. Public/private partnerships would be another solution to establish appropriate financial plans, cut public sector deficits, promote investments and ensure better water resource management with efficient wastewater reuse. As a rule, wastewater reuse projects are under- valued and significant opportunities for beneficial reuse are lost. The main reason for this is that wastewater reuse is not considered an element in integrated water management that brings numerous monetary and non-monetary benefits compared to other solutions.

113

The cost of wastewater reuse usually includes only the marginal cost of additional treatment, storage and distribution, excluding the cost of wastewater collection and treatment. The distribution of capital and O&M costs varies from one project to another and depends on the type of treatment train. These costs are also heavily influenced by local constraints: price of building land, distance between production site and consumers, need to install a dual distribution system or retrofitting. The latter two constraints are important, since in many projects the main capital investment concerns the distribution system and can amount to 70% of the overall cost depending on site-specific conditions. New systems involve less expense than retrofitting existing networks. Reported values range from 0.06 US$/m3 in Jubail, Saudi Arabia (Al-A’ama and Nakhla, 1995) to 0.14 and 0.36 US$/m3 in Israel, in the Dan Region and Jerusalem respectively (Shelef, 1991).

Capital costs for tertiary filtration and disinfection or even for full Title 22 treatment (coagulation/flocculation, filtration and disinfection) do not exceed 30-40% of the investment for secondary treatment. Significantly higher costs are incurred for activated carbon filters (GAC) and reverse osmosis (RO) to produce high-purity water for urban, potable or industrial purposes. On the basis of experience in the USA, Israel and the Middle East, the life cycle cost for the treatment of raw sewage to produce recycled water suitable for unrestricted irrigation varies from 0.43 to 1.10 US$/m3 (Al-A’ama and Nakhla, 1995; Richard et al., 1995; Shelef, 1991). The additional life costs of Title 22 treatment, lime clarification/RO and MF/RO, based of the US experience, range between 0.23 and 0.75 US$/m3. The use of MF as a pretreatment before RO leads to a saving of 45% in life costs.

The production of multiquality recycled water for various reuse purposes, and in particular the production of high-quality water for industrial purposes and aquifer recharge, contributes to faster payback from wastewater recycling facilities. In general, the sale price of recycled water for industries and urban users is higher than that charged to farmers; agricultural irrigation involves higher water demand and lower economic value, which is usually subsidised by local or national governments with only partial recovery of treatment and distribution costs.

PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE AND EDUCATION

The development of sustainable water recycling schemes must include an understanding of the social and cultural aspects of water reuse. The long-term objective is to promote expertise in ways to close the water cycle in local scale, and this in internationally different economic, social and cultural contexts. To accomplish this, it is necessary to extend traditional design and management activities to include:

1) Assessment of cross-cultural factor that facilitate or hinder water recycling schemes. 2) Dissemination of information to the public, by organising forums with local agencies, municipalities, water utilities and legislative officials from the earliest stage of any wastewater reuse program. This means developing descriptions of the proposed technologies, their performances, associated risks, costs and benefits to catchment-scale water conservation and sustainable development. 3) Development of public education programs (newsletters, school education programs, open houses and tours, meetings with stakeholders). The public’s knowledge and understanding of the safety and proper use of recycled water is a key component of any successful water reclamation program.

114

4) Establishment of new marketing approaches that treat recycled water as a new product for sale.

Demonstrating the social value of wastewater reuse is an important challenge for the development of wastewater reuse projects in all countries: • The main aims of wastewater reuse for developing countries are to ensure a vital or in some cases alternative resource for food production, and for health and environment protection. The last point is important. Poverty contributes very considerably to environmental degradation. In poverty-stricken areas, survival prevails over environmental protection, while the poor are the first victims of environmental degradation. • For developed countries, wastewater reuse saves on the cost of mobilising new water resources, including desalination, and of wastewater treatment, which is in any case needed for social and environmental reasons.

In some cases, the real problems arise from the political interpretation of water quality issues. According to several recent water quality studies, the recycled water produced in the United States from urban secondary effluents is better in terms of water quality than many natural surface waters. Moreover, epidemiological studies indicate no microbiological or toxicological risks in recycling treated wastewaters. Yet despite the rigorous scientific arguments, two new projects under development in Tampa, Florida and San Diego, California, have been stopped owing to strong opposition from politicians. The slogan they used, without regard to scientific results or cost/environment analysis, was “From toilet to tap” − and it was very effective.

Marketing is another key to the success of any water reuse project. Recycled water, after appropriate treatment, is a new marketable product. The first step towards developing a recycled water marketing strategy is to review the existing state-of-the-art terminology. The definitions of wastewater reuse, wastewater reclamation and wastewater recycling cause real confusion among potential consumers. Well-treated wastewater should no longer be considered as wastewater but as a new alternative water resource. This new resource could be named recycled water; it is safer and cleaner than many contaminated natural water resources. Finally, the successful development of multiquality reuse practices requires a pro-active marketing approach to convince potential consumers and win their willing participation. Compared to the existing water supply and wastewater treatment situation, the marketing challenges for wastewater reuse call for the latest innovative techniques in this area.

CONCLUSIONS

Water recycling is becoming the driving force in global water management. Numerous state-of- the-art technologies now exist that can make wastewater a comparable resource to water from the natural environment by the use of reliable, effective treatments that can be easily adapted to the specific needs of different uses. The inclusion of such systems in long- and medium-term water planning is an essential condition for the balance of the natural cycle and resource conservation in this new millennium. However, successful implementation of wastewater reuse systems requires the development of new concepts, tools and approaches to public education and the marketing of recycled water as a new product. Institutional reorganisation, new policies and new regulations are also required. Future studies are necessary to improve process operation and identify the most efficient and cost-competitive treatment line for each reuse purpose.

115

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adham, S. S., Gagliardo, P.F., Trussell, R.R., Olivieri, A.W. (1998) Remova of microorganisms in water repurification », Proc. Conf. Disinfection ’98, Spec. WEF Conf., Baltimore, MD, USA, 19-22 April 1998, 375-390. Al-A’ama M.S. and Nakhla G.F. (1995) Wastewater reuse in Jubail, Saudi Arabia. Wat. Res. 29, (6) 1579-1584. Lazarova V., Savoye P. Janex M.L., Blatchley III E.R. and Pommepuy M. (1999) Advanced wastewater disinfection technonogies : state of the art and perspective. Wat. Sci. Tech., 40, (4/5), 203-214. Levine B., Madireddi K., Lazarova V., Stenstrom M.K. and Suffet I.H. (2000) Treatment of trace organic compounds by ozone/BAC for wastewater reuse : the lake Arrowhead pilot plant. Wat. Environ. Research, 72, (4), 388-396. Richard D., Crites R.W., Asano T. and Tchobanoglous G. (1993) A systematic approach to estimating wastewater reclamation costs in California. Proc. WEF 66th annual conference, Anaheim, Californie, 3-7 octobre, pp.235-246. Shelef G. Wastewater reclamation and water resources management. Wat. Sci. Tech., 24, 9, 251-265 (1991).

116

LA REORGANISATION DU CYCLE DE L'EAU EN MILIEU OASIEN : UNE NECESSITE. L'EXEMPLE DU SUD-TUNISIEN

G. Moguedet *, R. Boukchina **, A. Romdhane **, D. Dubost *, A. Houas ***, A. Jadas-Hecart *, C. Kergaravat * et A.M. Pourcher *

* Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement et de l'Aménagement, Université d'Angers, 2 Bd Lavoisier E-mail : [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] and [email protected] ** Institut des Régions Arides, antenne de Gabès, route de Medenine, Gabès, Tunisie E-mail : : [email protected] and [email protected] *** Ecole Nationale d'Ingénieurs de Gabès, Tunisie E-mail : [email protected]

RESUME

L'essor urbain, mais aussi touristique dans certaines régions, a profondément modifié le cycle traditionnel de l'eau dans les oasis du Maghreb. Pour économiser la ressource, ce cycle doit donc être réorganisé, notamment en valorisant en domaine agricole les eaux usées urbaines épurées, à condition de prendre les précautions nécessaires pour éviter tout risque sanitaire ou environnemental. Si les grandes villes qui sont en expansion dans la zone aride produisent des volumes importants de ces eaux non conventionnelles, les régions touristiques, comme celles du Sahara tunisien, en produisent en très grande quantité. Ces eaux, qui sont très peu chargées et souvent de meilleure qualité d'un point de vue agronomique que les eaux captées car leur salinité a été abaissé. Les palmeraies traditionnelles, coincées entre la zone urbanisée à l'amont et les phénomènes de salinisation liés à l'hydromorphie en partie basse, peuvent difficilement s'étendre. Il faut donc mettre en valeur de nouveaux espaces de culture. Le développement de ces nouveaux espaces doit s'accompagner de structures agraires adaptées aux pratiques agricoles modernes. De nouveaux types de culture doivent également être testés. C'est dans ce contexte qu'un périmètre expérimental vient d'être créé près de Gabès en Tunisie. Les résultats attendus doivent permettre à terme de proposer un mode de fonctionnement durable de ces nouveaux espaces oasiens.

MOTS-CLES

Zone aride; oasis, ressource en eau; eaux marginales; valorisation agricole; agriculture durable.

INTRODUCTION

L'essor urbain en zone aride, associé au développement de l'agriculture et éventuellement d'activités touristiques, a des conséquences importantes sur le cycle traditionnel de l'eau qui a été complètement modifié. Des pays comme Israël vont voir leur disponibilité en eau par habitant passer de 400 m3 en 1985 à 250 m3 en 2020. Durant la même période cette disponibilité va passer de 500 m3 à 60 m3 en Jordanie et de 160 à 60 m3/habitant/an en Arabie saoudite (Fabriès- Verfaillie, 1998). Dans ces conditions la valorisation des eaux non conventionnelles et en particulier des eaux usées épurées constitue un enjeu majeur, à condition que toutes les garanties

117 soient prises au niveau risque sanitaire et environnemental. En Israël par exemple, 100 millions de m3 d'eaux usées traitées viennent chaque année des villes du Nord-Ouest pour alimenter des périmètres irrigués du sud du pays et en particulier de nouveaux espaces de culture dans le désert du Neguev (Duveau, 1999). La valorisation agricole des eaux usées épurées permet de préserver les ressources traditionnelles d'Israël, de diminuer les quantités d'intrants et de faire des économies très substantielles (Haruvy, 1998). En Arabie Saoudite, le volume des eaux utilisées pour l'irrigation est passé de 1,75 milliards de m3 en 1975 à 23 milliards de m3 en 1992. Parmi elles, 1,32 millions de m3 d'eaux usées épurées sont recyclées journellement en domaine agricole (Hussein & Al Saati, 1999) et des nouvelles normes d'utilisation sont proposées (Abu-Rizaza, 1999), Il faut bien entendu tout mettre en œuvre pour préserver la qualité des nappes souterraines et que les risques liés à la présence d'éléments pathogènes soient totalement éliminés. La mise en place de bassins de stabilisation, peu coûteux et dont la maintenance est facile à assurer, permet de produire un effluent dont la qualité respecte les normes demandées par l'OMS pour l'irrigation des espaces agricoles (Mara, 2000). La réutilisation d'eaux marginales existe un peu partout dans le monde en zone aride, par exemple dans l'Etat du Colorado aux Etats Unis (Klahn, 1999), au Mexique (Vasquez-Montiel et al, 1999), en Australie (Simpson, 1999) mais aussi au Moyen Orient, par exemple au Koweit (Al Muzaini & Ghosn, 1999) en Egypte (Stott et al, 1999), au Liban (Darwish et al, 1999). Ces techniques se répandent aussi au Maghreb.

LA PRODUCTION D'EAUX USEES AU MAGHREB

Les besoins en eau des villes du Maghreb, et donc la production d'eaux usées, ont connu depuis trois décennies une croissance exponentielle. Cette augmentation spectaculaire s’explique par trois facteurs : 1- Les villes ont grandi au rythme moyen de 5% par an. Aujourd’hui plus de la moitié de la population est citadine, puisque de 9 millions de citadins dans les années soixante, on est passé aujourd’hui à 35 millions et on prévoit en 2025 une population urbaine de 65 à 70 millions de personnes. 2- L’amélioration du niveau de vie qui se rapproche de plus en plus du modèle occidental. Alors que quelques dizaines de litres par jour et par habitant étaient seulement utilisés il y a quelques dizaines d'années, les consommations domestiques journalières dépassent souvent aujourd’hui la centaine de litres par habitant. Il y a cependant de grosses disparités selon les quartiers, les quartiers aisés disposant de 200 à 300 litres par personne, alors que les zones d’autoconstruction ou les bidonvilles se limitent à 10 ou 20 litres aux bornes fontaines. 3- Les citadins sont de plus en plus nombreux à être raccordés aux réseaux, 75 à 85% des ménages étant branchés et équipés en conséquence. Ces réseaux sont cependant loin d’être étanches et les pertes atteignent jusqu'à 30 ou 40%.

La consommation urbaine au Maghreb a donc triplé ou quadruplé en 25 ans (Mutin, 2000). Aux besoins domestiques et collectifs s’ajoutent bien sûr les consommations industrielles, géographiquement proches des villes. Il s’en suit une concurrence pour l’eau et l’agriculture y est parfois perdante, notamment là où l'espace productif est restreint comme dans les oasis, alors que les besoins sont encore accrus par le développement du tourisme. En région saharienne les ressources sont généralement limitées aux réserves en eau souterraine souvent non renouvelables. Dans ces conditions les eaux non conventionnelles constituent une ressource particulièrement précieuse, d'autant que leur volume va augmenter de façon considérable dans les prochaines années. C'est ainsi qu'au Maroc la production d'eaux usées va passer de 370 millions de m3 actuellement à 900 millions de m3 en 2020 (Mandi, 2000). Il est important bien sûr que ces eaux

118 marginales ne soient pas utilisées sous la forme brute comme cela peut l'être encore autour de certaines grandes villes du Maroc. Des précautions doivent être prises au niveau sanitaire et environnemental. Des traitements tertiaires selon divers systèmes peuvent être préconisés, notamment la mise en place de bassins de stabilisation (Yagoubi et al, 2000) pour que les normes OMS vis à vis des éléments pathogènes puissent être respectées. Cela peut s'accompagner de la réalisation de cartes de vulnérabilité des aquifères souterrains comme aux alentours de Marrakech (Ouazzani et al., 2000).

En Algérie, pays encore peu équipé et où les stations existantes ont des problèmes de fonctionnement, la valorisation des eaux usées épurées est encore peu développée, mais le potentiel de production d'eaux non conventionnelles est énorme et constitue donc une ressource en eau prometteuse, en particulier au Sahara. Il existe en effet plusieurs grandes agglomérations comme Ouargla, El Oued, Touggourt ou Ghardaïa. A Ouargla les eaux usées sortant de la station d'épuration sont malheureusement mélangées avec les eaux de drainage agricoles enrichies en sels et refoulées vers une sebkha et ne sont donc pas valorisables en l'état(Idder, 1998).

ETAT DE LA RESSOURCE EN EAU ET DES BESOINS EN TUNISIE

La Tunisie a désormais mobilisé une grande partie de la ressource en eau conventionnelle dont elle disposait, que ce soit en eau de surface ou en eau souterraine (Tab. I).

Presque partout les aquifères de bonne qualité sont menacés d'épuisement en raison d'une exploitation intensive et souvent incontrôlée (Chérif, 2000). La Tunisie est l'un des pays méditerranéens où l'eau manque le plus et elle est au dessous du stress hydrique absolu (Grass, 1997). Elle ferait même partie des 16 pays les plus défavorisés au monde dans ce domaine (Chérif, 2000).

Tab. 1. Les ressources en eaux conventionnelles de la Tunisie d'après le Ministère de l'Agriculture (1999 in Chérif, 2000)

Ressources Ressources potentielles Ressources Taux de mobilisation Mm3 mobilisées Mm3 % (1996) Eaux de surface 2700 1425 53 Nappes phréatiques 700 750 107 Nappes profondes 1240 930 75 Total 4640 3105 67

Tableau 2. Les besoins en eau de la Tunisie en 2030 et les ressources disponibles (en Mm3 ). D'après Mamou & Khanfir (2000) in (Chérif, 2000).

Ressource Ressourcemob Ressourceexp Besoins Besoins Besoins Besoins Besoins potentiel. ilisée loitab. eau potab. agricoles industriels Tourisme totaux Ressourceconve ntionnelle 4670 3770 2732 451 1895 203 35 2574 Ressource non conventionnelle 440 349 389 40 140 0 0 186 Total 5110 4159 3121 491 2035 203 41 2760

119

La Tunisie puise maintenant dans son capital et ses réserves diminuent inexorablement, en particulier en domaine saharien. Une estimation de la Banque mondiale prévoit que les ressources en eau disponibles en Tunisie, qui sont aujourd’hui de l’ordre de 320 m3 par habitant et par an, passeront à 270 m3 en 2010 et à 230 m3 en 2025 (Zahar, 1995). Les nouveaux forages sont aujourd’hui réservés au comblement des déficits les plus criants des oasis existantes. Le développement de l'urbanisme dans les oasis sahariennes, mais aussi l'élévation du niveau de vie et le modernisme tout comme le développement du tourisme, engendrent des consommations en eau de plus en plus élevées. Les superficies irriguées des oasis ont également fortement augmenté puisque de 1970 à 1990 elles sont passées de 15 500 à 30 200 ha, principalement par une surexploitation des nappes souterraines dont l’artésianisme est en pleine régression (Mamou, 1995). Parallèlement on assiste aussi à une salinisation d'une certaine partie de la ressource qui contribue à diminuer les volumes utilisables. Le cycle de l'eau traditionnel est ainsi profondément modifié. Il y a beaucoup de gaspillage, notamment dans les périmètres irrigués et la gestion de l'eau n'est absolument pas adaptée à une ressource fragile. Il est donc nécessaire, d'une part de réorganiser le cycle de l'eau, et d'autre part de valoriser de façon optimale les eaux non conventionnelles (eaux usées épurées, eaux de drainage, eaux salées) qui doivent être considérées comme une ressource en eau supplémentaire dont l'utilisation permettra de préserver la ressource conventionnelle. L'un des points qui restent sensible est l'acceptabilité de ce genre de pratiques, même lorsqu'elles sont menées avec beaucoup de rigueur. On peut comprendre l'inquiétude des consommateurs, étant donné les nombreux problèmes auxquels ils font face un peu partout actuellement, notamment en Europe, tout comme celle des agriculteurs qui subissent depuis quelques temps les effets de crises à répétition. La réutilisation des eaux usées épurées existe déjà depuis un certain temps en Tunisie, pas seulement en domaine agricole. Des terrains de golf comme celui de Djerba sont alimentés en eau provenant d'un effluent épuré. Des expérimentations sont menées pour contrôler la qualité bactériologique des effluents utilisés (Bahri et al., 2000). Dans le Sud de fortes consommations d'eau sont enregistrées surtout à Gabès mais aussi à Djerba et à Tozeur en raison de la présence d'importants complexes touristiques (Fig. 1).

L'EXEMPLE DE GABES

La ville est alimentée depuis toujours par des sources et des pompages provenant de la nappe de la Jeffara, nappe captive dans les calcaires du Sénonien. Les pénuries d’eau se sont fait sentir dès 1970 avec une diminution des débits et une augmentation de la salinité. L'essor urbain de la ville de Gabès s'explique notamment par un important développement industriel articulé autour d’un port qui s'est modernisé. Ce développement résulte pour une grosse part du traitement et la valorisation des phosphates provenant de Gafsa par voie ferrée et pour une autre part de l’extension d’une filière de matériaux de construction : briqueteries et carrelages et surtout cimenterie (600 000 tonnes/an).

Cet essor industriel a entraîné une consommation supplémentaire qui a rompu l’équilibre déjà fragile de la nappe de la Jeffara avec une baisse des débits qui sont passés de 51 millions de m3 en 1974 à 42 millions de m3 en 1979 (Hayder 1991). L’agriculture a fait les frais de cette pénurie, les tours d’eau passant d'un rythme de 20 jours, à 40 ou 50 jours. Le Plan Directeur des eaux du Sud estime aujourd’hui les besoins à 160 millions de m3/an dont 100 millions uniquement pour l’agriculture. Pour combler le déficit il a été fait appel aux ressources du Continental Intercalaire dont les eaux sont chaudes et salées. Elles doivent donc être refroidies et dessalées pour les

120

Figure 1 : Djerba, Gabès et Tozeur, sites importants de production d'eaux non conventionnelles dans le Sud-tunisien : usages domestiques et elles sont plutôt de mauvaise qualité pour l’irrigation. En outre il semble avéré que cette nappe alimente elle même l'aquifère de la Jeffara, ce qui devrait conduire à une certaine prudence dans son exploitation.

Dans ces conditions la palmeraie de Gabès semble être menacée par une forte pénurie d'eau si on se cantonne à l'exploitation des ressources conventionnelles. La surface de la palmeraie traditionnelle se restreint d'ailleurs régulièrement. Dans sa partie amont la plus proche de la ville elle est soumise à une urbanisation intense, phénomène habituel sous toute les latitudes qui

121 traduit la pression du développement urbain sur les espaces agricoles périphériques. Si dans d'autres régions on assiste simplement à un déplacement centrifuge des zones cultivées, l'espace oasien, lui, n'est pas extensible. En effet, à l'aval des palmeraies, exutoire des eaux de drainage, l'hydromorphie, et la salinisation secondaire qui l'accompagne, progressent vers l'amont, grignotant aussi les espaces cultivés. On peut donc se demander quel peut être l'avenir de cet agrosystème traditionnel, dont la valeur patrimoniale est grande, mais qui se réduit et qui en outre n'est plus très fonctionnel, la pénurie en eau justifiant en outre l’absence d’investissements.

Si la société tunisienne est en pleine mutation, la palmeraie traditionnelle ne semble pas profiter de cette évolution. Les parcelles qui sont encore cultivées, où l'on pratique une polyculture de productivité médiocre en utilisant des techniques rudimentaires, gourmandes en main d'œuvre et peu rémunératrices, ne sont plus adaptées à l'évolution des techniques et des conditions sociales (Dubost, 1992). Ces plantations cultivées en mélange n'ont pas les mêmes besoins en eau, en fertilisants, en traitements divers et les méthodes d'exploitation et de récolte sont différentes. Les cultures de henné encore largement pratiquées procurent peu de valeur ajoutée. Les agriculteurs ont du mal à vivre décemment de leurs jardins et cet agrosystème ne peut donc s'inscrire dans un objectif de durabilité. Il fait d'ailleurs l'objet d'une désaffection importante, notamment de la part des jeunes, en raison des fortes contraintes qu'il impose. Il y a ainsi de nombreuses parcelles abandonnées, envahies par les déchets, en particulier, à proximité immédiate de la zone urbanisée.

L'un des problèmes majeurs rencontré est aussi celui de la gestion de l'eau, très conflictuelle (Hayder, 1991), et qui, en raison des pratiques traditionnelles, n'est pas du tout rationnelle, alors que la ressource en eau est en train de se raréfier. Autour des parcelles qui sont encore cultivées, la densité de plantation des palmiers est beaucoup trop élevée et chacun d'entre eux puise d'énormes quantités d'eau. Le système d'irrigation par submersion entraîne en outre un gaspillage de la ressource (Quemener, 1999), alors que, dans l'ensemble, l'agriculture est peu performante et peu rentable. Des parcelles spécialisées, par exemple en cultures d'arbres fruitiers, permettraient de faire de l'irrigation localisée plus économique en eau et plus efficace. La salinisation des sols en partie basse de la palmeraie oblige d'autre part les agriculteurs à utiliser de grands volumes d'eau pour lessiver les sols. Enfin, sur les parcelles abandonnées, les palmiers, dont les dattes ne sont donc plus récoltées continuent bien sûr à consommer beaucoup d'eau.

Les quantités d'eau à usage domestique sont elles aussi en augmentation, en raison de l'expansion urbaine, de l'évolution sociale, de la modernisation de l'habitat. Il y a en conséquence des rejets de plus en plus importants d'eaux usées, traitées en station d'épuration. Dans le contexte saharien ces eaux usées épurées doivent être considérées comme une nouvelle ressource en eau. Elles présentent de grandes qualités, supérieures dans certains domaines à celles des eaux souterraines captées, qui dans cette région de Gabès sont légèrement salées (3,5 g/L) et qui doivent être adoucies pour être potabilisées. Elles sont en particulier intéressantes à valoriser d'un point de vue agronomique puisqu'au terme du cycle les eaux usées sont moins salées (2,5 g/L) et ont conservé leur potentiel fertilisant en l'absence de traitement tertiaire éliminant nitrates et phosphates en sortie de station. De nouveaux espaces de cultures peuvent donc être créés grâce à leur recyclage, permettant à la fois de préserver la ressource en eau conventionnelle en réduisant sa consommation, d'augmenter la production végétale, en particulier fourragère, de développer certains types de culture, d'économiser en intrants et de lutter contre la désertification par réduction de la pression sur les parcours naturels. Des dispositions doivent bien sûr être prises pour éviter toute contamination par les organismes pathogènes.

122

Un site de valorisation agricole des eaux usées a ainsi été mis en place à Dissa, à une dizaine de km de la ville de Gabès, dans le cadre d'un programme qui a été financé par la Banque mondiale et l’ICARDIA (International Center for Agricultural Research in Desert Areas). Les eaux traitées de la station d’épuration de Gabès sont acheminées vers un réservoir de stockage d'une capacité de 3000 m3 construit à 12 km de Gabès, puis ensuite redistribuées par gravité vers des périmètres agricoles créés de toute pièce dans la steppe. Ceux-ci font au total 330 hectares et sont exploités par des agriculteurs formés spécialement aux pratiques d'irrigation avec des eaux usées. Ils ont été laissés libres de choisir la structure parcellaire de leur exploitation, qui fait 8 hectares en moyenne, et les pratiques culturales qu'ils allaient appliquer.

En général les nouvelles mises en valeur recopient le système oasien traditionnel, pourtant peu fonctionnel et peu productif, avec des parcelles trop petites vouées aux cultures fourragères, complantées d'arbres fruitiers en particulier de grenadiers et bordées de palmiers plantés trop près les uns des autres. Si l'on se réfère à l'évolution observée dans l'ancienne palmeraie, il est difficile d'imaginer que ces nouvelles exploitations puissent être pérennisées. Il est donc nécessaire de tester de nouvelles formes de structures agraires et d'autres systèmes de production, fonction de l'eau disponible et de sa qualité d'un point de vue agronomique et des corrections éventuelles à y apporter, mais aussi de développer de nouvelles cultures, à condition de s'assurer au préalable de leur faisabilité agronomique et technico-économique et en conformité avec le code tunisien des eaux qui limite la réutilisation des eaux usées épurées à l'irrigation des cultures fourragères industrielles ainsi qu'à arboriculture.

Les parcelles doivent donc être de plus grandes dimensions et spécialisées pour mieux gérer l'eau et les intrants divers. Dans le cas contraire, on satisfera toujours la plante la plus gourmande en eau ou en produits phytosanitaires. En outre, même si une partie des nouvelles surfaces agricoles peut être réservée aux cultures traditionnelles, il apparaît nécessaire de tester d'autres cultures comme par exemple les cultures d'agrumes, dont est friande la clientèle qui fréquente les zones touristiques proches. Il existe également d'autres filières qui pourraient être envisagées comme la culture de plantes ornementales pour alimenter les espaces urbains et les zones hôtelières. Ces nouvelles filières se sont énormément développées dans les mêmes conditions climatiques et socio-économiques, dans d'autres pays, où ce secteur d'activités est florissant. Il faudra bien entendu résoudre aussi le problème de l'acceptabilité de ces nouvelles pratiques, le monde agricole et les consommateurs notamment, mais aussi les responsables locaux, faisant preuve de certaines réticences, comme l'a montré une enquête effectuée sur place à Gabès (Garnier, 1988).

LES SITES TOURISTIQUES DU SUD-TUNISIEN

L’essor du tourisme en Tunisie, et en particulier du Sud-tunisien, est spectaculaire puisque la capacité d'accueil est passée de 35 000 lits et 410 000 entrées touristiques en 1970, à 150 000 lits et 4 millions d’entrées annuelles aujourd’hui. La zone saharienne est entrée en lice la dernière mais sa réussite est évidente. La production d'eau usée épurée y est donc très importante comme à Djerba et Tozeur, où ces eaux marginales ont en outre l'avantage d'être très peu chargées. Elles correspondent en effet à une consommation de 500 litres/jour et par personne (150 litres/jour en Europe en moyenne), produite essentiellement lors de bains ou de douches. Ces eaux, adoucies avant consommation puis épurées après utilisation, ont une valeur agronomique intéressante si l'on ne leur applique pas de traitement tertiaire éliminant nitrates et phosphates. A Djerba par exemple, une mégastation de 100 000 EH est actuellement en construction pour traiter les effluents de la zone hôtelière qui comprend déjà 120 hôtels, alors que de nombreux autres hôtels sont en construction ou en projet. La nouvelle station est une station à boues activées avec chenal d'oxydation et épandage des boues sur lits de sable. Les eaux épurées subiront un

123 traitement tertiaire d'hygiénisation par passage en lagune, la charge en germes pathogènes subsistant après les traitements primaire et secondaire étant alors abattue par un processus naturel liée à l'activité de bactéries aérobies dans la lagune. En revanche le potentiel agronomique des eaux sera conservé puisque ni les nitrates ni les phosphates ne seront éliminés. Le potentiel de développement agricole est donc à la mesure de la disponibilité en eau qui va être créée, alors que l'essentiel des cultures sur Djerba se fait actuellement en sec. Un état des lieux doit donc être réalisé suivi d'une étude de marché et d'une évaluation du potentiel agronomique des sols. Des vergers d'agrumes ou des oliveraies pourraient être implantés, mais aussi des cultures de plantes ornementales. Les abords de la zone hôtelière, actuellement laissés en friche, pourraient être paysagés, même si ce genre d'investissement ne comporte a priori d'autre rentabilité qu'une simple amélioration esthétique. Végétaliser les sols c'est aussi les fixer et cela aura aussi pour conséquence de diminuer les effets des vents de poussière et de sable. Cela permettrait enfin d'avoir une meilleure gestion de l'eau en assurant un meilleur fonctionnement des réseaux hydrauliques de surface.

CONCLUSIONS

L'étude présentée fait l'objet d'un projet appelé AQUASIS, associant les agronomes et les environnementalistes de l'Institut des Régions Arides de Gabès, les chimistes spécialistes du traitement des eaux de l'Ecole Nationale d'Ingénieurs de Gabès et le Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement et de l'Aménagement de Université d'Angers, laboratoire pluridisciplinaire spécialisé en aménagement et en études et traitement des pollutions, composé d'agronomes, de chimistes, d'hydrologues, d'hydrogéologues, d'écologues et de microbiologistes travaillant sur les organismes pathogènes. Le projet, dans sa phase préliminaire, a été financé par le CMCU (Comité Mixte de Coopération Universitaire franco-tunisien).

Il va être poursuivi et dans cette nouvelle phase il est destiné à - évaluer le fonctionnement actuel des oasis tunisiennes (étude de l'organisation des oasis, des structures agraires, des pratiques agricoles, du cycle de l'eau, de la répartition entre les différents usages, du bilan des pertes, du potentiel en eaux marginales, etc..) - déterminer les nouvelles méthodes de gestion à mettre en œuvre pour diminuer les pertes et valoriser au maximum la ressource en eau - tester de nouvelles structures agraires, de nouveaux modes d'irrigation et de nouveaux types de cultures sur le périmètre de Dissa avec mise en place de quelques parcelles d'essai gérées par l'IRA - tester des systèmes de traitement tertiaire d'hygiénisation des eaux - optimiser la valorisation des eaux marginales en particulier dans les zones touristiques L'objectif à terme de ce projet est de proposer un système de fonctionnement durable du milieu oasien, en particulier en ce qui concerne la gestion de la ressource en eau. Ce projet va vraisemblablement être étendu aux villes du Sahara algérien

REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHIQUES

Abu Rizaiza O.S. (1999). Modification of the standards reuse in Saudi Arabia. Water Research, 33 (11), 2601-2608. Al Muzaini S. & Ghosn A.A. (1999). Fate of conventional/priority organic pollutants associated with wastewater reuse in soil irrigation in Kuwait. Water Science and Technology, 40 (7); 1-10.

124

Bahri A., Basset C. & Jrad-Fantar A.(2000). Agronomic and health aspects of storage ponds on a golf course irrigated with reclaimed wastewater in Tunisia. Water Science and Technology, 42 (10-11), 399-406. Boukchina R., Nasr N.& Jeder H.(1999). Wastewater reuse in water planning and management in arid area of Tunisia. Workshop ICARDIA, Le Caire (Egypte). Chérif A. (2000). De l'eau libre à l'eau mobilisée. Mutations récentes et problèmes des aménagements hydrauliques en Tunisie du Nord. L'eau de la cellule au paysage. S. Wicherek éd. Scientifique. Elsevier. Collection Environnement. Paris, 265-277. Darwish M.R., El Awar F.A. Sharara M. & Hamdar B. (1999). Economic-environmental approach for optimum wastewater utilization in irrigation. A case study in Lebanon. Applied Engeneering in Agriculture, 15 (1), 41-48. Dubost D. (1992). Aridité, agriculture et développement, le cas des oasis algériennes. Sécheresse, 3, 2, 85-96 Duveau S. (1999). L'utilisation des ressources en eau marginales et le développement d'un front pionnier dans le désert du Néguev (Israël). Mémoire de Maîtrise. Angers : Université. 115 p. Fabriès-Verfaillie M. (1998). Afrique du Nord et Moyen-Orient dans le nouvel espace mondial. 265 p. Garnier O. (1998). Acceptabilité du recyclage des eaux usées dans la région de Gabès. Mémoire de DESS. Cergy-Pontoise : Université et IRA Gabès. Glass B. (1997). L'eau en région méditerranéenne. Plan bleu pour la Méditerranée. Centre d'Activités Régionales. Sophia Antipolis Haruvy H. (1997). Agricultural reuse of wastewater : nation-wide cost-benefit analysis. Agricultural ecosystems and environment, 66 (2), 113-119. Hayder A. (1991). Le problème de l'eau à Gabès: gestion conflictuelle et étatisation in L'eau et la ville dans les bassins du Pays méditerranéen et de la Mer noire. Tours : Université, Urbama,. Hussein G. & Al Saati A.J. (1999). Wastewater quality and its reuse in agriculture in Saudi Arabia. Desalination, 123 (2-3), 241-251. Idder T. (1998). La dégradation de l'environnement urbain liée aux excédents hydriques au Sahara algérien. Impacts des rejets agricoles et urbains et techniques de remédiation proposées. Thèse. Angers :Université. Klahn S.A. (1999). Effluent reuse in Colorado. Science into Policy Water in the public realimentation. 167-171. Mamou A. (1995). Le développement des oasis sahariennes en Tunisie et son incidence sur les ressources en eau in Les oasis au Maghreb : mise en valeur et développement. Tunis, Ed. CERES, 319 p.. Mamou A. & Khanfir R. ((2000). Ressources en eau et perspectives de développement en Tunisie. Communication au Forum de l'Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature. Tunis, avril 2000. Mandi L. (2000). Review of the wastewater situation in Morocco. Schriftenr Ver Wasser Boden Lufthyg, 105, 385-7 Mara D.D. (2000). The production of microbiologically safe effluent for wastewater reuse in the Middle East and North Africa. Water, air and soil pollution, 123 (1-4), 595-603. Ministère de l'Agriculture/DGRE (1999). Etude de secteur de l'eau. Rapport de synthèse, Tunis. Mutin G. (2000). L'eau dans le monde arabe. Paris, Ellipses, 155 p.. Perennes J.J. (1993). L'eau et les hommes au Maghreb. Paris : Karthala. Ouazzani N., Lyakhloufi S. Errouane S. & Boussaïd A. (2000). Wastewater reuse with groundwater safeguard. Schriftenr Ver Wasser Boden Lufthyg, 105, 213-8

125

Quemener Y.(1999). La gestion de l'eau à la parcelle dans l'oasis de Chenini-Gabès. Mémoire de Maîtrise. Angers :Université. Simpson J.M. (1999). Changing community attitudes to potable re-use in South-East Queensland. Water Science and Technology, 40 (4-5), 59-66. Stott R. Jenkins T. Baghat M. & Shalaby I. (1999). Capacity of constructed wetlands to remove parasite eggs from wastewaters in Egypt. Water Science and Technology, 40 (3), 117-123. Vasquez-Montiel O., Gardea Torresdey J. & VanDerslice J. (1999). Dilution effects on the quality of untreated wastewater used for irrigation along USA-Mexico border. International Journal of environmental Health Research, 9 (2), 125-129. Yagoubi M., Echihabi L., Foutiane A., Bourchich L., Jellal J., Wittland C & El Yachioui M. (2000). Tje performance of the waste stabilization pond system at Boujaad, Morocco. Water Science and Technology, 42 (10-1), 9-16. Zahar Y. (1995). La maîtrise de l’eau en Tunisie après l’an 2000, in L’eau et l’agriculture irriguée en Tunisie. Publication de la Faculté des Lettres, Tunis, 210 p.

126

REMOVAL OF NUTRIENTS AND HEAVY METALS FROM URBAN WASTEWATER USING AERATION, ALUM AND KAOLIN ORE

M.N. Rashed and M.E. Soltan

Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, 81528 Aswan, Egypt. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Some urban wastewater resulted from domestic and industrial wastewater and needs special treatments before discharge to surface water or used for irrigation. This study is target to use kaolin (from south Egypt) as adsorbent for the removal of heavy metals as well as aeration and alum for the removal of nutrients from Kima drain wastewater .The experiment proceeds through 3 steps, the first step applied the aeration method for 24,48,120 and 192 hr and obtained the suitable time to remove or reduce the nutrients. Second step includes treatment with alum [KAl(SO4)2.12H2O] using different alum doses (50,100 &150 mg/l) at the obvious times to remove or reduce the nutrients , while the third one includes treatment with kaolin ore size <63 µm at different doses, pH and times to remove heavy metals. The results revealed that aeration method removed CO3 ,OH and Mn ions , and reduced pH, Ca,Cl, NO2, SiO2, PO4, Na and Fe concentrations. Treatment with alum was effective for the removal of CO3,OH, NO3,PO4 ions and reduced Cl, F, Na, Cd, Cu, Cr, Sr, and Zn . Kaolin ore was very effective as adsorbent for reduced and removal of the heavy metals Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sr and Zn from the wastewater. Using the three consecutive treatment processes ,we obtained wastewater in the range of standardized limits for discharge into surface water or used in irrigation as cited by Egyptian Authorities.

KEYWORDS

Heavy metals- kaolin - pollution- treatment- urban water- wastewater.

INTRODUCTION

Water pollution is responsible for the death of some 25 million people each year (Niemczynowicz, 1999) and cause a destroy of aquatic environment. The major point of water pollution was wastewater, especially urban wastewater, these urban wastewater come from varied sources include domestic wastewater from houses, hospitals and commercial uses as well as agricultural and industrial wastewater. These wastewater contains inorganic pollutants such as nutrient and heavy metals and causes pollution to the surface water. So, many studies were run to eliminate or reduce these pollutants before its discharge or reuse for irrigation. Wild and Stefist (1999) studied the simulation of nutrient fluxes in wastewater treatment plant with EBPR. Alum was used with ferric chloride as coagulators for the wastewater treatment (Ngtez et al, 1999). Many alkalis were currently being used for environmental control purposes particularly in wastewater treatments (Estefan, 1992), the most commonly used were lime and sodium carbonate. Natural ores were also used for wastewater treatment, zeolites were used for removal

127 of heavy metals from wastewater (Yuan et al,1999). Ajmal (1995) was used naturally occurring pyrolusite for adsorption of Pb , Zn and Mg from industrial wastewater. This study is target to apply a continuos three treatment processes on urban wastewater collected from Kima drain (canal received wastewater from fertilizer factory, houses and hospital uses) which consider as a source of pollution in river Nile water. These processes are: 1. Treatment for reduce or removal of nutrients using aeration process. 2. Treatment for the removal or reduce of both remain nutrients and heavy metals using alum (potassium aluminum sulfate) [KAl(SO4)2.12H2O]. 3. Treatment for the removal of heavy metals using kaolin ore which found in a large quantity at Aswan (south of Egypt) . Moreover, this study is target also to obtain treated wastewater in the range of ruse for irrigation or discharge on surface water as cited by Egyptian Authorities.

EXPERIMENTAL

Sample collection

Wastewater samples .The wastewater samples were taken from Kima drain. Wastewater samples were collected by dipping pre-cleaned glass jars into the drain stream and collected in 20-L plastic container. Samples were placed in coolers and transported to the laboratory. Kaolin ore samples. Kaolin ore samples (5 Kg of each) were collected from Kalabsha area (80 km south of Aswan city ,Egypt ). The ore was crushed using a mechanical crusher and ball mill. Then grinding by using an electric agate mortar. The powdered ore was sieved in sieve <63 µm.

Treatment experiment using aeration and alum

Twenty liters of wastewater samples were inserted in two glass jars (40x40x40 cm). 50 mg/l of alum (potassium aluminum sulfate) was added to the one jar every 24 hr till 192 hr , while the air was pumped in the another jar for 192 hr. The samples were analyzed after every addendum in the jar of alum and every known times 24,48,120 and 192 in the aeration jar.

Treatment experiment using kaolin ore

Adsorption studies. To choose the desired size of high adsorption capacity, one gram sample of the operating size <63 µm was washed with 50 ml bidistilled water three times,then treated with 50 ml of solution containing 10 ppm mixture standard of Cd,Cr,Cu, Mn, Pb and Zn in a conical flask. Constant stirring of the solution was maintained for 24 h. After attainment of equilibrium,the content of the flask was filtered through Whatman 0.45µm cellulose nitrate membrane filter and susequently analysed for residual concentrations of the metal ions using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (SP1900 Pye Unicam)The concentration of adsorbed metal ions were calculated from the known total amount of adsorbate added . Effect of concentration. After choosing the ore size that had maximum adsorption capacity,the kaolin was treated with 50 ml mixture heavy metals standards (10,8,4,2 &1 ppm) in a conical flask for 24 h. After attainment of equilibrium,the content of the flask was filtered through Whatman 0.45µm cellulose nitrate membrane filter, and metal ions were analysed using atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The adsorption capacity was calculated.

128

Effect of pH on adsorption.One gram of the kaolin sample was treated with 50 ml of 10 ppm standard mixture, then the pH of the adsorption mixture was adjusted to various pH values (3, 5 ,7& 9) by using 0.5 M NaOH or 0.5 M HCl.The final concentration of the metals were determined after 24 h and the adsorption capacity was calculated. Effect of ore dosage. 0.25, 0.5,1 and 2 gm of kaolin was treated with 50 ml of 10 ppm standard mixture. The final concentration of the metals after 24 h were determined using AAS, and the adsorption capacity was calculated. After determined the suitable dose and time of alum, as well as, the optimum aeration time, kaolin (<63µm) experiment was applied on wastewater sample to obtain the ideal pH, dose and time for treatment.

Standard solutions:

Certified atomic absorption spectroscopic standard solution as Cd,Cr,Cu, Mn, Pb and Zn (1000 ppm) was purchased from BDH Company,UK. Working standard solutions 10,8,4,2 & 1 ppm were prepared by diluting the stock one.

Analytical measurements:

The original wastewater sample and the samples resulted from each treatment were analyzed for pH, conductivity, ions CO3,OH, Cl, SO4,PO4,NO3,SiO2, F, Na, Ca, Mg, and Fe according to standard methods . Heavy metals Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Sr , Mn , Pb and Zn were analyzed using Atomic absorption spectrophotometer, SP1900 Pye Unicum.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Wastewater treatment using aeration method:

The results of wastewater treatment experiments (Table 1) show that aeration method exhibited high efficiency (100%) after 120 hr for complete removal of CO3, OH and Mn ions, while it reduced the concentrations of pH, Ca, Cl, NO3, SiO2, PO4, Na and Fe at different times; Ca 44.8-42.4 mg/l and NO3 42-34 mg/l after 48 hr, SiO2 17-8.5 mg/l and Cl 76.5-6.3 mg/l after 120 hr . The chloride removal was as the result of the adsorption of some metal chlorides on the precipitate. Nitrate removal efficiency was decreased after 48 hr then increases as the time increased; this increase may be due to oxidation of free ammonia to nitrite that oxidized to nitrate (Wakeel&Wahby, 1970). Nitrate ground water was reduced by the addition of 315-mish iron and buffered at pH 8.8 (Cheng et al, 1997). PO4 was removed after 192 hr (100% removal efficiency) , this was due to either precipitation of Ca and Al phosphate or adsorption of phosphate on the hydrous iron oxide ( Furumal & Ohgakl , 1989). Maximum reduction of SiO2 observed after 120 hr . Sodium removal efficiency increased up to 24 hr and decreased as the time forward, this decrease was as the result of the adsorption of Na ions on the negative precipitated charge. pH decreased from 9.14 (initial wastewater concentration) to 6.89 after aeration time 120 hr ,as the results of acidic effect of the air CO2 (Soltan,1991). Heavy metals Fe, Cd, Cr, Cu , Sr and Zn have not regular trends in the treatment efficiency with aeration , but nearly all reached maximum efficiency in the time range 48-120 hr.

129

Table 1: Treatment efficiency (%) of the study items in the wastewater.

Time. 24 hr 48hr 120hr 129hr Methods. A B C A B C A B A B Ions PH 3.51 5.04 - 6.68 9.09 - 12. 12.9 24.6 23.7 CO3 27.7 44.45 - 55.5 86.1 - 100 100 100 100 OH 100 100 - 100 100 - 100 100 100 100 Cl 83.6 83.6 - 91.6 91.6 - 91.6 91.6 91.6 91.6 PO4 22.6 62.7 - 47.9 75.8 - 96.5 100 100 100 NO3 138 100 - 80.9 100 - 114 100 138 111 SiO2 31.7 58.8 - 43.9 18.2 - 50 48.2 48.2 32.9 Ca 96.4 96.4 - 94.1 96.4 - 100 104 118 128 Na 66.3 64.1 - 63 66.3 - 63 59.9 63 58.7 Fe 5.75 5.75 92 3.45 21.8 93 82.7 69.9 81.6 56.3 Cd 23.3 20 100 33.3 20 100 36.6 46.6 40 66.6 Cr 33.3 33.3 100 66 33.3 100 33.3 33.3 66.6 66.6 Cu 150 200 100 50 0.0 100 0.0 50 150 150 Sr 73.3 66.6 94 80 73.3 92 93.3 73.3 86 93 Mn 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 25 75 Zn 75 87.5 88 87.5 37.5 87 62.5 25 25 50

A: Treatment with aeration. B: Treatment with Alum. C: Treatment with kaolin

These metals may be adsorbed on the colloidal precipitate formed in the solution. Constructed wetlands was used to treat some toxic wastewater under tropical conditions, which remove more than 99% of Cr and Ni concentrations ( Polprasert et al,1996). Single and two stage aerated system was used for the removal of nitrogen from wastewater (% N2 efficiency removal 95%)(Andreadakis et al, 1995).

Wastewater treatment using alum method:

Effect of time. The effect of time in wastewater treatment with alum is shown in Table 1. The results revealed complete removal of OH, NO3, Mn and Cu after 24 hr , while CO3 and NO3 after 120 hr. The method reduced the concentrations of SiO2 and Zn after 24 hr, while it reduced Na after 48 hr, and Cl, F, Cd, Sr and Cr after 192 hr. Initial phosphate concentration in the sample was 3.7 mg/l which exhibited fast removal in alum method (after 120 hr) than those aeration (192 hr) (Table 2).This decrease was due to either precipitation of Ca and Al phosphate or adsorption of phosphate on hydrous aluminum oxide ( Ngtez et al,1999). Hydroxyl ion OH initial concentration was completely removed after 24 hr, this remove resulted when the addition of alum ,it furnishes Al+3 ion in solution which discharge the hydroxyl OH negative ion . Remove of Mn was as the result of it's consume in oxidation process by microorganisms. The decrease of Co, Cu, Cr, Cd, Fe, Pb and Zn were as the result of redissolved of the suspended or colloidal dehydrated oxide as a result of pH decreases (Ajmal et al, 1992).

130

Table 2: Nutrient levels ( ppm )in original and treated samples and Egyptian standard .

Sample pH CO3 OH Cl NO3 PO4 SiO2 Ca Na F Original sample 9.14 144 768 76.5 42 3.7 17 44.8 46 0.3 Aeration treatment 6.08 0.0 0.0 63 34 0.0 8.5 42.4 17 0.42 Alum treatment 6.92 0.0 0.0 63 0.0 0.00 8.8 43.2 15.5 0.06 Egyptian Standard 6-9 -- --- 1 30 1 ------1.0

Effect of alum dose. Figures 1 and 2 show the effect of alum dose (50,100 & 150 mg/l) on removal efficiency of ions. For CO3, OH, Cl, PO4,NO3, SiO2 , Na and Ca ions the suitable alum dose observed was 100 mg/l , while for heavy metals, the suitable alum dose was 50 mg/l . Alum dose of 100 mg/l for 120 hr was sufficient for complete removal of CO3, OH and Mn, and reduce the concentrations of Cl , PO4, SiO2, Na and Ca. The obvious heavy metals were less reduced by alum method (30-50% efficiency removal), but more effective than aeration method. Possible component of the (SPM) suspended particle matter, such as Al, Fi, Fe and Mn oxides or hydroxides, were known to have substantially different binding affinities for metals (Ferreira et al, 1997). The effects of size and geochemical properties on the binding of trace metals to natural colloids and particles have been investigated in which Cd was more strongly bound to the smallest fraction than Cu (Lead et al, 1999).

Fig.1 : Effect of alum dose on nutrients Fig.2 Effect of alum dose on trace efficiency treatment elements efficiency treatment 120 120 t t 50mg/l 100 100 100mg/l 80 150mg/l 80 60 60 40 40 20 20 0 % Efficiency treatmen % Efficiency % Efficiency treatmen % Efficiency 0 Fe Cd Cr Cu Sr Zn Pb CO3 OH Cl PO4 NO3 SiO2 Ca Na

Treatment using kaolin method

Effect of initial metal concentrations. From Table 3 ,it was shown that Cr , Cd , Cu and Pb undergo complete adsorption (100%) at kaolin surface for all the initial element standards. For remaining elements, Mn maximum adsorption observed with Mn initial concentration 10 ppm, while for Sr, Fe and Zn, maximum adsorption was observed from 8 ppm Sr , Fe and Zn standards. Parkman et al (1998) reported that per cent uptake of Sr on kaolinite was greatest at the highest initial Sr concentration.

Effect of pH. The adsorption of the heavy metals on kaolin at different pH was performed using 10 ppm standard mixture elements. The results (Fig.3) show that the adsorption of the studied heavy metals increased as pH increase from 3 -6.5, the maximum adsorption of the metals observed at pH < 7. After pH 7 the metals adsorption decrease as the result of precipitation of these metals.

131

Table 3: Effect of initial heavy metals concentration on adsorption efficiency

Element initial Mn Sr Fe Cr Pb Cd Zn Cu Concentration(ppm) % Adsorption 1 94 98 99 100 100 100 99 100 2 95.5 95 100 100 100 100 100 100 4 91.7 93 98.7 100 100 100 98.7 100 8 95.5 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 10 97 91 99.5 100 100 100 99.5 100

Other study on the adsorption of heavy metals on the biomass of Phormidium sp was suitable at pH 5 for Pb, Cu, Cd, Zn and Ni (Wang et al, 1998), the maximum adsorption was 13,600 mg/kg for Pb; 10,100 mg/kg for Cu; 9,600 mg/kg for Cd ; 9,400 mg/kg for Zn and 5,700 mg/kg for Ni. Ajmal et al (1995) reported the maximum adsorption of Pb ,Zn and Cd on pyrolusite under pH 7. The optimum pH for removal of Cd, Cu and Mo using carbonaceous material, developed from the waste slurry generated from fertilizer plant, was about pH 6, for Cr and Hg was at pH 2, while for Pb it was almost in the range 6-7 (Srivestava et al, 1989).

Effect of kaolin dose. Using different dose of kaolin (0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2 gram) for the adsorption technique, suitable kaolin dose for the maximum adsorption of the studied heavy metals was obtained (Fig.4). It shown that the adsorption of Fe, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Sr, Mn and Pb increased as the kaolin dose increase and reach maximum at 2g.

Fig. 3 : Influnce of pH on heavy metal Fig. 4 : Effect of kaolin dose on the heavy adsorption on kaolin metal adsorption 120 100 100 Mn 80 Sr Sr Fe Fe 60 10 Cr Cr Pb Pb 40 Cd Cd % Adsorpion Zn % Adsorption 20 Zn Cu Cu 0 1 0.5 1 1.5 2 3579 pH Kaolin dose

Langmiur adsorption isotherm. Langmuir equation was used as the model for adsorption, the adjusted Langmuir equation in its linear form being (Bohn et al, 1985) 1/(x/m)= 1/c b + 1/a (1) where c (mg/kg) , is the concentration of adsorbate left in solution at equilibrium, x/m(mg/kg) ,is the amount of adsorbate adsorbed per unit mass of adsorbent, a ,is Langmuir binding energy coefficient, and b (mg/kg) , is the adsorption maximum. Parameters (a ) and ( b ) can be obtained from the equation (Table 4 ). it was shown that the adsorption maximum parameter using kaolin (a) was the highest for Fe, while the lowest was for Mn .Zinc adsorption maximum was less than of Fe and Sr. Kaolin binding energy (b) was nearly

132 the same for Fe, Zn and Sr ,while binding energy for Mn was the lowest . This mean that Fe and Zn was higher bounded to kaolin than Mn and Sr. Correlation coefficient (R2) ,obtained from Langmuir isotherms, were positive

Table 4: Langmuir parameters for the adsorption of heavy metal on kaolin

Ions Adsorption maximum Binding energy R2 for a (mg/kg) b (mg/kg) Langmuir equation Mn 2.62 0.557 0.224 Fe 1666 1.007 0.999 Zn 1000 1.006 0.999 Sr 90.9 1.003 0.999 and highly significant. Other study (Wang et al, 1998) on the heavy metals binding and removal by Phormidium sp biomass reported the highly maximum adsorption, calculated from Langmuir isotherm, was for Pb (13,600 mg/kg) and Cu (10,100 mg/kg), while it was nearly the same for Cd (9,600 mg/kg) and Zn (9,400 mg/kg ).

Wastewater treatment using kaolin. After concluded the suitable conditions for the adsorption of heavy metals Fe, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Sr, Mn and Pb on kaolin using standard solution, Kima drain wastewater was applied for the removal of heavy metals using kaolin. Treatment with kaolin ore size <63 µm exhibited the high efficiency for the complete removal of heavy metals. The adsorption per cent (Table 5) was 100% for Cd, Cu, Cr, Mn and Pb. Kaolin reduce the concentration of Fe, Sr and Zn (adsorption per cent 92%, 94 % and 88 % respectively). Kaolin treatment method was very effective for the removal of heavy metals Fe, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Sr, Mn and Pb than aeration and alum methods (Table 5). Various low cost adsorbents reported to be effective for the removal of heavy metals from wastewater, Fe(III)hydroxide was used for the removal of Cr ,Ni ,Cu , Cd and Zn from electroplating wastewater (Ajmal et al,1992). The results of the wastewater treatment processes (Table 5) were in the limits cited by Egyptian Authority for discharge into surface water or reuse for irrigation.

Table 5: Heavy metals levels (ppb) in Alum treatment samples and Egyptian standard.

Sample Fe Cd Cu Cr Sr Mn Pb Zn Original sample 430 30 22 32 150 40 32 80 Alum treatment 30 0.0 0.0 0.0 10 0.0 0.0 10 Kaolin treatment 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.80 0.0 0.0 0.9 Egyptian Standard* 1000 ppb *Egyptian limits for treated wastewater discharge to surface water ,law 48 of the year 1982 for the protection of the river Nile.

CONCLUSION

Continuous treatment processes, aeration, addition of alum and adsorption at kaolin surface, were developed for removal of nutrients and heavy metals. Aeration and alum processes were effective for the removal or reduce of nutrients, while kaolin process was very effective for removal of Cd, Cu, Cr , Mn and Pb and reduced the concentrations of Fe , Sr and Zn. The results of the

133 wastewater treatment processes were in the limits cited by Egyptian Authority for discharge into surface water or reuse for irrigation.

REFERENCES

Ajmal,M; Sulaiman,A.M. & Khan,A.H.(1992):Adsorption of heavy metals using iron hydroxide.J.water,air and soil pollution,68,485. Ajmal,M.; Rifaqt,A.K. & Siddiqui,B.A.(1995): Adsorption studies and removal of dissolved metals using pyrolusite as adsorbent. Environ. Monit. and Ass.,38, 25-35. Andreadakis, A.; Kondili,G.; Mamais,F. & Noussi ,A.(1995):Treatment of septage using single and two stage activation sludge batch reactors systems, Wat.Sci.Tech.,32(12),63-75. Bohn.; McNeal, B.& Conner,G.O.(1985): Soil Chemistry, pp 341,Wiley &Sons, New York. Cheng, I. F.; Mufitikian, R.; Fernando,Q. & Korte ,N.(1997):Reduction of nitrate to ammonia by zero-valent iron, Chemosphere ,35(11),2689-2695. Estefan,,S.F.(1992): Strategy against hazardous environmental events,4th Natl.Phys. Conf. Cairo, 28-30 November, proceedings part 1,pp 225. Ferreira, J.R.; Lawlor,A.J.; Bates,J.M.;Clarke,K.J.& Tipping, E.(1997): Chemistry of riverine and estuarine particles from Quse-Trent system , UK.Coll.Surf. A. Physicochem. Eng.Aspects, 120,183-198. Furumal,H.& Ohgaki,S.(1989): Adsorption-desorption of phosphate by lake sediment under anaerobic conditions. Wat.Res.23(6),677-683. Lead,J.R.;Hamilton-Taylor,J.;Oavison,W.& Harper,M.(1999): Trace metal sorption by natural particles and coarse colloids, Geoche.Cosmochem.Acta ,63 (11/12), 1661-1670. Parkman,R.H.;Charnock,J.M.;Livens,F.R.& Vaughan,D.J.(1998): A study of the interaction of strontium ions in aqueous solution with the surfaces of calcite and kaolinite , Geochem.Cosmochem.Acta, 62(9),1481-1492. Polprasert,C.;Dan,N.P.& Thayalakumara,N.(1996): Application of constructed wetlands to treat some toxic wastewater under tropical conditions, Wat. Sci. Tech., 34(1),165-171. Ngtez,L.A.;Fuente,E.;Martnez,B. & Garca,P.A.(1999):Slaughterhouse wastewater treatment using ferric and aluminum salts and organic polyelectrolite. J. Environ.Sci. and Health PartA,34(3),721-736. Niemczynowicz, j. (1999): Urban hydrology and water management-present and future challenges. Urban Water,1,1-14. Soltan,M.E.(1991):Study of River Nile pollution .Ph.D.Thesis.Fac.Sci.Aswan.Egypt. Srivestava,S.K.;Tyagi,R.& Paut,N.(1989): Adsorption of heavy metals on carbonaceous martial developed from the waste slurry generated in local fertilizer plant, Wat.Res.,23(9),1161-1165. Yuan,G.;Seyama,H.;Soma,M.;Theng,B.K.G.& Tanaka,A.(1999):Adsorption of some heavy metals by natural zeolities. J.Environ.Sci. and Health PartA, 34(3),625-648. Wakeel,S.K.& Wahby,S.D.(1970): Hydrography and chemistry of lake Manzalah, Egypt.Arch.Hydrobiol.,67,173-200.

134

Wang.T.C.;Weissman,J.C.;Ramesla,G.;Varadarajan,R. & Benemann,J.R.(1998): Heavy metal binding and removal by phormidium, Environ. Cont. Toxico., 60, 739-744. Wild,D. & Siegrist,H.(1999):The simulation of nutrient fluxes in wastewater treatment plants with EBPR.Water Research,33(7),1652-1662.

135

Abstracts of Poster Presentations

LA REUTILISATION DES EAUX USEES TRAITEES DANS LE SECTEUR AGRICOLE DEFIS ET CONTROVERSES

Hella Ben Brahim* et Lucien Duckstein

* Assistante à la faculté des sciences économiques et de gestion de Tunis. Département d'économie mathématiques et économétrie. 22, rue 7313 Menzah 9b. 2092 Tunis. Tunisie. [email protected] ** Professeur à l'Ecole nationale du génie rural des eaux et des forêts d. 19, avenue du Maine 75732 Paris cedex 15. [email protected]

RESUME

Cette pratique est surtout appliquée dans les pays à climat aride et semi-aride qui souffrent d'une surexploitation des eaux de surface et des eaux souterraines et qui sont aussi gravement affectés par les changements climatiques. Il est nécessaire de rappeler que la demande de cette ressource connaît des fluctuations importantes qui peuvent remettre en cause toute politique de prévention environnementale11 se basant sur la réutilisation des EUT12. En effet, plusieurs facteurs peuvent agir sur sa demande, surtout dans le secteur agricole13, et si l'on suppose que l'agriculteur n'a accès qu'à cette ressource, la pluviométrie représente le facteur le plus important qui peut agir sur sa consommation en eau épurée.

L'objectif de cet article est de profiter de l'expérience tunisienne, pour présenter la relation de la demande en EUT avec les variations climatologiques et précisément la pluviométrie. Le résultat de cette recherche permettra d'évaluer les solutions complémentaires à savoir les puits de stockage et la recharge des nappes souterraines.

MOTS CLES : EUT, pluviométrie, climat semi-aride et aride, demande d'EUT, environnement, secteur agricole

11 Un projet de construction d'un émissaire marin d'une longueur de 5 km sera présenté oralement pour montrer que sa réussite dépendra essentiellement de la continuité de l'expérience de réutilisation des EUT dans le secteur agricole. Projet évalué par l'office national d'assainissement sanitaire tunisien et sera appliqué à la côte nord tunisienne 12 EUT: eaux usées traitées 13 plus de 80% des EUT réutilisées sont exploitées par le service agricole

136

EARLY AUSTRALIAN REGULATORY MODELS FOR WATER REUSE TO ENSURE THAT IT IS A MAJOR CONTRIBUTOR TO SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT

Associate Professor Jennifer McKay*

*Director, Water Policy and Law Group School of International Business University of South Australia Adelaide.

ABSTRACT

The first Part of this paper will look at the international context in water reuse and in particular focus on California where a wide variety of disciplines have approached the outcomes for actual schemes. Water reuse is required in Australia to reduce demand on potable supplies and hence reduce overall demand for water. The dire need for this has been well established and this will be described. The reuse of water is also in accordance with Australia's well publicised environmentally sustainable development( ESD)policy promulgated by the Federal Government in 1992. Indeed some authors have stated that Australia has one of the most comprehensive responses to the Brundtland Commission in the 1992 statement. Water recycling, also accords with federally driven competition reform of former public utilities in the early 1990's known as the COAG agenda. These major revisions of almost 200 years of water policies will be described in this paper. The Federal nature of Australia and in particular its constitution allow the National Government power to persuade by fiscal means but the power to legislate remains with the States and Territories. Each State has complied with these dual agendas by passing laws also each State has a different approach. The approaches provide a microcosm of experience to make comparisons between States and with other jurisdictions. Still experience in Australia is limited and the second part of the paper will go through the Federal State government policies in water reuse.

The third part of the paper will examine two jurisdictions New South Wales and South Australia and their different regulatory approach to water reuse and the policies in place. South Australia is host to the largest urban development using where recycled water is a major component of the development and where new residents sign a covenant agreeing to use recycled water for certain activities. These new developments are testing community acceptance of the concept in Australia. The final part of this paper will examine issues that have arisen within the embryonic regulatory framework for reuse of water and make suggestions of the most appropriate regulatory direction for Australia.

KEYWORDS: agricultural water reuse, Australian water policy ,Australian water recycling, Australian urban water reuse, urban water reuse, water reuse laws

137

WATER RECLAMATION IN SOUTH AFRICA: THE ANSWER FOR THE INCREASING WATER DEMAND IN THE GAUTENG REGION?

S. Vandaele*, C. Thoeye*, K. Snyman** * Aquafin NV, Dijkstraat 8, B-2640 Aartselaar, Belgium; [email protected] ** Water & Environment Department Pretoria, PO Box 1409, Pretoria 0001, South-Africa

ABSTRACT

South Africa, and especially the Gauteng area, is known as a water stressed region. The total available water resources in South Africa amount to 28 470 × 106 m3 per year, which corresponds to less than 1 700 m3 per capita per year. In this paper some case studies from Pretoria are presented. For example, at the Zeekoegat STP the use of a membrane bioreactor to produce a very high quality effluent that can be used for the production of drinking water is studied. At the STP of Sunderland Ridge recharge of the underlying dolomite layer can be an option. At the STP of Rooiwal about 10,2 × 106 m³/a of the effluent is reclaimed for irrigation applications and circa 2 000 m³/d of the effluent is used as cooling water in the nearby power station. Furthermore, the new policy of South Africa with regards to reclamation is discussed such as the role of Integrated water resources management, water pricing and Catchment Management Agencies in the implementation of reclamation. Some points of attention such as risks for public health, social aversion towards reclamation and managing risk and liability are discussed.

KEYWORDS: Sources (of water), reclamation, re-use, water consumption, sustainable water management, water treatment.

WATER QUALITY INVESTIGATION AND MANAGEMENT IN BANGKOK METROPOLITAN REGION, THAILAND

Weeteeprasit, W. Metropolitan Waterworks Authority 400 Prachachuen Rd., Bangkok, Thailand E-mail : [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Rapid urbanisation and industrialisation in Bangkok region have occurred without proper planning and led to the complexity in waste discharge control. Wastewater from domestic, commercial, and industrial sources is discharged with and without treatment into the Chao Phraya river and various canals. It is estimated that total domestic and industrial BOD load is discharged into the river at a rate of 183,634 kg/day. At present, water quality in the lower reach of the Chao Phraya river falls below the established standards and faecal contamination is found in this part. Moreover, pathogenic organisms such as Vibrio bacteria, Candida albicans, and Hepatitis A virus are found in several canals. Due to the lack of financial resources, low-cost wastewater collection and treatment systems are required. Intercepting sewers with diversion chambers seem to be an appropriate technology for those communities. On-site wastewater treatment systems are considered as a further option. Technical solution to waste control can be supplemented by management measures involving

138 public education, discharge controls, better planning for industry, all aimed at improving water quality in the Bangkok area.

KEYWORDS: appropriate technology, Bangkok region, management measures, urbanisation, wastewater, water quality.

139

Workshop 3 WATER AND HEALTH

Convenors: Academie de l’Eau World Health Organisation

141

HEALTH IMPACTS OF WATER

Keynote address

Eric Giroult, (Master in Environmental Health, Yale University)

BACKGROUND

Water related diseases remain a major cause of morbidity all around the world. In developing countries, water related diseases is the main cause of mortality among children under 5 years of age. Those water related diseases may be water drunk, water washed, or water borne. The “water drunk” diseases are in most cases bacteriological infections (such as typhoid fever, cholera and other enteric infections), virological infections (poliomyelitis or hepatitis A), or parasitic infections (giardiasis, amibiasis, various kind of helminthiasis), of which microbiological agents are ingested together with unsafe drinking water. Those water related diseases may, sometimes, be chronic diseases caused or aggravated by chemicals present in drinking water at excessive concentrations (however this excess input of toxic chemical should be added to inputs from food and air breathed, for example when lead is the concern). The “water washed” diseases are those resulting from the lack of water for personal hygiene, they are dermatological or ophtalmological infections, such as scrabbies or trachoma. The “water borne” diseases are those transmitted by an invertebrate water borne vector (insect or snail), using water bodies as habitat or breading place. Those diseases are either viral infections such as dengue, yellow fever, or Japanese encephalitis; or these are parasitic infections such as: malaria, schistosomiasis/bilhariasis, filariasis, oncocerchiasis and draculoncerciasis. Those dreadful water borne diseases are mainly found in tropical areas. Despite the fact that some effictive vaccines are available to prevent viral diseases such as yellow fever or poliomyelitis, and that antibiotics may control bacterial diseases such as typhoid fever, and that specific pharmaceutical drugs may cure some of forms of tropical helminthiasis; it is widely recognized, that the best way to control water related diseases is to achieve the following conditions: 1. Access for all to a sufficient quantity (20 liter per capita per day, at least) of safe drinking water, linked to health education on hygienic use of water at home. 2. Access for all to hygienic latrines, achieving safe disposal of human excreta. 3. Enforcement of food hygiene in food trade and at home. 4. Domestic and personal hygiene (washing). 5. Drainage of sewage and rain waters, linked to effective collection of solid wastes. 6. Vector control in urban lakes and rivers, and epidemiological monitoring of the incidence of tropical diseases.

Those requirements are easily met if human settlements enjoy an efficient water supply system; they are almost impossible to meet in the absence of such system.

143

Persistent deficiencies in urban environmental health:

In many developed countries, there is an acute lack of health education related to water, both at school and in the media. Very often water supply systems are run according to an industrial logic, and not for a public health purpose. Usually the population, or more exactly the housing stock, is almost totally connected to piped water supply, but public stand-posts have disappeared, which means that homeless people have no access to safe water. All houses are not yet linked to sewers or to in-situ sanitary systems of acceptable hygienic standards. In Europe, storm-water drainage remains a problem, as main drains have not been designed to cope with the increasing flow resulting from ever extending waterproof urbanized areas. Therefore those cities are periodically subject to floods. In eastern Asia, the persistent practice of night soil collection, as a way to ensure basic sanitation, remains questionable. In North America, the times when it was possible to supply big cities, including New-York, with untreated natural water, just chlorinated, is coming to an end. In these affluent countries new health safety problems related to water supply have emerged, such as the lead issue in western Europe, or the so-called “Norwalk agent” in North America.

In countries in economic transition, rural areas and urban fringes are still dependent upon unsafe shallow wells and primitive pit-latrines. In those countries, and especially in central Asia, the housing stock is far from being totally connected to piped water supply. Sometimes even the hospitals are not connected. Only the central urban districts are served by sewers, and stormwater drainage systems need a lot of improvement. The safety of drinking water remains questionable, as shown by recurrent cholera outbreaks in south-east Europe. However those countries have the technical capability, if not the managerial capacities or the financial resources, to cope with their water problems.

In developing countries, large percentages of populations are still denied access to a sufficient amount of safe drinking water, and only the wealthiest neighborhood are served by sewers and adequate storm drainage facilities. Most often urban rivers are turned to open air sewers, and the unconfined aquifer is badly polluted by pit-latrine effluents. To supply populations devoid of the necessary resources to get connected to piped water systems, an efficient solution is to built, in unserved areas, public standposts managed by a private person who buys water from the system, and sell it (hopefully at a reasonable price) to customers filling tanks or jerry-cans. Another approach is to promote desinfection of shallow wells, for example by the double-pot method. In the absence of sewers, sewage and rainwater may be collected together in open air channels, this will work as long as the population will refrain from clogging those channels by disposing of their solid waste inside. Unfortunately, most often, and particularly in tropical Africa and southern Asia, rainwater drainage and sewerage remains an unsolved problem, and urban rivers are turned to stinky open air sewers. Middle-east and north-African cities face the problem of acute shortage of water resources, the case of Amman being especially critical. One solution worth studying, will be to supply selected coastal cities with fresh water imported through tankers. It may be superfluous to say that in many cases, and especially due to discontinuity of service, piped water is bacteriologically unsafe in many third world cities, as shown by recurrent cholera outbreaks.

Cities, all around the world, may and should do better, using urban rivers and canals to improve urban transportation systems. The cases of Bangkok or Amsterdam, may be taken as a model of what can be done. They also may and should do better, using urban water bodies to improve city esthetic and develop recreation areas, as done in Copenhagen. Those potentialities are lost when

144 river banks are turned to highways, or when rivers and/or canals are covered to increase traffic or parking space. Storm-water should be as far as feasible, reused inside the city to replenish the unconfined aquifer, or urban reservoirs and lakes. In arid climates, the water cycle should be designed in order to facilitate agricultural reuse of water. For example in Marrakech, public swimming pools are built above ground, in order that their water may be reused for garden watering, without pumping. In addition Marrakech sewage, after treatment on reed-beds, is reused to water the palm-trees.

LINKS BETWEEN SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE OF HEALTH HAZARDS AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION AND BEHAVIOR

Public perception of good water quality is mostly based upon organoleptic aspects, such as taste, odor, turbidity, color, and salinity. If some unpleasant taste results from water desinfection through chlorination, people will be pushed by commercial advertisement, to drink bottled “spring water”, supposed to be crystal clear.

Negative reactions from the public also come from poor information given by the media on issues of the day; and more specifically on the meaning of any chemical quality standard. Neither the media, nor the public understand that a standard is a compromise between what is desirable, and what is feasible. They think that nothing happens below the standard, and that the worst things happens as soon as the standard is trespassed. For example, it has happened that the piped water supply in a city was discontinued, because the nitrate content of the water was measured at 50 mg/l, when the WHO standard was 40 mg/l. This was a stupid decision as people had to rush upon alternative but unsafe water sources, for which health impacts were far worse than those which would have resulted from the continuation of the piped water supply despite its high nitrate content.

In developing countries, despite all the efforts put in health education of the public, a large percentage of the populations are not yet convinced of the ill-health impacts of unsafe drinking water. They still attribute disease to bad-air, or to magic tricks; like in Europe when a century ago, malaria or cholera was attributed to miasma from swamps or polluted air.

A new problem has recently emerged in France, where consumer lobbies argue against water bills including a fixed monthly amount to cover pipe system amortization. They want to pay only the water volume actually used. This is possible, but they should have to collect their water in jerrycans at the standposts, as it is done namely in the Moroccan urban fringes. At least in Morocco, those standposts are fine pieces of local architecture, contributing to urban esthetic.

ROLE OF DECISION-MAKERS ON HEALTH AND WATER ISSUES

It is the responsibility of city administrators to ensure adequate water supply, sanitation, waste disposal and storm-water drainage inside the city limits. It is also their responsibility to manage water cycles inside city limits. When obvious deficiencies arise, they use two classical excuses: lack of funding, and lack of qualified technicians. The city water supply agency, will not agree that they have tremendous water leaks in their distribution pipes, nor will they agree that cholera may be transmitted through the water they supply; they will always pretend that there is a deficit of water supplied from natural sources at the entrance of the pipe system, they will also argue that

145 cholera is transmitted by fresh vegetables that people eat, not by water they drink. Therefore two requirement arise: - City administrators must put water problems at the top of their political agenda; - Water supply managers must devote more efforts to the daily maintenance of their pipe systems, and concentrate on the microbiological quality of the water they supply, prior to being concerned with its chemical quality.

Cities should have a municipal health office, checking the safety of drinking water, as well as the hygienic conditions of basic sanitation, and sewerage, and drainage, and waste collection and disposal systems, but also the hygienic conditions of food trade. This office is also in charge of monitoring the incidence of key diseases in the city.

Whether this office exist and is adequately staffed and funded, is a clear indication of the level of priority given to health issues by the city administrators.

The fact that cities are responsible to provide appropriate public utilities to their citizen, does not preclude the possibility of those public utilities being operated through private contractors. In any case water supply systems should be managed on sound economic principles in order to ensure their sustainability.

ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH IMPACTS FROM URBAN WATER:

A prerequisite for such assessment is the availability of reliable health statistics giving in terms of mortality and morbidity, the incidence and prevalence of indicator diseases such as: - Typhoid fever and cholera, indicating bacteriological contamination of drinking water; - Intestinal helminthiasis especially among children, which indicate the quality of basic sanitation.

In a city not totally covered with an efficient water supply system, or whose population is not fully served by hygienic latrines, those indicators will respond drastically to any significant improvement of the situation. For example a program of family latrines in an urban district, may result in a drop from 90% to 30%, of the prevalence of intestinal helminthiasis among children. A cholera epidemic may be stopped by providing general access to safe water supply, to all the exposed population.

Outbreaks of indicator diseases should be used to identify major deficiencies: - An outbreak of typhoid fever in a city totally covered by piped water supply, do indicate some kind of fecal contamination in the water supply network; - An outbreak of cholera in a city district is an indication of both a very low quality of drinking water supply and lack or poor quality of basic sanitation.

Any significant improvement of urban water management may be measured both through epidemiological indicators (prevalence or incidence of indicator diseases), and through service indicators (percentage of population served, continuity of service, quality indicator of service). For drinking water supply the quality of service must be first of all, its bacteriological safety warranted by the concentration of free chlorine in water at the consumer tape. Chemical safety should be dealt with only after bacteriological safety is ensured.

146

NEEDED INNOVATIVE URBAN WATER MANGEMENT FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, CASE OF EGYPT

Abdelwahab M. Amer

Irrigation and Hydraulics Department,, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Water has been a critical component for development in Egypt. As population increases demand on the limited water supply increases. To meet the competing demands, more attention is given to non-conventional water resources. As a result, and following a general increase in wastewater treatment, wastewater reclamation and reuse is expected to increase sharply over the next few decades and becomes an important aspect of integrated water resources management. Important projects are being developed and wastewater reclamation and reuse facilities have been built. This paper presents the status of wastewater reclamation and reuse in Egypt and highlights the existing reuse standards. Treated effluents in general do not meet the standards for disposal to watercourses. Positive and negative effects of the use of reclaimed water for agricultural production are discussed. It is needed to establish guidelines on wastewater reclamation and reuse. Innovative demand management and supply enhancement measures have to be adapted, among which low level of treatment and dual distribution systems.

KEYWORDS

Reclaimed wastewater; reuse criteria; water management.

WATER RESOURCES IN EGYPT

Egypt is a very arid country. The Nile river is almost the exclusive source of surface water. It provides Egypt with 55.5 billion m3/year. The total dissolved solids (TDS) for the Nile ranges from 175 mg/l at Aswan to 210 mg/l at the Delta barrages. Deterioration in water quality occurs in northward direction due to urban water effluent and agricultural drainage as well as decreasing flow. Canals have water quality similar to that at the points of diversion from the Nile. Drains between Aswan and Cairo receive run-off from agricultural lands with satisfactory water quality. Drains in the Delta have extremely variable quality. Drains in the Delta have extremely variable quality. Some of it receive municipal and industrial wastewater in addition to agricultural return flow. Groundwater in Egypt can be divided into two categories. The first comprises the Nile valley and delta aquifer system with renewable water of Nile origin. The second is the nonrenewable deep groundwater in the western desert. Shallow small aquifers in the coastal areas along the Mediterranean sea receive water from the limited rainfall. Nontraditional water resources are agricultural drainage water, reclaimed water, and limited amounts from desalination.

147

POPULATION GROWTH AND PER CAPITA WATER AVAILABILITY

Egypt is approaching the stationary growth stage characterized by slow decrease of annual crude birth rate which reached about 2.7% in 1996 against rapid decline of crude death rate which has dropped sharply to the minimum of 0.62% in the same year. The settlement pattern of population whether in rural or urban areas is another important aspect of population growth. The percentage of rural population ranged between 55.5% and 56.5% during the last three decades. Water needs for human uses in urban are about 1.5 times that of rural areas. Considering total renewable water resources, per capita quota was 1893 m3 in year 1960, 967 m3 in year 2000 and estimated to be 673 m3 in year 2025 (Fig. 1).

Population

Fig. 1: Changes in per capita quota of water and population in Egypt, 1897-2025 (Adopted from Khalifa and Abdelmonem, 1997)

URBANIZATION EXPANSIONS

In the last three decades the map of Egypt has been changing considerably. The overpopulated cities are no more capable to cope with the increasing population. Many new cities, towns and settling communities in different parts of the country are under construction and expanding rapidly. Numerous resorts have been constructed along the Mediterranean sea coast, Red sea coast, and Sinai. Moreover, random urbanization steadily expands at the fringes of big cities. The newly urbanized areas impose additional stress on the management aspects of urban water. Nontraditional techniques and ideas have to be applied to avoid the cronical problems of old cities.

WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Only the biggest cities in Egypt (about 60 cities) have public sewerage systems. Most of the networks are overloaded and in poor condition. Sewerage and sanitation facilities were lagging

148 behind water supply. Recently, the Government of Egypt (GOE) has launched an ambitious program for constructing new wastewater collection and treatment systems allover the country. Work undertaken over the last two decades has involved the design of an extensive wastewater collection system and six major wastewater treatment plants to serve the population in Greater Cairo. Five of these treatment plants are in operation. The wastewater treatment technologies employed in these plants are: activated sludge; aerated lagoons; and wastewater stabilization ponds. They provide secondary treatment to the domestic and industrial wastewater of about 3,000,000 m3/day generated by a population of 16 million persons. The daily flow is expected to reach 4,000,000 m3/day in 2025. Considering the predicted increase in population, urbanization and consequently water consumption, then the reuse of treated effluents in Egypt is very crucial.

WATER SUPPLY ENHANCEMENT

Innovative supply enhancement measures include new water supplies from new facilities, reclamation and desalination plants, water transfers, improving existing system operations, and increases use of groundwater. Reused water can be added to the supply system as either a new source of water supply or for pollution control (Wilchfort and Lund, 1997). Reused water has been used in different parts of the world for agricultural and landscaping irrigation, industrial processes and cooling towers, toilet flushing, groundwater recharge and direct consumptive use (Marecos et al., 1996). Asano and Madancy (1984) considered that water reuse is more feasible and cost-effective for nonpotable purposes. In evaluating the cost of reuse as a water supply source, the cost of treatment, the conveyance system, and operation and maintenance should be considered (Asano and Mills, 1990). In Egypt reclaimed water has been used since 1915. An area of about 10,000 acres at Al-Gabal Al-Asfer, northeast of Cairo, is irrigated with wastewater which receives only primary treatment (Abdel El-Naim, 1988). During the period 1986-1992, about 71,000 acres were reclaimed and irrigated by greater Cairo sewage effluents mixed at 1:1 with clean freshwater. Studies were carried out to irrigate about 80,000 acres in the western delta region at El Bustan using sewage effluents from Alexandria. There are considerable future plans for irrigation using reclaimed water (Abu-Zeid, 1993). Future urban wastewater projects include facilities for advanced treatment, which is still lacking in Egypt. Table 1 presents the estimated wastewater treatment capacity in Egypt (Abou-Rayan and Djebedjian, 2000).

Table1: Estimated Wastewater Treatment Capacity (million m3/year)

Zone 1997 2025 Greater Cairo 1278 2219 Alexandria 237 412 Delta 949 1648 Upper Egypt 438 761 Other Urban Areas 256 449 Total 3158 5489

Okun (1997) considered that dual distribution systems provide an additional economical water source and reduce the cost of wastewater disposal. Such systems are in use worldwide; one system is used for drinking water and another for reclaimed water. They permit more appropriate use of limited high-quality water sources while exposing the public to little additional risk. Dual

149 systems are particularly appropriate for urban developments now being planned, and may prove cost-effective in existing urban areas.

WATER POLLUTION AND HEALTH HAZARDS

Water pollution is a serious problem in the majority of the developing countries. A high propertion of domestic and industrial effluents are untreated and discharged directly to watercourses, irrigation canals and drainage ditches (Brikett, 1999). Treated effluents usually do not meet the stringent standards for disposal to watercourses. This is an acute difficulty that needs remarkable capabilities and comprehensive efforts to overcome. In Egypt no guidelines have been adopted but the law 48/1984 prohibits the use of effluent for irrigation crops unless treated to the required standards of agricultural drainage water. The irrigation of vegetables eaten raw with reclaimed water, regardless of the quality level, is forbidden. Some Egyptian standards for discharge of treated wastewater into watercourses are listed in Table 2, in which biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is considered the single most important water pollutant. However, high proportion of urban water in the eastern delta is untreated and discharged directly to drainage ditches. Health problems arise due to seepage flow from such ditches of high water levels to groundwater and infiltration into neighboring irrigation canals.

Table 2: Standard Maximum Measures, mg/l.

Parameter Non-fresh water ways Fresh waterways BOD 60 6 Dissolved oxygen not less 4 5 Oils 10 0.1 Dissolved solids not more 2000 500 Suspended solids 50 ---

The standards for the reuse of sanitary drainage water and degree of treatment are summarized in Table 3. The standards are defined for three groups of wastewater: group 1- effluent of primary treatment; group 2- effluent from secondary treatment; and group 3- water that has received advanced treatment.

Table 3. Maximum Criteria for the Reuse of Reclaimed Water and Degree of Treatment in Egypt

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Parameter Unit (Primary) (Secondary) (Advanced) BOD mg/l 300 40 20 Solid Suspended mg/l 350 40 20 Substances Oils mg/l --- 10 5 Intestinal Nemotodes cells/l 5 1 1 Fecal Coliform number/100ml --- 100 100 Total Sodium mg/l up to 2,500 up to 2,000 up to 2,000 Boron mg/l up to 5 up to 3 up to 3 Chlorides mg/l up to 350 300 300

150

A recent study has been carried out at Alexandria University to investigate the impact of effluent disposal on receiving drains for four secondary wastewater treatment plants (TP) and BOD removal efficiency. Each of the receiving drains is a stretch with the wastewater TP as a point source of BOD. Brief sample results are presented in Table 4 (personal communication). Of the four TPs, two use activated sludge and the other two use trickling filters, and their design capacity ranges from 12,000 m3/day to 90,000 m3/day. BOD concentration in the effluent of three out of four plants exceeds the maximum of 60 mg/l for discharge to non-potable surface waters (48/1984 Law). Downstream BOD concentration reflect self-purification.

Table 4: BOD concentration, in mg/l, showing the impact of effluent on drains

Treatment Abou El Kafer El- Damanhour, Samannoud Wastewater plant Matamir Dawar sampling point Receiving El-Khairy Amina Omer Deshaoudy drain

Upstream the TP 15 9 7 23 TP influent 472 325 650 217 TP effluent 83 30 77 75 One km downstream the TP 34 13 26 21

The GOE is taking steps to overcome some of the most pressing problems associated with reusing wastewater by removing the industrial component or treating it thoroughly at the source, before admitting it into the principal sewage networks or discharging it into the waterways. An industrial treatment project is currently under way that covers some 200 plants, classified according to their effluents, discharge system and outlets. Those discharging directly into the Nile subsidiary branches are given the highest treatment priority. Others with less or indirect impact on the environment or public health are given second or third priority (Eid, 1988).

Steps have been taken to establish some major pilot projects on the use of reclaimed water for agricultural production. For example, new sewers of Greater Cairo will be able to treat up to 4 million m3/day, that could irrigate 400,000 acres of desert lands. A pilot project was launched in Abu Rawash area (Giza) aiming at investigating the environmental impact, with special emphasis on health aspects, chemical and physical effects on the soil, groundwater reserves, crops, and on workers and local population. Conditions in the area were monitored for four consecutive years. Positive and negative effects were recorded. The positive effects include increased organic matter in the soil from 0.1 to 0.5%, with marked improvement in the soil properties, nutrient absorption, water holding capacity and cation exchange capacity. The yield for an experimental crop of maize increased from 700 to 2000 kg/acre. Negative effects include accumulation of heavy metals in the soil and crops, increased nitrates in groundwater and health hazards to workers. Cases of hepatitis, dysentery and nematoid infestation and other diseases were reported over the four years of the investigation (Khalifa, 1997).

WATER CONSERVATION

Water shortages necessitate the development of innovative demand management beside supply enhancement measures. Water conservation practices have to be adapted to reduce the effects of water consumption on the environment. Urban water conservation methods include various forms

151 of rationing such as fixed allotments to customers, percent reduction in supply, adoption of tiered pricing to control consumption, and rotation of service to customers (Lund and Reed, 1995).

The major factor affecting the amount of diverted urban water for municipal use is the efficiency of delivery networks. The efficiency is as low as 50%in many urban areas in Egypt. Half of the diverted water is almost lost by leakage from the distribution network. Much attention is given to the rehabilitation of pipelines networks to reduce the enormous conveyance losses of good quality water. The use of synthetic materials for pipes in water distribution systems that are resistant to corrosion and wear are rather efficient.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Threats of water shortage have induced the development of innovative demand management and supply enhancement measures. In developing countries, including Egypt, urban water management faces difficulties, which decelerate the rate of development and create health hazards. Financing problems arise due to the unbalance between high cost of urban water projects and funds limitations. Not much in-house expertise is present for planning, plant design or special equipment design and construction. Adopting a low level of treatment is desirable, not only from the cost point of view, but also in acknowledgement of the difficulties of operating complex systems reliably. However, the most appropriate wastewater treatment is that which will produce an effluent meeting the recommended quality guidelines both at low cost and with minimal operational and maintenance requirements. Field practice and consumer preferences seem to support continued growth of the nonpotable reuse option in future. In this context, dual systems have to be considered among the alternatives available for integrated water resources management. Nevertheless, notional guidelines and regulations on wastewater reclamation and reuse have to be established.

REFRENCES

Abd El-Naim, M. (1988). Using sewage water for irrigation. Proceedings of the Regional Seminar on Strengthening the Near East Regional Research and Development Network on Treatment and Reuse of Sewage Effluent for Irrigation. 11-16 December 1988. Cairo, Egypt, pp. 36-39. Abou-Rayan, M. & Djebedjian, B. (2000). The role of water recycle in Egypt’s water supply. Arab Water World, March/April 2000. pp. 42-44. Abu-Zeid, M. (1993). Drainage water salinity and recycling in the Nile delta. Proceedings of the Regional Seminar on Freshwater Quality and Efficiency: Optimizing Sustainable Beneficial Use in Selected Arab Countries. CEDARE. 17-18 October 1993, Cairo, Egypt. Asano, T. & Madancy, R. (1984). Water reclamation effort in the United States. Water reuse, Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbar, Mich., 277-291. Asano, T. & Mills, R. (1990). Planing and analysis of water reuse projects. Journal of American Water Works Association, 82, 38-47. Brikett, J. (1999). Water reuse. World of water 2000, The Past, Present and Future. Supplement to Penn Well Magazines. Water World and Water Wastewater International, pp.136-140. Eid, El-Mohamady, (1988). Impact of treated effluent reuse on the environment with reference to Egypt. Proceedings of the Regional Seminar on Strengthening the Near East Regional

152

research and Development network on Treatment and Reuse of Sewage Effuent for Irrigation, 11-16 December, 1988, Cairo, Egypt, pp. 170-171. Khalifa, H. & Abdelmonem, M. (1997). Reuse of drainage water and wastewater for irrigation. Egypt case study. Expert Consultation on Reuse of Low-quality Water for Sustainable Agricultural. Amman, Jordan, ICARDA. Lund, J. & Reed, R. (1995). Dronght water rationing and transferable rations. Journal of Water Resources Planning and management, 121(6), 429-437. Marecos do Monte, M., Angelakis, A. & Asano, T. (1996). Necessity and basis for the establishment of European guidelines on wastewater reclamation and reuse in the Mediterranean region. Water Science Technology 33(10-11), 303-316. Okun, D.A. (1997). Distributing reclaimed water through dual systems. Journal of Amercain Water Works Association. Vol. 89, Issue 11, November 1997, pp. 52-64. Wilchfort, O. & Lund, J. (1997). Shortage management for urban water supply systems. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, July-August 1997.

153

WATER, HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Hari Baral

Vice President – Association Internationale des Urbanistes

RESUME

L’Eau et la santé sont deux éléments indissociables pour maintenir non seulement la qualité environmentale de nos centres d’habitations mais aussi l’espérence de vie de l’homme. Malgré cette importance de l’eau dans notre vie, nos système d’utilisation de l’eau et les stratégies de développement spatial ne sont pas encore assez souciex ayant de les rejeter dans la nature. Aujourd’hui, plus d’un tiers de la population globale n’a pas encore d’accès facile à l’eau potable, entrainant ainsi des maladies intestinales, cause principale de tous les décès au monde. Or l’utilisation personnelle de l’eau potable pour boire uniquement ne varie guère entre les pays développés et en développement et ne répresente qu’à peine 1% de la production totale de l’eau potable. En raison de ce gaspillage, le prix de l’eau est devenu in abordable pour une grande partie de la population dans les pays en développement où les pouvres payent beaucoup plus cher pour un minimum de qualité douteuse. Environ 40 000 personnes décèdent chaque jour suite à des maladies intestinales. La majorité sont des enfants. Ce chiffre est equivalent à 100 crash d’avions jumbo quotidien.

INTRODUCTION

Life was born in water. In Sanskrit* language the other name of water is « Jiban » means “life”. Water has been considered in all religions, from the antique time to today, as the purifier of body and sole. In fact, water and health are not only the inseparable bond to maintain the life system but also the health, the development and the environmental quality of our settlement centres. Access to a basic quantity of fresh water is therefore a fundamental social right and a prerequisite to all social developments.

Although water is the primary vector of all development activities, it is also the carrier of many diseases and wastes materials and it has become very dangerous to public health when there is a lack of adequate purification and treatment facilities, particularly in the developing countries. According to WHO’s statistics, the number of deaths caused by waterborne diseases and polluted water there are superior to all other cumulated causes of death. About 40,000 people die every day in these countries from unsafe water consumption of which the majority are children, which is equivalent to 100 jumbo jet crash every day!

Water and health are interdependent and constitute the primary link of the life and growth system of the human settlements. Whenever there is water shortage or quality degradation, it affects immediately the public health safety. During any disaster event such as war, earthquake, floods, draughts, safe water is the primary requirement before any other aids to avoid epidemics and loss of further human lives.

Or, paradoxically, the demand for safe drinking water surpasses hardly more than 1 to 2% of the total water production and this amount does not vary much between the developed and the

154

developing countries. Whereas, when the water consumption goes for other health requirements, such as cooking, washing and personal cleanliness, the amount of water intake varies enormously, often more than 100 folds, between the developed and the developing countries.

Unfortunately, the global distribution of fresh water supply is extremely variable, almost inversely proportional to the population distribution. From 98 m3/head annually in Canada to less than 0.4 m3/head in many countries in Africa and this precious reserve is constantly diminishing due to our inconsiderate water uses and pollution. Countries possessing adequate water resources and can afford to pay the high cost of producing good quality of drinking water and treating the effluents, have obviously less water related health problems than those who cannot even afford to meet a minimum quantity of 25 litres/head/day of safe drinking water. In the later case, either the population has to meet their demand out of the inadequate supply of safe water or have to go for unsafe water resources to satisfy their basic health needs with all risks of health consequences.

Thus, the « Water-Health » problems are very interrelated and they are acute in most of the developing countries in their urban and rural areas and particularly in Africa where the lack of adequate access to safe water is a serious concern of health authorities and plays a stubborn handicap to all development activities.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE IN DEGRADING « WATER HEALTH » LINK

These factors can be broadly grouped into two in terms of their types and sources of contamination. They are namely,

1. Bacterial, parasitical and viral contamination, which is mainly due to the derelict condition of water supply infrastructure, unhygienic practices of defecation and wastes dumping or unsafe sources of water at intake points. 2. Toxic contamination, which is due to the unconscious action of our activities such as location of polluting industries near the water sources, use of high quantity of nitrates or animal manure in the agricultural practices, excessive water intake from shallow aquifers resulting in increased salinity and arsenic contents, etc.

The following factors play an important role in accentuating the above risky contamination environment and degrade the «water-health link» system. They can be grouped into four main categories based on:

A . Intake or supply points. B. Collection, conservation and storing system. C. Faulty urban planning with incompatible landuses irrespective of hydrological and natural drainage system. D. Public lack of awareness to “water-health link” and inadequate means to meet the requirements.

A. Intake or supply point contamination of water: i. Scarcity of fresh water resources due to insufficient rainfall or absence of surface water (river) or underground resources (artesian well) in arid regions or desertic coastal areas, compelling, mostly, the poor people to intensive reuse of available water without adequate safeguard to

155

non-compatible uses, particularly those having strong bearing on health contamination factors. ii. Use of raw water for direct consumption from contaminated intake points such as ponds, shallow rivers, stagnant water holes, etc. without going through a minimum purification process due to lack of sufficient supply of safe water at affordable cost. iii. Extraction of drinking water by means of shallow tube-wells near contamination points (public latrines, urinals, open drains etc.) without proper protective measures around the installations or from already contaminated shallow aquifer in the peri-urban or rural areas. iv. Using the same contiguous surface water source for drinking as well as for other multipurpose uses (washing, bathing, cleaning etc.), particularly in the peri-urban and rural areas where point sources of safe water supply are lacking. v. Contamination in the reticulation system by suction through leakage where the supply is intermittent or under low pressure or by direct contact with polluted water (open drains etc.) through defective joints in the water pipes. vi. High concentration of nitrates (as a result of intensive use of fertilisers or animal wastes in agriculture) or heavy metals and other toxic agents (dioxin, mercury, DDT etc. coming from industries or other uses) in the aquifers or in surface water rendering them unfit for drinking. vii. Illegal tapping of water from the reticulation system by unhygienic connection.

B. Collection, conservation and storing systems: i. Uncleaned overhead or unhygienic condition of underground private water reservoirs for storing water, particularly where the supply is intermittent. ii. Uncleaned water containers for storing water (plastic gericans or other types of unsafe liquid containers usually used for dangerous or non-edible liquids). As a result, even if the initial source of water is safe (city water supply or other point supply), the water thus stored in these containers becomes contaminated and unsafe for drinking. iii. Distribution of drinking water from uncleaned water tankers or private street vendors using uncleaned containers.

C. Faulty planning and incompatible landuses irrespective of hydrological and natural drainage system

This aspect influences highly the water quality at the intake points and hence the public health condition of the settlement centres. All transformations of natural sites into activity areas changes the soil structure and produce wastes whose quality depends upon the types of landuses. As our sanitary system is mostly waterborne, the domestic, human and industrial wastes go finally to the natural drainage system. If they are not properly treated before discharge, we contaminate heavily the water quality of the resources, some times irreversibly. On the other hand, excessive built-up areas and inconsiderate reclamation of agricultural land by deforestation not only increase the high run-off coefficient of the ground, degrading thereby the regenerating process of aquifers but also increase the pollution content of the water resources carried out by flush drainage of rain water.

D. Lack of consumers’ awareness to the safety conditions of « water-health » link

This factor plays a no less important role than those enumerated above in the degradation of the public health condition related to the use of unsafe water, particularly among the poor living in

156

the peri-urban and rural areas of the developing countries. It is the total ignorance within these vulnerable consumers’ groups having inadequate access to safe water that unsafe water is the primary vector of the majority of epidemic diseases. This lack of awareness to the safety conditions of the « water-health » link and of their unhygienic practices towards water handling, contributes substantially in the degradation of their health environment. Usually, when they see the water more or less clear, they consider it fit for direct consumption, ignoring the pathological and bacterial risks in the water. For this reason they feel no hesitation to collect drinking water from the same sources which they use also for other purposes.

In this context, it is worthwhile to recall that our universal sanitary system is based upon the waterborne techniques irrespective of the water topography and resources conditions of the area. We wash everything with water ignoring the contents of the discharges, which ultimately goes to the natural watercourses. This constitutes a permanent threat to our natural water resources, shallow aquifers and surface water system, if the effluents are not properly treated before their discharge. Countries who can afford to pay the costly system of wastewater treatment can be able to control water contamination and to avoid health hazards related to waterborne diseases or polluted water. Unfortunately, a majority of the developing countries are unable to install such costly system to keep their water resources free from contamination and has to sacrifice a large number of lives every year, particularly in the unserviced urban and peri-urban areas due to the shortage of safe drinking water supply.

POSSIBLE SUSTAINABLE APPROACHES TO MEET THE CHALLANGE.

From the above discussion it is clear that the water-health problems have been linked up with a number of parameters related to resources condition, distribution process and consumption condition, hygienic practices, quantity of safe water available at affordable price, landuse configuration and many other factors related to social and economic conditions of the settlement centres. Therefore, we need to develop a holistic approach to these problems if we want to attain a sustainable solution.

Water cartography is a primary tool to understand the holistic state of water condition

Before undertaking any action for remedial measures to improve the « water-health » situation of an area, we have to prepare first the proper water cartography of the area indicatingthe availability condition and all the uses of water cycle by the community. It is also necessary to examine simultaneously, the practices of the users’ group to meet their need and the economic activities of the area linked with water market.

Primary action programme

The main focus should be concentrated on the following activities: • How best to control the contaminating environment of the water intake areas, particularly at the upstream level or at the contamination points? • How to improve the sanitary condition of water distribution points and within the system to prevent the safe water from coming into contact with bacterial or viral contamination and other pollution endangering heath safety?

157

• How best to protect the main soft water source of drinking water in rural and peri-urban areas (water holes, ponds or shallow tube-wells) from non drinking uses (bathing, cleaning, etc.) and from the proximity of other contamination points (open drains, latrines etc.) ? • How best to improve the quality of storage, at least for direct consumption purposes, within the affordable capacity of the consumers, taking into consideration of the shadow cost that the community has to bear as consequences of the health hazards provoked every year under the present situation ? • How and what are the possibilities of reintroducing with improved design the traditional materials for water purification that the community had been accustomed before for purifying and storing the drinking water ? • How to introduce effective and simple local participatory programme to create enhanced awareness amongst the vulnerable groups, specially among women and children, regarding easily avoidable contamination sources in the water uses and to develop within these groups the use of some basic elementary hygienic practices (boiling and filtering of water, personal cleanliness, avoiding manipulation of drinking water by direct contact of hands, etc.) related to processing and storing of drinking water ? • To find out appropriate vehicle and media through which effective awareness building operation can be carried out within the vulnerable groups. • How to install and operate specific point sources for distribution of safe water in the peri- urban areas, particularly during those seasons when health risk is very high due to acute shortage of safe water supply ? • To explore the possibilities of installing cheaper and easily maintainable variable drinking water plants in the unserviced or under-serviced peri-urban and rural areas.

POSSIBLE PROPOSALS THAT MERIT TO BE EXAMINED FOR DEVELOPING NATIONS TO REDRESS THE SITUATION.

The success of the battle against the health hazards related to the non-availability of adequate quantity of safe water depends, of course, on the effective level of awareness, within the vulnerable consumers’ groups and on the importance of proper handling and storing of drinking water. But from the operational point of view, it also depends much on the adaptability of the proposed methods to their affordable capacities – both economic and materialistic. The successful actions to carry out such tasks involve clear understanding of the need and capacity of these groups and their hygienic practices as well as societal and governmental consciousness to the problem which is not limited only within the vulnerable groups.

To develop affordable and adapted means to meet the safe water need

Today it is possible to procure, at affordable cost, from a wide range of safe water production plants of variable capacities, to meet the drinking water demand of communities ranging from 50 000 to 250 000 population. Installed with appropriate distribution methods, it is possible to provide a basic quantity of safe water to these communities at an affordable cost and at the most wanted areas.

158

Shadow cost to the society for failing to provide a basic amount of safe water to the poor

We should not forget that besides the commercial importance of water, a minimum quantity of drinking water is a vital necessity for healthy life. Any health hazards of water shortage origin will not remain within this population but going to affect the whole society where they work. We are well aware of the huge indirect cost of these effects in terms of loss of life, manpower and monetary loss to the social development and national economy, which is much higher than the initial investment needed to redress this situation. Therefore, in this regard, it is worthwhile to undertake a socially subsidised programme to procure and distribute improved materials for filtering and storing the water, at least for direct drinking purposes, and providing drinking water point sources within walking distance of these communities.We should remember that mostly the children and the women are collecting the drinking water for the family of these communities when the male members are at their work place. Also, in countries like Africa, where the women and children has to walk 10 to 15 kms every day to procure a few buckets of drinking water from unsafe points, distribution of suitable safe water supply points serving the people of a group of villages is to be assured. This would have spared many avoidable endemic water related health risks and loss of life, particularly children every year.

Introducing new approach to meet the gap by reintroducing traditional methods.

On the other hand, it is worthwhile to undertake some pilot projects of reintroducing with improved design and performance quality, traditional materials that the local people were habituated to use for purifying and storing drinking water. They were mostly made up of burnt earthenware vessels obtained from locally available resources and did not cost much (boiling the water and filtering through multiple earthenware containers with sand charcoal filter beds, using of alum and other affordable disinfectants, etc.). This will create new opportunities of developing sustainable local economic activities and helping to prevent water related health risks at low cost.

The effectiveness of the action on the eradication of water related health risks depend not only with these vulnerable groups but also on the collective action of the society itself. Developing consciousness to “water-health” link would be a programme of the public health education. In this regard unconsciousness to water-health relation is no less important even in most of the developed nations.

CONCLUSION

Access to a basic quantity of safe drinking water is a social and human right and constitutes one of the basic requirements for social development. We have to accept that the present system of water sharing at the social level is irrational. Almost one third of the world’s population are living under permanent health risk as a consequence of this irrational access to safe drinking water even though their requirement hardly surpasses 25 litres/day. Often, a supply of 10 litres/day of city water is beyond the access to more 20% of the urban population in many developing countries, compelling them to meet their need either from unsafe water sources or to procure water of doubtful quality from private vendors at a high cost. Whereas, in the same countries, more than 60% of the city’s water supply is being enjoyed by only 20% of the population of which more than 45% they use for non-essential purposes.

Although drinking water should not be treated as a free commodity and the consumers are required to pay a justified price for assuring its conservation and against misuses, but provision of

159

a minimum quantity of safe drinking water is a vital necessity for the life and health of a human being. Hence it is a social right and a governmental obligation to assure the supply of this quantity of water at affordable cost to those who are deprived of and forming a part of our society. Therefore, the management and the pricing structure of the drinking water should be such that it would not be treated simply as a market commodity but has a vital and social development necessity. It should be remembered that more than 60% of the water cost is coming from the treatment, infrastructure installation and misuses. One street tap supply 20 to 50 families of this deprived areas for their drinking water, whereas, an apartment equipped with one bath room, one WC and a kitchen, consumes drinking water equivalent to what has been used by 20 families from the street tap.

It is wrong to presume that the « water-health » link is confined only within this population of peri-urban areas living constantly under substandard drinking water shortage and permanent health risks. Unfortunately, in the developing countries, they constitute the main source of cheap manpower needed by innumerable city services such as restaurants, hotels, offices, menials, vendors, shops, housekeeping and others where physical contacts with these people are unavoidable. Any breaking out of health hazards among this population is immediately transmitted by them to the all sections of the city’s population and the ultimate cost is much higher than the investment required to improve their water safety and sanitary conditions. It is a well-known fact that the breakings points of all epidemics and particularly water borne starts from these areas.

Perhaps the city authorities should start thinking, on the principle of “polluters payers”, a water pricing structure starting from “social solidarity price” to “luxury price” based on the quantity of drinking water consumed for absolutely essential uses to luxury non-essential uses. Denying access to vital quantity of safe drinking water means denying social right to a large section of the population who are unable to pay the real cost of water. “Water-health” links to this population sounds empty unless we can be able to assure a basic quantity of safe water supply to them although they are the first victims of any health hazards in the city.

All these factors therefore raise some in-depth questions related to “water rights” and us“water uses”. Questions such as who really wastes water – the rich who can pay and have the right to use it limitlessly or the poor who cannot afford to pay the real cost for a vital quantity for drinking? Would they have social right of having a minimum quantity with a “solidarity price” different from the real cost? How best can we arrange to share the available supply on a more socially equitable basis? How to develop efficient “water-health link” programme among the different users groups - from rich to poor? And many other questions that we have to deal with more collective consciousness to prevent this avoidable loss of life every year out of health hazards.

In this perspective, is this a too much heavy task for the appropriate authorities to rationalise this highly unbalanced proportion of drinking water share within the citizens of the same society to render the life of millions of useful people living permanently under high health risk by a socially affordable investment with a sense of civic solidarity?

REFERENCES Calcutta Metropolitan Area Water and Drainage Master Plan 1980-1991 Chittagong Metropolitan Area Development Plan UNDP/UNCHS project 1992-1996 AFRICAN CITIES WATER MANAGEMENT PROJECT 1998-2000.

160

TOWARDS A RECYCLING SOCIETY: A CASE STUDY ON THE SUCESSFUL IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PILOT ECOLOGICAL SANITATION PROJECT IN DALU VILLAGE, CHINA

Mi Hua, Provincial Public Health Bureau of Guangxi 35 Taoyuan Road 530021, Nanning, Guangxi, China Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACTS

Water is an increasingly scarce resource and to continue to use clean drinking water as a means to transport human waste is not environmentally sustainable. Linear approaches to problems, in which resources are used and converted into wastes, only to be disposed of, represent a failure in human ingenuity and a flaw in technology design. In order to create a recycling society, we need to capture the wastes, render them safe and return them to productive resources again. Ecological sanitation is based on natural ecosystems. It contributes to environmental health and human well- being by reducing disease transmission and disposal of wastes, by recovering and recycling water and nutrients for increasing food security. Most cities and towns in the Third World will neither have access to the required quantities of water, nor will they be able to generate financial resources for investments in extensive sewerage networks and treatment plants. Ecological sanitation is far more feasible financially and ecologically than conventional approaches to sanitation by reducing external inputs into a closed-loop system and by reducing the export of outputs and wastes from the system. It creates decentralised economies, empowering people, providing for local livelihoods, and enhancing community cohesion. If coverage can be increased, ecological sanitation can serve as the missing link to sustainable urban development, reverse the unconscious pattern of linear thinking and actions, and be a technical solution that protects ecosystems and harmonises with natural systems.

BACKGROUND

Since the beginning of economic reform in the late 1970s, China has witnessed unprecedented economic increase and its people’s living condition has greatly improved. But due to lack of financing, the infrastructure and social service in many areas are usually very poor, especially in rural areas.

China currently has 1.3 billion people14, of which 80% are living in rural areas. China has a thousands years’ history in using human waste as fertilizer for agriculture activities, and the quantity it recycles probably is the greatest amount. It’s commonly accepted that human excreta is a nutritious fertilizer for plantation. The real problem in China though is that some farmers tend to empty the processing chambers whenever they need fertilizer, regardless of the retention time. This means that partly processed and even fresh faces are spread on the fields. Unicef estimates that half the population, and up to 90% in some areas, is affected by Ascaris, and that 63% of the rural population is infected with helminth, mainly spread through the use of untreated human sewage for fertilizer. A nationwide investigation performed in China in 1993 showed that

14 China Water Vision: Meeting the Water Challenge in Rapid Transition, 2000

161

85.9% of the population had access to some types of latrines. However, this figure also includes all types of simple toilets and only 13.5% could be regarded as safe as faecal sanitation facilities15. In China there is definitely a need to explore a way of how effectively sanitize human waste while keeping them (urine and feces) in a place and a form ready to be recycled. Thus, hygiene and health education should be intensified and continued until the practice of using fresh faces as fertilizer can be halted.

In 1997, in collaboration with Unicef and Ministry of Public health of China, Sida launched a pilot Ecological Sanitation Project (Sanres) in the three provinces namely Shanxi, Jilin and Guangxi in China. Dalu Village was chosen as the pilot village to test the device in Guangxi.

Ecological Sanitation

Ecological sanitation16 represents a shift in the way people think about and act upon human excreta. It is an ecosystem approach represents a closed-loop system to nutrient and water problems, and its defining features are a major shift from conventional sanitary solutions. It is an attempt to move away from linear solutions of waste disposal towards a circular flow of nutrients. It considers human excreta as a resource, not a waste. It also assumes that excreta can be made safe for reuse, not only protecting people’s health, but also using the resources in excreta to promote better nutrient and food security. It also helps to protect and restore local environment.

Figure 1 Three different principles to dispose of human excreta (Winblad 1998)

Flush-and-discharge Drop-and-store Sanitize-and-reuse

Project Implementation

The purpose of the Sanres project was to stimulate national and local R&D activities on alternative sanitation system by testing the concept of ecological sanitation17. In order to improve the level of hygiene and health of the population, the development objective of the project was to provide the population with an ecologically and socially sustainable sanitation system. Through this project to create a demand of eco-san toilets in the project area and influence local authorities and other interested parties through using Dalu Village as an example.

15 Jun Qi Wang, Reduction of Micro-organisms in Dry Sanitation Due to Different Adsorbents Under Low Temperature Conditions, Institute of Environment and Engineering of China, 1999. 16 Steven Esrey, Ingvar Andersson, Closing the Loop to Urban Food Security and Well-being 17 Uno Winblad, Sanres in China, 1997

162

The short term objective of this pilot project was to test a system of Ecological Sanitation using the process of dehydration in a small village, in order to test 1) the functioning of the device and the process in the local conditions, and 2) the acceptability of the system in the context of local culture, habits, beliefs and taboos.

Dalu Village is a remote village in south China. It enjoys relatively warm temperature and abundant rainfall. It located in a hillside where its three sides are surrounded by karstal mountains. There are 128 households (532 people) living in this village, of which 98% of them are Zhuang minority. Each villager only has 0.5 mu (333 square meters) dry arable land. The main crop is corn and the cash crops are sugar and bamboo. In 1997, the average annual income for per person was 2138 yuan (USD 258 equivalent), of which 1300 yuan (USD156) was from the income of the bamboo baskets they made and sold in town for vegetable transportation to the north.

There were only two open wells and a pond in this village. The village suffered 3 to 5 months water shortage every year. During dry season, the villagers have to travel to a small town 6 km away to get their water. The natural condition is extremely harsh. The sanitation condition was also very bad before this project. Most of the households had no toilets. The only few toilets existed were the one-pit toilets. There was none public toilet. Many of the people had the customs to excrete in the open fields. People in this village were living under the same roof with their livestock, which is the very common housing pattern of the Zhuang people, i.e. the livestock enclosure is on the first floor and people lived on the above floor. Their houses were usually dirty and stink. The wet and dirty livestock enclosure has provided the fly and mosquito with an ideal breeding place.

This village was an extremely poor village before the 80s. When entered the 90s, due to the economic reform and the booming of vegetable and fruit production, the villagers started to plant bamboo on the mountains. By making bamboo baskets and selling them for vegetable and fruit transportation, this village was eventually released from poverty. Due to the increase of income, 86 of the 128 households have built their new houses. Among the new houses, 74 are two or three-story brick and concrete buildings. Due to shortage of space the village has an urban character.

Preparation and Consciousness-Raising A Leading Group, which was led by a woman vice magistrate of Tianyang County Authority was established at the beginning of the project. This Leading Group had members from the local authorities (county and township), health sector, construction bureau and woman’s federation, etc. A similar group was established at the village level, consisting leaders of the villager committee, two teachers from the village school, a retired soldier (who is usually regarded as experienced and well educated), a women leader to motivate the project. Through meetings, group discussion, informal gatherings and family visiting, the local villagers were well informed of the concept of ecological sanitation and different type of sanitation technologies. After discussions, the local villagers defined that the ecological sanitation system was what they needed because it best suited Dalu Village’s actual conditions, i.e. no toilets, inadequate water supply, lack of space, no sewerage, high incidence rate of waterborne diseases and the need of fertilizer for agriculture production.

Training A team of 13 person from the village was trained on how to build the latrine at the beginning and they are playing an active role in this project not just as the latrine constructors but as the project facilitators as well. After training, they are able to design a system fit into the

163

individual household condition. Based on the ecological sanitation concept, four types of dry toilets have been designed: one chamber, one chamber with a slopping slab, one chamber with two slopping slabs and double chamber toilets.

Construction/Implementation The toilet construction of this project has been combined with the old houses upgrading plan from the beginning. As there is little space between the houses and often no backyards, the eco-san toilet is usually attached to house. In order to reduce the cost and for the convenience of users, many people placed the new toilets inside of the houses that have been put into use. One wall of the houses could be used for the latrine. Normally, the chamber has about 1-2 cubic meter’s capacity, and the faces retention time can reach up to one year.

Since the ground floor is only used as livestock enclosures and people live on the second or third floor, so the toilet chambers were built above ground----there is thus no need for expensive digging and lining of pits. The average cost of per dry toilet is 400-500 yuan or USD48-60 (including tiling) which is much lower than the conventional sanitation systems (three chamber septic toilet and bio-gas toilets, and per unit cost is 700-800 yuan or USD84-96 and 1200 yuan or USD144 respectively).

Participation As being a pilot and experimental project, a squatting pan and a bag of cement was provided by the project. The families had to make in kind contribution (sand and rock) and work-power. This means that the families will have some kind of ownership. However, each family had the right to modify the model according to personal preferences, as long as the basic principle was followed. The toilets have been built through helping each one another mutually, sharing skills and knowledge.

In China, most of the people do not have the customs to use a toilet seat. A squatting pan with urine diversion was especially designed under the project, which is made of porcelain. Since most of the toilets are placed indoor, the squatting holes are closed-off when not in use. Some families put in vent pipes to prevent any bad smell that sometimes might occurs. Ashes and sawdust are required in order to speed up the dehydration process. The pile of feces and ash/lime accumulated below the toilets is shifted to rear of the vault with a hoe or rake, or even a stick. Once every second or third month, the dry and odor free pile at the rear of the vault is taken out and used in the fields. The local villagers found it’s extremely good for their bamboo production. Since Dalu Village is short in land space, some households explore to plant vegetable at the rooftop of the buildings. The urine diverted from the dry toilets can be used for the rooftop vegetable plantation. They found the vegetable grew better and tasted better after changed to use this organic fertilizer.

A public latrine of dehydrating type with a solar heating processing chamber and an oven to burn domestic waste and used paper was built in the school in the village. After six months’ observation, although being intensively used and there isn’t a special caretaker, this latrine is still functioning well and remains odor and fly free. A public toilet was built next to the meeting room of the villager committee office where is the place when important issues were announced and is of an entertainment/rehabilitation place. This toilet is a showcase for the visitors from outside.

Hygiene and Health Education During the implementation of the project, a hygiene and health education strategy that focused on personalized education for all family members through home visits, participation of organized women in the implementation was adopted. The impact of

164

this hygiene and health education model was significant. The need for behavioral changes, proper use and maintenance of the eco-san toilets was stressed.

Health specialists from the national and provincial heath institutes were invited to give lectures to the villagers. By using the posters, pamphlets and pictures, the villagers were well-received health knowledge, especially the knowledge of ecological sanitation.

An extensive participatory training was conducted for housewives and key persons (can act as trainers in a later stage) prior to construction in teaching:

Why and how to use the toilets;

How to use the toilets correctly and maintain them clean, i.e. add ash each time after excreting, put and collect the used paper in a basket/bin and burn it;

How to use or dispose of the final product (processed feces and urine) correctly and do so;

Some persons were specially assigned to in charge of health education at county, township and village levels. The primary school in the village opened a health education class to teach hygiene and sanitation related knowledge. Through the students, the knowledge of which they have learned in school would be passed to their parents and family members. In order to arouse public awareness, we organized a competition on health and hygiene knowledge for the villagers and competition on writing articles subject to health education activities and the dry toilets for the school students. An evaluation conducted after the above activities were carried out showed that the percentage rate of people who knew the health and hygiene related knowledge increase from 36.25% to 92.61%, and the percentage rate of people who practiced a hygiene habit increased from 37.20% to 81.97%.

EVALUATION

The result of a questionnaire survey shows that 100% of the households are satisfied with the toilets and over 80% of the users know to add some ash and not to throw the used paper into the chamber after excreting. The result also reflects that most of the toilets are being properly maintained and have no odor and fly. The indoor and outdoor fly density has greatly dropped estimated by range.

Microbiological Test A microbiological test on sanitized feces carried out by the Institute of Environmental Health and Engineering of China, the final report has come out. The result shows that the colon bacillus has met the criteria of harmless, and the die-off rate of parasite eggs is 60%. The present data show that the addition of plant ash, resulting in an elevation of the pH value in the toilet material is the best absorbent, and well suited to reduce the number of fecal indicator bacteria, the test viruses and reducing the viability of Ascaris egg to a large extent already within a couple of months. Among the three factors (temperature, moisture and pH value), the temperature is less important than moisture and pH value in killing the eggs when it is under 30°C, and if the retention time is long enough.

165

Table 1. Characteristics of the absorbents used as additives to the Faecal material (Source of information: Institute of Environmental Health and Engineering of China)

Type pH Moisture (%) PH when mixed with the latrine materials

Plant ash 11 1-3 9-10

Coal ash 8 <3 7

Sawdust/husk 7-8 20 7-8

Loess 6-8 20 6-8

Table 2 Survival times of pathogens in days by different disposal/treatment conditions18

Condition Bacteria Viruses Protozoa* Helminths**

Soil 400 175 10 Many months

Crops 50 60 Not known Not known

Night soil, feaces, sludge 20-30°C 90 100 30 Many months

Composting aerobic at ambient 60 60 30 many temperatures

Thermophiliccomposting 50-60°C 7 7 7 7 maintained for several days waste stabilization ponds retention time>20 20 20 20 20 days

* Excluding Cryptosporidium pervum ** Mainly Ascaris; other parasitic eggs tend to die quicker

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Through two year’s observation to the 70 household toilets built under this project (7 units exceeded), we found that all of different types of the eco-san toilets that were built under the project largely satisfy the need of the villagers. In the light of these objectives, the follow conclusion can be drawn: - It takes 6 months of retention for faecal materials in the test toilets to become absolutely safe.

18 A more through discussion of these factors and pathogen die-off can be found in several documents: Strauss M and Blumenthal UJ (1990): Use of human wastes in agriculture and aquanculture – utilization practices and health perspectives. International Reference Centre for Waste Disposal (IRCWD), Duebendorf, Switzerland. Feachem RG et al. (1983): Sanitation and disease – health aspects of excreta and wastewater management. John Wile and Sons, Chichester, New York. Jenkins JC (1994): The humanure handbook – a guide to composting human manure emphasising minimum technology and maximum hygienic safety. Jenkins Pubishing, Grove City, PA, USA.

166

- Ash from wood is the best additive for shortening the survival time of the microorganisms and parasites in faeces and removing bad odor. Such ash is readily available in every Vietnamese rural households - Although the survival time of the indicators in the majority of toilets having solar heaters is relatively shorter, the operation of these toilets is more inconvenient and the construction more difficult. - Ventilation pipes, 10 cm in diameter and reaching at least 50 cm above the toilet roof, can effectively remove odors and control flies. - Proper use is very important for these toilets to function well. - In Dalu Village there is no piped water and no sewage system, the dry toilets are an ideal solution. - The model is recommendable especially in populous urban areas where bad smell, fly breeding and space may become serious problems. Nevertheless, a problem has been detected in the use of the toilets that is some families use faeces before having completed the process of dehydration, and thus before they have been made completely non-dangerous. Hygiene and health education is thus required even though the project is finished.

VISION

The Sanres project in Dalu Village has generated a lot of interested and demand from other dwellers in Tianyang as well as other counties in Guangxi. In Guangxi, there are still about 20 million rural inhabitants don’t have access to environmental sanitation facilities so far at present, many small towns have no sewage treatment system, some face a serious water shortage. These have deteriorated the environmental condition and quality of people’s living condition. Based on the reasons and the experience we had from Dalu Village, we plan to popularize the concept of ecological sanitation to the rest of the province, not just in the rural areas, but to the urban areas as well. Since the pilot project in Dalu Village, over 20,000 units of dry toilets have been built in a semi-urban area. Our more ambitious objective is to build 1 million units of ecological toilets within the next five years. When that day comes, we believe the advantages of the ecological sanitation will be fully unfolded to the world, from preserving our environment to protect our water resource.

167

RETHINKING URBAN WASTEWATER RE-USE : OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES

Liqa Raschid-Sally*, Christopher Scott*, Mehmood ul Hassan**, Jeroen Ensink**, Yutaka Matsuno* and Wim van der Hoek*

* International Water Management Institute (IWMI), POBox 2075, Colombo Sri Lanka; Tel: 94 1867404; email: [email protected] ; http://www.iwmi.org ** IWMI Pakistan Program; 12KM, Multan Road, Chowk Thokar Niaz Baig, Lahore 5700, Pakistan; Tel: 94 42 5410050-53; email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

In many parts of the world, reuse of both treated and untreated wastewater is finding wide acceptance both as a planned activity or an unplanned spontaneous one. Using wastewater for irrigation may contribute to solving the global water crisis, as agriculture is the biggest consumer of water. Whilst there are many advantages to this practice there are also major risks associated with unregulated use notably the human health hazard and pollution of soil and groundwater. This paper presents a background to the use of wastewater for irrigation and raises some research issues, which are being addressed by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), in an attempt to view the practice in a holistic and integrated manner. The objective of the research program being initiated is to develop a framework for evaluating different options and tradeoffs for improved and informed decision-making. The paper will utilize data from case studies conducted by IWMI in Pakistan and Mexico to highlight the issues under discussion.

KEYWORDS

Agriculture, decision framework, integrated approach, irrigation, wastewater reuse, valuing wastewater

INTRODUCTION

Current context to wastewater re-use – pervasive in nature, whether planned or unplanned

In many parts of the world, reuse of both treated and untreated wastewater is finding wide acceptance. Wastewater irrigation, night-soil use in agriculture, land application of sewage treatment sludge, and wastewater aquaculture are all traditional practices common throughout the world. Land application of sewage for treatment purposes, known as surface flooding, was first practiced in Germany in 1869 by the Berlin Administration. As an offshoot of this practice in Europe, wastewater, usually treated to some degree, was used for crop production. In 1989, Mara and Cairncross prepared a comprehensive review and guidelines for the World Health Organization (WHO) (Mara and Cairncross, 1989) on the safe use of human waste for these purposes and in later years further attempts were made to quantify the magnitude of wastewater reuse both globally and in specific countries. These studies concluded that an estimated 80% of wastewater in developing countries may be used for irrigation, with China and South Asia making significant re-use of untreated waste for irrigation. In Latin America alone at least 500,000 ha of land is being irrigated with untreated wastewater, over half of which is in Mexico

168

(Rodriguez et al, 1994). A recent publication reviewed the status of wastewater reuse practice in the Mediterranean basin and concluded that in these countries, there is a high potential for wastewater reclamation and reuse, despite the fact that only a few have systematically exploited this resource (Angelakis et al, 1998).

In the developed world planned reuse is more common, as is evident in Israel, Australia, Germany, and the USA. A literature review (Haruvy, 1997) indicated that Israel is at the forefront of planned wastewater reuse with fully 70 % of the total agricultural demand for water in 2040 to be met by effluent; and Palestine has identified recycled wastewater as the primary water source for future irrigation.

In developing countries such as India, Pakistan, China and Mexico, to quote a few examples, wastewater for irrigation originated as an unplanned often spontaneous activity and has been practiced for decades and even centuries by poor farmers in urban and peri-urban areas. The same is the case in Africa where case studies (Bakker et al, 2000) in major cities in Africa (Accra, Dakar, Nairobi,) indicate the extensive use of wastewater. Wastewater remains and will continue to remain a cheap and reliable source of water and nutrients. For these reasons, wastewater irrigation has become a widely accepted if unregulated practice in these and many other countries.

In some instances, as in Queensland, Australia, planned wastewater irrigation represents more a method of treatment and disposal than a beneficial use of the treated wastewater Williams (1999). The South Australia Water and Environment Improvement Program is one of the largest wastewater re-use schemes of its kind in Australia. The water is re-used for a variety of purposes including watering of vineyards and recreational facilities, such as golf courses, parks and reserves, growing high quality timber in woodlots, and for creating wetlands.

Renewal of interest – resolving a dilemma

Wastewater utilization or re-use is a very old practice, so why this renewed interest? The reason can be attributed to the Global Water Crisis, which is forecast to be imminent. By 2025 one third of the population of the developing world will face severe water shortages (Seckler et al, 1998). The regions most severely affected will be the most heavily populated and poorest in the world, namely Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Today in developing countries where most of the poor live, 80 percent of the water consumed is used for irrigated agriculture, which produces food or other crops that sustain livelihoods, very often of the rural and urban poor. As demand for water increases to cover the needs of expanding populations through increased requirements for domestic, industrial, power generation and other purposes, and as increased environmental awareness requires that water reservations for environmental purposes are made; less and less water will be made available for agriculture. Concomitantly, urban centers, which have a high demand for water to supply the needs of high-density populations and the industrial sector, will experience severe water shortages. Where do we find the water? To compound the problem, these same urban centers produce large quantities of wastewater, which need to be disposed of. And in most cases urban centers in developing countries do not have the resources or do not have the mechanisms to collect the resources necessary for wastewater treatment. As a result many of the lakes, rivers, and aquifers of these countries are severely polluted.

Wastewater if seen as a resource, which has potential for re-use in agriculture, may be the response to this dilemma. Such re-use while providing a means of disposal of wastewater, would

169

simultaneously release better quality water for other uses. There are however both advantages and inconveniences to such a move. Definite environmental and economic benefits accruing from re-use are that it: avoids direct pollution of rivers, canals and other surface water conserves water conserves nutrients, thereby reducing the need for artificial fertilizer increases crop yields at lower cost is a low-cost method for sanitary disposal of municipal wastewater, and provides a reliable water supply to farmers.

The inconveniences cannot be ignored, many of these linked eventually to human health: health risks for the irrigators and communities in prolonged contact health risks for the consumers of produce irrigated with wastewater contamination of surface and groundwater, which is often used for drinking build-up of chemical pollutants in the soil (heavy metals), and creation of habitats for disease vectors (mosquitoes/ sandflies).

The solution to this problem appears simple – treat the wastewater before use or restrict the type of crops being cultivated, but there are disadvantages to both these methods. Excellent treatment methods exist, but they are prohibitively expensive for most developing countries, which have the most need for this source of irrigation water. Moreover, environmental discharge standards for wastewater management either do not exist, or are difficult to implement in most of these countries. A further disadvantage is that conventional treatment methods remove the nutrients in wastewater, thus reducing the economic benefits to the users. Crop restriction has a similar effect of reducing economic benefits from the use of wastewater, as it is the high-value crops like vegetables that are the most susceptible to contamination.

For all these reasons it is quite likely that in the foreseeable future many towns in developing countries will continue to irrigate high-value vegetable crops with untreated wastewater and this poses a problem. Governments may wish to regulate re-use but are unable to offer practical solutions to the users. Developing a framework for evaluating the different options and tradeoffs, for informed decision-making would thus serve a useful purpose and this is the long-term objective of research studies conducted by IWMI.

In this paper the research issues involved and the studies required for developing such a framework will be addressed. Case studies already conducted by IWMI in (1) a basin context in the water short basin of Guanajuato, Mexico, and in (2) a small town context in Haroonabad, Pakistan, will be used to highlight some of the relevant issues.

SOME RESEARCH ISSUES

Human health impact is a critical consideration in wastewater irrigation but current approaches and guidelines are debatable.

Public health aspects of irrigation wastewater are critical if its potential as a source of irrigation water is to be fully exploited. Public health risks include exposure to infectious diseases, trace organic compounds and heavy metals. The enteric pathogens endemic to a community can survive for weeks when discharged on land. The use of untreated wastewater containing high

170

concentrations of excreted enteric pathogens is, therefore, a potential health risk for exposed people. People at risk are field workers and their families, consumers and handlers of the crops, and people living in the neighbourhood or passing by the fields. However, epidemiological studies have shown that the mere presence of pathogens does not necessarily increase human disease. The potential risk is based on the number of pathogens in the wastewater. The actual health risk, which is defined as the risk that people get sick, is probably much lower than the potential. The actual risk depends mainly on three factors: The time pathogens survive in water or soil, The dose at which pathogens are infective to a human host, and Host immunity to pathogens circulating in the environment.

Based on these factors the highest health risk is theoretically for helminth infections. These pathogens persist long in the environment, there is no host immunity, and a small dose is already infective. Epidemiological studies have shown that for people exposed to wastewater the risk of infection with roundworm and whipworm is the highest (Bouhoum et al, 1998; Cifuentes et al, 1994). The risk of bacterial, protozoan and fungal infections due to exposure to wastewater is much lower. The survival time for these pathogens in the environment is less and there is more host immunity. The lowest risk is for viral infections, mainly due to high host immunity to viral infections (WHO, 1989; Hespanhol, 1993).

An important aspect of wastewater reuse, often overlooked in previous studies, is that surface water is an important source of drinking and other domestic water needs in many rural areas that do not have separate supply systems. When wastewater is directly drained into surface water, which is often the case, the health risks multiply.

Health impacts are also related to the presence of chemical pollutants in the wastewater, some of which are toxic for humans. Of main public health concern are chemicals, including pesticides and heavy metals. In China renal dysfunction was found due to cadmium exposure, while haematological disorders in children due to high levels of nitrate were observed in a wastewater- irrigated area in Mexico. In New York a higher frequency of eye and skin irritation due to chemicals was reported among municipal sewage plant workers. Heavy metal accumulation is a major concern in Mexico as well where the centuries old practice of irrigation with untreated wastewater has resulted in significant accumulation of at least 4 metals (cadmium, copper, chromium and lead) and led to serious ecological damage as reported by many authors (Mendoza et al, 1996 & Cortez et al, 1996). Human Cd disease resulting from elevated levels of soil Cd was first observed in Japan where Zn mine wastes contaminated rice paddies. This resulted in excessive Cd adsorption and adverse health effects in subsistence farm families (Kobayashi, 1978: Nogawa et al., 1980; Tsuchiya, 1978)19.

IWMI assessed the health risks (potential and actual) associated with untreated urban wastewater re-use by farmers in Haroonabad, a small town in southern Punjab, Pakistan (Feenstra et al, 2000). Both exposed farmers and their families were studied with special focus on children below the age of 12. A control group was identified with similar socio-economic background. Major factors that influence the prevalence of infection with enteric parasites, such as water supply to house and sanitation facilities, were kept constant. The actual health risk was analyzed through stool sampling and cross-sectional surveys. The potential health risk was assessed by analyzing water samples from key infective sources.

19 As quoted by Dr Robert Simmons, IBSRAM, Bangkok, Thailand; in a personal communication, 2001

171

Results showed that the untreated wastewater contained concentrations of Helminth eggs and faecal coliform bacteria in excess of WHO guidelines. Canal water also contained more faecal coliform than recommended. It was concluded that the potential health risk to farmers and crop consumers in the area was high. Farmers in particular worked barefoot in the fields and often handled the soil without any protection.

The actual health risk for farmers was also seen to be high. Farmers who irrigate their crops with wastewater and their children had a significantly higher prevalence of diarrheal diseases than the control population. In the case of children, while the prevalence of hookworm was not significantly different between the sample and the controls, infections with Ascaris Lumbricoides were more common in the former. In the IWMI study no helminth eggs were found in the vegetable wash water but this is not conclusive evidence of the safety of such vegetables. Contamination of vegetables has also been described in other studies (as reported in Blumenthal et al, 1996)

Interestingly however the findings of a recent assessment of the 1989 WHO Health Guidelines for wastewater re-use by Blumenthal et al (1996) through epidemiological studies in Mexico, Brazil and Leeds, makes the WHO guidelines debatable. Presently researchers are divided between two schools of thought: ‘guidelines based on epidemiological evidence’ school lead by WHO and the ‘no risk school’ popular in the US. The no risk philosophy is difficult to adopt in many developing countries who badly require wastewater for irrigation but haven’t the wherewithal to apply them (De Monte et al., 1996). They would have to choose between no wastewater re-use or illegal wastewater re-use disregarding tough guidelines imposed.

Agricultural productivity and irrigation performance of wastewater reuse systems

Currently, in many countries, wastewater is used to cultivate all manner of crops, but there is no evidence to show that water application in terms of amount, timing, and nutrient content is optimal for the crop in question. A recent review of existing literature on the agronomic aspects of such re-use systems commissioned by IWMI (Hanjra, 2001), gathered some empirical evidence of effects of wastewater irrigation on a variety of crops. The data pertained to various types of treated and raw wastewater both purely industrial and from municipal sources. From the evidence it is difficult to draw generic conclusions as the conditions of the studies were different, but it is clear that productivity increased in many of the cases without the use of fertilizer and cost savings were possible. Similarly, preliminary evidence from the IWMI study in Pakistan shows that wastewater irrigation results in high crop productivity, likely due to high nutrient input and reliable wastewater supply from the town. Wastewater irrigators in Haroonabad irrigate 16 times on an average compared to 10 times for non-wastewater irrigators during the same cropping season. The water allocation time is also more. The cropping intensities were around 300 % per year in wastewater sites while in ordinary irrigation the intensities were around 200. The type of crops cultivated clearly differed as well, the wastewater irrigators preferring to produce high value cash crops like vegetables. However wastewater farmers spray pesticides more often to control crop disease (Ensink et al, (1999).

In wastewater irrigation, nutrient concentration is often unknown and difficult to regulate. This is an important issue in deciding the correct doses of fertilizer. Too high a concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus can leach down and impair the groundwater quality. In principle the excess

172

nitrates and phosphates are removed through crop uptake, adsorption into soil particles or are decomposed by naturally occurring soil bacteria. Removal efficiencies are related to soil or aquifer media texture (Tanik & Comakoglu, (1996). It is clear that data on the nutrient-efficiency of soils is necessary since each crop and soil type requires a specific combination of nutrient dose and water. To select the right combination, water and nutrient budget studies will be needed.

Social, gender and institutional dimensions of wastewater irrigation

In some countries social codes about waste and its re-use may act as a constraint to developing wastewater irrigation practices. Consumers may not wish to buy produce if they know the source of water used for irrigation. In spite of many cultural limitations, wastewater irrigation is an accepted practice in most developing countries. This can be attributed to economic need, especially of poor people. Improving consumer awareness of the subject may make it more acceptable in some cases, though in countries with limited or scarce water resources this may never be an issue. Institutionally, wastewater irrigation may be part of the formal irrigation (wastewater re-use projects in Jordan, Israel etc.) or practiced on a more informal basis (as in Pakistan and Mexico), with each system having its own institutional mechanisms.

Women as irrigators and farmers do not usually have access to decision-making in relation to how the water will be distributed or even sold to the irrigators (IWMI 1999). There is scope for improving women’s access to wastewater. Better access to wastewater for women farmers could mean increased incomes to benefit families and alleviate poverty in women-headed households.

Very often irrigators are poor people or even squatters who are simply taking advantage of an adventitious source of water and who have few if any rights to water. They run the risk therefore of being ignored when new policies are developed and plans revised. In Mexico, irrigators already receiving conventional irrigation water also acquire de facto legal rights to wastewater diverted to canals. When municipalities make changes, such as prior treatment or reduction of quantities, as is the case in the IWMI case study in Mexico (Scott et al, 2000), water becomes an important rights issue to be addressed.

In Pakistan rights for the purchase of wastewater are not attached to land ownership in the vicinity (Ensink et al, 1999). Interesting questions arise as to whether the small farmers will lose their advantages to larger commercial farmers from outside when wastewater irrigation becomes a very viable option and municipalities raise prices. On the other hand, if the municipalities do not recognize the inherent value of auctioning wastewater, they may simply dispose of it with the least trouble, as in the case in Haroonabad, Pakistan, where farmers banded together to make a single offer. The cooperative method with some price negotiation by the municipality, keeps prices low for the users.

Regulatory practices on the use of wastewater and the necessary institutional frameworks for their adoption need to be reviewed. Stakeholders in the process are the users (farmers), municipalities, consumers of food, the public health systems, and “downstream users” of irrigation canals used for conveying wastewater for irrigation. These stakeholders need to be recognized within the policy frameworks devised for wastewater utilization if the potential benefits from this method of irrigation are to be fully exploited.

173

Valuing wastewater for irrigation use–assessing tradeoffs

In developed countries wastewater re-use is usually introduced under strict environmental and public health guidelines. The cost of treatment is compensated by the high premium placed on the environment and prevention of public health risks. In a developing country context this model is not feasible, as explained earlier. Developing countries will continue to irrigate high-value crops with untreated wastewater. Trade-off Models that can work in developing country environments will have to balance economic imperatives with known levels of health and environmental risks and sustainability of livelihoods. The costs and benefits associated with different options will have to be quantified to support appropriate policy decisions. IWMI studies in Haroonabad, Pakistan (Ensink et al, 1999) and the city of Guanajuato, Mexico (Scott et al, 2000) support the view that wastewater is a valuable resource for cultivators in both places. But whilst it is easier to quantify the monetary benefits associated with wastewater re-use for agriculture, the costs in terms of environmental and health risks are more difficult to enumerate.

Quantifying benefits and externalities. Questions arise as to how to value environmental externalities and the associated costs and benefits. In their most comprehensive form, valuing frameworks for environmental goods may comprise both economic and non-economic values, in which case tradeoffs have to be decided on the basis of multi-criteria decision models or the equivalent. Environmental valuation on the other hand attempts to estimate the economic value in dollar terms that members of society receive from uses of natural resources that cannot be efficiently allocated through markets due to their public good characteristics (non-rival, non- excludable) (Loomis, 2000). Whilst the current methods used (travel cost method, willingness to pay and contingent valuation method) have come under criticism by some schools of economists, the value of environmental valuation lies in providing a more complete accounting of all of the benefits and costs to all of the people. Valuation studies have the potential to provide an effective way to diminish the often bemoaned role of ‘special interests” in the current policy process.

Some of the benefits that can be quantified using standard economic approaches are: Water savings effected and alternative higher value uses to which this water is attributed especially in water-short countries. According to the IWMI study in Mexico (Scott et al 2000), the water used for irrigation represents a recycling of urban wastewater in a basin context accompanied by a significant monetary benefit. According to calculations based on best data available, the gross value of output per hectare of irrigated land is USD 1,800 and of a cubic meter of water is USD 0.16 (1994 dollars). In the area studied this implies a water value of USD 252,000 per year (140 ha of land) Reduced requirements for fertilizer with concomitant reduction in energy expenditure and industrial pollution elsewhere. As an example estimates of nutrient losses likely to occur if wastewater is treated prior to application show that in the Guanajuanto river basin, a reduction of 90 % of both nitrogen and phosphorus in the waste stream from the municipality of Guanajuanto represents a nutrient value of USD 95,900 for the study area . Using the recommended level of N and P for the crops the foregone nutrient benefit has a value of USD 18,900 per year. Soil conservation through humus build up where it occurs, and Direct and indirect economic gains or other benefits to farmers from the use to which it is put. For instance indirect economic gains in the from of reduced cost of wastewater treatment when this untreated waste is applied to the soil, were estimated at 2.6 million USD (investment cost of treatment plant) and USD 200 000 annually as operating cost (Scott et al,

174

2000). Even if partial treatment were undertaken to avoid environmental damage it would still represent a substantial savings compared to the levels of treatment required before discharging into surface waters. The direct benefits are the earnings and income of farmers from sale of crops irrigated with wastewater.

In enumerating the costs associated with wastewater re-use, the following factors require quantification either in economic terms or through other value systems: Ground water pollution (bacterial and chemical) from leaching and rising groundwater tables, water-logging and salinisation Surface-water pollution both bacterial and chemical from runoff and irrigation drainage Loss of productivity of soils and accumulation of pollutants particularly heavy metals Health impacts on farmers and consumers

CONCLUSIONS:

Before popularizing the concept of wastewater irrigation as a response to the dilemma of the global water crisis, the issue of wastewater re-use must be studied in a holistic integrated manner if rational decision-making is to ensue. Critical research issues in wastewater re-use center around the health impacts primarily and to a lesser degree around the environmental impacts which affect ecosystems and in the long term the health and well being of humans. For a more holistic perspective. Other relevant research issues center around productivity and performance of these systems with special reference to water and nutrient budgets; and the social and institutional dimensions. There are advantages and inconveniences associated with wastewater re-use. In order to assess trade-offs these must be critically evaluated in a cost benefit framework using both economic and non-economic values where relevant.

REFERENCES

Angelakis AN et al. (1998), The status of wastewater reuse practice in the Mediterranean basin: need for guidelines, Water Resources, Vol 33, No 12 pp2201-2217 Bakker, Nico; et al. (2000). Growing cities, growing food. Pub. By DSE,ZEL; Germany Bouhoum K, et al. (1998) Epidemiological study of intestinal helminthiasis in a Marrakech raw sewage spreading zone. Zentralbl Hyg Umweltmed. Feb;200(5-6):553-61. Cifuentes E, et al. (1994) [Epidemiologic setting of the agricultural use of sewage: Valle del Mezquital, Mexico]. Salud Publica Mex. Jan-Feb;36(1):3-9. Spanish Cortes, G., Mendoza, A. & Munoz, D. (1996). Toxicity evaluation using bioassay in Rural Developing District 063, Hidalgo, Mexico. Environmental toxicology and Water Quality. 11(2):137-143 Do Monte, M.H.F.M., Angelakis, A.N. & Asano, T. (1996). Necessity and basis for establishment of European guidelines for reclaimed wastewater in the Mediterranean region. Water Science and Technology. 33(10-11):303-306 Ensink, J., Hassan, M.U., Mudasser, M., Feenstra, S. & Aslam, R. Recycling of urban wastewater for irrigation in Haroonabad, Pakistan - A preparatory Study. Draft internal report, IWMI, Pakistan.

175

Feenstra, S., Hussain, R.& Van der Hoek, W. (2000). Health risks of irrigation with untreated urban wastewater in the Southern Punjab, Pakistan. Report 107, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Lahore, Pakistan Haruvy, N.(1997). Agricultural re-use of wastewater: nation-wide cost-benefit analysis.`Agiculture, Ecosystems & Environment 66(2):113-119 Hespanhol, I. (1993). Re-use of community wastewater: health and environment al protection – research needs. Discussion paper 6, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. IWMI (1999). Findings from Gender and Poverty Program. Internal Report. IWMI Sri Lanka Loomis, John B. (2000). Environmental valuation techniques in water resources decision making. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management. November-December 2000 issue:339-344 Mara, D. & Cairncross, S. (1989). Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater and excreta in agriculture and aquaculture. World Health Organisation and United Nations Environment Program Mathan, K. K. (1994). Studies on the influence of long-term municipal sewage effluent irrigation on soil physical properties. Bioresource Technology 48(3):275-276 Mendoza, C.A., Cortes, G. & Munoz, D. (1996). Heavy metal pollution in soils and sediments of rural developing district 063, Mexico. Environmental toxicology and Water Quality. 11(4):327-333 Munir Hanjra, (2001). Socio-economic and environmental effects of wastewater irrigation: state of the art, and problem areas. Draft Internal Report). IWMI, Sri Lanka. Rodriguez, Z., Oyer, C. L. & Cisneros, X. (1994) Diagnostic evaluation of wastewater utilization in agriculture. In Environmentally sound agriculture: Proceedings of the second conference, 20-22 April 1994, 423-430. Morelos State, Mexico. St Joseph, Michigan: American Society of agricultural Engineers. Scott, C.A., Zarazua, J.A. & Levine, G.A. (2000). Urban wastewater reuse for crop production in the water short Guanajuanto river basin, Mexico. IWMI Research Report 41, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Seckler et al., (1998). Water for Food Model for the World Water Vision Tanik, A. & Comakoglu, B. (1996). Nutrient removal from domestic wastewater by rapid infiltration system. Journal of arid Environments 34(3):79-390 WHO (1989) Health guidelines for the use of wastewater in agriculture and aquaculture. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser. 1989;778:1-74. Williams, R. (1999) “From waste to wealth – large irrigation projects in the USA and South Australia using recycled water”, Newsletter Irrigation Australia

176

Abstracts of Poster Presentations

LA REUTILISATION DES EAUX USEES TRAITEES DANS LE SECTEUR AGRICOLE DEFIS ET CONTROVERSES

Par Hella Ben Brahim* et Lucien Duckstein**

* Assistante à la faculté des sciences économiques et de gestion de Tunis. Département d'économie mathématiques et économétrie. 22, rue 7313 Menzah 9b. 2092 Tunis. Tunisie. [email protected] ** Professeur à l'école nationale du génie rural des eaux et des forêts d. 19, avenue du Maine 75732 Paris cedex 15. [email protected]

RESUME:

La réutilisation des eaux usées traitées est une solution incontournable pour diminuer l'effluent rejeté dans le milieu récepteur, elle peut être aussi une alternative fructueuse pour remédier aux insuffisances des ressources conventionnelles. Cette pratique est surtout appliquée dans les pays à climat aride et semi-aride qui souffrent d'une surexploitation des eaux de surface et des eaux souterraines et qui sont aussi gravement affectés par les changements climatiques. Il est nécessaire de rappeler que la demande de cette ressource connaît des fluctuations importantes qui peuvent remettre en cause toute politique de prévention environnementale se basant sur la réutilisation des eaux usées traitées (EUT). Un projet de construction d'un émissaire marin d'une longueur de 5 km sera présenté oralement pour montrer que sa réussite dépendra essentiellement de la continuité de l'expérience de réutilisation des EUT dans le secteur agricole. Projet évalué par l'office national d'assainissement sanitaire tunisien et sera appliqué à la côte nord tunisienne En effet, plusieurs facteurs peuvent agir sur sa demande, surtout dans le secteur agricole (plus de 80% des EUT réutilisées sont exploitées par le service agricole), et si l'on suppose que l'agriculteur n'a accès qu'à cette ressource, la pluviométrie représente le facteur le plus important qui peut agir sur sa consommation en eau épurée.

LES MOTS CLES :

EUT, pluviométrie, climat semi-aride et aride, demande d'EUT, environnement, secteur agricole

177

MANAGING THE WATER QUALITY EFFECTS FROM DENSELY POPULATED SETTLEMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICA

L.A. Boyd*, M. Hinsch*, G. Quibell**

*Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Directorate: Water Quality Management, Private Bag X313, Pretoria, South Africa, 0001. E-mail: [email protected] and [email protected] **Carl Bro Group, Glostrup, Denmark. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Pollution from densely populated and often under serviced settlements is perhaps one of the most important pollution problems facing developing nations. It is known to have severe impacts on both community health and on the quality of nearby water resources. However, this is perhaps one of our most intractable problems. Pollution from poor areas is typically underlain by a complex interaction of social, political and institutional problems. Often, and especially in South Africa, the problem may also relate to a history of deprivation and misuse of the services. As such, this problem has not often been successfully and sustainably addressed.The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) embarked on a project, funded by the Danish Co-operation for Environment and Development (DANCED), to develop approaches for managing the water quality effects of settlements.

This paper describes the site specific participative problem identification process adopted. This process is based on a generic understanding of the causes of pollution, which is then expanded by interaction with the community. The paper also describes the successes of this ‘structured- facilitated’ process in several test cases.

KEYWORDS

Pollution; developing communities; participative problem solving; sullage; solid waste; stormwater; sewage;

MONITORING AND COMPARING THE LEVELS OF 20 TRACE METALS IN THE RESERVOIRS OF WATER SUPPLY AND SEWERAGE CORPORATION OF ATHENS USING THE ICP-MS TECHNIQUE

Lytras E.*, Tzoumerkas F.*, Xenos D.**

* Water Quality Control Division, Water Supply and Sewarage Corporation of Athens, Oropou 156, 11565 Athens, Hellas. Email: [email protected] ** Managing Director, Water Supply and Sewarage Corporation of Athens, Oropou 156, 11565 Athens, Hellas. Email: [email protected]

178

ABSTRACT

Water Supply and Sewarage Corporation of Athens is in charge of the treatment and distribution of drinking water in the city of Athens and the environs. In the present study the surface water in the reservoirs of Water Supply and Sewarage Corporation of Athens as well as the treated water distributed to the city of Athens are examined for metals classified as toxic or non-desirable in the EEC guideline 75/440 at the sampling points of interest. The analyses have been performed with the ICP-MS technique and 20 trace metals, Al, As, B, Ba, Be, Co, Cu, Cr, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, Sn, Te, Tl, Ti, U, V and Zn have been determined with remarkable repeatability and low detection limits, down to the sub-ppb range. Quality control procedures on field and in the laboratory certified the reliability of the determinations.

All trace metals concentrations have been found significantly less than the EEC directive limits thus testifying the good quality of Athens drinking water supply. Be, Se, Sn, Te and Tl have been detected in concentrations less than their respective detection limits. Co, As, Mo, Sb, Hg, Pb and U have been detected in concentrations less than 1 µg/L. As for Al, Ti, V, Cr, Ni and Cu have been detected in the range of 1-10 µg/L and only Zn and Ba have exceeded 10 µg/L.

Relatively high concentrations of Cu in Marathon lake are due to the use of copper sulfate as means for the controlling of the algae overgrowths in the past years. Relatively high concentrations of As and Zn in Marathon as well may derive from agricultural wastes. Finally, relatively high concentrations of Cr, Cu, Zn, Ti, V, and Ni in Yliki lake may derive from industrial wastes. These maxima in trace metal concentrations compel Athens Water and Wastewater Company in wakefulness concerning potential pollution of the reservoirs.

KEYWORDS: ICP-MS, metals, public health, reservoirs, toxicity, water quality

CATCHMENT RESTORATION AND SUSTAINABLE URBAN WATER MANAGEMENT : A NEW PARADIGM

*Anne M. Powell and **Leslie Jones

*Birkby Hall, Cark in Cartmel, Grange over Sands, Cumbria LA11 7NP, United Kingdom. E- mail: [email protected] ; ** Panda House, Weyside Park, Godalming GU7 1XR

Abstract This paper suggests a new paradigm; that sustainable development must first consider the environment upon which economic and social factors ultimately depend and sustainable management of the environment requires an integrated approach. It recognises that the basin, or catchment, is the best unit for management and emphasises the interdependence of the urban and the rural parts of each catchment. The paradigm recommends that management is best done using the ecosystem approach which includes the human residents of the river basin as integral components of the ecosystem, and dependent upon it. Restoring and rehabilitating the functionality of ecosystems is the key to a sustainable future.

179

KEYWORDS:

Basins, Catchment, Ecosystem, Integration, Management, SUDS (Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems).

WATER QUALITY IN THREE RESERVOIRS ON THE CITARUM RIVER, INDONESIA

Simon Sembiring *

*Reseacher, Research Institute for Water Resources Development Jl. Ir. H. Juanda No. 193 Bandung – 40135, Indonesia Fax : + 62-22-2500163

ABSTRACT

Three large reservoirs have been built on the Citarum River in West Java over the last two decades. Saguling (completed 1985), Cirata (1988) and Jatiluhur (1967) are the first, second and third reservoirs respectively downstream from Bandung city. Saguling and Cirata were built primarily for hydroelectric power and Jatiluhur primarily for rice irrigation. Subsequently all three are used for industrial, domestic, fisheries, recreation and transportation purposes. Jakarta city, about 130km from Jatiluhur, plans to use the water from this reservoir as its main water supply.

It has been known for more than a decade that the water of all three reservoirs is polluted by inflows of domestic sewage, industrial and agricultural wastes. In addition, considerable organic pollution comes from fish farming in the reservoirs. In year 1998 Saguling had 2500 floating cage nets, Cirata 2700, Jatiluhur 720 .

A number of pollutants exceed the limits of the official water quality regulation standards of the government of Indonesia, particularly dissolved oxygen, zinc and iron.

This paper give some updated information about the level of pollution. Unless the sources of pollution are controlled the effects of it presently seen in macrophyte plant infestation, algal blooms, fish kills and degradation of potable and industrial water will increase.

KEYWORDS: Citarum , reservoir ,Cirata, Jatiluhur,Saguling, pollution, water quality.

180

Workshop 4

TECHNOLOGICAL OUTLOOK FOR THE FUTURE

Convenor Conseil Général des Bouches-du-Rhône

181

SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER AND STORMWATER: UNEP-IETC’S INFORMATION AND CAPACITY BUILDING RESOURCES

Lilia G.C. Casanova UNEP-IETC 1091 Oroshimo-Cho, Kusatsu City, Shiga 525-0001, Japan [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Decision makers in developing countries are often ill-equipped to make an informed technology choice in trying to resolve problems related to municipal wastewater and stormwater due to lack of adequate information on the subject that is in the right form, context and language and easily accessible. But even if the kind of information needed were made available and accessible, unless the knowledge base is supported with an enabling instrument to build capacity for decision making, information could remain simply stored facts and figures of little consequence. UNEP- IETC has developed a Source Book and a set of Training Modules as resources to improve the knowledge base as well as build the capacity of decision makers in developing countries to select appropriate technologies and to manage sustainably their municipal wastewater and stormwater.

KEYWORDS

Integrated freshwater resources management, integrated waste management, environmentally sound technologies, regional overviews, training modules, urban environment management

INTRODUCTION

One sewer fits all. In many developing cities, one pipe is good enough to take in and spew out black water, gray water, stormwater, agricultural run-off and other types of wastewater that are usually untreated. Canals or open sewers without pipes are, in fact, commonly used for collection and the dirty waters are then deposited in lakes, rivers, other freshwater bodies and the oceans. Since canals are also favorite sites for open dumping of a variety of solid waste, pollution and contamination especially of freshwater resources is aggravated, reducing tremendously the quality of water for urban use. The easiest explanation for this prevailing condition in developing countries is the general lack of understanding of the need to segregate different types of waste, whether solid waste or wastewater, because of their different treatment requirements. In essence, because treatment of wastewater is not among the management practices of developing countries, waste segregation is not a policy option.

Technologies for treatment of wastewater and stormwater have been developed and are used extensively in developed countries as well as in more progressive developing countries. But as all experts know, treatment is only a part, and at the end of the line, of the waste management stream. The more important aspects of waste management are ‘apriori’, prior to the occurrence of waste – that is, waste avoidance or prevention, reducing, reusing and recycling of waste before disposal.

183

The focus of this paper is not on the waste ‘apriori’ principles and practices but on the information and capacity building resources that UNEP-IETC has produced to help developing countries tackle waste, in particular, wastewater and stormwater, as soon as they happen or when they happen. UNEP-IETC has given priority to the development of these resource materials because of the need to address current and urgent needs in developing countries. However, it is UNEP-IETC’s long term goal to inculcate in these countries, first and foremost, the basic ‘apriori’ principles in waste management – A+3Rs: avoid, reduce, reuse and recycle waste. UNEP-IETC endorses the application of the concept and principles of integrated waste management (IWM) or the total systems approach where A+3Rs are the basic guiding principles.

The two resource documents that UNEP-IETC has produced, which are complementary, are: “International Source Book on Environmentally Sound Technologies for Wastewater and Stormwater Management” and “Training Modules On Sustainable Wastewater and Stormwater Management: Guidelines For Trainors”. These form part of the collection of UNEP-IETC’s Information and Capacity Building Resources. A UNEP-IETC publication that is related to the resources presented in this paper is the “International Source Book on Environmentally Sound Technologies in Municipal Solid Waste Management”.

The Source Book

‘The International Source Book on Environmentally Sound Technologies for Wastewater and Stormwater Management’ or simply Source Book, for the purpose of this paper, is a compendium of available information on three areas: (1) a framework for understanding the rationale behind the need for wastewater and stormwater management; (2) the broad range of wastewater and stormwater management, from the basic principles of planning, to technology choice, to the operation of the system; and (3) state-of-the art or practices in wastewater and stormwater management in the different regions of the world.

In most developing countries, the absence or scarcity of information is a barrier to efforts in finding solutions to problems related to wastewater and stormwater management. Information is available but it is usually dispersed, piecemeal bits in different formats for various types of users. City executives or urban managers in search of simple, alternative solutions to augment what their city may already have in terms of a system or technology for managing wastewater and stormwater may have to search far and wide to get information sources, yet, may only find that in the face of enormity of information sources none would actually suit their needs. Information is not really scarce; it is just not properly organized, especially country or city level data, and not available in the form that it is needed. This inability to acquire the right kind and form of information when it is needed usually leads to insufficient knowledge and inevitably results in poor management.

Essentially, the objective of the Source Book is to inform with the right kind, form and context of information, to influence public policy, and to generate or enhance academic as well as entrepreneurial interest in wastewater and stormwater management. As a parallel objective in support of sustainable development, it wants to also highlight the need to protect freshwater resources from a major urban source of pollution and contamination, which is municipal wastewater.

184

A REFERENCE, NOT A TECHNICAL MANUAL NOR A CATALOGUE

While the Source Book speaks of environmentally sound technologies (ESTs), it is not a technical manual nor a handbook to provide technical details or design procedures. These types of publication are already widely available, though generally related to North America or Western European settings. Nor is the Source Book a catalogue of hardware for wastewater and stormwater treatment. In the first place, ESTs are not just the hardware part of the technology or ‘hard’ ESTs but also the ‘soft’ ESTs or the management systems and procedures, which are the more important part of the technology to ensure its effectiveness.

The Source Book deals largely with ‘soft’ ESTs or the non-technological elements of the integrated approach to waste management. It encapsulates sound practices in the selection of technology and stresses the need to consider the social, economic, institutional and environmental factors in the selection process.

The ESTs in the Source Book include an array of major technology options for collection, treatment, reuse and disposal of wastewater and stormwater. To demonstrate the value of reuse, ESTs for sludge reuse, for example, and reuse of wastewater and stormwater by households, communities or industries, whether these require applications that are highly technical or simple and practical, are given prominence.

Not being a handbook nor catalogue, the Source Book is a general reference on how to sort out and synthesize available information on the management of wastewater and stormwater and how to determine the applicability of that information under local conditions or special circumstances.

REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

A dominant part of the Source Book is on Regional Overviews. These contain substantive information on sound practices that are in actual operation in a number of countries selected for the purpose of the study from each major region of the world. The Regional Overviews cover basic information about a particular region’s wastewater and stormwater – i.e., their characteristics as waste and the region’s practices in collection, treatment, reuse, and disposal. Each Regional Overview discusses the policy and institutional frameworks that support waste management, the training and public education activities that are being undertaken to implement the policy, and the financing mechanisms in place to maintain the system.

Case studies of good management practices in the region have been added to substantiate information and to highlight their value and potential for adoption by other countries or cities. A case study, for instance, which shows this potential is about an example from Brazil, where a low-cost ‘condominium sewerage’ has been developed and applied successfully. This technology could be applicable to other cities with similar problems of how to provide an efficient but low- cost system for wastewater collection and disposal in high density low-income settlements. The information about this system, which is not known elsewhere, is now contained in the Source Book and is available to everyone.

The totality of the information organized for the Source Book would be valuable to researchers, R and D experts, international development agencies that provide technical assistance programmes, international or regional training institutions in search of areas for transfer of skills and knowledge and to regional and global investors in search of markets for environmental technologies.

185

The global regions covered by the ‘Regional Overviews’ are: Africa, Asia Pacific, West Asia, Latin America, North America, and Europe (East and West). Beyond these global regions, the special groups of countries called SIDS (Small Island Developing States) in the Pacific and in the Caribbean have been included and grouped as special regions because of the demand for information on SIDS but where information especially on waste is scarce. Their inclusion has enriched the information content and value of the Source Book.

TARGET AUDIENCE

Decision makers and makers of public policy at the national and local levels of government are the primary audience of the Source Book. At the national level, these comprise of section or division chiefs, bureau directors, and cabinet secretaries, including their senior advisers, or heads of national government agencies responsible for wastewater and stormwater management. At the local level, these include governors, mayors, their deputies, heads of local planning departments and urban managers.

Because the Source Book is primarily designed to influence public policy and decision making by raising the awareness level of national and local executives, it is written in a language that is not too technical nor academic, yet, not too simplistic to be boring. It wants to attract this group of readers who would not be so much interested in the technical solutions as they would be on their being informed about the basics of wastewater and stormwater management, to enable them to use that information to establish wastewater and stormwater management as a policy of the state or of the city, and to enable them adopt in their jurisdictions, whenever possible, the principles of environmentally sound technologies and practices.

But the Source Book is not just for politician-decision makers. While it wants to reach the less schooled in the technical aspects of wastewater and stormwater management, it will appeal just as well to professional practitioners and students because of its value-added to environmental protection and conservation. The discussions on alternative technologies, for example, on natural purification processes and the role of micro-organisms which are nature-based technologies, would provide professional specialists and students with a new insight on what would be otherwise known as indigenous or non-conventional local technologies that have been there all along but whose value to wastewater and stormwater management have not been given importance until recently.

For those who would be more interested in specific technologies and practices, the Source Book has put together information on wastewater and stormwater collection technologies, covering the conventional, simplified and settled types of sewerage systems, with a separate discussion on stormwater collection. It has also put together information on wastewater and stormwater treatment technologies, which cover off-site and on-site treatment systems, and with a separate discussion on stormwater treatment technologies.

The Source Book addresses the needs of two other classes of audience – (1) the community leaders who participate in making decisions in selecting a technology at the community level and lead community participation in waste management; and (2) the private entrepreneurs who would be interested in the financing, construction, operations and services delivery aspects of wastewater and stormwater management.

186

The Training Modules

The “Training Modules On Sustainable Management Of Wastewater and Stormwater” or briefly ‘Training Modules’ complement the Source Book. These are short term training courses designed especially for decision and policy makers, practitioners or specialists and the general public or stakeholders.

The Training Modules are part of a training package which contains four Folders: Folder 1 – Guidelines For Trainors; Folder 2 – The Source Book; Folder 3- Regional Overviews; and Folder 4 - Training Slides. The Source Book is on a separate CD but has been added here for the sake of completeness. The Regional Overviews, which are an integral part of the Source Book, have been treated separately for the purpose of training. The contents of the Folders are as follows:

Folder 1: Guidelines For Trainors. This Folder contains the text file “Guidelines For Trainors”. It contains the Training Modules designed per target training group and instructions on how to use its supporting documents, including the visual aids. It is suggested that Folder 1 should be read first. Understanding these Guidelines will be the basis for a successful preparation and running of the three different types of training sessions, which are as follows: (a) executive briefing, (b) professionals and trainors coaching, and (c) general awareness raising.

Folder 2: Source Book. This Folder consists of: (a) The Source Book file, which contains the main bulk of information on sustainable approaches to wastewater and stormwater management. It contains text files with figures. And (b) Aquaculture file, which contains text with figures and photographs.

Folder 2 has five separate sets of training slides. These are: a) Training slides for Group A (decision makers) b) Training slides for Group B (water and environmental specialists/professionals) c) Training slides for Group C (general public and NGOs) d) Additional technical slides e) Photo slides on aquaculture

Folder 3: Regional Overviews. This Folder consists of several articles, accompanied with slides, on the state-of-the-art and regional experiences in wastewater and stormwater management. The files are grouped by global region. Each Regional Overview has a separate set of slides, some of which have been incorporated into the main body of the text.

These are the files contained in Folder 3: (1) Africa; (2) Asia Pacific; (3) West Asia; (4) South and Central America; (5) Eastern Europe; (6) Western Europe; (7) North America; (8) SIDS Caribbean; (9) SIDS Pacific.

Folder 4: Training Slides. This Folder contains all the above-mentioned training slides, which have been grouped for Target Groups A, B and C. An additional set of technical slides have been added to enhance the training session for the professionals group or Group B. Depending on the profiles of participants, this additional set can be used for the other sessions as well. Also included are the slides for aquaculture and Regional Overviews.

187

The following files are found in Folder 4: Training slides for Group A plus list Training slides for Group B plus list Training slides for Group C plus list Additional technical slides plus list Aquaculture slides Regional slides for each of the 9 global regions

TARGET GROUPS AND TRAINING MODULES

As mentioned earlier, the three Target Groups for training are Group A, Group B and Group C. A separate Training Module has been designed for each group. These are all contained in Folder 1.

Target Group A pertains to top level decision makers in government. These are officials and executives or senior officers of national, regional (subnational), and local governments, who are involved in policy issues. At the national level, this Group will include cabinet ministers and their deputies; at the local level, this will include governors, mayors, and their deputies. These high level officials are generally responsible for a broad spectrum of policy issues, among which environmental management is just one, but who may not have a deep technical knowledge of the subject on wastewater and stormwater management.

The training session designed for Group A is Training Module A - an executive briefing session. It is a concise overview of the modern concepts of sustainable solutions, general information on available technologies, and basic criteria for technology selection. The typical duration of an executive briefing session is between half a day to one day. Facilitators/trainors will use ‘lecturettes’ or presentation of short non-technical papers supported with appropriate slides from the Slides Directory (Folder 4).

Target Group B refers to water and environmental professionals, which would include planners, project developers, designers and other specialists in wastewater and stormwater management and those who would advise persons in the decision and policy making group or Group A, e.g., urban managers, seniors advisors, and heads of departments for urban planning, environmental management, waste management and related functions. They are assumed to have had formal education in sanitary or environmental engineering and related fields and have been trained in the conventional approaches to sanitation management but who would be interested in further exposure to recent developments in the field that have to do with higher levels of environmental concern, analysis of interactions between wastewater and stormwater systems, resource recycling and sustainable solutions. Hence, they would be potential trainors on the subject. However, they are not expected to learn systems designing and other technical details from this training session. These tasks still remain with other specialists in systems analysis, design, construction, and operational management.

Training Module B has been designed for Target Group B. It is a five-day training course on the more technical aspects of wastewater and stormwater management. The Source Book will be used here as the basic reference. The technical papers contained in the Report of Proceedings of the Regional Workshop in Rio de Janeiro will be useful materials for the lecturers/resource persons. All of the training slides in Folder 4 will be useful for this Training Module.

188

Target Group C are community leaders, representatives of NGOs with broad interests in water and environment issues, and the general public. This Group would not have a high level of knowledge about wastewater and stormwater systems. But as users of these systems, they are important stakeholders whose participation in planning, decision making and management of these systems will ensure the sustainability of the systems.

For Target Group C, a one-day public awareness session in the form of a seminar-workshop has been designed as Training Module C. Training Module C is a brief, concise overview of the modern concepts of sustainable solutions, available technologies and basic criteria for technology selection depending on local conditions. Unlike Training Module A, where the overview will be addressing issues related to the decision making needs of high level participants, the overview in Training Module C addresses community needs and issues related to health and sanitation and links these to wastewater and stormwater management.

Training Module C can be split into two sub-modules – i.e., Sub-Module D, which would be for a mixed group of persons who would belong to Group B (professionals and potential trainors) and Group C (general public) and Sub-Module E, which would be just for Group C persons. Each Sub-Module can be designed for one to two days where the basic material for Training Module C will be used and augmented with the third session theme of Training Module B (sustainable solutions) and role game exercises. The difference between the two Sub-Modules is that role playing exercises will be optional for Sub-Module C.

Folders 1, 2, 3 and 4 will serve as a complete training package for trainors. Along with the Source Book, these will be available in printed form as well as in CD rom and will be distributed for free to environmental agencies and training institutions of governments of developing countries as well as to non-profit regional/international training institutions that deal with the subject of wastewater and stormwater management. Other interested persons or entities may subscribe the package from SMI, which is located in the U.K. At a later time, these resources can be accessed through the internet from IETC’s website. Enquiries can be sent by email directly to UNEP-IETC at this address: [email protected].

UNEP-IETC’S MANDATE

The production of information and capacity building resources is one of UNEP-IETC’s major activities to implement its mandate, which is to promote the adoption and use of environmentally sound technologies (ESTs) in developing countries and countries with economies in transition in two focal areas - urban environmental management (UEM) and integrated freshwater resources management (IFRM). The production of the above-cited Source Book and the Training Modules come within its UEM mandate. To present the Source Book to professionals and develop the concept of the Training Modules, a Regional Workshop on the Sustainable Management of Wastewater and Stormwater was held in Rio de Janeiro last March 2000 for professionals in Latin America and Caribbean.

However, while UNEP-IETC has two focal areas – urban and freshwater environments - these two areas are dealt with in an integrated fashion because of the strong connection between them, i.e., while freshwater resources provide the water demand of cities, it is, however, urban activities from these same sectors that impact negatively on freshwater resources. Hence, urban

189

environment management must factor in the impact on freshwater resources of urbanization and human activities on land.

UNEP-IETC works with experts on specified fields of ESTs in producing its information and capacity building resources. In the preparation and production of the Source Book, we are grateful to Mr. Goen Ho of the Environmental Training Center (ETC) of Murdoch University, Australia; for the preparation and production of the Training Modules, we are grateful to Mr. Cedo Macsimovic of the Center for Urban Water (CUW) in UK, for their expert assistance.

190

ROOFTOP RAIN WATER HARVESTING – AN ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY FOR FRESH WATER AUGMENTATION IN CHRONICALLY DEFICIENT URBAN AGGLOMERATES OF INDIA

∗ P.G.Dhar Chakrabarti

ABSTRACT

In the context of the burgeoning water crisis in urban India, the technology of Rooftop Rain Water Harvesting holds great promise in some of the water deficit cities of India. The technology is simple, cost effective and sustainable. An integrated system of rainwater harvesting can be designed for a city, in which RRWH at the domestic and neighbourhood level can be combined with other rain water harvesting techniques at the city level for recharging the aquifer which will augment the net availability of fresh water for consumption. This paper draws from an experimental Artificial Recharge Study of Delhi to prove how simple check dams and recharge wells based on roof top rainwater harvesting has helped to raise the ground water level by 3 m in each successive monsoons. The paper also suggests that an appropriate regulatory and incentive mechanism can be developed by the city governments to operationalise the technology.

URBAN WATER CRISIS IN INDIA

India is one of the less urbanised among the developing countries, with less than 30% of its population living in urban areas, but in absolute terms it has more than 300 million people living in towns and cities. This is almost twice the combined urban population of France, Germany and United Kingdom. The Urban India is growing more than 3.5% per annum, and it is projected that by the year 2041, urban population shall swell to 800 million, which is larger than the total population of the whole of Europe.

India has 23 metropolitan (million plus) and 3 mega (ten million plus) cities and it is estimated that by the year 2021 the number of metropolis shall go up to 75 and that of mega cities to 6, when India will have probably the largest concentration of mega cities anywhere in the world (Singh, K and Steinberg, F, 1996).

Already many of the Indian cities are facing acute shortage of potable water. Exploitation of surface water resources have reached a saturation point and excessive extraction of ground water and limited open area for recharge in some of the cities have resulted in sharp decline in the ground water table, which is manifested in failure in of tube wells, deterioration in ground water quality, saline water ingress etc (TERI, 2000). The problem has become acute in some of the cities, especially during summer, when potable water has to be carried in trucks or trains from distant sources at a heavy cost and harsh water ration has to be introduced. Water strife and riots have become regular features in some of the towns of western and southern India during the summer months. In some of the towns even the police is asked to supervise the distribution of water supply to avoid violence and clashes amongst the residents.

∗ The author is Director in the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, New Delhi

191

Many people are forced to access water from unsafe sources, leading to widespread waterborne diseases like diarrhoea, hepatitis, roundworm, with a telling effect on public health and hygiene. A recent study has indicated that about 30.5 million Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY) are lost each year due to the poor quality of drinking water and absence of sanitation facilities. The financial loss in terms of productivity has been quantified at Rs. 360 billion (US $ 9 billion) annually (MUD, 2000).

Water crisis in urban India is assuming a cause of very serious concern of the planners, engineers, scientist, administrators and policy makers (Dhar Chakrabarti, 2000).

STRATEGY OF RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Conventional methods of tapping surface water sources or of exploiting natural ground water reserves may not be the only solution to India’s burgeoning urban water crisis. As an alternate method, which can supplement the existing sources on a sustainable and low cost basis, the strategy of rainwater harvesting is assuming increasing significance.

India receives on an average 1100 mm of annual precipitation, which is the highest in any part of the world. Although its distribution in space and time is highly variable, most of it is allowed to go waste as run off water into the sea through the river system. In the urban areas there is very little recharge to the sub-surface since most of the surface is either occupied by buildings or roads. Therefore, even if a part of the rainwater can be harvested, this may recharge the depleting ground water level and significantly contribute to the net availability of water for drinking and other purposes in the urban areas, particularly in the deficient areas (CGWB 1999).

Roof- water or rainwater harvesting techniques had traditionally been practised by the urban communities in different parts of the country. Ranging from a purely domestic based system such as collection of falling water in containers or storage tanks to a community or even a town level systems such as ponds, percolation tanks, dams or dykes had been in existence in many towns. Over the years, the introduction of pipe water supply on the one hand and gradual replacement of the community by the Government and Municipalities for the management of water supply in the cities on the other, has led to the abandonment of the ‘ancient wisdoms’(Agarwal, A. and Narain, S. 1997). The deepening urban water crisis has off late revived the interest on water harvesting structures. Various research organisations and hydrological institutes have been working on different techniques of water harvesting in urban areas, such as injection or recharge wells, bore whole flooding, lateral recharge shaft, sub surface dukes etc. A number of cities are adopting regulatory regimes on extraction of ground water resources and construction of sub surface tanks not only to conserve ground water but also to prevent it from pollution.

DOMESTIC ROOFTOP RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Of all the techniques of rainwater harvesting, Domestic Rooftop Rain Water Harvesting (DRRWH) is very simple and inexpensive and can be adopted on a decentralised scale at the domestic level without much of additional investment. What are required are simply a catchment surface, an inflow conduit, a storage structure and a filtration system, if the collected water is to be used for drinking purposes (CGWB 2000).

192

The catchment surface of rainwater harvest is the roof. Rainwater can be collected from any roof, but if the water is to be used for drinking purposes, roof should not be covered with asphalt and lead flashings or lead based paints or damaged asbestos, which may contaminate the collected water.

The inflow structures consist of gutters and inflow pipes. Gutters collect rainwater from the roof and transport it to the inflow pipe. These could be made of aluminium or galvanised iron sheet, or half cut PVC pipe or even half cut large dia bamboo trunk. The size and shape of gutters would obviously depend on the surface area of the roof and the intensity of the rainfall. To keep leaves and other debris from entering the system, the gutters should be covered with wire mesh along their entire length. The inflow pipe is the pipe, which connects the gutter to the filter and then to the tank reservoir. It could be made from PVC, cast iron or cement pipes. To avoid the water from the first shower, which usually contains dirt and other impurities, a by-pass arrangement is made by a valve to drain the first showers from the filter.

Filters must be used when the water is to be stored in tanks for direct consumption. Filter can be divided into three parts: a container which can be made from either galvanised iron sheet or Ferro cement, a perforated plate of non-corroding metal or PVC with 1 cm dia holes and the filtering media which may be composed of three layers - sand, gravel and pebble bed. If the water is not to be stored in a container and fed into the ground water reservoir, filter in the inflow structure is not required, but it should pass through a desilting pit before entering the aquifer.

There is wide variety of options for storing water. The storage tank could be either an underground or over-ground structure or it can even be an abandoned dug well or an abandoned/running hand pump. An underground structure is generally cheaper, requires little or no space above ground and is more difficult to empty by leaving the tap on, but water extraction is more problematic, often requiring a pump, leaks or failures are more difficult to detect and contamination of the tank from groundwater is more common. An aboveground structure, on the other hand, can be manufactured from a wide variety of materials, can be easily purchased ‘off- the-shelf’, can be extracted by the gravity, and be easily inspected for cracks or leakages. Much work has been carried out on the development of the ideal tank for DRRWH (IRCSC 1995, 1997, 1999)

It is also possible to recharge the rooftop rainwater into the ground water reservoir through the abandoned dug well or an abandoned/running hand pump. Water to be recharged is guided through a pipe to the bottom of the dry/unused dug well or below the water level to avoid scouring of bottom and entrapment of air bubbles in the aquifer. Bottom of the dug well should be cleaned and all fine deposits should be removed before its use for recharge. Period chlorination is required in order to control bacteriological contamination. This method is particularly suitable for large buildings having the roof area of more than 1000 sqm.

193

WATER HARVESTING SYSTEM IN A BUILDING

For a smaller building having the roof area up to 150 sqm. water can be diverted from the rooftop to the hand pump through the pipe of 50 to 100 mm diameter. To avoid entry of air in suction pipe, a closing valve is fitted in the conveyance system near the hand pump. However, during the period the water is being recharged, water extracted from the hand pump should be used after proper chlorination.

Various studies on DRRWH, based on different types of roofing materials and storage systems have established that generally a loss up to 20% may take place due to evaporation and inefficiencies in collection processes. Thus only 80% of rainfall can be harnessed through rooftop. Therefore the following formula can be adopted to determine the total quantity of rainwater that can be reused:

Total quantity of water to be collected (cum.) = Rooftop Area (Sqm.) x Average Monson Rainfall (m) x 0.8

Based on this formula, the following table can be worked out regarding the quantum of rainwater that can be harvested from area of various sizes.

Rainfall (mm) 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 Rooftop Harvested Water from Rooftop Area (cum) Area (sqm) 20 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8 9.6 12.8 16 19.2 22.4 25.6 28.8 32 30 2.4 4.8 7.2 9.6 12 14.4 19.2 24 28.8 33.6 38.4 43.2 48 40 3.2 6.4 9.6 12.8 16 19.2 25.6 32 38.4 44.8 51.2 57.6 64 50 4.0 8 12 16 20 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 60 4.8 9.6 14.4 19.2 24 28.8 38.4 48 57.6 67.2 76.8 86.4 96 70 5.6 11.2 16.8 22.4 28 33.6 44.8 56 67.2 78.4 89.6 100.8 112 80 6.4 12.8 19.2 25.6 32 38.4 51.2 64 76.8 89.6 102.4 115.2 128 90 7.2 14.4 21.6 28.8 36 43.2 57.6 72 86.4 100.8 115.2 129.6 144 100 8 16 24 32 40 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 150 12 24 36 48 60 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240 200 16 32 48 64 80 96 128 160 192 224 256 288 320 250 20 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 300 24 48 72 96 120 144 192 240 288 336 384 432 480 400 32 64 96 128 160 192 256 320 384 448 512 576 640 500 40 80 120 160 200 240 320 400 480 560 640 720 800 1000 80 160 240 320 400 480 640 800 960 1120 1280 1440 1600 2000 160 320 480 640 800 960 1280 1600 1920 2240 2560 2880 3200 3000 240 480 720 960 1200 1440 1920 2400 2880 3360 3840 4320 4800

CONSTRAINTS OF DOMESTIC ROOFTOP RAIN WATER HARVESTING SYSTEM

Judging by this formula, four-fifth of the annual rainfall should be harvested or recycled for domestic use, but in reality that does not happen. No organised and authentic data regarding domestic rooftop rain water harvesting in any Indian city is available, but as things stand today, not even a small fraction of the total rainfall is harvested in the urban areas, barring possibly one or two cities, although the possibilities are enormous. The reasons are the following:

First, all the urban areas are already covered by a centralised pipe water system, which is highly subsidised. Although the system is deficient and does not cater to the full requirement of the residents, there is not much incentive for the residents to invest on an additional system at the

194

domestic level. Only those who own an independent and large roof area and have sufficient open space for the installation of storage tanks can afford to set up such a system, but such categories of people are usually well off to purchase water from alternate sources rather than invest on RRWH. Even if they invest on such a system, it is usually for garden or lawn irrigation rather than for drinking purposes.

Secondly, the occupancy pattern and ownership system of urban property is such that a very small part of the total roof area is owned individually and often the density of population living under a roof is so high that the per capita availability of recycled rainwater to the occupants of the building is very insignificant and therefore the economics of rainwater harvesting at the domestic level may not work out very favourably. Joint management of roof water not only for the purpose of collection and conservation but also for their extraction and reuse shall also become a difficult proposition because of the complexities of the issues involved, unless these have been planned at the time of construction of houses.

Thirdly, a large part of the urban landscape is not roofed, although it may be built up, for example the road space, the lanes and bye lanes etc. Similarly the set backs of the buildings, the open spaces, the parks, gardens, play grounds, city forests etc have no roofs and therefore the run off from such areas can not be pooled under a DRRWH system.

Fourthly, domestic conservation and extraction of ground water through dug well or tube well shall also depend on the depth of the local aquifer. If it is too deep it may not be extracted economically and if it is too shallow it can either pollute ground water or be polluted by other discharges.

Finally, the buildings of urban India have not been designed with built in provisions for DRRWH system. Although the concept is old and antiquated, its application in the context of modern city life is a very recent phenomenon. Neither the master and zonal plans of the cities nor the building bye laws had any stipulation regarding rooftop rainwater harvesting and therefore gutter, inflow system and storage tanks were not conceived when the buildings were designed and no incentive structure has yet been developed for adding such facilities on the existing buildings.

These are formidable constraints, which have hindered any large-scale use of DRRWH system in urban areas. These also underline the inherent limitations on the use and application of the system at a domestic level in modern city life. Possibly a purely domestic based and decentralised rain water harvesting in urban areas do not stand a very great chance of success unless this technique is used as part of an integrated and holistic framework of rain water harvesting in urban areas and unless a proper regulatory and incentive structure is developed to make the system popular and attractive.

INTEGRATED SYSTEM OF URBAN RAIN WATER HARVESTING – DELHI STUDY

In an integrated system of urban rain water harvesting, not only the domestic but also the institutional and commercial roof area as also the non roof area are properly mapped and a combined and holistic framework of rain water harvesting is drawn for the city as a whole which integrate the system with the water supply, sewage and drainage system of the city. Such an integrated system is yet to be put on place in any of the cities in India or elsewhere in the world, but many research and management efforts are being made in this direction.

195

This paper focuses on the Experimental Artificial Recharge Studies (EARS) in some selected areas of the national capital of Delhi conducted by the Central Ground Water Board, in collaboration with the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi. This study combined the techniques of artificial recharge through Check Dams and Rooftop Rain Water Harvesting (CGWB and IIT 2000).

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE STUDY AREA

The study area is spread over a geographical area of 10 sq. km., falling between 28 31’ and 28 33’ North latitudes and 77 09’ and 77 11’ East longitudes. The area is underlain by Delhi quartzite in South and alluvium in North. Principal rock types are siliceous quartzite, ferruginous quartzite, silicate-mica schist, sand and clay. The ground elevation ranges from 226 to 270 m aMSL and ground slope ranges from 0.15 to 1.43 % towards North East. The depth to bedrock beneath alluvium varies from 60 m to 119 m in IIT Campus and increases towards North East. There are five streamlets originating in the area and these finally join the Yamuna River. Ground water in the area occurs in the semi-confined condition in fractures of hard rocks. The average depth of water level during pre monsoon varied from 15 to 20 m. Normal annual rainfall of Delhi is 611.8 mm, out of which 533 mm (87 %) occurs during South West monsoon period (July to September). Average annual evaporation loss in a year is 2.2 m, out of which 0.85 m (38.6&) occurs during the South West monsoon months.

Five stream-gauging stations were stations were established and average run-of coefficients were calculated to vary between 11.7 to 14.5 % for different watersheds. In a normal rainfall year, 0.46 mcm stream water goes out of the area as surface run-off. Infiltration tests conducted using the double ring infiltrometer, at fourteen sites, indicated that infiltration rates varying from 1.02 mm/hr to 11.08 mm/hr in fractured quartzite and 2.74 to 42.30 mm/hr in alluvium. Resistivity surveys, using Schlumberger method, at nine locations were conducted. Resistivity values ranged for different rock types have been established viz. top soil 15-170 ohm.m, weathered/fractured quartzite 100-200 ohm.m, less fractured quartzite 300-600, compact quartzite more than 1000 ohm.m. At three sites, less fractured quartzite underlain by fractured quartzite was indicated, while at remaining sites predominantly clay formation underlain by less fractured quartzite were inferred.

CHECK DAMS AND PIEZOMETERS

Based on these scientific studies, four check dams and one gravity head recharge well were constructed. The height of the dams is 4.0. 3.6, 2.0 and 1.5 m and their storage capacities are 0.01533, 0.02218, 0.006587 and 0.0046 MCM respectively. To study the impact of water storage due to check dam reservoir, 12 piezometers ranging in depth from 48 to 119 m near dam sites were constructed. In addition, 28 observation wells were established. All the piezometers were monitored on a daily and observation wells on a monthly basis.

A. Pre-recharge Scenario:

The ground water behaviour during pre-recharge scenario was:

196

Pre-monsoon water level (1997) 20 - 22 mbgl Post-monsoon water level (1997) 17 - 21 mbgl Pre-monsoon water level (1998) 17 - 19 mbgl

Water level fluctuated between 1 to 3 m due to the monsoon. One tube well, supplying water to the local residents was operative for 4 hours during May 1997. Pump was not lifting water due to heavy draw down.

Volume of water generated due to monsoon rainfall over 0.45 sq km of catchment area 0.370 MCM Total Run-off water available for recharge to aquifers 0.058 MCM Volume of water spilled over 0.010 MCM

Hence, effectively 0.048 MCM water was stored during monsoon period due to filling of dam reservoir of which 0.0465 MCM water was added to ground water repository.

B. Post-Recharge Scenario:

Post- monsoon water level (1998) 13 - 16 mbgl Pre- monsoon water level (1999) 14 - 18 mbgl Post- monsoon water level (1999) 10 - 13 mbgl Pre-monsoon water level (2000) 11 - 16 mbgl Post-monsoon water level (2000) 07 - 10 mbgl

Actual impact of artificial recharge can be judged from the water levels as below:

Pre- monsoon water level (1997) 20 – 22 mbgl Pre- monsoon water level (1998) 17 – 19 mbgl Pre- monsoon water level (1999) 14 – 18 mbgl Pre- monsoon water level (2000) 11 – 16 mbgl

Therefore each successive year water level during pre-monsoon days rose consistently by 3m due to the rainwater harvesting. The tube well which was able to lift water only for 4 hours in 1997 is now capable of lifting water for 24 hours daily during the pre-monsoon days.

ROOFTOP RAIN WATER HARVESTING

In IIT Campus, the roof of Block No. 6 having the roof area of about 1666 sqm was selected for conducting the roof top rainwater harvesting experimental studies. The aim was to inject the storm runoff directly from roof top to two recharge wells of 203 mm dia of 95 and 42 m depths respectively and provision was also made for excess water to go to nearby dug well through conveyance system. The conveyance system was designed considering the rainfall intensity of 10 cm/hr, which may generate about 158 cum runoff in one hour. Three water meters were installed in the conveyance system for measuring the quantity of water given to different recharge structures.

During a single monsoon, 830 cum of rainwater was recharged into the aquifer resulting into the rise of water level of 2.29 to 2.87 m. Similar rise in water level were observed in the next two

197

seasons as well. The experiment was replicated on a number of buildings in the project area with similar results.

The combined effects of the of the check dams and the rooftop water harvesting on major institutional buildings in the study area have been a general rise in the water table in the study area. Even the area outside the study has been benefited by these measures. Some of the residential colonies which had a chronic shortage of drinking water due to failure of tube wells in the pre-monsoon period are now having uninterrupted supply of water during summer months.

A few other interesting changes have been observed in the ecology of the area. A large part of the down stream area, which was earlier denuded of any vegetation, is turning green with grasses and shrubs. This is due to the presence of more soil moistures in the upper layer than the previous years. Secondly, migratory birds are settling on the reservoir. All these have taken place during the course of three years of the study on which a total amount of Rs10 million only (US $ 0.20 million) has been spent. The scope of the study is now being widened to construct a few more check dams and to divert the run off from the storm water drains into the dams. A further experiment to inject the treated sewage into the ground water is also under way.

The Delhi study has proved that it is possible to integrate the various types of rainwater harvesting in an urban area to recharge the aquifer for supplementing the net availability of drinking water for the city water supply system. In the capital territory of Delhi, the total roof top area has been worked out to be about 138 sq. km, which would yield about 67.9 mcm water. It has been estimated that even if rainwater of 10% of the area were harvested about 6 mcm of rainwater would be recharged into the ground water.

REGULATORY FRAMEWORK AND INCENTIVE STRUCTURE

Encouraged by this and similar other experiments conducted in different parts of the country, the city governments have started working on various innovative policy interventions to encourage the increasing use of rain water harvesting at the domestic, neighbourhood and institutional levels. Madras Metropolitan Development Authority has notified a Regulation making it mandatory for all new houses to have in built facilities for roof top water harvesting system (MMDA 1993). The Municipal Building Bye Laws have also been amended to that effect. No Building Plan of a new construction is approved by the Municipality unless it has provisions for DRRWH system. This has also been made mandatory for all commercial and institutional complexes. Incentives have been provided by way of rebate in property taxes for installation of such facilities in the existing residential houses, which do not have any system for rooftop water harvesting. Group Housing Societies are also being encouraged to set up injection well at the neighbourhood level for conserving the rainwater. The result achieved has been very encouraging – the city has been able to recharge its ground water to some extent.

More and more city governments are now replicating the Madras model to operationalise the technology of Rooftop Rain Water Harvesting. The technology is simple, affordable and cost effective and holds a great promise for water deficit cities in the years to come.

198

REFERENCES

Agarwal, A. and Narain, S. (1997) Dying Wisdom: Rise, Fall and Potential of India’s Traditional Water Harvesting Systems, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi. Central Ground Water Board, (1999). Activities and Achievements of Central Ground Water Board on Rain Water Harvesting and Artificial Recharge, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, New Delhi. Central Ground Water Board, (2000). Guide on Artificial Recharge on Ground Water, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, New Delhi. Central Ground Water Board and Indian Institute of Technology, (2000). Interim Report on Artificial Recharge Studies in JNU-Sanjay Van-IIT Complex, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, Chandigarh. Central Ground Water Board, (1994). Manual of Artificial recharge of Ground Water, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, Faridabad. Centre for Science and Environment, (1999). A Water Harvesting Manual for Urban Areas: Case Studies from Delhi, Delhi. Dhar Chakrabarti, P.G. (2000) Urban Crisis in India: New Initiatives for Sustainable Cities, Paper presented at the N-Aerus Conference on Sustainable Cities, May, Geneva. International Rainwater Catchment Systems Conference (1995). Rainwater Utilization for the World’s People, Vol. I & II. Proceedings of the Seventh Conference, June 21-25, Beijing, China. International Rainwater Catchment Systems Conference (1997). Rainwater Catchment for Survival. Proceedings of the Eighth Conference, April 25-29. 1997, Tehran, Iran. International Rainwater Catchment Systems Conference (1999). Ed. by. Johann G. Everaldo R. P. Eduardo A.N. Abstracts of the Ninth Conference, July 6-9, Petrolina, Brazil. Madras Metropolitan Development Authority (1993), Guidelines for Rain Water Harvesting and Recharge Wells, Chennai, India. Ministry of Urban Development (2000), Policy Paper on Urban Infrastructure, Government of India, New Delhi. Singh, K. and Steinberg, F. (eds.) (1996) Urban India in Crisis, New Delhi. Tata Energy Research Institute (2000), DISHA 2047 (Directions, Innovations, and Strategies for Harnessing Action), Delhi.

199

STATE OF THE ART AND NEW OPPORTUNITIES FOR MEMBRANES IN MUNICIPAL WATER TREATMENT

L. Durand-Bourlier*, K. Glucina*, I. Baudin* and P. Aptel**

*Lyonnaise des Eaux-CIRSEE, 38 rue du Président Wilson, 78230 Le Pecq, France. E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] **Laboratoire de Génie Chimique - UMR 5503, Université Paul Sabatier, 118 route de Narbonne, 31062 Toulouse cedex 4, FRANCE Toulouse. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

With more stringent regulations to maximize removal of particles, disinfectant tolerant microorganisms, natural organic matter which generates desinfection by-products and synthetic organic compounds, membranes as physical barriers are more and more applied for water treatment. The efforts of manufacturers and researchers to decrease the investment and operating costs have allowed membrane processes to compete with conventional processes even for very large capacity facilities (more than 100,000 m3/day). Membrane is a very flexible and reliable water treatment process, which makes it very attractive for engineers and operators. They can be used as a single process or in combination with conventional treatments such as coagulation, adsorption, oxidation or biological purification to meet additional treatment objectives. They are mainly used for drinking water treatment and to a lesser extent for waste water and reuse applications. Many research needs are already identified to still optimize the technologies.

KEYWORDS

Membrane, microfiltration, nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, water treatment.

INTRODUCTION

The application of membrane processes has greatly expanded in the past decades. First, reverse osmosis (RO) membranes, and in a lesser extent ion-exchange membranes for electrodialysis, were applied for the water desalination. The trend was the increasing part of membrane processes compared to thermal processes such as multi-stage flash (MSF) distillation. Then low-pressure membranes, microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF) appeared on the market and with lower and lower costs and more and more stringent regulations in terms of produced water quality, their growth is assured. The nanofiltration (NF) membranes have a cut-off between UF and RO membranes (Figure 1) and became also very viable process for water treatment, especially for water softening.

The objectives of this paper is, after reminding some history, to describe the state of the art for each type of membrane process, the reason for their success and the new opportunities especially in terms of research and development trends for municipal water treatment applications.

200

Organic macromolecules

Organic Algae Colloids compounds Bacteria Viruses Dissolved salts Pollens Yeasts

100 µm 10 1 0,1 0,01 0,001 0,0001

Giardia E. Coli Pseudomonas MS2 Cryptosporidium Reverse osmosis

Hair Red Smallest Polio globule microorganisms virus Nanofiltration

Ultrafiltration

Sand filter Microfiltration

Figure 1. Membranes cut-off threshold and corresponding separation processes

HISTORY

Reverse Osmosis (RO)

By the seventies a competing technology to the conventional distillation process began to be commercialized. The desalination of water is accomplished by developing semi-permeable membranes, which under pressure separate the inorganic salts from the water. This process is called reverse osmosis.

Numerous factors have contributed to the rapid growth of RO membrane application to treat water: Development of new material (asymmetric membranes, then thin film composite (TFC) membrane) Lower operating pressure so lower energy consumption (at least by a factor 4) Improved specific flux, so enhancement of product flow High salt rejection Increased surface area (now up to 40 m2) and compacity (spiral wound modules) Improved flow distributors Optimization of pretreatment process (intermittent chlorination or chloramination, multimedia filtration, MF and UF) Decreasing cost: spiral wound modules have decreased by almost 70% during the last twenty years (Furukawa, 1999).

Thus for single purpose facilities (where a thermal energy is available on the site), RO has lower capital and operating costs (Moch & May, 1997). The following graph illustrates the chronological evolution of RO cumulative capacity, which has caught up the MSF capacity. Today more than 10 million cubic meter are produced per day by RO especially for seawater and brackish resource water, which represents about 0.5% of the drinking water worldwide production (Aptel, 2000).

201

12 000 000 MSF RO 10 000 000

8 000 000

6 000 000

4 000 000

Contracted Capacity, m3/d 2 000 000

6 2 6 0 4 0 6 6 8 0 7 4 7 8 8 2 8 6 8 9 2 4 9 9 6 7 9 7 9 7 9 8 9 8 8 9 9 9 9 1 9 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 9 9 1 9 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 Year1 1 1 1 1

Figure 2. RO growth compared to MSF in terms of cumulative capacity (Furukawa, 1999) Low pressure membranes (MF and UF)

MF and UF processes are also based on differential pressure, which is the driving force to separate some solutes. With a larger cut-off than RO membranes, MF and UF membranes stop all particles: mineral, organic such as algae and biological such as bacteria and Giardia or Cryptosporidium, but no dissolved inorganic compound. MF with larger pores than UF does not remove viruses as UF does. Virus removal by UF depends on the commercial product: some presents total removal (experimentally >7 log) whereas some others remove 5 log or less.

Their clarification and disinfecting properties contribute to their larger and larger application for drinking water treatment and in a lesser extent for wastewater treatment. Further, as the technology has been optimized, it has become economically competitive with conventional processes up to a production capacity of more than 100,000 m3/day.

Since the first UF membrane plant using Aquasource membranes started in 1988 in France, UF has boomed: there are now more than 80 recorded Aquasource drinking water treatment plants worldwide (Figure 3). It should also be noted that now out of the low pressure membrane full-scale drinking water treatment plants identified worldwide, UF

600 000

500 000 Asia USA (80) (75) 400 000 Europe France 300 000 (59) (51) 200 000 (44) (37)

100 000 (28) Cumulative Capacity (m3/d) Capacity Cumulative (24) (20) (1) (2) (3) (8) (13) 0 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 ( ) indicates the number of plants

Figure 3. Aquasource evolution for municipal drinking water treatment

202

applications represent more than 60 percent of the total installed capacity. The worldwide capacity is estimated at more than 2 million cubic meters per day for potable use. For all water treatment (including wastewater but above all industrial use) it is estimated at more than 3 million cubic meters per day.

Nanofiltration (NF)

NF membranes with an intermediate cut-off between UF and RO membranes are mainly used to 2+ 2+ 2- soften waters. In fact, NF membranes remove divalent ions (Ca , Mg , SO4 ...); they typically provide 80 to 95 % rejection of hardness. The advantage of softening with NF rather than RO membrane is mainly due to the lower pressure applied for NF process compared to RO process. NF membranes also remove dissolved organics (humic and fulvic acids) which are generators of disinfection by-products (DBPs) and some synthetic organic compounds (SOCs) such as some pesticides which cannot be removed by MF or UF used as single process without other treatment step.

REASONS OF MEMBRANE SUCCESS

Water treatment objectives

Membrane as a single process. Membranes as physical barrier with different molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) can remove many contaminants and so they reach various treatment objectives as shown in Tableau 1.

Tableau 1. Summary of removal abilities for each type of membrane Parameters MF UF NF RO Turbidity X X X X Bacteria and cysts (Giardia, Cryptosporidium…) X X X X Viruses X X X Color X X Natural Organic Matter (NOM), DBPs X* X X Micropollutants (Pesticides, taste & odor causing X* X X compounds) Hardness X X Sulfate X X Specific monovalent ion removal (Fluoride, X Nitrate, Arsenic…) * Removal by Cristal process (Aquasource UF membrane coupled with powdered activated carbon (PAC)).

It should be noted that removal efficiency of microorganisms is not only linked to the MWCO of the membrane but also to the module configuration. For spiral-wound element, which is the most common configuration for NF and RO due its high compacity, the desinfection is not reliable because of seal use. Seals are also commonly used for immersed membrane (MF or UF) systems. The most reliable configuration is the hollow fibers module where the fibers are maintained by a resin layer (e.g. epoxy). This configuration is illustrated by the Figure 4.

203

Figure 4. Hollow-fiber membrane modules of Aquasource (surface area: 55 & 64 m2)

Membrane processes can be used on their own but can also be coupled with other type of treatment

Low-pressure membrane combined with other treatment processes. To meet additional water quality criteria, low-pressure membrane can be coupled with conventional treatment process such as coagulation, activated carbon, oxidation or biological activity.  The CRISTAL process (Combination of Reactors, Including membrane Separation Treatment and Adsorption in Liquid) couples adsorption onto powdered activated carbon (PAC) with Aquasource UF through a hollow fiber membrane (Baudin & Anselme, 1995). To remove organic compounds, this process combination is a viable alternative to more conventional methods like granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration or ozonation. The membrane provides a physical barrier preventing the passage of the PAC, so retaining the organic compounds adsorbed on the PAC, which otherwise would not all be trapped by the membrane. These compounds include organic matter, pesticides, compounds responsible for taste and odor, precursors of  DBPs, etc. CRISTAL combines the advantages of UF and of PAC adsorption. This process can be applied directly to raw water, or as a polishing treatment. More than 15 full-scale plants using this process are in operation with capacities up to 65,000 m3/day.

An other innovative treatment combination has been proposed for the water sources which present high variations and high level of organic matter: coagulation including a sludge blanket clarifier step prior to the UF process. The settling pretreatment smoothes the variations of the surface water quality, which could cause some fouling of membranes. Thus for the San Antonio (Texas, US) drinking water treatment plant of 34,000 m3/day capacity, the selected process was  the combination of a Superpulsator (clarifier of Degrémont) and Aquasource UF membrane among 3 membrane competitors (Durand-Bourlier et al., 2001). It should be noted that PAC can   be added upstream to the Superpulsator and/or in the hollow fiber (Cristal process) to polish the treatment (micropollutants removal such as pesticides or taste and odor causing compounds). Another advantage of this treatment chain is the reduction of water loss to less than 1% because the backwash water of the UF process is recycled into the clarifier.

For biological purification, membrane bioreactor (MBR) has also been developed especially for municipal or industrial wastewater treatment but also in a lesser extent for drinking water with  the Biocristal-DN process. This process is a combination of a biological reactor with Aquasource UF (to separate off solids and disinfect) hollow-fibers in which PAC is added to adsorb also micropollutants such as pesticides. The example of the industrial scale drinking water plant at Douchy shows how useful and advantageous this denitrification process is (Urbain et al., 1996). The UF Douchy plant, in operation since 1989, was easy to modify by adding a bioreactor to make up for increased nitrate concentrations in the karstic feed water. This way it is possible to

204

treat the nitrates while keeping the advantages of UF to reduce turbidity and disinfect the water. MBR is especially attractive for wastewater treatment where space and efficiency requirements are at a premium.

High-pressure membrane combined with other treatment processes. NF and RO operation often requires extensive pretreatment, especially for the spiral-wound configuration and for surface water treatment, in order to avoid membrane fouling and scaling, and to control the membrane life. The pretreatment often included a first step of pH adjustment, chlorination, coagulant addition, sedimentation, clarification, dechlorination, possibly adsorption onto activated carbon, often complexing agent addition, another pH adjustment and final polishing. This pretreatment train is a rather complex process, so the feed stream of membrane can vary significantly which make difficult the facility operation. Moreover, due to the membrane material, which is often very sensitive to chlorine, the disinfectant must be neutralized very carefully.

A recent and attractive treatment combination has been developed to solve these difficulties: MF or UF membrane before NF or RO process. Low-pressure membrane guarantees a reliable feed-water without particles and so ensure smooth operation of high-pressure membrane.

Flexibility and reliability

Flexibility. As seen before, membranes can achieve various treatment objectives and many others when coupled with other type of treatment (e.g. coagulation, adsorption...). Thus they can be easily integrated in existing plants to upgrade the facilities. For example,  Cristal process has been successfully applied at the Vigneux plant in France, 55,000 m3/day, as a polishing treatment to upgrade the facility, which treat the Seine River. TOC has been reduced to less than 1 mg/L at the outlet of the facility, thus reducing the production of DBPs in the distribution network (trihalomethanes, have decreased from an average of 50 µg/l to less than 10 µg/L). This reduction in organic content has also allowed to reduce the chlorine consumption, but also means that a higher chlorine residual is maintained throughout the distribution network even for the furthest distributed point (Baudin et al., 2000). Pesticides and their ozonated by-products are removed by the PAC in the hollow fibers. Reduction of taste and odor causing compounds has also been observed. As membrane processes are modular equipment, they are easily adaptable to variations of flow rate and water quality. As they are compact, they can be easily applied where the available building area is limited. It is also important to note that the equipment is automated which makes easier and more reliable the operation.

Reliability. As physical barrier, membranes provide good and constant quality. Despite of the high variability of certain surface water quality like storm events which can causes high turbidity up to 500 or 1000 ntu, MF or UF membrane will still insure a permeate turbidity below 0.1 ntu. The treated quality in terms of particle and microbial removal is independent of the raw feedwater quality. In comparison, conventional clarification and disinfection processes have limited efficiency and reliability which depends on the resource quality variations and on the plant operating conditions, such as reagent concentration, pH, temperature, contact time, and hydraulic flow pattern in the reactors. However membrane efficiency must be regularly checked. In case of fiber breakage or default, the membrane barrier is not still intact, consequently monitoring is needed. There are various methods to control the integrity of modules. Some are indirect methods such as turbidity or particle counting for low- pressure membrane or conductivity analysis for high-pressure membrane. Others are direct methods such

205

as bubble point measurement, air pressure tests with various procedures of measurement and sonic or acoustic sensors. Most of these methods can be automated on the installation. The monitoring is continuous or activated at the wanted frequency depending on the integrity test. Obviously sensitiveness of these various tests can be different.

Cost reduction

Another important factor of success is the significant cost decrease of membrane systems. Many improvements have been done by the manufacturers of membranes, modules and peripheral equipment to diminish their cost. High-pressure membrane. The rapid growth of RO, then NF application for water treatment was encouraged by the optimization of different part of the process to reduce the overall cost. The following points can be mentioned: formulation of new membrane material (lower fouling potential, lower operating pressure, higher specific flux) optimization of module conception (compacity, lower clogging potential, higher surface area) optimization of pretreatment process to save chemical cleaning cost at the membrane stage and to increase membrane life duration. To remove specifically organic matter for surface water source, new NF membranes are developed to allow the passage of salts, even divalent ions which are usually rejected by NF. Thus no remineralization post-treatment is needed at the end of the treatment chain.

Low pressure membrane. In the early nineties low pressure technologies were not found to be cost effective compared to conventional process for capacities higher than 20,000 m3/day. However, today plant capacities greater than 100,000 m3/day are being constructed. Capital costs not only depend on the raw source water quality and on the plant capacity, but also on the year of construction. Between 1989 and 1994, capital costs decreased by a factor of 2.5 for Aquasource equipment. Several parameters explain this rapid capital cost reduction: bigger modules (surface area per module has been multiplied by a factor 17 since 1988) standardization of the membrane systems and therefore a lower manufacturing cost, a higher production volume, higher compacity which reduces the civil work the optimization of the process itself, common ancillary equipment for capacity larger than 10,000 m3/day have been designed. Today, racks with up to 48 UF modules have been constructed and additional scale-up savings are therefore observed. Immersed systems have also been developed to reduce the cost of module, which maintained the hollow fibers. Below is presented an example of Zenon cassette (Figure 5) which is operated with aeration to reduce the potential fouling and clogging of membrane. These hollow fibers filtrate from outside to inside by gravity force. It should be noted that this type of process is rather extensive with lower operating flux compared to more intensive process with conventional modules.

206

Figure 5. ZeeWeed cassette

NEW OPPORTUNITIES

Expected trends. With the increasing pressure of regulations, membrane future is certainly assured. Research and development activities will be consequently maintained to optimize the process both in terms of equipment and operation from both technical and economic point. As more and more contaminants (chemicals and microbiology) can be measured in the water due to lower and lower detection limit of analyzers, high pressure membrane could be more and more applied to meet the standards or as precautionary measure. Due to the good results of MF/UF pretreatment tests done by different companies and universities, it is expected that this pretreatment will widespread. One can also wonder if MF/UF equipment will be standardized as they were for NF/RO membranes. First experiments have not been yet successful. Another question is the outcome of present competition between extensive membrane process (immersed configuration) and intensive systems (modules).

Research needs. The understanding of fouling species and mechanisms, the impact of operating conditions will still keep busy many researchers. The optimization of treatment chain for each specific site and treatment objectives will also keep busy many engineering companies. Research needs are already identified to improve the hydrodynamic in membrane system, regardless the configuration (hollow fiber module, immersed membrane or spiral-wound configuration). Research is undergone about air addition, filtration with precoating, Dean or Taylor vortices to promote turbulence in hollow fibers, new spacers, mechanical vibrations etc. New material could lower the fouling potential of membranes, which is one of their main limitations. In a longer term, functionalized membranes could be developed for specific treatment objectives. Researchers, engineers and operators should have more concern about concentrate and chemical cleaning waste disposal to lower their consequences on the environment. Similar concern should arise about energy consumption. Today dead-end process is already often preferred to cross-flow filtration, which is more energy consumer. In some decades renewable energy could supply membrane facilities.

207

REFERENCES

Aptel, P. (2000). Les membranes et le traitement des eaux : réalités et perspectives. Tribune de l'eau, 53, 603-605, 7-8. Baudin, I. & Anselme, C. (1995). Combining PAC and ultrafiltration. World Water and Environmental Engineering, November 1995, 12. Baudin, I., Campos, C. & Laîné, J.M. (2000). CRISTAL® Process Optimization for Dissolved Organic Matter Removal: first two years of a full-scale application. Conference preprint of 1st World Water Congress of the International Water Association (IWA), Book 2, 276-280. Durand-Bourlier, L., Levasseur, W. & Thaxton, J. (2001). From pilot study to full-scale plant start-up: the Bexar facility, Texas. Membrane Technology Conference Proceedings, San Antonio, AWWA (to be published). Furukawa, D.H. (1999). Reverse Osmosis Process Status 1999. ICOM'99, Toronto. Laîné, J.M., Durand-Bourlier, L. & Vial, D. (2000). Ultrafiltration membrane full-scale experience status after 10 years of operation and large scale plant capacity 100,000 m3/day. Conference preprint of 1st World Water Congress of the International Water Association (IWA), Book 2, 310-314. Moch, I. & May, S. (1997). Comparing Costs Of Reverse Osmosis Versus Single And Dual Purpose Thermal Plants. Membrane Technology Conference Proceedings, New Orleans, AWWA, 81-95. Urbain, V., Benoît, R. & Manem, J. (1996). Membrane Bioreactor: a New Treatment Tool. JAWWA, 88, 75-86.

208

ENERGY RELATED TO SUSTAINABLE WASTE HANDLING TECHNOLOGY.

A.M. Eilersen and M. Henze

Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Bldg 115, DTU, DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark. Telephone +45 4525 1477, e-mail [email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Waste is an integral element in human life. In order to develop a more sustainable waste handling, it is necessary to review the possibilities for redesigning waste products, and for minimising the energy consumption associated with the waste handling. In the households the physiological waste and waste produced in the kitchen can either be removed as wastewater or as solid waste. Together with our possibilities for regulating the water consumption, this gives us the potential for designing waste handling and optimising the related energy consumption. By redirecting organic kitchen waste from the wastewater stream to the solid waste, more organic matter will be available for energy production either by incineration or biogas production. By redirecting the solid organic kitchen waste to the wastewater stream, by the use of garbage grinders, the performance of the nitrogen removal process at wastewater treatment plants can be improved. By disconnecting the toilet waste, or just the urine, from the wastewater stream, the resulting wastewater will have a nitrogen concentration so low that no nitrogen removal is needed at the wastewater treatment plant. Waste design, with the aim of reducing the energy consumption, can result in major changes in the wastewater and solid waste handling technologies in the future.

KEY WORDS

Energy, organic household wastes, solid waste management, sustainability, waste design, wastewater management.

INTRODUCTION

Human activities will always produce waste, but it is possible to reduce the total waste discharge by applying cleaner technology in households and in industry. If fewer unnecessary products, like for example several layers of wrappings, are transported into the households the waste production can be reduced. Another possibility is to reduce the content and concentrations of hazardous chemicals present in products used in households. The amount and type of waste produced in households and industries is influenced by the behaviour of the population and the technical and juridical framework within which we can operate. For households, there are significant possibilities for changing the amounts and composition of wastes generated. This will in turn affect the energy consumption and production related to water and wastewater treatment significantly. Waste from wash and bath is by nature water borne, while most of the solid inorganic household waste cannot be directed into the wastewater flow. However, organic waste from the kitchen and the toilet can either be removed from the households as wastewater or as solid waste. Our technological tradition decides for us, what part of the waste is solid and what

209

part is water borne, but in order to suit the present need for more sustainable waste and wastewater handling we might have to choose different technologies, which may imply different flows of the waste. As with all changes in technologies, flexibility of the chosen solutions are essential to obtain long term sustainable solutions.

WASTES FROM HOUSEHOLDS

In the case of household wastes, the composition of wastewater and solid wastes from households is a result of the distribution of contributions from various sources within the household. It is possible to change the amount of and the composition of the wastes. The tool for detailed analysis of waste composition is mass flow analysis. The amount of a given waste form can be decreased or increased, depending on what the optimal solution is in the actual case.

As an example, a reduction of the amount of waste present in the wastewater can be achieved by two means • reduction of waste generated in the household • diversion of certain waste loads to the solid waste of the household

The amounts of organic waste and nutrients produced in households in developed countries are shown in Table 1. From the table, it is easy to get an idea of the potential for changes in the wastewater composition.

Table 1. Production and composition of total (solid and waterborne) organic household wastes, g/(cap·- day). (Based on data from Henze et al., 2001; Sundberg, 1995; Danish EPA, 1993; Nissen et al., 1994; Gleisberg and Hahn, 1995 and Eilersen et al., 1999).

Total Physiological Kitchen Wash and Matter Faeces Urine Liquid Solid Bath Dry weight 235 35 60 40 80 20 COD 220 60 15 45 90 10 BOD 90 20 5 30 30 5 Nitrogen 15.7 1 11 1 1.7 1 Phosphorous 2.8 0.5 1.5 0.2 0.3 0.3 Potassium 4.7 1 2.5 0.4 0.4 0.4

Physiological wastes

It is not possible to reduce the amount of physiologically generated waste. Disconnecting the toilet waste from the waterborne route will result in a significant reduction in the nitrogen, phosphorus and organic load to the wastewater. Toilet waste disconnected from the common wastewater route, still needs to be transported out of the household, and in many cases out of the city. Different technologies for handling this sort of waste exist. Among the possibilities are: • Night soil system, known from all over the world, but technically mastered in Tokyo, • Compost toilets, known from households in agricultural areas and weekend cottages, • Septic tanks followed by direct infiltration.

210

Recently a significant interest for separating of the urine from the toilet waste has developed, due to the high nutrient content in the urine (Sundberg, 1995). Separate collection of urine can be combined with all the above mentioned technologies. In Table 1, it can be seen that urine is the main contributor to nutrients in household wastes.

Liquid kitchen wastes

Wastes from kitchens include a significant amount of organic matter, some of which traditionally ends up in the wastewater. It is possible to divert part of the liquid kitchen wastes to the solid waste fraction by clean-tech cooking, thus obtaining a significant reduction in the overall organic load to the wastewater (Danish EPA, 1993). Clean-tech cooking means that food waste is discarded into the waste bin and not flushed into the sewer by water from the tap. The diverted part of the solid organic waste from the kitchen can be disposed of together with the rest of the solid organic wastes from the kitchen.

Solid waste from kitchen

The amount of solid waste generated by the urban population, will not be reduced significantly in our lifetime, thus we need to face that fact and select the optimal waste handling technology. Historically developed waste handling patterns need not be the optimal in today’s society. The organic fraction of the solid waste from the kitchen can either alone or combined with part of the traditionally waterborne kitchen wastes be kept separate, for later composting, incineration or anaerobic treatment. Garbage grinders for handling the organic fraction of the solid waste from households are another possibility. The discharge of solid waste to the sewer does not change the total waste load produced by the household, but it will change the final destination for the waste. The handling of the organic fraction of household wastes by truck often results in significant occupational health and odour problems during storage and transport. Using the sewer as a transport system for parts of the solid wastes can reduce these problems.

Wash and bath

This wastewater carries a minor load of organic material and nutrients. It can be used together with the traditional kitchen wastewater for irrigation, although one has to be aware of the high load of xenobiotic organic compounds in this kind of wastewater. Alternatively, it can be reused for toilet flushing, but then considerable treatment is demanded. Treatment is needed in order to avoid both spreading of pathogenic organism present in the wastewater and aftergrowth of bacteria in the water system for toilet flushing.

WASTE TRANSPORT

All wastes generated in the households need to be transported from the house to a treatment and a disposal site. There are 3 means of transport: • Truck transport (automobile) • Sewer transport (aquamobile) • Soil infiltration (terramobile)

211

Neither sewers nor soil are mobile as seen from a general viewpoint. But they act as vehicles for the displacement of the household wastes. Local infiltration can be used for storm water disposal and can also take care of part of the waste generated in the household. However, most of the waste generated in urban areas, still has to be transported long distances by either truck or sewer. The selection of the optimal means of transport must be considered together with the treatment and disposal of the waste.

If the organic part of the solid kitchen waste is directed to the sewer system, the maximum waste transport by this means is achieved. The minimum waste transport by the sewer system will be the case where toilet waste are handled separately and part (here calculated as 50%) of the liquid kitchen waste ends up as solid waste. The minimum and the maximum waste amounts that can be transported from the households by truck and sewer are seen in Table 2.

Table 2. Minimum and maximum transports of organic household waste by the two means (automobile and aquamobile (sewers), g/(cap·d)

Minimum Maximum Transport ↓ COD BOD N P COD BOD N P Sewer 33 20 1.5 0.4 220 90 15.7 2.8 Truck 0 0 0 0 187 70 14.2 2.4

WASTE DESIGN

The use of one or more of the above-mentioned waste handling technologies, makes it possible to design a wastewater with a specified composition, that will be optimal for its further handling. As the pollutant load is closely related to the energy consumption for wastewater treatment, the goal could be to reduce the pollutant load to the wastewater. By increasing the pollutant load to the solid waste, the possibilities for recycling of nutrients is also increased. Table 3 illustrates the possible contributions in waste loads to the wastewater and the solid waste by the different actions discussed.

212

Table 3. Household wastes. Waste load to wastewater and solid waste by application of different technical actions, g/(cap·day).

Technology Present Toilet separation+ Clean-tech cooking# Clean-tech cooking# + Garbage grinder toilet separation Wastewater/s water solid water solid water solid water solid water solid olid waste COD 130 90 55 165 107 112.5 33 187.5 220 0 BOD 60 30 35 55 45 45 20 70 90 0 Nitrogen 14 1.7 2 13.7 13.5 2.2 1.5 14.2 15.7 0 Phosphorus 2.5 0.3 0.5 2.3 2.4 0.4 0.4 2.4 2.8 0 Potassium 4.3 0.4 0.8 3.9 4.1 0.6 0.6 4.1 4.7 0 + Water closet → compost toilet # Part (50%) of cooking waste from sink → solid waste

WATER CONSUMPTION AND ENERGY

The water consumption in the household is an important part of the waste generation. Water consumption by the households is the sum of 4 or 5 main fractions. The contribution from the single fractions varies with geographical location and local culture/life style. Typical present day figures from northern Europe are given in Table 4. Note that infiltration in sewers is also considered as water consumption as it depletes the ground water resource, irrespectively whether this resource is being exploited or not for the time being. Water savings and sewer rehabilitation can obtain the figures shown in the right hand column. It is possible to reduce the water consumption for the various fractions considerably. The water consumption in the households can be reduced by 50 per cent and even more by rehabilitation of the sewers. Water savings have two important implications on society. One is the reduced amount of energy used for the water supply and wastewater treatment, and the second is the savings of freshwater resources. The energy saving related to water savings is shown in table 5.

Table 4. Fractionated water consumption, l/(cap·day).

Water consumption → Today With savings Toilet 50 25 Bath 40 25 Kitchen 50 25 Wash 10 5 Infiltration 80 25 Total 230 105

213

Table 5. Energy consumption, for pumping and treatment of water for water supply and for pumping of waste-water in sewers and in treatment plants, related to water volume. Based on data from Kunz & Müller, 1986 and Water supply statistics, 1994. Water supply Wastewater water Total energy Energy consumption Wh/l 0.5 0.1 Water supply: 150 l/(cap·d) Wh/(cap·d) 75 15 90 80 l/(cap·d) Wh/(cap·d) 40 8 48

At wastewater treatment plants energy is also consumed for the biological processes oxidation of organic matter, nitrification and denitrification, table 6. The energy consumption related to transportation of solid waste to deposit and energy savings related to substitution of chemical fertilizer are also important factors to be considered in an energy budget, these are given in table 7 and 8.

Table 6. Energy consumption and production related to biological wastewater treatment. Based on data from Henze et al., 2001. Pollutant Wh/g pollutant Consumption: BOD 1.5 + → - NH4 NO3 6.3 + - NH4 → NO3 → N2 2.4 Production: * BOD → CH4 (3.5) 2.2 * COD → CH4 (1.4) 0.9 *Numbers in parenthesis gives the available energy output (heat and electricity), the number without parenthesis gives the electricity output alone.

Table 7. Energy consumption related to transpor- Table 8. Energy savings related to tation of solid waste to deposit. Pommer et al., 1993. Substitution of chemical fertilizer.. Bundgaard et al., 1993 Solid waste Wh/kg pollutant Nutrient kWh/kg nutrient measured as COD 160 Nitrogen 13.9 BOD 440 Phosphorous 4.4 Potassium 2.2

Transportation of the various waste products is another energy consuming factor that has to be considered in an energy balance, see table 8.

214

Table 8. Energy consumption for transport of organic waste products, Wh/(cap·d).

Technology Toilet Cleantech Cleantech cooking Present Garbage grinders separation cooking + toilet separation Transport of: + collection of solid 19 19 24 24 0 kitchen waste Sewage sludge 1.2 0.7 1.0 0.4 1.6 Toilet waste 0 8 0 8 0 Ash from incineration 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0 of solid kitchen waste Total: 20.7 28.2 25.6 33 1.6 +Faeces is assumed composted and the urine collected at the household. The composted faeces and the collected urine are assumed transported to agriculture within the range of 20 km.

ENERGY OVERALL

The energy budget for the different treatment scenarios can now be calculated. The energy production from incineration of, or biogas production from, solid organic waste is taken into account. Whereas, energy consumption for sludge treatment, including pumping, thickening and dewatering, not will be included, since it only accounts for 5-10% of the total energy consumption at the wastewater treatment plant. When all the mayor contributions to the energy budget for the running of the different waste handling systems has been considered, the different systems can be compared with respect to energy efficiency. This rough estimate is given in table 9. From an energy point of view, solid organic kitchen waste should be incinerated or used for biogas production, and not treated at the wastewater treatment plant after grinding. Therefore kitchen waste should be diverted form the wastewater stream to the solid waste handling, as done by clean-tech cooking. Toilet waste, or at least the urine, should be kept separate and used as fertiliser in agriculture.

FUTURE WASTE TREATMENT

The change in wastewater and solid waste composition caused by change in household technology will affect the treatment considerably. By removing toilet wastes from the wastewater, 85 per cent of the nitrogen and 80 per cent of the phosphorus is removed. This means that no nitrogen removal is needed before discharge of the wastewater to receiving waters, and that only minor phosphorus removal might still needed. An equivalent result can be obtained from separate handling of just the urine. By use of cleaner technology in the households, more organic waste can be diverted to the solid wastes; the solid organic waste can then be incinerated, used for production of biogas or composted. Incineration and biogas production has an equal positive effect on the energy budget. By introducing the organic part of the solid waste into the wastewater by the use of garbage grinders, biological nitrogen removal processes will be easier to perform, because the COD/N-ratio will be increased, see table 10. The introduction of more waste into the wastewater will increase the energy needed for treatment of the wastewater. The organic material represents an organic raw material that can be used for biogas production, which

215

potentially can give an energy production that can reduce the overall energy used for the wastewater treatment. By combining the use of garbage grinders with water savings, the wastewater can be concentrated to a level where anaerobic pre-treatment of the water, and not only anaerobic treatment of the primary sludge will be possible and economically attractive. Anyhow, in comparison to the other treatment scenarios, garbage grinders are the least attractive solution with respect to energy.

Table 9. Energy consumption and production related to different technologies for handling of household waste.

Technology Present Toilet separation Cleantech cooking Cleantech cooking + Garbage grinders toilet separation

Energy consumption for wastewater handling and water supply in Wh/(cap·d): BOD 90 53 68 30 135 Nitrogen 34 5 32 4 38 Wastewater water 15 10 14 9 9 + 3# Total for wastewater 139 68 114 43 185 Water supply 75 50 70 45 45 Energy production in Wh/(cap·d): *Biogas prod. - 70 41 53 23 200 wastewater treatment + 30 + 18 + 23 + 10 +54 Biogas prod. - solid 0 180 225 225 0 org. kitchen waste Incineration - solid 200 0 0 0 0 org. kitchen waste Energy saving in Wh/(cap·d): Substitution of 42 192 38 188 46 chemical fertilizer Energy consumption for transportation in Wh/(cap·d): 21 28 26 33 2 Total energy 107 285 129 325 68 production * The production of energy from the primary sludge is estimated to be equal to 1/3 of the BOD in the raw wastewater plus saving of 1/3 of the energy for BOD oxidation. With the application of garbage grinders it is assumed that 60% of the organic material can be transformed into methane by anaerobically pretreatment. #Garbage grinders use 3-4 kWh/(household·year), equivalent to 3 Wh/(cap·d), (Karlsberg & Norin, 1999).

216

Table 10. Example of COD/TN ratios in raw wastewater by various wastewater designs.

COD/TN ratio Wastewater design g COD/g TN - traditional 10 - toilets separated 27 - toilets separated + cleantech cooking 21 - traditional + garbage grinders 15

CONCLUSIONS

In the case of household wastes, there is a big potential, both in wastewater design and solid waste design. It is possible to manipulate the water and the pollution loads entering the wastewater, to obtain a wastewater of almost any conceivable composition. Water savings, sewer network renovation, disconnection of toilet wastes, solid waste manipulations in the kitchen and the use of phosphate free detergents are the main techniques to be applied in households in order to design the waste composition. Waste design in order to reduce the energy consumption in wastewater treatment plants can change the wastewater composition to a degree where it can result in significant changes in the wastewater treatment technology in the future. However, as energy savings at one place in the waste handling often will result in increased energy consumption at other locations, it is important to look at integrated solutions for solid waste and wastewater handling. When waterborne and solid waste is both considered, as much of the kitchen waste should be handled as solid organic kitchen waste as possible. The solid organic waste should either be incinerated or used for biogas production, and not treated at the wastewater treatment plant after grinding. The urine, or all the toilet waste, should be kept separate and used as fertiliser in agriculture.

REFERENCES

Bundgaard, S., Carlsbæk, M., Juul, U. & Jørgensen C. E. (1993). Jordbrugsmæssig værdi af produkter fra organisk dagrenovation (Agricultural value of product from organic domestic waste, in Danish). Arbejdsrapport Nr. 64, Danish EPA, Copenhagen, Denmark. Danish EPA (1993). Husspildevand og renere teknologi (Domestic wastewater and clean technology, in Danish). Miljøprojekt Nr. 219, Danish EPA, Copenhagen, Denmark. Eilersen, A.M., Tjell, J.C. & Henze, M. (1999). Muligheder for jordbrugsanvendelse af organisk affald fra husholdninger. In Recirkulering fra by til land – om næringsstoffer på afveje. (Possibilities for agricultural use of waste from households, in Danish) Ed. J. Magid. pp.11- 40. Department of Agricultural Science, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Frederiksberg, Copenhagen, Denmark. Gleisberg, D. & Hahn, H (1995). Zur Entwicklung der Phosphorentfernung aus Abwässern der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (The development of phosphorus removal from wastewater in Germany) (in German) Korrespondenz Abwasser, 42, 958-969. Henze, M., Harremoës, P., la Cour Jansen, J. & Arvin, E. (2001). Wastewater Treatment - Biolo- gical and Chemical Processes, 3.edition. Springer Verlag, Berlin 1997. ISBN 3-540-58816- 7.

217

Karlsberg, T. & Norin, E., (1999). Kökavfallskvarnar - effekter på avloppsreningsverk. (Garbage grinders effect on wastewater treatment plant, in Swedish), VA-Forsk Rapport Nr.9. Stockholm, Sweden. Kunz, P. & Müller A. (1986). Ergebnisse von stromverbrauchsmessungen in kleinen und mittelgrossen kläranlagen. Korrespondenz Abwasser, 5, 406-415. Nissen, B., Hansen, G., Høeg, P., Nielsen, A., & Pommer, K. (1994). Dagrenovation fra private husholdninger. (Domestic solid waste, in Danish). Miljøprojekt Nr. 219, Danish EPA, Copenhagen, Denmark. Pommer, K., Bagh, J. & Bauer B. (1993). Bortskaffelse af organisk affald – miljø og økonomi. (Disposal of solid waste – environmental and economical effects, in Danish) Arbejdsrapport Nr. 38, Danish EPA, Copenhagen, Denmark. Sundberg, K. (1995). Vad innehåller avlopp från hushåll? (What is the content in wastewater from households? in Swedish). Swedish EPA, Report Nr. 4425, Stockholm, Sweden. Water supply statistics (1994). Vandforsyningsstatistik. (Water supply statistics, In Danish). Danske Vandværkers forening, Århus, Denmark. ISSN Nr. 0902-6126.

218

WASTE DESIGN PAVES THE WAY FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT

Toe A. Larsen, Wolfgang Rauch and Willi Gujer

Swiss Federal Institute for Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG) and Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland

ABSTRACT

A vision of sustainable urban wastewater management is presented, on the basis of extended on- site technology, which leaves only unpolluted wastewater to be dealt with by the public. The first easily attainable milestone of this vision is urine separation, which is further discussed with respect to some of its advantages and challenges. Finally, in the main part of the paper, we describe how urine separation can be introduced as a measure of waste design, allowing for necessary technological and environmental learning processes. It is further suggested in the discussion that waste design can substitute the enlargement of wastewater treatment plants and combined sewer overflow (CSO) retention tanks in a cost-efficient way. The strategy for achieving this goal involves simple household technology and extended real time control.

KEYWORDS

Waste design, urine separation, combined sewer overflows (CSOs), micropollutants, sustainable wastewater management

INTRODUCTION

The current approach to urban wastewater management has a number of inherent problems: loss of untreated combined sewer overflows (CSOs) during rain events, the lack of opportunities for extraction and recycling of uncontaminated nutrients, the problems of sewer system maintenance at acceptable costs, the necessity of maintaining excessive water flows in order to keep the system functional, etc. However, existing systems function reasonably well and it is difficult to identify viable technological alternatives. New problems like the threat of micropollutants (hormones, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, etc.) are met with additional end-of-pipe technology. In the case of micropollutants removal, membrane technology and/or chemical oxidation were suggested.

It is symptomatic for our present policy that every new problem is met with a new technical device, which is designed for solving only acute difficulties. The problems of ammonia, nitrate, phosphorus (eutrophication and recycling) and micropollutants are each met with a separate technology: nitrification, denitrification, biological or chemical phosphorus removal with subsequent extraction of phosphorus from sludge, and membrane technology. One measure applied at the source, urine separation, could potentially solve all five problems, at least as reliably as the combination of the five centralised technologies. In addition, possibilities for recycling nitrogen, potassium and sulphur would be created, and harmful effects of combined sewer overflows would be reduced. Furthermore, urine separation would pave the road for

219

additional initiatives for source control measures, which potentially could dramatically change the present wastewater management systems.

TECHNOLOGICAL OUTLOOK

Larsen and Gujer (2001) discussed the principles of waste design, source controls and on-site technology, which could eventually lead to an urban wastewater system with a minimal dependence on centralised transport and treatment. Waste design is well known from the management of solid waste, in which different waste streams are separated at the source, and it simply means that the public can specify which wastewater streams can be discharged to municipal sewers and when. A simple form of waste design is discussed in this paper and is based on the principle that the municipality could control the delivery of urine to the wastewater collection system. Until now, source controls have always meant changes in the input to the households; the ban on phosphorus in detergents is the most prominent example. However, source controls can be extended to household devices and would then depend on extensive on- site technology.

It was noted that biological systems are less suitable for on-site technology, because of their sensitivity to load variations (Larsen and Gujer, 2001). Physical-chemical treatment processes would be preferable, provided that they can be integrated with household devices and optimised for a very specific wastewater with a well-known constant composition. Recognising that three household devices (toilet, dishwasher and washing machine) produce approximately 85 % of the organic loading (described here by chemical oxygen demand, COD) and practically all the nutrients and micropollutants in wastewater, the task of introducing on-site treatment seems to be manageable. An example of a hypothetical zero-emission, self-controlling washing machine was given earlier. We suggest that biological treatment in this household-based strategy should be restricted to ‘polishing’ the pre-treated streams and treating the remaining low pollution strength wastewater originating primarily from personal hygiene.

There is no doubt that the toilet produces the most critical fraction of wastewater. The entire public health problem, most of the nutrient problems, about half of the domestic COD load, and most of the overall negative public attitude towards wastewater all stem from the output of this single household device. Our present sewerage systems solve the most critical of these problems quite efficiently. However, the essential question is whether it is possible to solve these same problems better or at least equally well at the source. We expect the toilet to be the crucial household device requiring improvement and suggest that urine separation is the first step towards a new wastewater management system, which would be based on waste design, source controls and high-tech on-site technology.

THE FIRST MILESTONE: URINE SEPARATION TECHNOLOGY

Urine separation technology and its potential advantages have been described extensively in a number of papers (e.g. Hellström and Johansson, 1999; Jönsson et al, 1999; Larsen and Gujer, 1996, 1997). Its advantages include improved water pollution control due to reduced emission of nutrients and micropollutants to the receiving waters, smaller and easier to operate treatment plants, and the possibility of recycling pure nutrients to agriculture. The disadvantages are that

220

new technology has to be developed and implemented, new risks arise depending on the technologies chosen, and new behaviour has to be established in the households.

Swedish experience shows that urine separation can be introduced on the basis of existing technology. Urine separation toilets do exist, and their plumbing and urine storage and truck transport are not complicated. Some technical problems do occur, most prominently the clogging of pipes due to phosphate precipitation. These problems, however, can be solved by mechanical and chemical cleaning of the pipes (e.g., Johannson et al., 2000).

Despite of this apparent uncomplicated introduction of the urine separation technology, there is a question whether such low-tech approaches would really challenge the existing systems. Building a new municipal infrastructure is hardly an appealing task today, particularly since storage capacity has to be very large, because of public health concerns (most often, storage of urine for six months is mentioned, e.g., Johannson et al., 2000). Furthermore, there is a risk that the problems of micropollutants will only be transferred from the aquatic environment to agriculture.

We suggest that a gradual introduction of the technology would be more promising, based primarily on the principle of waste design, taking smaller, inexpensive steps and allowing for a technological learning process. It is important to keep in mind the technological outlook presented above, in order to avoid new lock-in situations and wasteful investments.

WASTE DESIGN PAVES THE WAY FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN WATER MANAGEMENT

We think that the first step towards fundamentally new concepts is within our reach, if we reduce the ambitions of urine separation technology to the idea of waste design, as originally suggested by Henze (1997). The separation, storage and controlled release of urine in the households can change the composition of the waste stream in a way that will be advantageous for the overall treatment process. If ambitions for urine separation technology are initially kept at the level of waste design, many problems of introducing this technology can be avoided. For example, the urine retention volume can be small, transport problems are avoided, risk can be minimised, etc. The most promising idea would be the integration of a storage volume into the toilet itself. Professionals working on new sanitary technology estimate that a storage volume of about 8 litres per toilet would be realistic from technical and aesthetic points of view, and this could be achieved with the prototype price of abound 300-400 € (including electronics for real-time control). We believe that this estimate still leaves ample room for economic improvements! The large advantage from an economic point of view would be that new piping and storage space would not be required.

What would we gain with this strategy? There would be two main operational goals: equalising the dynamic loading of the treatment plant caused by diurnal variations in urine production (we call this strategy peak shaving) and avoiding CSOs containing urine. Since urine contains about 70 % of nitrogen, 40 % of phosphorus, 30 % of dissolved organics (DOC), and a dominant fraction of hormones and pharmaceuticals from the human metabolism found in domestic wastewater, the potential for reducing the emissions of these pollutants from treatment plants and in CSOs is substantial. Of special interest is the fate of micropollutants. Degradable substances such as estrogens are highly suspected to cause reproduction problems in fish populations in natural waters (Renner, 1998; Burkhardt-Holm and Studer, 2000). We expect that all these

221

substances would respond to the proposed strategies in the same way as ammonia, which will be used as a representative pollutant in the following development.

We will now introduce modelling scenarios quantifying the effect of urine separation on wastewater characteristics and CSO discharges to the aquatic environment. These scenarios are based on two rather crude real-time control strategies.

PEAK SHAVING

Urine is shed in typical diurnal patterns resulting in large peaks of urine loads to treatment plants in the morning hours when urban dwellers are getting up. These load variations cause significant additional investments in biological wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The principal idea of peak shaving is to equalise the dynamic urine releases from households in order to achieve a constant urine flux in the influent to the treatment plant. Variations in nitrogen flux in the wastewater create the need for about 1/3 to 1/2 of the operational volume of biological treatment plants. In the following we outline the simplest possible control strategy for an idealised situation.

This situation is based on assuming an urban settlement in which all inhabitants discharge an identical, cyclic urine waste stream (Fig. 1). For the sake of simplicity the urine flow has only one pronounced peak, between 0800 and 1200 h. In order to obtain a constant urine release from the settlement, each toilet is assumed to be equipped with a small storage tank that can exactly hold the excess volume (corresponding to approximately 0.5 litre/person) needed for flow equalisation. Furthermore, it is understood that each tank is perfectly controlled and the tank operation follows the procedure outlined in Figure 1.

The positive effect of the above scenario is easily understood, because the wastewater treatment plant without peaky urine loads will operate with an overall increase in the treatment efficiency. This effect is shown in Figure 2 in the form of a urine flow mass distribution for 4-hour intervals. The diagram is based on a long-term simulation of the idealised settlement (described in Table 1) where runoff is computed from the rainfall data series, which was measured in Zurich from 1986 to 1995. Note also that the stormwater model applied here is highly idealised, as all losses and transport phenomena are neglected. Therefore, any recorded precipitation results in an instant runoff flow that is diverted at an ideal combined sewer overflow, if the maximum hydraulic capacity of the treatment plant (Q max WWTP) is exceeded.

Table 1: Basic properties of the virtual, idealised settlement used in all simulations

Inhabitants PE 100 000 Q dry l/PE/d 200 Q Urine l/PE/d 1.5 Q max WWTP l/PE/d 400 2 Area Imp. m/PE 50

222

QUrine

2.5 Natural Urine discharge Controlled Urine release 1.0 0.7 0.0 time [h]

V Urinetank

100 % fill empty

empty

0 % time [h] 0 8 12 24

Figure (1): Urine discharge variation (top) and a simple peak-shaving control strategy (bottom) in an idealised settlement

Urine Volume per 4 hr Intervall (m3) 80

60 No control Peak shaving

40 loss via CSO

0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percent

Figure 2: Mass distribution of urine inflow to the WWTP, for 4-hour intervals, during the period 1985-1996. Curved segments of mass curves indicate the loss of urine via CSOs.

223

Precipitation measurements in Zurich (1985-1996) indicate that rainfall is recorded during 7.6 % of the total time. CSOs occur when the combined wastewater flow exceeds the hydraulic capacity of the treatment plant. In this case, a fraction of the sewage is released directly into the receiving waters. Such losses are indicated in Figure 2 as curved segments of the mass curves. Note that the total duration of CSO losses in Figure 2 (about 20 % of the time) does not coincide with the total duration of effective rainfall during that period (7.6 % of the time). The reason is that rainfall occurs randomly and frequently within periods significantly smaller than the 4-hr intervals plotted in Figure 2. Also, since short rainfall events can cause CSOs, the total duration of some CSOs must be larger than the corresponding total rainfall periods.

As expected, the peak shaving strategy has a pronounced effect on the dynamics of WWTP loading. Since the concentration of urine in wastewater will be more or less constant, peak loadings of nitrogen in CSOs will be avoided. At the same time the expected performance of the biological treatment (nitrification) will be improved. The simulation results indicate that the peak shaving control strategy has a negligible effect on the amount of urine that is released via the CSOs into the receiving water. In both situations 5.4 % of the total urine volume that is released from the households is discharged directly (Table 2). This result was expected for a random rainfall distribution.

AVOIDING URINE RELEASE VIA COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS

Combined sewer overflows lead to discharges of untreated sewage directly into the receiving waters. A conventional strategy to remediate this situation is to build CSO storage tanks. Waste design could be used as an alternative measure.

In the scenario with household urine storage, the peak shaving strategy can be extended, in order to improve the pollution control situation during wet-weather periods. Again we employ the most basic strategy applicable: in wet weather, the tank remains closed and no urine is released until the tank is full. In the case when the tank is full and rain continues, the tank will overflow and the urine inflow equals its outflow. We call this the wet-weather strategy.

In Figures 3 and 4, two situations are illustrated that reflect the details of the wet-weather strategy. The first one outlines the result if a constant rain occurs during the urine peak period. In that case the tank is filled quickly, leading to an overflow at the end of the rainfall event. With respect to the pollution of the receiving waters, the wet-weather strategy has a positive effect, compared to a non-controlled situation, since no urine is in the CSO during a substantial part of the event. The same holds true for the operation of the WWTP; however, here the peak shaving strategy would produce slightly better benefits.

The second case reflects the worst case scenario. In this situation it is assumed that because of a rain event the tank is already full at the beginning of the urine peak period. As a consequence the tank overflows and the urine release equals, during this period, that for the non-controlled situation. Even here the effect of the wet-weather strategy is not inferior to the non-controlled situation. The simulated results (Table 2 and Figure 5) have confirmed this argument.

224

rain QUrine Urine tank overflow

2.5 natural urine discharge Controlled release 1.0 0.7 0.0 time [h]

V Urinetank

100 % fill empty empty

0 % time [h] 0 8 12 24 Figure 3: Effect and operation of the ‘wet-weather strategy’ for rainfall occurring during the urine peak period.

QUrine Urine tank overflow rain 2.5 natural urine discharge Controlled release 1.0 0.7 0.0 time [h]

V Urinetank

100 % full empty

0 % time [h] 0 8 12 24 Figure 4: Effect and operation of the ‘wet-weather strategy’ for a long rainfall event, occurring prior to the urine peak period, thus filling the urine tank.

Table 2: Effect of CSO Storage (2.7 mm) and urine control strategies on the total percentage of urine that is released via the CSO to the receiving water. Situation Not controlled Not controlled Peak shaving Wet-Weather no CSO storage CSO Storage no CSO storage strategy no CSO storage % of urine lost in 5.4 3.1 5.4 3.1 CSO

225

Urine Volume per Event m3 Urine Volume per Event m3 50 125

40 No control 100 Peak shaving 30 CSO Storage 75 RainWet-Weather strategy strategy No control 20 50 Peak shaving CSO Storage 10 25 RainWet-Weathe strategyr strategy 0 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 110 Return Period in yrs Return Period in yrs

Figure 5: Extreme statistics of urine volumes released to the receiving water per rainfall event.

Simulation of the virtual settlement (Table 1) with the wet-weather strategy during the period from 1986 to 1995 indicates a significant reduction (about 40%) of the amount of urine discharged via CSOs. This reduction can be achieved by conventional measures too, that is by installing a storage volume of 2.7 mm in the catchment. The effect of these two different types of measures is also the same when considering extreme statistics with respect to the discharged urine volume per rainfall event (Figure 5). Therefore, it can be concluded that in wet weather, urine control by the wet-weather strategy yields approximately the same result with respect to water pollution as the implementation of a certain CSO storage volume in the system (in this case, 2.7 mm). These crude results allow a first estimation of economic savings that might be achieved. Whereas CSO storage of 2.7 mm must provide a volume of 135 litres per capita in the form of centralised storage, urine storage could be obtained with a 100 times smaller decentralised volume.

When comparing the overall performance of different strategies (CSOs and WWTP effluent), the advantages of the novel wet-weather strategy become clear. Although the equalising effects of the wet-weather strategy on the urine mass inflow to the treatment plant are slightly smaller than in the previously discussed peak shaving scenario, a significant improvement is achieved. On the other hand, the implementation of CSO storage even produces negative effects in this respect (Figure 6).

Overall, even with a simple control strategy and extremely small storage volumes in the household as investigated here, an impressive improvement with respect to both, avoiding water pollution during CSO events and improving performance of the WWTP, is achieved. It can be expected that the implementation of more realistic storage volumes and a more sophisticated control strategy hold promise for further improvements.

226

Urine Volume per 4 hr Intervall (m3) 80

60 Non – controlled, with CSO storage Non – controlled, no storage Rain Strategy 40

0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percent Figure 6: The effect of storage volume (2.7 mm) and urine control (wet-weather strategy) on the mass distribution of urine in flow to the WWTP, for 4-hour intervals.

DISCUSSION

The scenarios proposed show very clearly the large potential for improving water quality with rather small storage facilities. Whereas conventional CSO storage only improves pollution control for CSOs, household storage of urine has positive effects on the treatment plant as well. It should be noted that the positive effects are achieved here with extremely small storage volumes (0.5 litres per person) and the crudest possible real-time control. In reality, storage capacity would be more likely 2-4 litres per person and better real-time control strategies could be easily implemented. As an example, it might be effective to reserve a storage volume of 0.5 litres per person for the early morning hours, regardless of the rainfall occurrence during the night.

We have not discussed all the possible practical real-time control strategies in this paper. To control a large number of privately owned small storage tanks is obviously a different task from controlling a single large centralised storage tank. We suggest that a local random-number (or timed) strategy for activating the release mechanism of single small tanks would be a promising basis for such a strategy. In view of possible rainfall events of various characteristics, a time- dependent density of these random numbers could be controlled via sporadic signals modulated onto the household electricity distribution network.

The advantages of the proposed waste design approach are that the technical requirements for installing the system are not out of reach for today's technological possibilities and that benefits will rapidly occur in the receiving waters. First crude economic considerations indicate that it is advantageous to invest in household storage rather than in CSO storage, although the effects on the receiving water caused by the remaining wastewater should not be ignored. At the same time the technological and environmental learning aspects of this experience are important for advancing towards future urine separation technology, which would be designed with nutrient recycling as well.

The proposed strategy may serve as a milestone towards a new paradigm for overall wastewater management. Introducing new sanitation technology into households may be an important signal for consumers as well as for the industry producing sanitary and other household devices. The

227

awareness and experience that our present wastewater management system can be fundamentally changed may set free creative energies. For public administrations it may be interesting to test new models for developing incentives for advanced household technologies.

Finally, the effects on the receiving waters by partial urine separation will yield important information on the effect of future total exclusion of urine from wastewater, realistic transport scenarios and the quality of ‘average’ urine with respect to micropollutants.

CONCLUSIONS

• A short-term household storage of urine is a very promising technology from the point of view of water pollution control. • There are good chances that the household storage strategy presented in this paper is right from the beginning highly competitive, when compared to the alternative involving construction of stormwater (CSO) retention tanks. We expect that there is ample room for economic optimisation of the newly proposed strategy, which is based on industrially mass- produced devices. Conversely, the current strategy employing large-scale prototypes can hardly be substantially improved. • Furthermore, the household urine storage strategy is also advantageous for the wastewater treatment plants, where it has the potential to produce further savings, which have not been considered in this paper. • We suggest that the development of real-time control strategies for household storage strategies should receive a high research priority. • The strategies proposed in this paper might well become a cornerstone in the introduction of source controls in households and have the potential to mark the beginning of a new paradigm in wastewater management.

LITERATURE

Burkhardt-Holm, P. and C. Studer (2000). Hormonaktive Substanzen im Abwasser: Sind Fische und andere Wasserlebende Tiere gefährdet? Gas -Wasser- Abwasser, 7, 504-509 (in German). Hellström, D. and Johansson, E. (1999). Swedish experiences with urine separating systems. Wasser und Boden, 51 (11), 26 - 29. Henze, M. (1997). Waste design for households with respect to water, organics and nutrients. Wat. Sci. Tech., 35, (9), 113-120. Johansson, M., Jönsson, H., Höglund, C., Stintzing, A.R., Rodhe, L. (2000). Urinsortierung – en del i kretsloppet. Stockholm Vatten AB (in Swedish). Jönsson, H., Vinneras, B., Höglund, C. and Stenström, T. (1999). Source separation of urine. Wasser und Boden, 51 (11), 21- 25. Larsen T.A. and Gujer W. (1996). Separate management of anthropogenic nutrient solutions. Wat. Sci. Tech., 34 (3-4), 87-94. Larsen, T.A. and Gujer, W. (1997). The concept of sustainable urban water management. Wat. Sci. Tech., 35 (9), 3-10.

228

Larsen, T.A. and Gujer, W. (2001). Waste design and source control leads to flexibility in wastewater management. Presented at the 1st World Congress of the International Water Association, IWA, 3-7 July 2000, Paris. Submitted to Wat.Sci.Tech. Renner, R. (1998). Human estrogens linked to endocrine disruption. Environmental Science and Technology, 32 (1), Environmental News, p.8.

229

PRÉVENTION ET DIMINUTION DES INONDATIONS URBAINES "ÉMERGENCE DE SOLUTIONS INTÉGRÉES"

P. Lavallée (*), M. Pleau (*), R. Martin (**), D. Guthrie(***) et M. Link (****)

* BPR-CSO, Montréal, Canada ** CITA – LDE, Bordeaux, France *** MSD-Louisville and Jefferson County, Louisville, USA **** United Water, Milwaukee, USA

RÉSUMÉ

On ne doit pas subordonner la lutte contre les inondations à la lutte contre la pollution…et vice versa. L’époque où l’on croyait que la lutte contre les inondations ne pouvait souffrir d’aucun objectif complémentaire est révolue; Les outils de gestion intégrée existent et leurs applications ont montré que les résultats sont probants. On peut donc gérer efficacement un ensemble de bassins de rétention, de collecteurs, d'intercepteurs et de divers ouvrages de régulation pour éviter les inondations, tout en minimisant les déversements en temps de pluie. Pour ce faire, il faut définir une fonction objectif plus complexe, mais qui bien structurée, sera une base robuste d’un système de contrôle.

MOTS CLÉS

Contrôle temps-réel; utilisation des ouvrages existants; diminution des débordements; augmentation des débits traités; utilisation du personnel en place

INTRODUCTION

Plusieurs solutions existent afin de diminuer les risques d’inondation et de déversements non traités aux milieux récepteurs lors de grandes crues. La majorité de ces solutions exigent cependant des investissements importants en infrastructures de toutes sortes, et en particulier pour l’aménagement et la construction de sites de rétention pouvant contenir une proportion significative des eaux d’orage. Aux État-Unis seulement, l’Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a estimé que plus de 40 milliards de dollars US devront être investis au cours des prochaines années afin de solutionner le problème des surverses en temps d’orage. Plusieurs municipalités ont récemment reconnu qu’il est plus qu’improbable que les contribuables puissent absorber cette facture dans un délai raisonnable et qu’il est impératif de rechercher des solutions émergentes, efficaces et peu coûteuses.

Parmi ces solutions novatrices, vient en tête de liste la gestion en temps réel des réseaux d’assainissement. L’idée maîtresse de cette approche consiste, par l’entremise de vannes mobiles, de pompes à vitesses variables et de barrages gonflables, à contrôler les flux dans le but d’atteindre différents objectifs environnementaux et opérationnels. Ces objectifs sont généralement variés et dépendent des caractéristiques physiques du réseau étudié et de la géographie du territoire considéré. Pour des régions dont le terrain est peu dénivelé, l’objectif premier sera de minimiser les risques d’inondation, alors que pour d’autres réseaux ayant une

230

topographie fort différente, l’objectif premier sera de minimiser les volumes d’eau déversés sans traitement et ce ,tout en minimisant les coûts d’opération.

Par la présentation de quelques exemples aussi différents que Milwaukee, Louisville, Québec, et Bordeaux, on pourra démontrer que la gestion intégrée des inondations et de la pollution est une réalité. On décrira tant les fonctions objectives que les solutions techniques associées.

LA DÉFINITION DE LA FONCTION OBJECTIVE AU CŒUR D’UN SYSTÈME DE CONTRÔLE PERFORMANT

On peut traduire sous forme d’une fonction objective programmée de manière non linéaire un ensemble de contraintes régissant de manière optimale l’ensemble du domaine d’interventions (Pleau et al., 1996). Depuis 1999, un système de contrôle est en opération sur le réseau de la Communauté Urbaine de Québec. Dans ce cas, la fonction objective a été établie en fonction de la lutte contre la pollution, mais avec une obligation contractuelle de maintenir le réseau de collecteurs hors de toutes conditions de surcharge hydraulique. Il est à noter qu’avant la mise en fonction du système de contrôle, certaines parties du réseau pouvaient entrer en surcharge fréquemment.

Dans le cas de l’agglomération de Louisville et Jefferson County, Kentucky, USA, les contraintes de lutte contre les inondations sont sévères puisque sous certaines conditions hydrologiques du milieu naturel, le réseau n’a aucune possibilité de se vidanger gravitairement et de puissantes stations de pompage deviennent le principaux outils de lutte contre les inondations. Sans système de contrôle œuvrant en mode global prédictif intégré, la lutte à la pollution exige des ouvrages indépendants du système de collecteurs. Des exemples de bénéfices associés, en termes de lutte à la pollution, à une gestion dynamique des collecteurs seront présentés; ces résultats montrent que la lutte contre les inondations demeure tout aussi performante.

Dans le cas de Milwaukee et de Bordeaux, des systèmes de contrôle existants sont en voie de rénovation et devront associer lutte contre la pollution et lutte contre les inondations. Dans chacun de ces cas, la lutte contre les inondations est réalisée depuis plusieurs années et l’intérêt réside dans l’évolution programmée de ces systèmes pour pouvoir à terme associer la lutte contre la pollution. Les principaux schémas intéressants d’évolution seront décrits.

La performance attendue ou démontrée d’un système de contrôle prédictif intégré, CSOft®, sera présentée en identifiant l’ensemble des équipements mis en cause. On déterminera aussi les phases d’évolution vers un système de gestion automatisée à partir des systèmes existants.

LA GESTION EN TEMPS REEL DES RÉSEAUX D’ASSAINISSEMENT

La gestion en temps réel des réseaux peut prendre différentes formes. Selon la nature du problème à résoudre, les besoins exprimés et la configuration du réseau, la stratégie de contrôle la mieux adaptée peut être différente d’une application à l’autre. Pour certains systèmes une gestion manuelle pourra être suffisante à l’atteinte des objectifs alors que pour d’autres, une gestion automatisée sera requise. Parmi les méthodes de gestion automatisées, on retrouve les approches dites locales, consistant à manipuler les flux, à partir d’un ouvrage de régulation, de telle façon qu’une consigne de niveau ou de débit puisse être maintenue à un endroit précis du réseau. Dans ce mode de gestion, chacun des ouvrages de régulation agit indépendamment des autres. Par

231

opposition, les approches de type global, sont définies de telle sorte que chacun des ouvrages agit dans un but commun. La détermination des consignes d’opération permettant l’atteinte des objectifs globaux peut être sous-optimale, c’est-à-dire obtenue à partir d’algorithmes empiriques ou semi-empiriques, ou optimale (Schilling, 1989).

Il est cependant certain qu’une gestion simplifiée (gestion réactive locale) ne peut gérer une fonction objectif contenant des objectifs multiples, voire contradictoires.

A ce jour, les méthodes de contrôle déterministes optimales alliant performance à robustesse semblent les plus prometteuses pour la gestion des réseaux d’assainissement. Ces méthodes permettent de déterminer à chaque pas de contrôle l’ensemble des consignes minimisant une fonction multi-objectif sur un horizon de prévision donné. L’approche standard d’implantation consiste à formuler le problème d’optimisation périodiquement afin d’inclure de façon continue les données les plus récentes concernant l’état hydraulique du réseau ainsi que les prévisions météorologiques (Papageorgiou, 1988).

Le calcul des consignes optimales est réalisé à chaque pas de temps de contrôle par un algorithme d’optimisation avec contraintes. Actuellement, plusieurs de ces algorithmes sont disponibles sous forme de logiciels commerciaux. Les principales techniques utilisées sont la programmation linéaire, la programmation non-linéaire et la programmation dynamique (Gonwa et al., 1993; Rohlfing, 1993). L’avantage de ces algorithmes par rapport à d’autres techniques d’optimisation sans contraintes est qu’ils permettent de construire des problèmes d’optimisation respectant la physique et la dynamique des réseaux d’assainissement ainsi que de résoudre rapidement des problèmes de dimension importante.

IMPLANTATION D’UNE STRATÉGIE DE GESTION EN TEMPS RÉEL

L’implantation d’une stratégie de contrôle en temps réel doit se faire en harmonie avec les objectifs de gestion poursuivis. Chacun des paramètres influençant la qualité de la gestion doit être choisi à partir d’un design basé sur la performance et incluant certains critères associés au coût d’implantation ainsi qu’à la robustesse et l’adaptabilité du système.

Le succès d’une implantation de contrôle en temps réel ne saurait cependant être garanti que par des critères de performance; la conception et le design du schéma de contrôle doivent aussi inclure des composantes permettant d’assurer une gestion efficace indépendamment du degré de dégradation du système de gestion (Colas et al., 1998). La stratégie développée doit garantir d’abord la protection du citoyen, puis la protection du réseau et finalement la protection de l’environnement. Finalement, le système doit posséder une architecture ouverte permettant une analyse détaillée des performances obtenues et des outils permettant une amélioration continue de la stratégie de contrôle.

LA STATION CENTRALE

Pour la gestion en temps réel des réseaux d’assainissement, le principal rôle de la station centrale est la détermination des consignes d’opération devant être appliquées à chacune des stations locales de contrôle. Ces consignes peuvent être déterminées de façon automatisée par un système d’aide à la décision dont la fonction est de déterminer l’ensemble des flux permettant l’atteinte des objectifs de gestion.

232

La station est composée d’un système d’acquisition et de contrôle (SCADA) et de modems téléphoniques et/ou radios, d’un automate programmable et d’ordinateurs supportant un Interface Homme Machine (IHM). En présence d’une gestion automatisée, la station centrale doit aussi inclure un système d’aide à la décision, un système de prévision météorologique et un système de gestion des données. L’arrimage entre les différents systèmes et le système SCADA de base, s’effectue par le système de gestion des données. Le système de gestion des données permet de centraliser l’information provenant des différents systèmes impliqués dans une base de données unique.

Le système d’aide à la décision permet le calcul des consignes devant être appliquées aux stations locales. Ce système communique avec le système de gestion des données afin d’acquérir toutes informations nécessaires au calcul des consignes d’opération. Ces consignes sont par la suite acheminées à l’IHM et retransmises, sous la supervision de l’opérateur du réseau, vers les postes de régulation. Le système d’aide à la décision peut également être utilisé en temps différé comme outil d’analyse et d’amélioration en continu de la stratégie de gestion.

LES STATIONS LOCALES

L’impact de l’ajout d’une stratégie de gestion en temps réel sur la configuration et le design des stations locales de contrôle dépend de plusieurs facteurs dont le mode de gestion choisi et la robustesse désirée. En gestion optimale, il est important que les algorithmes d’assainissement puissent permettre d’atteindre et de maintenir les consignes provenant de la station centrale avec un degré de précision satisfaisant.

Afin d’obtenir un niveau de robustesse garantissant la protection des citoyens contre des inondations qui pourraient survenir dues à un mauvais fonctionnement d’une des composantes du système, il est impératif, en mode de gestion automatique, d’avoir un nombre minimal d’appareils de mesure installés en redondance à d’autres appareils. Cette redondance est utilisée afin d’évaluer la validité des mesures et ainsi accroître la robustesse du système tant aux stations locales qu’à la station globale.

En mode de gestion automatique, les stations de contrôle doivent être responsables de la détermination du mode d’opération devant être appliqué. Ces modes doivent tenir compte de l’état hydraulique du réseau ainsi que du niveau de dégradation des différentes composantes du système. La stratégie de gestion alors appliquée dépend de la sévérité de l’anomalie. Lorsque la station est complètement isolée du monde extérieur, un mode de gestion local doit être appliqué en fonction des instruments de mesure disponibles et fonctionnels. Dans le pire des cas de dégradation, la stratégie de contrôle local implantée doit garantir un niveau de performance supérieur ou équivalent à une gestion statique, dite de temps sec.

LA STRATÉGIE DE GESTION TEMPS RÉEL DE LA CUQ

A titre d'exemple, puisque des résultats de même nature ont été obtenus à Louisville, nous avons choisi de présenter les performances du système de contrôle de la Communauté Urbaine de Québec. Le cas de Louisville présente des résultats de réduction des déversements au milieu récepteur encore plus grands. Toutefois, ces résultats sont assez exceptionnels, en ce sens, qu’ils représentent la limite supérieure de ce que l'on peut faire avec un système de contrôle global optimal. Le dossier de la CUQ est plus représentatif de ce qui est attendu pour des dossiers

233

comme Paris, Bordeaux, Milwaukee; bref, plus près de la performance moyenne attendue (Lavallée et al., 1996).

La Communauté Urbaine de Québec (CUQ) couvre 500 km2 , habités par 500 000 habitants. L’ensemble des ouvrages d’assainissement totalisant 130 km de conduites se divise en deux réseaux indépendants, soit les réseaux Est et Ouest, munis chacun d’une station d’épuration. L’usine Est possède des capacités de traitement de 719 000 m3/jour en temps de pluie. Les capacités temps pluie sont de 505 000 m3/jour à la station Ouest. Ces capacités d’accueil, en condition de pluie, sont affectées par les hauteurs marégraphiques, contraignant continuellement les débits admissibles.

Après évaluation de multiples variantes, la solution retenue fut la mise en place d’un système de gestion dynamique, soit le Contrôle Temps-Réel Optimal Prédictif (CTR-OP) du réseau Ouest (Pleau et al., 2000).

DESCRIPTION DES AMÉNAGEMENTS

Afin de rencontrer les objectifs environnementaux définis pour la gestion du réseau Ouest, vingt- deux stations locales ont été installées ou modifiées. À la station centrale, trois nouveaux ordinateurs furent installés, soit : - Un (1) poste d’opération avec calculateur CSOFT; - Un (1) serveur de données; - Un (1) système de prévision météo (CALAMAR).

Interface Homme-Machine avec calculateur CSOFT Le poste d’opération est un logiciel d’interface homme-machine présentant les vues utiles à l’exploitation du réseau Ouest. Sur ce même ordinateur est installé le logiciel de Contrôle en Temps-Réel CSOFT. Ce logiciel de CTR permet l’opération et la commande en temps-réel des ouvrages d’assainissement. À l’aide des informations contenues dans le serveur de données, CSOFT permet de fournir des consignes de commande aux organes de régulation en tenant compte des conditions réelles du réseau issues des stations locales, tout en considérant les prévisions météorologiques sur l’horizon de prédiction.

Serveur de données Ce serveur renferme le modèle de données (ORACLE) qui permet d’archiver, sous forme de scénarios, toutes les informations requises à l’opération en temps-réel du système de contrôle et au traitement des données en différé pour fins d’analyses. Ce serveur de données permet l’échange entre les différents éléments du système central.

PERFORMANCES OBTENUES

La mesure des performances de mise en route du système durant la période de juillet à octobre 1999 devait particulièrement adresser les éléments critiques suivants :

L’utilisation complète des ouvrages de rétention, de transport et de traitement; Le parfait contrôle de tous les flux entrant à l’usine de traitement Ouest; La prévention des inondations et des surcharges par le contrôle des ouvrages amont; La robustesse du système en période de défaillance de certains composants;

234

Le juste calcul des consignes en des points locaux pour satisfaire des objectifs globaux priorisants : • La réduction des volumes débordés; • La maximisation de la capacité de traitement de l’usine; • La diminution des temps de vidange des deux tunnels de rétention; • La réduction des variations des consignes de débits pour minimiser les oscillations du système.

Performances globales

Les sept premiers événements pluvieux significatifs eurent lieu de la mi-août à la mi-octobre. Les résultats d’ensemble de ces événements sont présentés au tableau 1. En 2000, le système a opéré toute la saison des pluies avec le même niveau de performance. La présentation des résultats de 1999 a l’avantage de présenter les performances obtenues au démarrage du système, démontrant la robustesse induite de ce type de système.

Le tableau 1 présente une comparaison des volumes débordés aux trois sites majeurs de surverses (Suète, Jones et Dijon) ainsi qu’à la station de traitement Ouest pour deux stratégies de gestion (CTR-OP et statique) pour les sept événements.

Les structures des sites, tels Jones et Dijon se composent généralement de vannes murales avec seuil de débordement. Lorsque l’on compare les résultats obtenus lors de l’opération du système CTR-OP avec les résultats de simulation du système statique, les volumes de débordement diminués varient de 60 % (Suète) à 100 % (Dijon), alors que les réductions globales par événement varient de 55 % (pluie du 17 août) à 100 % (pluie du 14 octobre). La réduction globale obtenue par le système CTR-OP comparée à la gestion statique pour les sept événements pluvieux est de 87 %.

En terme de fréquence de débordement, le site Suète, pour lequel est prévu l’insertion d’un réservoir de rétention agissant comme tampon, a débordé 5 fois sur 7 en mode CTR-OP contre 7 sur 7 pour le mode statique. Le site Jones a présenté 2 débordements (pluies des 13 et 17 août) en mode CTR-OP contre 7 débordements en 7 événements en mode statique. Ces 2 débordements sont liés à une contrainte aval du réseau. Aucun débordement ne s’est produit au site Dijon en mode CTR-OP contre 7 débordements en mode statique.

CONCLUSION

L’idée d’utiliser une stratégie de gestion en temps réel pour minimiser les inondations et les déversements non traités au milieu récepteur n’est pas nouvelle. Il y a plus de 30 ans, des chercheurs ont suggéré d’utiliser des routines d’optimisation afin de déterminer les consignes d’opération permettant de réaliser des objectifs spécifiques de contrôle. Cependant, jusqu’à très récemment, bien peu de personnes ont réellement contrôlé les difficultés d’implantation de telles stratégies. Pourtant, sans une implantation méticuleuse assurant non seulement une performance de gestion optimale, mais aussi une forte robustesse du système aux incertitudes et perturbations inhérentes aux mesures et aux prévisions météorologiques, toute entreprise est vouée à l’augmentation du risque pour les usagers. Sans une capacité d’évolution, la stratégie de contrôle sera rapidement désuète, exhibera une faible performance et sombrera peu à peu dans l’oubli.

235

Il y a à peine dix ans, une telle implantation était à peu près impossible dû à la faible fiabilité et précision des senseurs, des actionneurs, des appareils de télécommunication et à la capacité limitée de calcul des automates programmables et des ordinateurs.

Les récents résultats obtenus à la Communauté Urbaine de Québec démontrent sans équivoque le potentiel de la gestion automatisée prédictive et optimale comme outil permettant de réduire les inondations et les déversement non traités. En fait, la diminution des déversements n’est attribuable qu’à une meilleure gestion des flux.

RÉFÉRENCES

Colas, H., Tremblay, M., Lavallée, P., Pleau, M. & Meunier, C. (1998). Demystifying Some Aspects of Real Time Control Applications from the Design Phase to Implementation. Proceedings of the WEF Speciality Conference Series : Advances in Urban Wet Weather Pollution Reduction, Cleveland, Ohio, June 28 to July 1, 531-540. Gonwa, W., Capodaglio, A.G. & Novotny, V. (1993). New Tools for Implementing Real Time Control in Sewer Systems. Proceedings of the Sixth Conference on Urban Storm Drainage, WEF speciality conference series, Niagara Falls, Ontario, September 12-17, 1375-1380. Lavallée, P., Marcoux, C., Simard, D. & Bonin, R. (1996). Performance of an Integrated Real Time Control System : Application to CSO Control. Proceeding of the WEF Speciality Conference Series : Advances in Urban Wet Weather Pollution Reduction, Quebec, Canada, June 16-19, 12.23-12.34. Pleau, M., Pelletier, G., Colas, H., Lavallée, P. & Bonin, R. (2000). Global Predictive RTC of Quebec Urban Community’s Westerly Sewer Network. Proceeding of the IWA, 5th Symposium on System Analysis and Computing in Water Quality Management, September 18-20, Gent, Belgium, 3.1-3.8. Papageorgiou, M. (1988). Certainty Equivalent Open-Loop Feedback Control Applied to Multi- Reservoir Network. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 33 (4), 392-399. Pleau, M., Méthot, J.-F., Lebrun, A. & Colas, H. (1996). Minimizing Combined Sewer Overflows in Real-time Control Applications. Water Quality Research Journal of Canada, 31 (4), 775-786. Rohlfing, R. (1993). Feasability of Optimization Methods for Real-Time Control of Urban Drainage Systems. Proceedings of the Sixth Conference on Urban Storm Drainage, WEF speciality conference series, Niagara Falls, Canada, September 12-17, 1381-1386. Schilling, W. (1989). Real-Time Control of Urban Drainage Systems: The state-of-the-art. IAWPRC Task Group on Real-Time Control of Urban Drainage Systems, London.

236

Tableau 1 Comparaison des volumes débordés (m3) pour deux stratégies de contrôle (CTR-OP et statique) pour 7 événements

13 Août 17 Août 14 Septembre 6 Octobre 9 Octobre 13 Octobre 14 Octobre Réduction Sites CTR OP Statique CTR OP Statique CTR OP Statique CTR OP Statique CTR OP Statique CTR OP Statique CTR OP Statique globale

Suète 3136 5278 1066 1490 645 1327 114 1195 309 1514 0 1135 0 1212 60%

Jones 468 3276 231 802 0 792 0 799 0 923 0 809 0 836 92%

Dijon 0 2832 0 567 0 609 0 528 0 739 0 504 0 383 100%

Usine 0 3657 0 0 0 0 359 4483 0 3545 263 10274 0 208 97%

Total 3604 15043 1297 2858 645 2728 472 7005 309 6720 337 12723 0 2639 87%

Réduction globale 76% 55% 76% 93% 95% 97% 100% 87%

237

SLUM NETWORKING - USING SLUMS TO SAVE CITIES

H. H. Parikh* * Professor, School of Planning, Ahmedabad and Consulting Engineering, 2- Sukhshanti, 10/A Purnakunj, Near Ambavadi Circle, Ahmedabad – 380 006, Gujarat, India. Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Slum Networking is an innovative concept, which exploits the linkage between the slums and the natural drainage paths that influence the urban infrastructure and environment of the city. In a holistic frame which converges scales, activities, agencies and resources it exploits the slum fabric in the context of the total city for sustainable and cost effective improvement in the quality of life of its people as a whole. Using the concept, over a period of six years, the environment and infrastructure of the slum matrix of Indore city was improved to cover the lives of 450,000 slum dwellers. As a by- product of Slum Networking between the slum locations, Indore now has 90 kms of piped sewer mains serving the non-slum areas and a small stretch of polluted river running through the city centre was cleaned up and landscaped as a consequence. Based on the lessons learnt in Indore, the concept was evolved and replicated in demonstration projects in the cities of Baroda, Ahmedabad and Mumbai, each time bringing greater community interaction and self-sufficiency of resources. Slums, hence, cease to be liabilities and, instead, become opportunities of change for the cities.

KEYWORDS

Environment, infrastructure, natural drainage, partnerships, slum networking.

INTRODUCTION

Rapid urbanisation has led to an alarming deterioration in the quality of life of the city dwellers. Our cities suffer from infrastructural deficiencies, poor sanitation and solid waste disposal, water shortages, waterlogging in monsoons, poor transportation and congested roads. The urban environment has deteriorated with dust and air pollution, depletion of green areas and polluted natural watercourses. The slums have proliferated. Inadequate support for the social and economic development of the disadvantaged communities has led to growing illiteracy, deteriorating health care and frequent epidemics. The aggregate impact of the distress is specially debilitating for the urban poor living in slums. Women and children bear the worst brunt as they continuously manage their daily lives and chores in this environment.

It is taken for granted that in the cities of developing countries, environmental degradation, strained service infrastructure and the growth of slums are inevitable. The policy makers are often conditioned into the `poverty syndrome' in which the problems are perceived to be too overwhelming in terms of scale and complexity in relation to the resources available. The concept of Slum Networking does not accept that the constraints, both physical and financial, are insuperable. It is underpinned by a fundamental belief that slums need not exist in India and this massive transformation can be achieved in a short time span. This confidence is based on the lessons learnt from Indore Habitat Project and on the subsequent evolution and replication in the pilot slums of the cities of Baroda, Ahmedabad and Mumbai.

Slum Networking is an innovative concept which exploits the linkage between the slums, natural drainage paths which influence the urban infrastructure and the environmental fabric of the city.

238

Thus slums, instead of being resource draining liabilities as in the conventional developmental approach, actually become opportunities of a quantum change in the infrastructure levels and environmental quality of the city. Slum Networking is an initiative driven primarily through community control. In a holistic frame which converges scales, activities, agencies and resources it exploits the slum fabric in the context of the total city for sustainable and cost effective improvement in the quality of life of its people as a whole.

Correlation between slum fabric and natural drainage courses – Indore.

STRATEGY

Slum Networking has some unique facets which lock together to make it an enduring and replicable development mechanism. The main features are that the approach is holistic in the context of the city, costs reduce significantly, substantial human and material resources are mobilised and converged, the community control increases and the overall quality of life improves with an integrated mix of physical, educational, health and economic activities.

All cities have strong natural drainage paths. Without these, villages and towns would drown in their own waste long before they ever grow into cities. The paths are nature's own means of disposal and, if properly exploited, also become ideal routes for the manmade urban infrastructure systems of sewerage, storm drainage, water supply and roads. The environmental skeleton of city greens and water bodies also lies on the same paths. Studies of several cities in India and in other parts of the world showed that slums are consistently located along these natural paths. Once this connection between slums, urban infrastructure and environment is clearly understood, it is easy to see how slums can be used to transform cities.

239

The slum fabric is seen in the context of the whole city and interventions proposed are mutually beneficial to the slums as well as the rest of the city. The objective is not to find solutions unique to the slums but, instead, explore the commonality between the slums and the better parts of the city to integrate the two. As slums are not the causes of urban degradation but the consequences of distorted development, the solutions likewise must treat the slums as mere symptoms and use them to work back into the city fabric to the origins of the problems.

Physically, Slum Networking is an integrated upgradation of the entire city using slums, not as isolated islands but an urban net. The spatial spread of slums over a city together with contiguity between slum settlements gives an opportunity to strengthen the city level infrastructure networks. There is a close correlation between the slum locations and the natural drainage paths of a city. This again helps to build up low cost service trunks, particularly for gravity based systems of sewerage and storm drainage, together with environmental improvements such as creation of fresh water bodies, cleaning up of polluted rivers, development of green pedestrian spines and restoration of waterfront structures. The slums naturally benefit from the improved city level support. For the city too, the slums offer opportunities of change through this symbiotic process.

Unconventional concepts such as topography management, earth regradation and constructive landscaping are introduced. These coupled with the locational attributes of the slums with respect to the watercourses and the marginal lands have certain ramifications. The natural watercourses and low-lying areas tend to form nuclei around which slums cluster. By sensitive treatment of these lands several advantages are possible.

Firstly, areas prone to flooding and waterlogging can be lastingly improved by earth regrading at marginal costs. For example, a storm drainage system for Baroda, planned to alleviate the flooding in the city, needs over Rs. 500 million and the proposals are lying on the shelf for the want of funds. And yet, there is already a natural drainage system permeating deep into the city which can be activated with nominal efforts to relieve the flooding, the cost implications of the latter being only Rs. 40 million.

Secondly, the natural drainage paths are the most efficient routes for the gravity based city drainage with the added advantage that the problems of land acquisition and demolition normally encountered in built up areas during installation are avoided here. In Indore, just by providing the missing links between the slums, it was possible to build up city level sewerage at costs less than half those of the conventional system proposed by Public Health Engineering department. This in turn intercepted the sewage from polluting a trial stretch of the river and paved the way for the creation of water bodies and gardens around it.

The integration of both the scales and the activities intrinsic to Networking opens up exciting possibilities missing in other development strategies. Many solutions at first thought unviable at micro level become quite economic. A comparative study for Indore showed that the cost of house to house piped sewerage by Networking worked out at about Rs. 1500/- per family for the lines and Rs. 1000/- for the off-site collection and treatment. Against this, the cost of a shared UNDP twin pit latrine, often considered to be `appropriate' for developing countries, worked out at about Rs. 2500/- per family. Whereas the sewers also take care of the foul waters from kitchens and bathrooms, UNDP latrines do not. The additional advantages of the networked sewers is, firstly, that families have individual facilities and, secondly, that the families other than in slums can also be connected to the same system without recurring the off-site costs - i.e. the cost per family decreases as the contributing families increase. In an extension of the concept to the micro level, co-ordinating the

240 roads, storm drainage and sewerage to natural gradients in each settlement results in better function and economy. As far as possible, all roads are placed in cut and have positively downward slopes from high points to the watercourses. The surface cleanliness of the margins is achieved with grading and soft landscaping instead of expensive paving. The service infrastructure is simplified and modified so that individual services (instead of shared facilities) can be offered to slum families at low costs. Thus, the communities can participate in the execution of the works as they have the best knowledge and sensitivity of their surrounding environment. At the same time the maintenance burden is reduced and can be shifted from the local government to the individual householders.

The strategy prescribed requires sensitive and intense participation of the public in the development process through self-help. As the practice of Slum Networking evolves from city to city, an increasingly iterative design process is adopted in consultation with the community. This prepares the communities for the changes to come and increases their willingness to pay for and to maintain the systems. NGOs play an active role in motivating the communities, mobilising resources from the slum dwellers and converging the efforts of the people with the inputs from the local government and the private sector. The mechanisms of community interaction are equally gainfully extended to health, education and income generation programmes. The net effect is a holistic development which changes the functional, physical, socio-economic and environmental qualities of a city at a fraction of the cost of the conventional approach.

IMPACT

As per the 1991 census, the population of Indore city was 1.25 million out of which slum dwellers accounted for 0.35 million. The slums in Indore were characterised by overcrowding, dilapidated housing, unhygienic conditions, grossly inadequate basic amenities, unplanned layouts and poor accessibility. These areas housed economically weaker sections of the community often engaged in casual service occupations.

As per a 1990 survey, over two thirds of the slum families in Indore lived below the poverty line. On average 40% of slum dwellers were illiterate, with the female illiteracy rate as high as 53%. A large proportion of persons reported being sick within the fortnight before the survey. In addition to the working days lost, about 8% of the monthly income was reportedly spent on medical expenses.

In a project executed by Indore Development Authority, and financed by Overseas Development Administration U.K., the Slum Networking concept has been demonstrated with some success in the city of Indore. Over a period of six years, the slum matrix of the city covering 450,000 persons has been upgraded with environmental and infrastructure improvements together with community programmes related to health, education and income generation. The quantum of physical works in each slum pocket may be small but, as seen in the table below, the aggregate impact on the city as a whole is high.

Total length of new roads 360 km Total length of new sewer lines 300 km Total length of new storm drains 50 km Total length of new water lines 240 km New trees to be planted 120,000 nos Total area of grassing/shrubbing 500,000 sqm New community halls 158 nos

241

Most development alternatives designed for the urban poor rarely transcend beyond the slum boundaries. In contrast, as a by-product of Slum Networking, Indore now has 90 km of piped sewer mains installed in the non-slum areas in a city which, until recently, had no underground sewerage to speak of. As a result, the polluted rivers of the city are being converted to fresh water lakes in stretches and associated with that, the historical riverside structures are restored and new pedestrian greens formed. A recent study has shown that the quality of water in the wells around these areas has improved. Out of the 360 km of roads provided in slums, about 80 km on the slum peripheries were linked up at the city level to reduce the traffic congestion on the existing trunk roads. Similarly, the storm drainage runs in the slums were placed in such a manner that large areas of the remaining city were also relieved of flooding.

A mid-term evaluation of the Indore project showed that 79 neighbourhood committees had already registered under the Societies Registration Act and 70 youth clubs formed. Many slums were heading towards full literacy, frequency of epidemics has dramatically reduced and incomes, particularly of women, were increasing. The costs of improvements in Indore slums are a fraction of the conventional methods and the benefits extend well beyond the slum fabric.

The soft underbelly of the Indore project is that it is financed from a grant. The replicability value of the work can, therefore, be questioned. Further, bilateral grants are normally channelled through government structures. Hence, in spite of all the intentions, the project is eventually delivered by the agency and not executed by the community. Community participation cannot be sustained without commensurate responsibilities, controls and financial commitments of the people.

Baroda is a city similar in size to Indore and with equally pressing problems. In 1992, under the banner of `BARODA 2000', integrated upgradation of the entire slum matrix of Baroda was planned together with corresponding improvements in the environment and infrastructure at the city level. Baroda represents a critical step in the evolution of Slum Networking. Having demonstrated at Indore that complex and large scale urban renewal programmes can be sensitively executed, it was necessary in Baroda to move towards self-sufficiency and also a greater degree of community control over the programme. Hence, it was agreed that 50% of the resources for slum level works be mobilised internally and that the development, both physical and socio-economic, be undertaken through the community medium with intermediation of NGOs. To test the methodology, it was decided to take up the programme in a pilot project in Ramdevnagar slum of the city.

In this pilot project covering 4,000 persons, Rs. 2.2 million have been mobilised by the slum dwellers themselves with a matching support from UNICEF, Baroda Municipal Corporation and the local industry. The initiative has been taken up jointly by Baroda Citizens Council, a highly reputed NGO, and the author, an engineer-planner specialising in slum upgradation and urban infrastructure. The status of slum dwellers is that of the `clients'. They not only determine the nature of development but also play an active role in the execution process and the subsequent maintenance of the assets. The role of the external funding agency has shifted from that of a `benefactor' to a `catalyst'. Ramdevnagar explodes the myth that the slum dwellers are not willing or able to contribute towards their own development. Baroda Municipal Corporation has now requested the NGO to take up work in other slums of the city.

Compared to Indore and Baroda, Ahmedabad is a larger city with a population of 3.3 million out of which about 1.5 million live in slums. Here, the Slum Networking approach has been taken one stage further by replacing external aid with contributions from the city's industries so as to augment

242 the resources generated by the slum dwellers and the Municipal Corporation. The framework for the multi-partite contribution of the community, local economic forces, Municipal Corporation, NGOs and professionals is now established. A pilot project at Sanjay Nagar slum in the industrial heart of the city has already been successfully executed.

The Ahmedabad project was again initiated by the author and has been a joint effort between the communities living in the slums, Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation and Arvind Mills Ltd., a major industrial house of the country. They jointly determine the development and also share the costs. Local NGO `Saath' together with professionals are involved as intermediaries. The implementation mechanism proposed in Ahmedabad combines the strengths of all the participating parties with roles varying according to the natures and scales of the tasks. At the slum level the community plays a pivotal role in the implementation process. Consortia of reputable industries and NGOs take up the execution on behalf of the communities within the design framework established by the Corporation. In a country where city development falls strictly within the purview of the state and local governments, this is a very bold transition which will have far reaching consequences. The Corporation too has set up a parallel execution cell to bid for the works. This competition will improve the overall quality and also enable the Corporation to build up a long term implementation structure which is both efficient and sensitive. The work in Ahmedabad has now spread to 17 other slums of the city using different models of partnerships.

REPLICABILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY

This innovative practice has made a tangible impact in improving the quality of life of a large population living in slums of Indore and has demonstrated its replicability potential with respect to: a) upgrading the entire slum matrices within a finite time-frame and; b) revitalising the service infrastructure and environment of the city as a whole. The projects show that the slum fabric can be used effectively to transcend from the community scale to the city level. Indeed, the transitions from Indore to Baroda and then to Ahmedabad have taken comparatively shorter times in spite of the fact that at each stage the level of self-sufficiency and the degree of community control have increased. Demand has now started coming from other cities of India such as Bombay and Bhopal for similar replication. Thus with the proactive participation of the slums in the development process, the activity of urban renewal is being weaned away from aid support to self sustenance.

Slum dwellers have consistently demonstrated that they are very keen to change their living conditions. Instead of harnessing the greatest resource, namely, the slum dwellers themselves, the present programmes spread the scarce public resources too thinly over a large slum population. Further they impose solutions which are inappropriate and use mechanisms which have proved ineffectual in the past. In the projects described, the slum dwellers give such a high priority to environmental improvement, particularly individual water supply and toilets, that they are willing to mobilise resources for this need in spite of poverty.

The sustainability of the programmes is increased by dovetailing them into other related schemes at present in existence. These include Urban Community Development (UCD), Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP), Environmental Improvement Schemes (EIUS), Town Planning Schemes (TPS), land development under Urban Land Ceiling Act (ULC), Nehru Rojgar Yojana (NRY), health and education schemes undertaken by the state departments, Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS), state government low income housing loans, Low Cost Sanitation (LCS), cleaning of rivers under National River Action Plan (NRAP). City level proposals for water supply, sewerage,

243 treatment, storm drainage, solid waste management and landscaping in conjunction with the development funds allocated to the Corporators and Members of Legislative Assembly can also be integrated into the whole.

Similar convergence is also needed for resource mobilisation. With the help of NGOs, the community thrift groups are being organised into savings and loan societies. Efforts are being made to establish linkages between these societies and dedicated financial institutions such as Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA) and Friends of Women's World Banking (FWWB). Indeed, the pilot at Ahmedabad would not have been possible without SEWA providing the bridging finance to the community. At the national scale, the apex housing finance body, Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO), has now shown willingness to finance all the partners, namely, the industrial houses, NGOs, communities and the Municipal Corporations to meet their shares of the costs.

THE GENDER ASPECT

The urban poor are trapped in a vicious cycle of poverty, ill health, miserable living conditions and illiteracy in which the `causes' cannot be clearly distinguished from the `effects'. Physical improvements in the environmental and sanitation conditions alone cannot break the cycle and a holistic outlook is required. Care has, however, to be taken to avoid the other extreme of a plethora of random social sector actions in hope that some may work. Instead, it is much better to target the endeavours to specific objectives and groups with a balanced package of complementary physical and socio-economic interventions. In Slum Networking many of the community development interventions are focused on women and girls, who will in turn be tomorrow's mothers. The reason for doing so is to stem the carry over of the disadvantages from one generation to another. For example, there is a clear correlation between the female literacy rate and an array of other indicators such as infant mortality rate, birth rate, educational levels of children and family incomes. Thus, activities such as mother and child care, female literacy, income generation, vocational training and legal literacy assume special importance. Some of these activities are specially designed to empower the women to control their destinies. This is reinforced by majority representation of women both in terms of the numbers and also the key positions held in all the projects. In Indore, not only were the majority of members in all the neighbourhood committees women but they also predominantly held the positions of the chairpersons, secretaries and treasurers.

On the physical front, women in slums face the worst hardships of environmental and sanitation degradations. Sometimes hours have to be spent just to fetch enough water for the day. Often girls miss school to help with the daily chores of cleaning the house and its insanitary environs. Women are, therefore, highly motivated to initiate development and play a more mature role in reaching consensus and resolving differences which arise in the community. They also show a greater degree of responsibility in managing money and making repayments. The Baroda project came to fruition in spite of a long incubation period of three years simply because of the persistence of the women there to have individual water taps and toilets.

244

Slum before Networking Slum after Networking

River before Networking River after Networking

Health activities Education activities in cpmmunity hall

245

Abstracts of Poster Presentations

URBANISATION PROCESS AND URBAN HYDROLOGY PROBLEMS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES : THE CASE OF ARGENTINE

Juan Carlos Bertoni(*) and Pierre Chevallier(**)

(*) Professor Associated, Faculty of Exacts, Physics and Naturals Sciences, Córdoba National University, Argentine. Gob. Olmos 2666 - 5152 Villa Carlos Paz, Argentine. e-mail: [email protected]. (**) Directeur de Recherches. Institute de la Recherche par l'Developpement. Maison des Sciences de l'Eau, Université Montpellier II-IRD-CNRS, France e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

In Latin America the urban concentration is pronounced. Argentine is a good example of that with a percentage of almost 90 % of urban population. In the last decades the Argentinean urbanisation process has been characterised by two aspects: (a) the preponderance of the Buenos Aires City and, (b) the increase and multiplication of the medium size cities into the central region of the country. The expansion of the cities, the abusive utilisation of the sanitary concept based in the fast drainage of rainfall, the lack of the planning and an important delay in the develop of the main infrastructures facilities are the responsible of an increase of the frequency of urban floods. The pollution problems associated to the deficiencies of the industrial and domestic sewerage systems are not restricted to the big cities and in some case reach important levels of contamination over the receipted water body.

In this work the main hydrologic problems related to urban flood and water pollution in some Argentinean cities are related. Some data referred to Buenos Aires, Rafaela and Villa Carlos Paz cities are cited; these last being two medium size cities located in the central region of the country where the authors recently obtained hydrologic data.

KEYWORDS: urban hydrology; urbanisation process; floods; Argentine.

246

INTEGRATING URBAN WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE HIGHER EDUCATION CURRICULUM HUNGARIAN CASE STUDY

Eva Csobod Professors House Environmental Education and Communication Office 9 Menyecske, Budapest, 1112-Hungary tel: 361 251 5647, fax: 251 2951 e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

This paper reports on the Hungarian higher education curriculum reform at Science, Technical, Agriculture universities integrating water issues, integrated water management in the curriculum with interdisciplinary approaches. The paper highlight the following aspects: The learning objectives of sustainable use of natural resources, like water related education in higher education, with technological, economic, social, political, environmental, demographic interrelated aspects and innovative methods. The need and the process of curriculum reform at the universities, which means integration of environmental issues, environmental management in the curriculum with the reflection of involved players and target groups. Water related environmental problems and their implication in education and training, where observation and theoretical aspects as well as practical applications of water management are part of the learning area.

THE EVOLUTION OF STORMWATER MANAGEMENT IN NEW SOUTH WALES, AUSTRALIA

R. McManus*, P. Smith*, R.R. Brown**, and R. Ryan***.

*New South Wales, Environment Protection Authority, PO Box A290, Sydney South NSW 1232, Australia. Email: [email protected] and [email protected] **School of Civil and Environmental Engineering and the School of Social Science and Policy, University of New South Wales, Sydney NSW 2052, Australia. Email: [email protected] ***School of Social Science and Policy, University of New South Wales and Brian Elton & Associates, PO Box 1488, Bondi Junction NSW 2022, Australia. Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Stormwater management in New South Wales (NSW) has undergone a significant evolution in the past five years to reduce the environmental impacts of stormwater discharges on receiving waters. Significantly, the NSW State Government injected $A60 million to “improve urban stormwater quality”, which has been driven by the increasing community awareness of the environmental impact of stormwater discharges on receiving waters. This paper describes the evolution of local councils stormwater management practices through an analysis of the implementation of a stormwater grants program, which has resulted in a significant growth in the application of education and other non-structural controls in stormwater management, increased management abilities for improved stormwater outcomes, and improved capabilities of the Australian stormwater industry.

KEYWORDS: Education, source control, stormwater management, technologies.

247

Workshop 5

INTEGRATED URBAN WATER MANAGEMENT FOR THE FUTURE

Convenors: Agence de l’Eau Rhône-Méditerranée-Corse Office International de l’Eau

249

AN AUSTRALIAN CASE STUDY: WHY A TRANSDISCIPLINARY FRAMEWORK IS ESSENTIAL FOR INTEGRATED URBAN STORMWATER PLANNING

R.R. Brown*, R. Ryan** and R. McManus***

*School of Civil and Environmental Engineering and the School of Social Science and Policy, University of New South Wales, Sydney NSW 2052, Australia. Email: [email protected] **School of Social Science and Policy, University of New South Wales and Brian Elton & Associates, PO Box 1488, Bondi Junction NSW 2022, Australia. Email: [email protected] ***New South Wales, Environment Protection Authority, PO Box A290, Sydney South NSW 1232, Australia. Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

We outline an argument for a transdisciplinary planning approach for improving the effectiveness of urban stormwater management. This approach is constructive in achieving the principles of sustainable development and the utilisation of preventative approaches to urban stormwater problems. Case study research of an innovative Australian urban stormwater program, involving more than 160 local governments in NSW, demonstrated the value of building catchment-based social and political capital along with strengthening institutional relationships.

KEY WORDS

Integrated planning, urban stormwater management, transdisciplinarity, institutional capacity.

INTRODUCTION

Much has been written over the last forty years, from both academic and industry sources on how to manage urban stormwater problems through planning processes. Over this time the focus has shifted away from a sole reliance on technological or end-of-pipe solutions to more proactive and integrated strategies that focus on changing the social, organisational and institutional relationships that have the power to both cause and minimise urban stormwater problems. The interdependent rise of the modern environmental movement and the development of the international framework of sustainable development have fueled this shift. This new understanding of achieving the future well being of societies within the context of improved ecosystem health has been a catalyst for empowering governments and experts to: (1) improve their understanding of the impacts of the dominant social paradigm of growth and development on the health of the aquatic and broader ecosystem environment; (2) be proactive in protecting the aquatic environment through legislative power, policy and planning processes and through improved research and design knowledge; and

251

(3) acknowledge the (largely underutilized) capacities of community, organizational and institutional norms and practices in both generating and preventing urban water problems.

The urban stormwater industry has responded actively to the first two points listed above, however strategies for harnessing and developing institutional capacity on an ecological scale has so far been under-represented in current approaches. By institutional capacity, we mean the development and integration of routine partnerships and relationships (between all formal and informal modes of governance) focussing on catchment based solutions. Through this social and political capital building, institutional capacity is strengthened, which will, over time, result in increased awareness and changes in institutional decision-making frameworks and societal behaviours leading to improved urban water conditions.

Therefore this requires constituting a new planning framework enabling sustainable collaboration and relationships between all stormwater stakeholders within a catchment (communities, regulators, industry, traditional experts – engineers, environmental scientists, etc). The case study presented below, of the urban stormwater program (USP), is an innovative attempt at building institutional capacity because: a) it seeks to implement preventative ideas for addressing urban stormwater problems through focusing on community and organisational contexts, b) it seeks to enhance existing and develop new relationships and discourse between all stakeholders within drainage catchments, and c) it was specifically developed in response to Agenda 21 and the international framework of sustainable development.

The research reported here identifies the implementation variables effective for building institutional capacity in this case study. The research has been ongoing since the initial implementation of the program in 1998 and has involved extensive collaboration between the University of New South (School of Social Science and Policy and School of Civil and Environmental Engineering) and the Environment Protection Authority of NSW.

CASE STUDY: THE PLANNING PROGRAM

The Urban Stormwater Management Program

The USP was initiated by the NSW State Government to improve urban stormwater quality. More detail on the structure and components of the USP are discussed by McManus et al (2001) at this conference. This paper specifically reports on the implementation and evaluation of the statewide catchment-based planning for urban stormwater management.

The USP is administered by the NSW Environment Protection Authority (EPA) which legally required local councils (third tier of Australian government) to prepare catchment-based urban stormwater management plans. Due to the conflict between municipal political jurisdictions and natural catchment boundaries, a majority of councils participated in preparing at least three catchment plans. Catchment steering committees representing all stormwater stakeholders within each catchment are to be established to facilitate effective collaboration between all stakeholders, with a particular emphasis on engaging residents and community groups in the process. In line with the principles of sustainability the local social, ecological and economic values for the catchment providing the basis for deciding the future implementation strategies, are to be

252 established and negotiated through these local partnerships. The steps or structure of the planning process as proposed in the USP guidance documents is shown in Figure 1 below.

1- Establish Framework 2- Collect Existing Data 4- Identify Values 3- Describe Existing 5- Identify Objectives Conditions 6- Identify Issues and Causes 8- Identify Potential Options 7- Prepare Issues 9- Evaluate Options U Report rba n S tor 10- Implement Strategy mw ate 11- Prepare Draft Plan r Ma 12- Prepare Final Plan na gm en t P lan

Figure 1 NSW EPA 12-Step Planning policy for Urban Stormwater (EPA, 1997)

EVALUATION RESEARCH

Research Purpose & Key Questions The purpose of this research is to conduct an exploratory and evaluative investigation into the institutional and organisational processes throughout the planning implementation period and to understand how this influences the practice and outcome of integrated catchment planning. This research is also intended to inform the future development of this formative program to ensure that future programs meet the needs of biophysical, social and economic environment within the catchments.

The object of this three-year research inquiry involved investigating the life cycle of the USP including conception, problem framing, implementation and outcomes. The research questions guiding the inquiry of the work presented here include:

1. What theory-of-action constitutes this new practice of urban stormwater management? Question 1 elicits the logic of the program. This reveals what the program designers assumed (but did not make explicit) regarding causality and the expected outcomes of the program. The theory-of-action was not explicit at any stage of the program and today remains poorly understood by many of the program implementers. It is largely through the progress of this research that the key components (listed below) have been identified.

2. What variables indicate the program’s effectiveness and limitations? Question 2 is concerned with identifying implementation variables that are instrumental for building institutional capacity and effective planning processes.

3. How can subsequent practice be improved? Question 3 critiques the existing conceptual framework for the program and indicates the relationships with the identified implementation limitations. This allows the authors to recommend improvements for USP.

253

Methodology

Within the study a wide-range of implementation and evaluation research methods were employed and triangulated as discussed by Yin (1989). These included extensive statewide interviews, written surveys, focus groups and workshops, market and industry analysis and organisational case studies. The findings of the research went through a rigorous validation exercise with all key stakeholders including urban water managers from around the state of New South Wales.

EVALUATION FINDINGS

Research Question 1 What theory-of-action constitutes this new practice of urban stormwater management?

The USP theory-of-action reflects what activity the program designers believed their program design needed to generate to appropriately address the urban stormwater problem. The theory-of- action for the USP is depicted in terms of an outcomes hierarchy depicted in Figure 2 below (Brown & Ryan, 2000). This hierarchy of outcomes represents different spheres of activity and reflects the breadth of influence the planning process must achieve to accomplish the expected outcomes successfully. Each of the expected outcomes is discussed in turn below.

Planning Officer Capacity. This refers to the suite of skills and knowledge that officers in each council need to prepare and implement the planning process. The location of this activity is usually within a single council department generally engineering or services. Improving officer capacity at this level with regard to knowledge, skills and commitment to effective urban stormwater management is a prerequisite for improving councils’ organisational capacities (next step in the hierarchy). This depends upon improving the officers’ understanding of and expertise with at-source and preventative management strategies, which need to be addressed through integrated whole-of-council strategies. The program also seeks to improve the officers’ ability to engage community stakeholders.

Council Organisational Capacity. This is higher up the hierarchy as it requires a broader program influence for working across both the horizontal and vertical structures of the council organisation to both identify and improve processes and practices that impact on urban stormwater. These activities aim to foster a whole-of-council approach. The expected outcome is an improvement in council organisational capabilities to overview their own organisational practices. The integration of council activities requires changes in organisational management structures and increased expenditure on stormwater planning and infrastructure.

254

s Catchment-based e

m Capacity o

c t

f Councils’ o

y Organisational Capacity h

e i Planning Officer H Capacity

Figure 2. Hierarchy of Expected Program Outcomes

Catchment-based Capacity. Catchment level planning committees comprise diverse organisations which prior to the introduction of the planning program, had not systematically collaborated to improve stormwater quality. The establishment of these committees required these organizations to work together for the first time. This collaboration, if sustainable, can form the basis for ongoing effective USP. This is where social and political capital is built across the catchment and the strength and the quality of the relationships between these organizations, we argue, is the key determinant of successful USP. Encouraging joint project development and spending between stormwater managers on a catchment-basis is seen as a central element to building catchment-based capacity.

The level of achievement in attaining these outcomes is discussed in the next two sections.

Research Question 2 What variables indicate the program’s effectiveness and limitations?

Table 1 presents a summary of the implementation variables identified as indicative of achieving the expected program outcomes (refer to Figure 2 above). Achieving increased council officer capacity for urban stormwater management was overall the most successfully achieved outcome. As shown in Table 1, program effectiveness was highly dependent on a complex range of social, professional, organisational and political dimensions represented within each catchment. This could be broadly interpreted as the sociopolitical context of the catchment planning process.

Table 1. Variables of planning program effectiveness Expected Outcome Variables that influenced implementation effectiveness • Profession and experience with stormwater management Planning Officer • Organisational Power/Location Capacity • Support from Management • Relationship with other designated officers from other councils • Relationship/values towards the community • Expertise with planning processes

• Profile of the environment and it’s protection within the organization Council Organisational • Availability of resources for environmental issues Capacity • Senior executive support/participation

255

• Political support/participation • Integration with organisational management processes • Relationship with local community and environmental groups

• Breadth of expertise/profession of catchment steering committees Catchment-based • Number of existing catchment-based relationships Capacity • Number of local governments within the catchment • Level of activity of community and environmental groups • Local political/senior management participation

From the implementation variables listed in Table 1, three variables were identified as the most powerfully linked and critical to the outcome of: (a) sustainable and effective catchment-based relationships, and (b) sustainability of implementation strategies proposed measured in terms of their level of organisational integration and prevention focus within the catchment. These variables include the council officers’ profession orientation, the officers’ level of organisational power and management and local political support for the planning process.

Professional Orientation: The majority of officers preparing plans were engineers. The professional orientation of engineers privileges technical and scientific knowledge as the foundation for expertise. Integrated USP requires inclusive collaborative processes, which engage diverse stakeholders and foster broad ranging participation. Our evaluations revealed the contradictory nature of these factors. As shown in Figure 3 below, this contradiction had significant negative consequences for community engagement. These negative consequences broadly resulted in low reach and low participation by the community in the planning processes. This also resulted in the officers generally claiming that the community do not care and/or are apathetic about the environment (which is contradictory to NSW state wide community research on community concerns which rate the environment in the top three issues of concern). Skills and experience in community involvement did not appear to be valued by the officers or by the councils at large. However, communities were not attuned to what the stormwater issues were and what the consequences were to their environment before the planning process had started. In this context the community engagement process would not have been able to fully succeed.

consultation

al ing nion ing e y iv giv ions) tiation ing har r g trol at at gathering n r n, opigo ent on o con lly intern si es ower-s en fu ial decision p dminist ormation pr rmati cus ion, ne dvice-giv ion maki itiz a s a partcipato c inf ic di at info m (opinion surveys) decis minister (publ for

Level of Participation Extent of Community Engagement Activity Figure 3. Extent of community engagement expertise exercised in the planning process (modified source: Scales 1997)

256

Organisational Power: Departmental structure based on technical functions such as engineering, operations and maintenance, inhibited the ability of the council officers to effectively facilitate whole-of organization participation in the planning process. As depicted in Figure 4 below implementation generally remained in one functional area of the organization and was not well integrated. For most councils’ a junior officer was given the responsibility of preparing the plan, and they lacked the organisational power, resources and management commitment to enable implementation of the plan across the organization.

Management and Local Political Support: Organisations most successful in achieving integration had senior executive and political support for the planning process which was usually related to the high political profile of environmental issues for the particular municipality. Therefore there was limited achievement in building new management and local political support. However where it did exist the planning process was far more effective.

The research findings indicated that timeframes are significant variable in building successful catchment based relationships (ie, developing institutional capacity over time). This is because the socio-political contexts varied so greatly across councils and catchments. Catchments with three or more councils within their boundaries required external coordination for successful facilitation of the planning process. Also, catchment steering committees that had a transdisciplinary mix of catchment representatives had more effective planning processes.

COUNCIL

General Manager

Environment Engineering Community Planning Operations & Services Services Maintenance

Stormwater Plan Steering Stormwater Committee Plan Officer Officer lacks outside council’s usual committee organisational power framework to influence other areas of council

Figure 4. Impact of a Model Council Departmental Structure

Research Question 3 How can subsequent practice be improved?

What has been clearly identified in the research is that implementing programs based on the principles of sustainability requires an explicit recognition of the existing and/or potential for professional and institutional inertia. Traditional ways of managing urban water problems are

257 likely to prevail if the local political and community capacity is not directly empowered by the planning process. Understanding the interaction between the expert, social and biophysical interface is the key for building effective relationships.

For this program to effectively move forward the evidence supports the need for a transdisciplinary planning focus. This practice requires an interactive focus on both the inter and intra council relationships, local political incentives and community empowerment within the catchments. Through a transdisciplinary approach based on collaborative planning strategies (Healey, 1998) effective catchment-based relationships can be built. It is through this social and political capital that sustainable institutional capacity within the catchments can be clinched. This process requires: • political support: necessary for redistributing funding, promoting organisational change, facilitating broader community awareness and maintaining professional and organisational momentum for innovation and focus on preventative strategies through process empowerment; • commitment to communities: a disposition necessary for clinching local political support. This requires appropriate training and skilling of council staff and an appreciation of the power of shaping local social norms and behaviours for effectively addressing urban stormwater problems; • transdisciplinarity: necessary for promoting a climate in which a range of expertise is valued including local, community and indigenous knowledge. Also important for addressing the professional inertia in the stormwater industry and being catalyst for developing innovative sustainable solutions. • institutional capacity: necessary for strengthening the key relationships between all the players in the catchment and developing a common focus on the health of the aquatic environment. This capacity has the potential to create and shape existing decision-making frameworks that can create action and change to improve urban water management.

CONCLUSION

The case study has revealed knowledge of the theory-of-action used to constitute a new practice for urban stormwater management by Australian public officials. It has shown that the USP has been relatively successful in building capacity for urban stormwater management particularly with building council officer capacity. The research has demonstrated that to effectively address urban stormwater problems through the framework of sustainability, the potential for professional and institutional inertia needs to be explicitly addressed very early in the policy design. To counteract this inertia measures need to be taken that build social and political capital. A transdisciplinary framework with a clear disposition towards integrating social and political knowledge is essential to institutional capacity building and integrated urban stormwater management.

REFERENCES

Brown R.R, Ryan R and Ball JE, 1999. Catchment-based stormwater management in Australia: Citizen Participation in policy - What can be achieved? Paper presented at the International Conference on Participatory Processes in Water Management. July Budapest, Hungary.

258

Brown R.R, Ryan R and Ball J.E, 1999. The technocratic expertise of professions as an impediment to participatory processes: the role of engineers in stormwater management in Australia. Paper presented at International Conference on Public Participation and Innovations in Community Governance, June 1999. Luton, England. Brown R.R, and Ryan R., 2000. Evaluation of the Urban Stormwater Management Process, Publication of the Environment Protection Authority, Sydney, Australia. EPA, 1997. Managing Urban Stormwater: Council Handbook. Publication of the Environment Protection Authority, New South Wales. Sydney, Australia. Healey P. 1997. Collaborative Planning, McMillan, London. McManus R., Smith. P., Brown R.R and Ryan R, 2001. The evolution of Stormwater Management in New South Wales, Australia. In Symposium Frontiers of Urban Water Management: deadlock or hope?, Marseilles, France. McManus R., and Barter S., 2000. Evaluation of the Urban Stormwater Program, Publication of the Environment Protection Authority, New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. Ryan R. and Brown R.R, 2000. Value of Public Participation: Policy for Stormwater Quality for the Watershed. Presented at Watershed Management and Operations Management 2000 Conference, June 21-23, Colorado State University. Fort Collins, Colorado, USA. Scales I, 1997. Consultation and People with a Disability, Disability Council of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. Sharpin M, Barter S and Csanki S, 1999. Stormwater Management Planning in New South Wales, Australia. Proceedings of 8th International Conference on Urban Storm Drainage, Vol 4, p 2006-2014. Sydney, Australia. United Nations 1992, Agenda 21: Programme of Action for Sustainable Development, Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, United Nations Department of Public Information. Yin R.K. 1989. Case Study Research, Sage, Newbury Park, London.

259

WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE MEXICO CITY METROPOLITAN AREA: THE HARD WAY TO LEARN

Enrique Castelán

Third World Centre for Water Management, Avenida Manantial Oriente 27, Los Clubes, Atizapán, Estado de México, 52958, México, e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Development of infrastructure for water supply for a mega-city like Mexico City Metropolitan Area (MCMA) represents an enormous challenge for those responsible to provide water supply services. With an expanding population, which is considered to increase up to 25 million people by the year 2020, per capita water demand is due to become higher.

Mexican financial crisis during the last decades has limited investments in water infrastructure. This critical situation should had encouraged governmental authorities to promote water- efficiency. Unfortunately, present water supply shows that water-efficiency has not been yet accomplished: historically, in Mexico the emphasis has been on the construction of new water projects, oriented to cover the demand for water.

The present paper analyses the main water supply projects which have been developed in the MCMA and their social, economic and environmental consequences. The emerging conclusion from this analysis is that technological and financial aspects play an import role, but can not alone solve water supply problems. What is needed now is a new vision for water management that emphasises aspects such as maintenance, efficient water allocation, elimination of subsidies, capacity building and access to information. This will improve water availability in terms of quantity and quality, with less costs, as options instead of construction of water supply infrastructure.

KEYWORDS

Mexico City Metropolitan Area, infrastructure, investment, water demand, water efficiency.

INTRODUCTION

Mexico City Metropolitan Area (MCMA), which houses the capital of Mexico, is located in a natural closed basin called Valle de Mexico, at 2240 msl. With an area of 9,600 km2, the MCMA contains the Federal District (DF) and all or portions of the states of Mexico, Morelos, Hidalgo, Tlaxcala, Puebla. By the early 1900s, the population in Mexico City was 350 thousand inhabitants, in an area of 257 km2. In 1950, the population grown to 3 million inhabitants in an area of 21.1 km2. Later 1950, the population in Mexico City had a notable increase. In 1995, the population in MCMA raised to 17 million in an urban area of 4,902 km2. Actually, the population density in the MCMA is 3,423.7 person per km2. While the MCMA is the 3% of the national territory, the population in this area represents the 18.4% of the population of the whole country.

260

Now a day, the MCMA area is conformed by 16 delegaciones and 34 municipios in the state of Mexico (INEGI, 2000).

The high growth of the MCMA is due to political, economical, societal and cultural activities which were concentrated in this part of the country. This concentration transformed Mexico City into a dynamic region with high industrial activities. In the last three decades, the lack of profitability of the agricultural activities, the decline of subsistence economies and the absence of regional development policies, have resulted in high migration to the MCMA from rural areas in search of work and the general benefits generated from the centres of political power.

The MCMA has an important economical and political influence over the country. In 1996, MCMA participated with the 33.35 % of the GNP; the 53.6% of the main offices of the 500 major industries in the country were placed in the MCMA., with the 67.2% of its capital, the 69.9% of the sales and the 66.7% of their employees. In 1999, the 64% of the services and the 46% of commercial operations took place in the MCMA. These concentration of activities presented a formidable challenge to those responsible for providing water supply services. Millionaire investments are required to maintain the MCMA. This has not only represented high costs, but high social and environmental impacts, which till today have not been fully considered.

By the year 2010, population growth in the MCMA is expected to be 22.5 million people, which implies increase in water demand. Historically, the Mexican government has solved water scarcity problems, mainly by constructing water supply infrastructure, disregarding water efficiency aspects. In the last three decades the financial crisis, reduction of public investment, increases in construction costs and lack of foreign investments have limited governmental investments on water supply infrastructure. As a result of this, the government has been forced to initiate a set of actions that look to reform the water sector. Among these actions are the emphasis on the importance of paying for water services and on the rehabilitation and modernisation of water supply infrastructure. The international experiences show that such strategy is likely to result in the collection of taxes and in the modification of consumption patterns. Unfortunately, as in many other situations in Mexico, solutions are applied only when the problems are very critical or once the situations are unbearable. Since there is no appropriate planning from the governmental institutions and no time to inform the society on the actions that would be taken, even when the decisions are appropriate, because they are imposed in the society, they become unpopular and no viable in the long-term.

Certainly, financial and technological aspects are important elements to improve the strategies for more efficient water supply. However, the governmental strategy does not include issues which are of utmost importance, such as maintenance, efficient water allocation, elimination of subsidies, capacity building and access to information. These lacking issues can jeopardise the whole governmental strategy for the future water infrastructure development for the MCMA.. If more importance is given to these aspects, then it would be possible to improve water availability, with lesser costs, without necessarily construction of new water supply infrastructure.

WATER SOURCES IN THE MCMA

Total water consumption in the MCMA is about 62 m3/sec, which 35 m3/sec of total water is allocated in Mexico City, and the 27 m3/sec to the state of Mexico. The three water sources from

261 which water is abstracted for the MCMA are the Valley of Mexico Acquifer (66%), the Valley of Lerma Acquifer (9%), and the basin of Cutzamala river (25%).

The aquifer of the Valley of Mexico. The withdrawal from Valley of Mexico Aquifer started in the middle of nineteen century. Later, the growing of Mexico City has resulted in the exploitation of the aquifer of the Valley of Mexico and the subsidence of Mexico City. From 1948 to 1953, the most critical period for the city in terms of subsidence, Mexico City subsidence’s rate was up to 46 cm/year in some areas. Some studies conducted in those years demonstrated that subsidence was linked to groundwater extraction. Thus, many wells in the urban area were closed, but many other wells were opened in the surrounding areas of the city. The high rate of subsidence of Mexico City forced water authorities to look for some options to cover the water demand, to reduce groundwater extractions, and to minimize the subsidence of Mexico City. However, even at present, this aquifer is still the main source of water for MCMA, and over-exploitation of the Aquifer of the Valley the Mexico is still one of the main problems for the local authorities. The rate for withdrawal from the aquifer is significantly higher than the recharge rate: 45 m3/sec is abstracted but the natural recharge rate is only 20 m3/sec, leaving an over-exploitation of 25 m3/sec. It is estimated that the central area of Mexico City has subsided by 7.5 m during the past 100 years. As a result, there have been serious damages in the overall urban infrastructure, including that for water supply services and sanitation. Deep well drilling has resulted in the increase of substances like iron and manganese, decreasing water quality and contributing to more expensive water purification. In addition, it is estimated that more than 40% of water is lost in the pipes from leakages before reaching the final users. The urban infrastructure has become more vulnerable to earthquakes. The over-exploitation is draining soil humidity in the surrounding mountains, which is damaging forest resources and reducing ecosystem integrity.

In 1997, 400 wells were registered in the DF, with water abstraction up to 1,249 million of m3. In Metropolitan municipalities from the State of Mexico water subtraction is 49.96 million of m3, which represent 15% of those of DF (INEGI, 2000). It has not been possible, however, to calculate the exact volume of water abstracted from the aquifer due to the existence of illegal wells, which could number 5,000 – 10,000 in the entire basin.

Valley of Lerma Aquifer. As a consequence of the subsidence of Mexico City and the need to satisfy the water demands of the MCMA, in 1942, Valle de Lerma water project was started. This project is located 62 km far from Mexico City. The first stage included the construction of five wells to extract groundwater. For water distribution, a 62 km, 2.5 diameter pipe was constructed. This pipe goes along the Sierra de las Cruces, through a tunnel of 14 km. This project allowed the distribution of 4 m3/sec of water. By the middle of the decade of 1960s, it was necessary to bring more water to MCMA. From 1965 to 1975, the second stage of the project was implemented with the construction of 230 deep wells, which increased the distribution up to 14 m3/sec in MCMA. However, due to environmental impacts and social conflicts, the pumped water was reduced to 6 m3/sec. The political relations between the authorities of Mexico City and the State of Mexico have been influenced by the social conflicts due to the operation of the Water Lerma System. From its side, the federal government has tried to guarantee water distribution to MCMA and has financed infrastructure projects in the Lerma area, as a way of compensation to the small villages in the region which have been affected by the project.

Cutzamala Project. The water conflicts in Valley of Lerma region as well as the restrictions for extraction of groundwater in the Valley of Mexico, forced federal authorities to bring water from Cutzamala Basin. In 1976, it was started one of the most important projects in Mexico to supply

262 water to a city. This project included a series of dams known as Hydroelectric System Miguel Aleman, located in the high Cutzamala Basin. Because of the magnitude of the project, initially the construction was planned in four stages. The first stage of the project consisted in bringing water form Victoria Dam and distributing it through an aqueduct of 2.5 m of diameter and 77 km long, which crosses the Sierra de las Cruces with a volume of 4 m3/s of water. The second and third stages of the project included the construction of both a water purification plant, and the central aqueduct. The second and third stages were the more difficult ones since the water had to be pumped from the lower levels. Water from the Colorines Dam had to be pumped 1,100 m. This three stages contribute with 24 m3/sec of water to the MCMA. One constraint for the project has been the long distance between the source of water and MCMA (130 km). However, the main constraint has been the different altitude between MCMA and some of the dams of the project.

Water infrastructure in MCMA

In order to cover the demand for water supply in Mexico City it has been necessary to develop a complex system of water distribution. The complexity of such system results from the unplanned growth of Mexico City, which has make water infrastructure planning a most difficult issue. In 1997, Mexico City had 514 km of aqueducts and distribution lines; 297 storage and regulation tanks with a capacity of 1,750 million m3; 248 pumping stations; 910 km primary network of pipelines; 10,608 km of secondary network of pipelines; 7 purification plants; 357 disinfection devices; and 25 meters for block water in real time. There is no available information on water infrastructure in the municipalities of the State of Mexico, because of the lack of financial resources of water utilities. The budget of the water utilities has been invested in water projects considered as priority, ignoring the development of water infrastructure inventories (Comisión de Aguas del Distrito Federal, 1995).

Water Pricing in MCMA

The long distance and different altitude between the sources of water and MCMA have required the construction of large, sophisticated, risky and expensive water supply infrastructure. The costs of construction and operation of these infrastructures have progressively increased when it has been necessary to exploit farther sources to bring water to the MCMA. For example, the cost for the three first stages of the Cutzamala System has been estimated at US $ 1,300 million (1996 estimates), mainly for construction and equipment. The cost for operation has been estimated at US $128.5 million per year. In the Cutzamala System a fourth stage has been considered. This stage includes the construction of a 120 m high dam, 743 m of long at its crest. This dam will have a pumping station of 12 m3/sec of capacity, and the water will be distributed to the Valle de Bravo Dam through a tunnel of 18.75 km long and 3.5 m of diameter. The tunnel will be 160 to 700 m deep. According with official figures, the initial investment is estimated at US $501.9 million. The project will provide the MCMA with 5 m3/sec of water by the year 2003 (Castelan, 2000).

Water supply projects to distribute water to the MCMA have not been cost effective in terms of energy. It is estimated that the wells in the Valley of Mexico consume around 2.5% (508,600.70 MWh) of the total electricity of the MCMA (Guisar and Carrillo, 1998). The government of the Federal District (DF) spends almost US $30 million in energy consumption to supply freshwater

263 system. With 102 pumping stations, the energy requirement to run the Cutzamala System is about 4,000 million KWh per year, which represents an approximate cost of US $62.54 million per year. Additionally, the energy that was originally generated in the Hydroelectric System Miguel Aleman, as well as that generated downstream in the Infiernillo and Villiata Hydropowers, is generated at present by some thermoelectrics which consume up to 6.7 million of fuel per year.

As mentioned before, in the years to come water demand is expected to increase in the MCMA. For this reason, the federal government is looking for new water sources. One option is to bring water from Amacuzac River Basin. This project includes 185 m dam, 450 m wide, the inundated area will 67 km2, and with 4,000 million m3 of storage capacity. The dam would be located in the limits between the states of Morelos, Guerrero and Puebla. Water distribution from this site to the MCMA will requires the construction of a 160 km long aqueduct with a hydraulic capacity of 50 m/sec. It will have two pipes of 4.50 m of diameter or three pipes of 3.5 m, this depending on the final design. This system will have to pump water 1,825 m high, and will require a joint capacity of 4,000 Mwatts. The annual electric power consumption for this system is estimated to be 5% of the annual national electric power production, representing 16.5 million barrel of oil per year. With this water project, it would not be necessary to extract groundwater from the Valley of Mexico Aquifer any more. Additionally, all the wells for water distribution in the Valley of Mexico would be used only in climatologically emergencies or when the other water distribution systems were stopped for maintenance purposes.

If we consider only the present water distribution systems for the MCMA (Valley of Mexico Aquifer, and the Lerma and Cutzamala water systems), the cost per cubic meter of freshwater is US $1.34, which represents US $7.2 million per day. According with the figures from the federal government bringing water from the Amacuzac River Basin, would increase four times the actual costs of the m3 of water (INEGI, 2000). In this situation, water cost per m3 will be US $5.36. If it is so, then, who would able to pay for water supply services?

Who pays for the Water in MCMA?

Society is supposed to pay for water supply services. In MCMA, the payment for water supply services has been very complex , the lack of payment being one of the main obstacles in order to improve water infrastructure and water utilities. Some of the reasons for the lack of the payment of water fees could be as follows:

Highly subsidizes water services. During the last decades federal and local governments have encouraged some political practices that have promoted reductions in water pricing. With this scenario, water supply has been taken as granted by society with the notion that payment for these services should be very low or non existence at all. This notion was promoted by the government in order to get votes from the society and become popular. The next Table presents the evolution of the tariffs in the years 1996 and 1997. It is concluded that the tariffs have been reduced, contrary to the current recommendations and tendencies to charge the real cost of water.

264

Table 1. Water fees for 1996 and 1997 in Mexico City

Domestic Fees Consumption 3 1996 1997 Difference (m /2 months) (US$) (US$) (%) 30.1 10.25 3.75 -64 40.0 13.75 6.75 -51 50.0 17.12 9.75 -43 60.0 20.50 12.75 -38 70.0 28.62 18.62 -35 80.0 32.75 24.62 -25 90.0 36.87 30.50 -17 Source: Tortajada, 2000

While the highest fee represents an average cost per m3 of US $0.34, its real cost by m3 is US $1.34. The authorities have justified fee’s reduction by saying that such reduction would bring substantial benefits to the society, and that such actions would allow water users to pay water fees, contributing to public finances. There is, however, a main constraint for the efficient implementation of the subsidies: lack of water supply infrastructure for lower income population.

Several financial crisis in Mexico since 1980 and the economic programmes created by the government to make adjustments to this critical situation, have affected very severely the society in terms of income. The economic capacity of Mexican population in the MCMA has decreased by 70%, affecting the inner market and stressing social differences. In the MCMA, there is a small sector with highly paid employments, and a wide informal sector with very low-pay employment. Thus, in the MCMA the 76% of the population is classified as low-income population. In such scenario, priorities do not rely on water payment fees. With relation to water supply services, at present, there are 20.5 million houses. Some 51.3% have tap water inside the house, 28% have tap water outside the house, 1.5% rely on public taps and 18.2% depend on informal services of water supply (private tankers) (Castelán, 2000). The water availability depends directly on the income of the population, and thus on the lack or availability of in-house facilities (pipes and taps). The low-income population, who are the ones who do not have in- house facilities, depend on public taps or in informal services, such as vendors.

The subsidies of the water services were supposed to benefit lower income population. Unfortunately, however, this has not been the case. The subsidies have instead benefited higher income population simply because real poor people have no water supply at all. Poor people buying water from tankers pay 500 times more than registered domestic consumers. Additionally, low water quality forces water users to consume bottled water. It is estimated that 24 million litres of bottled water are sold in Mexico. These sales represent an income of about US $2 million for private water enterprises. Guadalajara City (second larger city in Mexico), and Mexico City concentrate 40% of all bottled freshwater in Mexico. The demand of bottled water is expected to increase by 15% per year. In order to satisfy the demand, bottled water enterprises are expected to invest US $150 to 300 million to cover the water market demands.

Non-payment culture. In 1997, the income obtained by water supply services in MCMA was US $151.5 million, out of which 69.4% was collected by DF and the other 30% was collected in the 18 municipalities of the State of Mexico (INEGI, 2000). If we considered that the annual cost to supply water to MCMA is US $2,658 million, then we have that only 5% of cost to supply water

265 is recovered through taxes. The annual water consumption in MCMA is 1,955.2 million m3. In the MCMA there are 2.5 millions taps registered, the average consumption in each tap is 782 m3, and the income registered for each tap is US$60.6. Thus, the income for each m3 of water is US $0.08. The reasons for the low income for water supply services can be summarised as follows: a)lack of recognition of the environmental, social and economic value of water; b) when the fees are very low, people choose not to pay them because in order to do so they will have to cover higher costs for transportation than the fees themselves, and spend several hours in the offices; c) low quality water services discourage water users to pay the fees; d) water services as well as water fees have become the banner of political groups, who promote, in order to get votes, the idea that water should be low-cost or not be paid at all.

Shortage of measuring devises for water. Some previous studies estimate that only 64% of existing taps in Mexico City are registered, out of which only 49% have meters. According to this, water users only pay 24% of administration and operational costs. The lack of meters prevent accurate estimates of the demand for water, water in the supply system can not be traced and the volume users spend is unknown. This lack of information has been recognised by the government in Mexico City, reason why four private companies have been selected to install meters all along the Mexico City distribution network. These companies have already installed 1.05 million meters. This is expected to provide information on the operation of the distribution network, on water consumption patterns and on more realistic fees for the water.

High water provision. Domestic demand represents the highest demand for water in the MCMA. In 1995, 67% of water in this area was for domestic use; 17% for industrial use and 16% for other services. Until 1988, per capita water consumption was 390 litres per day. From that year on, with the Efficient Water Use Programme (Sánchez, 2000), water consumption was reduced to 362 litres per day. Inspite of this improvement, per capita water consumption in MCMA is still above the average consumption in European cities (200 litres per day). Inefficient water use is due mainly to improper use of water by the domestic users, and leakages inside the houses and in the distribution network for water supply, as well as water wasted in the industries (INEGI, 1999).

Lack of maintenance for water infrastructure. The construction material of the pipelines, as well as their age (between 15 to 55 years), together with the subsidence of MCMA, are the main reasons for nearly 40% of water losses in the network. In 1994, about 42,242 leakages were repaired in the water supply distribution network; in 1995, 33,463 leakages and in 1996, 41, 246 leakages (Sanchez, 2000).

SOLUTIONS PROPOSED

At present, it is in operation the Master Plan for Water for the Mexico City, 1997-2000, which is been funded by the World Bank. This Master Plan includes seven programmes: a)Water Recovery Programme; b) Water Reuse Programme; c) Recharge Aquifer Programme; d) Efficient Water Use Programme; e) Programme for Extension and Improvement of Water Network; f) Programme for Improvement of Water Infrastructure; and g) Programme for the Suspension of Water Wells.

Certainly, some of this actions will result in the achievement of their goals, but most importantly, they will result in the understanding of the importance of water use efficiency and of operational

266 aspects in order to improve water management. Through the implementation of the programme for water recovery, 243,244 taps have been fixed, and it has been rehabilitated or substituted 6, 377.5 km of pipelines. It is expected to recover a volume of 5 m3/sec. The investment required in order to do so, is estimated at US $50 million (August 2000 estimates). This volume recovered will represent the same volume expected to be obtained from the fourth stage of the Cutzamala System, but with a costs of only 10%. Even when the overall objective of the programmes mentioned before will contribute to water security in the MCMA, they still focus mainly on technological aspects, and not on issues like efficient water allocation, elimination of subsidies, capacity building and access to information. Capacity building. Historically, capacity building for the water sector has been left aside. The main goal of water resources management is not only to have enough water infrastructure, but to rely on highly qualified water professionals to operate and maintain of this infrastructure. The technical data will only be useful when and if there is qualified personnel which is able to interpret it and reflect it into plans and programmes. Exchange of experiences is a very simple but very useful way to train personnel because it allows the technical staff to learn and get information and experience on real problems and propose feasible alternatives. Unfortunately, however, the water institutions in Mexico still work in isolation.

Reduction in water allocations. A main objective in efficient water management is to reduce per capita water allocation. This would contribute to recover water and to modify water consumption patterns in society. During the last decades. Both the federal and local governments have publicised the idea that any action directed towards reducing water allocation would result in social tensions. However, experiences from other important cities in Mexico (Guadalajara and Monterrey), have showed that appropriate policies, which include information to the public, can resulted in less water allocation with no social tensions. Collection and metering should thus be encouraged.

Water subsidizes elimination. It has been proved that subsidies do not necessarily result in more population paying for the water. On the contrary, subsidies have benefited population with higher incomes. The lack of payment of the services of water is the result of a vicious circle where the society does not pay claiming bad quality of the services, and the government does not invest in the improvement of the services because of the lack of funds. Specific incentives should be developed to solve this issues. Some cities like Tokyo have look for some incentives like tax reductions if meters are installed. Nevertheless, in Mexico, where 50% of the population has been classified like “poor”, the main incentives would be through economic compensations. What is also needed is that the resources obtained from water payments could be used to improve the water network supply at all levels, which would be translated into a better water supply service and an into encouragement for water users to keep paying water fees.

Information. A non-informed society is a non-participative society. If our main argument relays on society participation as the key issue for problem resolution, it is necessary that exchange of information becomes a common practice in society. In this way society will become aware of the social, environmental and economic value of water. If this knowledge is there, then strategies for water management could be reflected into real actions like demand and use trends that reflect modifications in water patterns in society. Changes can not be achieved when there is lack of information that is required to understand the political costs of water problems. Information should be of good quality, honest and accurate.

267

CONCLUDING REMARKS

It is worth mentioning that even though the present situation of the water sector has been recognised, new solutions to old problems have not been look for. Recent water project in MCMA reflect this lack of will to improve what has been done in the past in order to achieve efficient water allocation, elimination of subsidies, capacity building and access to information. One of the main obstacles has been the high costs of investment in terms of recovery. One fact that should be recognised is that Mexico has financial problems that force the efficient use of resources. Even though there have been some efforts in order to achieve cost effective use of resources, but the way is still long and full with obstacle.

Politics have not looked for the appropriate answers to water supply related problems. During decades, Mexico has only reacted when there is a crisis or when problems have become so acute that only extreme solutions would work out. Large investment projects will not solve the present situation. If water sustainability is the main objective, then sustainability should not be defined in terms of large investment projects only. If sustainability is the main goal for mega-cities then it should not be addressed in terms of depleting natural resources from other places.

The next years will bring along new challenges to face among which there are the efficient use of the projects, capacity building, access to information, and social participation. It will not be an easy task to accomplish but, given appropriate political will and proper management of the water resources, it can be achieved.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Castelán, E. 2000. “Análisis y Perspectiva del Recurso Hídrico en México”. Third World Centre for Water Management. Mexico City. Comisión de Aguas del Distrito Federal. 1995. “Agua una Nueva Estrategia para el Distrito Federal”. Comisión de Aguas del Distrito Federal. México. Guisar, A. and Carrillo. J. 1998. “Panorama General del Agua Subterránea en la Ciudad de México”. Memoria del Simposio Internacional de Aguas Subterráneas. Sociedad Mexicana de Ciencias del Suelo. Guanajuato, México. INEGI. 1999. “Estadísticas del Medio Ambiente del Distrito Federal y Zona Metropolitana 1999”. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática. México. National Research Council, Academia de la Investigación Científica, A.C. and Academia Nacional de Ingeniería, A.C. (eds.) 1995. Mexico City’s Water Supply: Improving the Outlook for Sustainability. Washington, D.C. National Academy Press. Sánchez, M. 2000. “El Servicio de Agua en la Zona Metropolitana de la Ciudad de México”. Cuadernos de Investigación. Vol. 1. México. Tortajada, C. 2000. “Water supply and distribution in the metropolitan area of Mexico City”. In: Water for Urban Areas, J. I. Huito & A. K. Biswas (eds.). p.112-134.

268

SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF WATER SUPPLIES FOR DEVELOPED URBAN AREAS: ISSUES, PERSPECTIVES AND A VISION

G.Kallis * and H.Coccossis *

Environmental Planning Laboratory, Department of Environmental Studies, University of the Aegean, Nikis 44, Athens 151 23, Greece, E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The costs of meeting society’s demands for water in urban areas increase. Reduction and pollution of resources, excess of regional resource capacities, changes in users’ values aging urban infra-structure, increasing conflicts with other uses and shifting institutional/organizational requirements impose the necessity for revising water management policies and practices. Emphasis should pass from sectoral/centralized to integrated/decentralized approaches, reaction to pro-action, determinism to risk-mitigation, and from supply driven policies to demand management and conservation.

KEYWORDS

Cities; policy; sustainability; water supply.

INTRODUCTION

The design of urban water supply infra-structure and institutions as well as the dominant approaches in managing water, date back to the first stages of industrialization. These are outdated in an era of global inter-dependence, technological development, economic restructuring and unprecedented flows of people, goods and resources, leading to global, regional and local environmental change and transformation of both cities and their societies. Despite public perceptions of water supply as a granted, continuous, cheap and available upon demand service, evidence from around the world points to a “creeping crisis”.

The Metron research project (financed by CEC, DG-Research, Environment & Climate Programme, Human Dimension of Environmental Change) was undertaken on the premise of identifying strategies, policies and tools for the sustainable management of water (supply) for Europe’s metropolis20. The methodology included targeted thematic analyses of key urban water supply issues (pricing and financing; new technologies; water conservation; institutional change; urban and water planning) and five detailed case-studies (Amsterdam, Athens, London, Seville, Tel Aviv). City research drew upon in-depth interviews with water company engineers, regulators, policy-makers and other city actors and upon an exhaustive survey of relevant official documents, reports and secondary literature concerning environmental and technological

20 The project built on a multi-disciplinary consortium of four university research teams (U. of the Aegean, Free U. of Amsterdam, U. of Tel Aviv, U. of Oxford), one European Commission research institute (Institute for Prospective Technological Studies) and one municipal water company (EMASESA – Seville).

269 characteristics of the systems, institutions, policies and regulation. This paper benefits from the work and ideas of the researchers from the six teams involved in the Metron project.

THE CASE STUDIES

The 5 cities

All five cities are major and important political, cultural, economic and demographic centres of their respective regions and countries with a long history and tradition. The urban challenges faced are also to an extent similar, and include the increasing social inequality and polarisation, the decay of parts of the city and its infrastructure and general quality of life concerns. The five cities demonstrate an important diversity reflecting their distinct history and socio-cultural context and a diversity of institutional regimes and "styles" of policy-making from the more decentralized, framework and/or participative systems to the more centralized, prescriptive and closed ones.

Water supply issues

• Amsterdam's main water source is the river Rhine; 10% and 70% of river quality measurements do not satisfy heavy metal and agriculture-related micro-pollutant standards, respectively. Treatment of water to potable standards accounts for 30% of total water cost and uses for pre-treatment the coastal dune area (34 km2, host to 60% of Dutch flora and native mammals). Replacing the dunes by more advanced treatment, to satisfy environmentalists' and recreation pressure, involves a trade-off with public health risk; the dunes have a 2-month demand storage capacity, critical in the case of a contamination accident in the Rhine (Dalhuisen et al, 2000). • In Athens, in spring 1990 the probability that the city's 1400 Hm3 reservoirs would run out by the end of the year, was 15%. Construction of the city's main reservoir in Mornos river in 1980, completely blocked downstream flow and vanished a delta estuary. In the 1978-1989 period, total demand for water increased by 65%; this highlights a process of network expansion and low, irregularly reviewed and reducing in real terms (i.e. by inflation) water prices. Water was drawn mainly from the Mornos reservoir, as transfer was cheaper than from the other sources; just when the 1989-93 drought started its reserves were near depleted (Kallis and Coccossis, 2000). • In Seville, during the same Mediterranean drought, in 1992 daily service to users was reduced to 16 hours. Water had to be abstracted in emergency from polluted river Guadalquivir, although the existing level of treatment did not suffice to meet EU drinking water standards. A new reservoir for the city is being built in an ecologically important area. Upstream of the new project, a reservoir is maintained for an inefficient (by open-channels) irrigation of water-intensive cultivation. An agreement with the irrigation association for allocation of water to the city in period of droughts failed (Murillo, 2000). • In the Thames area, about 1 Hm3 of water were leaking every day from the distribution network at the 1995-97 leakage peak (Castro et al, 2000). Post-privatization water price increases in the U.K. by 43% from 1989-1996 were paralleled by increases in disconnection rates. 75% of people in income support were reported as having problems to pay water bills, while water and sewerage bills were expected to account in some regions for up to 14% of a pensioner's income by 2004 (Bakker, 1998).

270

• Tel Aviv is served by Israel's national water carrier system whose limits at a national scale have been reached. Although water allocation to farmers was cut by 40% in 1999, water had to be drawn below the minimum precautionary "red line" of its main source, Lake Kinneret, with the risk that its ecology/quality and thus availability for drinking water supply will be irreversibly damaged. Long-term plans include import of water by tankers from Turkey's geo- politically, environmentally and socially disputed Tigris-Euphrates river projects (Tal, 2000).

Similarities and Differences

In terms of climate, the Mediterranean cities are characterized by a higher average temperature and temporal (seasonal and inter-annual) climatic irregularity. In all cases the cities have recourse to distant more water-abundant and or free from pollution sources of water for their supply.

Water systems in the 5 cities, despite a similarity in technology and infra-structure employed, have also a number of differences reflecting the diversity of urban contexts and the different tracks of their evolution. Developments in the water supply systems of the cities are clearly related in time to the processes of urban growth and economic development and therefore closely reflect their history. With respect to distribution, water networks have typically followed the emerging patterns of urban development with little overall and long-term planning, even in the cases of cities with rigorously programmed urban plans, such as London. Distribution networks have typically developed as small scale ad hoc community systems, which gradually expanded together with the cities. In order to secure the necessary quantities and qualities of drinking water all cities have developed a water production system, which has significantly transformed the natural hydrological landscape. In this sense the cities' water systems are developed and interconnected to wider hydrologic systems.

Drinking water quality satisfies national standards to a near 100% sample compliance in all 5 cities (note however that standards in Tel Aviv are less stringent than EU standards and raw water undergoes only disinfection without filtration). On the other hand, emerging concerns about new diseases such as cryptosporidium are not addressed in any of the cities; many micropollutants are not monitored while there are in instances concerns for the quality of monitoring systems and the transparency of the information. Pollution of raw drinking water from diffuse sources remains a problem for the cities located along busy rivers, such as London (Thames) and Amsterdam (Rhine), and is an emerging concern for cities which had developed their resources in far-lying rural areas (such as Athens and Seville), which are presently under pressure from development and agricultural pollution.

Despite improvements, losses in conveyance and the distribution network are still considerable in all examined cases, but Amsterdam. Athens, London and Seville have infra-structure leakage indices (ratio of actual to technically un-avoidable real distribution losses) in the order of 7-10.

In the 5 Metron cases there appears a correlation between level/stage of economic development, environmental awareness and in turn implementation of environment /conservation-related measures. An important observation in the cases of the semi-arid Athens, Seville and Tel Aviv, is that there appears a complete lack in public discourse of the link between droughts, water supply augmentation and environmental impact. The relatively heavier social scrutinisation of the water industry environmental performance in the U.K. may partly reflect the presence of the

271 environmental regulator and a critical stance of part of the public towards water companies in the post-privatization era.

In the cases of the Mediterranean three very important has been the competition between urban areas and rural areas / agricultural use(r)s for the same resources, stressed in periods of drought. In Israel, there are signs of a "surrendering" of power from an agriculture-oriented management of water, in the recent cut of "quotas" to irrigation in favour of cities, and the transfer of competency of national water management from the Ministry of Agriculture to that of infrastructure. On the other hand, in Seville, political power of irrigation associations remains high and still a barrier to integrated approaches and water conservation at the river basin level. In the cases of Amsterdam and London, "competition" appears to emerge from the increasing importance of the environmental and recreational value (and uses) of water.

In all countries of the Metron case cities, a general tendency of the water administration towards integration of water-related competencies and functions, and planning/management at a regional level are being observed. In some cases, this is also materialized into integrated action at the operational and decision-making levels, environmental and quality considerations being incorporated into water management and water management being incorporated into wider development and land-use planning. Changes, however, are slow, with still limited practical impact, and seriously contested, especially in the case of the three Mediterranean states. The new EU water framework directive which institutionalizes river basin planning and management for ecosystem-oriented quality objectives will further push for processes of rationalization and integration of water resource. Urban water management becomes increasingly accountable to a higher regional planning level and set of principles and rules and integrated within a wider organization and planning of water resource management.

Although full pricing of water has recently become a EU-wide requirement, in none of the five case studies is there an explicit policy of "full cost pricing". In most cases, capital and depreciation costs of the past have been subsidized considerably and only operational costs are recovered. This is still the case in Athens and Seville, where major new hydraulic projects are covered by EU structural funds. In the U.K., there have been attempts for "valuing" environmental uses of water, as part of comparing costs and benefits of urban supply expansions, but these have been highly controversial and contested between the regulator and the operators.

An important differentiation factor between the cities is the extent to which water supply is metered and therefore priced upon use. In the cases of Amsterdam and to a lesser extent London, water is not metered at a user level, whereas Athens, Seville and Tel Aviv employ progressive tariffs. In Amsterdam, there is a long-term programme to turn all users into metered supplies and in London there are voluntary schemes, while all new users are being metered. On the other hand, in none of the cases is there an explicit and carefully designed policy of pricing to target specified user patterns nor a "marginal costing" approach.

272

Regulatory regimes are being transformed to introduce competition in the water sector, urban water service providers are increasingly operating with market performance criteria and private capital is increasingly employed in urban water functions. Independent of the degree of privatization, total costs in achieving objectives rise (e.g. in effective regulation, explicit social schemes, etc) and the role of the state in urban water management appears to become more demanding, in a period when its ability (financial and administrative) to perform it, is being reduced.

In all cities a gradual transformation is observed from a past model of water management characterized by a state-organized subsidized, supply oriented provision of water to all users upon demand to an efficiency-oriented one with a gradual shift of emphasis to network losses and demand-side measures. This shift of emphasis from developing to managing water resources and systems and the consequent diversification of approaches are partly driven by an economic efficiency rationale and partly by the increasing importance to the environmental value of water resources. On the other hand, in none of the cases is there an integrated long-term demand management programme with a detailed analysis of users' patterns, forecasts, and evaluation/planning of alternatives,

In the context of the Metron project, a structured questionnaire survey was undertaken in order to assess the type and importance of barriers to the employment of new (conservation-oriented) approaches to urban water management in the case cities. In all cases it appears that whereas some implementation or "experimentation" with new (conservation and integration-oriented) approaches takes place, water operators are prone in the long-term to rely on conventional approaches and/or development of new technologies which will make new resources accessible. Measures that improve the operation of the sector and cut costs without affecting demand/revenues (e.g. such as structural improvements in aqueducts, uptake of information technologies to improve monitoring and co-ordination of activities, etc) appear to be the most likely "conservation" measures to be taken up by operators.

Generalizing on Tendencies

Less natural water available. Climate change is leading to reduced average precipitation (and therefore average run-off to resources) and/or changed intra-annual distribution (and reduced overall run-off to some resources, given the local geo-hydrological characteristics), and/or changed inter-annual distribution, with prolonged dry and wet periods not foreseen in the design of the storage systems, and therefore decreasing the average “regulated” yield. Continuous diffuse pollution (from agriculture and/or urbanization in the sources’ catchments) is increasing treatment costs and public health risk (from undetected micro-pollutants/still unknown health effects). Contamination of other (especially local) waters is reducing the overall potentially available quantities of water. As existing urban water supply infra-structure occupied first the most accessible physically and cost-wise resources, there are few untapped resources at reasonable costs, even at a regional scale.

Increasing "social demands". In some cases, cities' water demand is increasing due to population increase (in wider, regional metropolitan areas) and/or changing habits (partly related to urban patterns, such as "suburbanization"). New uses of water (e.g. recreation, tourism-related), old uses (e.g. irrigation) and “intangible” demands (related to culture/local history) are competing with cities for the same, present and potential, sources. Ecosystem functions of water (such as wetlands) are increasingly important; new regulations maintain quantities of water for the

273 environment and/or limit new hydraulic development in terms of its environmental impact. Public opposition and legal challenges increase the "transaction costs" of new hydraulic projects. The energy efficiency of the systems is also re-addressed in terms of national energy-saving policies. The "intangible" social function of urban water systems in terms of "public health and hygiene" remains important. Built in the first stages of urban growth, water infra-structure (reservoirs, plants, networks) has aged; the natural trend is for a decreasing water production and delivery efficiency (and therefore increasing “demand” for fresh-water from the source), slower or faster depending on the degree of investment in maintenance in the past.

Increasing costs. Urban water supply can be thought of as a system being based on resources (water, energy, human) and relating (directly or indirectly) to certain functions that society values (e.g. drinking water production, hygiene, ecosystem sustainability, etc). Although, each of the tendencies mentioned above are not met in all cities a general trend is clear: whereas natural availability (existing and potential) decreases, social expectations from the system increase (from drinking water-only to environment, recreation, energy-efficiency, etc). The “total cost” in meeting these expectations accordingly increases and shows in the rising investment needs for environmental/resource conservation, new supplies, system maintenance and renewal, etc, which come to add to the important costs for “downstream” environmental improvements (i.e. wastewater treatment) and contrast to the low prices of water-services to the majority of end-users. At the same time, uncertainty for the future is also increasing in terms of an unpredictable (in scale and nature) climatic change and public health risk (from new and unknown polluting substances and/or a contamination accident). These are inherently "urban" issues of developed "socio- economies", independent of hydrological and infra-structural conditions, relating to a history of expansion of the systems, growing demands of the population, urbanization and economic activity around water sources, and changing contemporary socio-economic conditions.

Trade-offs. A definite trend is that the state, following the economic and public budgetary crises of the 1970s and 80s, is less able and willing to cover this rising cost. Hence the widespread tendency for privatization of parts of the system with the expectation that productivity improvements will reduce cost and improve services to end-users with parallel investment-returns to private capital. Privatization of the water industry in the U.K., however, has seen prices rising to cope with investments, increasing public costs for running regulatory bodies, tensions between operators-regulators on plans for new supply development and level of investment in leakage control, and increasing concerns for affordability and health-related aspects for low-income groups (Bakker, 1998). Such trends highlight a "discomforting" situation: the "total costs" of meeting society's demands from water may be much higher than productivity gains can compensate for. Somebody has to “pay” for this increasing cost (or conversely, reduce their demands), be it the end-users, the state (ultimately urban or national tax-payers), the companies (and their personnel and/or shareholders), non-urban users, “intangible” uses (public health, cultural, etc), the environment (aquatic, or global in terms of increasing energy use) or “future generations”. Social conflict arises around the valuation of water in its different uses and the allocation of costs as well as the “acceptable” level of risk and its allocation among various use(r)s. Such questions have been driving social (economic) science ever since and are at the core of the debate on the concept of sustainability.

274

A SUSTAINABILITY AND POLICY VISION

Sustainability can be seen as a balancing between diverse (social, economic, and environmental) goals. It highlights the need for an integrated framework of goals and objectives and a coherent and interdependent set of means to achieve them. Integration is sought across issues, sectors and administrative levels not only in terms of goals and objectives but also in terms of policy measures. This calls for the development of a strategy through a dynamic and cyclical participatory process emphasizing concerted action.

Nature and society however change continuously, transforming one the other. Individuals in creating culture change the environment, which in turn shapes culture (Vlachos, 1982). Choosing between different courses of action, necessitates a certain process and regime of valuation. The concept of co-evolution (Norgaard, 1994) stresses how values, social organization, environment, technology and knowledge are inter-related yet changing in accordance with this inter-relationship. Sustainable development is the "improvement of the well-being of the people to the extent that their ways of knowing, social organization and technologies select for an evolutionary course of the [environment] that complements [their] values" (Norgaard, 1994). From such a perspective, values are subjective and central to the process of defining sustainability, which is no longer a “property” but rather “the ability of a given society to move, in a finite time, between satisficing, adaptable and viable states” (Giampetro, 1999). This brings attention to: the evolving character of society and therefore the dynamic character of defining sustainability; the importance of governance structures and an institutionally organized process for negotiation and valuation to reach a "satisficing" decision and to determine "viability"; the unavoidable existence of uncertainty and indeterminacy, both in understanding and in forecasting, and therefore the need for "adaptability" and the importance of a (pluralistic) scientific analysis to shed light on the potential "viability" of different states and on different "evolutionary courses" and hence help the institutionalized process to shape a vision and reach an "informed" decision. Such a framework shifts emphasis from evaluation and policy predicament to “vision” and “will” in envisaging and working towards a socially-acceptable “nature-society” pathway.

Given the above framework of sustainability, the principles for a sustainable urban water supply policy are: a long-term, multi-dimensional decision-making and planning framework whereby social choice and the wills of those affected will be accounted for; a pro-active, risk-based approach; a shift in practices towards prevention and precaution, i.e. from supply development and treatment intensification to water conservation and pollution prevention, with due consideration to essential ecosystem functions and irreversible impacts.

River basin authorities and planning mechanisms provide an ideal substrate for open and transparent governance structures. The process of integrated resource planning refers to a participatory, long-term process of deciding between alternative options and "futures" of the systems. Marginal costs and time-preferences can be taken into account, as an open, collective process will value environmental and future costs. Alternative allocations as well as different approaches to resource management (conservation vs. supply measures) can be compared and planned within this framework. Accordingly, the role of the planning process changes from problem-solving to problem-defining and from a fixed and pre-determined to a learning and iterative process (Vlachos, 1982). Well-regulated markets and compensation schemes within the river basin structure are effective tools for resolving urban vs. other users’ allocation conflicts. The real challenge, however, is how to make river basin authorities operational in the above way,

275 within long-established water administrations and in an era of limited public expenditures. For the latter, auto-financing by raw water charges could be a useful tool. Moreover, and with reference to urban water management, the challenge remains how to integrate the increasingly privatised urban water services, in some cases with sectoral and not integrated competencies, within the river basin structure, more so when spatial scales of reference differ considerably and resource / service policies and regulations have contrasting requirements.

The future of urban water supply systems can not be seen in isolation from the city they serve. While in the past, water management accommodated selected urban futures; the challenge is to become now part of re-addressing them. This demands an integration of the urban/regional and water/river basin planning and decision-making processes, as well as a transformation of both towards incorporating sustainability goals. Under this perspective, multi-dimensional scenario forecasts become relevant decision-support tools as they allow a "shared vision" to be shaped. Economic evaluations are still important, but as part of pluralistic analyses (e.g. monetary cost- benefit as part of a multi-dimensional analysis of quantifiable and qualitative variables).

Addressing uncertainty and risk effectively, is another major task. Planning has to transform from deterministic to contingency and from reactive to anticipatory (Vlachos, 1982). Climate change scenarios should be built in within future forecasts and standardized responses and institutional procedures set for cases of contingencies (drought, pollution accidents).

Water conservation (demand control, losses reduction and better source management) should gradually replace water supply development as the predominant operational approach. A committed water conservation policy, should aim to maintain the total level of abstractions at steady levels (given no dramatic population increases and/or industrial growth); this entails the “courage” to address behaviors and life-styles per se. While tools have been developed (e.g. programme and evaluation guidelines, etc), more use-level information needs to be collected and pilot experience disseminated. More critically, planning, decision-making, financing and regulatory bias in favour of water supply expansion has to be addressed. Water conservation should be mandated in cases where supply affects ecologically important areas or carries unwarranted risks; an open, participatory process of integrated resource planning allows conservation options to be compared on an equal footing. Water pricing has a great role to play in shifting behaviors, if properly designed to target actual consumer habits. Trade-offs with affordability of water by low-income groups should be addressed explicitly, e.g., within a comprehensive social package, by tax rebates, rates relieves and benefits, etc. Shifting also from the centralized, supply-oriented model of water supply towards more integrated urban water cycle approaches, where polluted, reclaimed and storm waters provide sources for secondary uses, is essential especially for new urban developments. Finally, preventative protection of sources from pollution should be prioritized over reactive intensification of treatment processes. This can also be addressed within the river basin structures, and prohibitive "zoning" land-use regulations give their place to more co-ordinated pollution control schemes (including compensation of local activities).

Regulation of the sector sets the “rules of the game” and therefore enables or hinders the accomplishment of the above vision. The privatisation of functions of the urban water services as a response to the growing public budgetary difficulties versus the increasing investment needs, is leading to a major institutional and regulatory re-thinking of urban water services. Long-standing rules and approaches in terms of service standards, water rights, protection of resources, prices, etc., are being re-addressed as a consequence of or in order to establish the conditions for the new

276 regime. Urban water services exhibit “natural monopoly” and “public/merit” good characteristics (see Rees, 1998 for an elaborated discussion). The bulky nature of water infrastructure means that “virtual” conditions of competition have to be regulated (e.g. setting standards and measuring/comparing achievement – “benchmarking”) as it is prohibitively expensive for a second provider to compete for supplying existing users. Moreover, given that the supplier has monopoly power over users, it is important to maintain that the drive to minimise costs and maximise profits will not be materialised on the expense of cutting costs for certain social functions (e.g. environmental standards, drinking water quality, affordability of cost to low- income users) or leading to short-term under-investment, passing costs to the future. Introduction of competition in the water sector (full or “partial” privatisation) in contrast to other sectors characterised by a process of de-regulation is necessarily accompanied by a process of regulation reform or (better) “re-regulation”. A major challenge is thus how to make business models part and not barriers of sustainability initiatives. In this context, a balanced and enforceable system of service, economic, environmental and public health regulation is a pre-requisite. Accounting for regulatory disincentives (towards water conservation, integrated approaches, maintaining cost affordability, etc) at the stage of re-regulation, implicitly (within the sector regulation) or explicitly (by new policies and instruments) is necessary.

As Haughton and Hunter (1994) state: "Sustainable urban development is a process which will necessarily vary between cities, and evolve in different ways in each city. The very notion of what constitutes a sustainable city will change over time. Although there are few universal principles for sustainability, the ways of moving from those to policy implementation are many".

277

REFERENCES

Bakker K. (1998), Privatizing the environment: the political ecology of water in England and Wales, Doctor of Philosophy Thesis, Oxford: University of Oxford Castro E. and E.Svyngendouw (2000), Metropolitan Areas and Sustainable Use of Water: the case of Amsterdam, Metron Project Report, Oxford: University of Oxford. Dalhuisen J., Rodenburg C., de Groot H., and P. Nijkamp (2000), Metropolitan Areas and Sustainable Use of Water: the case of Amsterdam, Metron Project Report, Amsterdam: Free University Giampietro M. (1999), Implications of complexity for an integrated assessment of sustainability tradeoffs. In Advanced Study Course on Decision Tools and Processes for Integrated Environmental Assessment, Barcelona: University of Barcelona. Kallis G. and H.Coccossis (2000), Metropolitan Areas and Sustainable Use of Water: the case of Athens, Metron Project Report, Mytilini: University of the Aegean Murillo E. (2000), Metropolitan Areas and Sustainable Use of Water: the case of Seville, Metron Project Report, Seville: EMASESA Norgaard R.B. (1994), Development Betrayed: the end of progress and a coevolutionary revisioning of the future, London: Routledge Rees J.A. (1998), Regulation and Private Participation in the Water and Sanitation Sector, TAC Background papers, No1, Sweden: Global Water Partnership, Technical Advisory Committee Tal A. (2000), Metropolitan Areas and Sustainable Use of Water: the case of Tel Aviv - Yaffo, Metron Project Report, Tel Aviv: University of Tel Aviv United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (1991), Environmental Data Report, 1991/92, Oxford: Blackwell Vlachos E. (1982), Socio-cultural Aspects of Urban Hydrology. In Water Resources and Land-use Planning: a Systems Approach, ed. Lacunae P. and Y.Y.Haimes, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers

278

DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABLE WATER MANAGEMENT IN BEIJING, CHINA

Linmei Nie and Wolfgang Schilling

Department of Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology University, S.P. Andersens vei 5, 7491 Trondheim, Norway. E-mail: [email protected] and [email protected]

ABSTRACT

This is a review paper of sustainable water management of Beijing, the capital of China. Its critical, water- related crisis is described, including both of water scarcity and the risk of flooding. Under the guide of the general principle to consider the population, resources, environment and development as an unity for sustainable development, a number of strategies and measures are taken or being implemented. Authors, in this paper, focus on those measures water-related, ranging from long distance water supply compensation measure, further developing and protecting local surface and ground water resources, promoting re-use of water resources and executing water saving measures and the measures to make use of storm water. Meanwhile, the flood mitigation measures are taken, too. In addition, some of the non- structural measures as strengthening water legislation, increasing the accuracy of monitoring and improving information and communication system as well as educating people are addressed and discussed.

KEYWORDS

Drought and flood mitigation; structural and managerial measures; sustainable development; water resources application and protection.

INTRODUCTION

Water is the source of life. The slogan of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (1990-2000) "Water: Too Much…Too Little…Leading Cause of Natural Disasters" has been warning us for ten years. However, the cruel fact is that people in different regions over the world are suffering from water-related disasters, either droughts or floods, or both of them, and the consequences are famine, diseases, death, and large economic losses (Blaikie & Cannon etc. 1994) as well as the inconvenience caused for daily life. Particularly in developing countries, urban areas are expanding at a too fast speed with which natural resources in cities cannot sustain them. City centers become more densely populated and highly developed. Moreover, urbanization not only changes the way people live and the infrastructure they use, but also affects the eco- and hydro-environments to a large extent. The deteriorated environment is amplifying the challenges of future generations to cope with these problems. The most two obvious negative effects of fast urbanization are more severe crises due to water scarcity and increased risk of flooding.

Beijing is the capital of China. Economic reform has promoted a significant change in this major city. Population has grown from 2 million in 1949 up to 12.5 million in 1998. The area of the city center will soon reach 1040 km2, while it was less than 100 km2 in 1949, and the gross national product value increased by 1762% during the last twenty years. The available total water resources, however, are limited

279 to about 4 billion m3, which means that the available water resources per capita today are merely some 300 m3. The availability of water mainly relies on precipitation and ground water in this area. Unfortunately the weather is dry and annual rainfall has been lower than the mean value in recent years, the level of ground water is declining because of the unlimited consumption. (PWDUAB, 1999; BMSB, 1999).

On the other hand, urbanization has great influence on the rainfall-runoff process. The runoff coefficient is becoming larger due to the increase of impervious areas. Consequently flood peaks become larger and occur quicker, and the total flood volumes increase as flood occurs. Regarding its current rate of urbanization and development, it is inevitable that the risk of flooding is increasing in Beijing.

Based on above water related problems, the authors, in this paper, emphasize on following solutions: how can the limited water resources be used properly; where and how can qualified water be made available for domestic, municipal, agricultural and industrial consumption; and how flood risk could be reduced and flood damage mitigated.

GENERAL SITUATION OF WATER RESOURCES AND ITS CURRENT STATUS OF BEIJING

Beijing is located in the Haihe river basin, which consists of five main rivers: Jiyunhe river, Chaobaihe river, Beiyunhe river, Yongdinghe river and Daqinghe river. Among them, Beiyunhe river originates in Beijing territory, while the others have their origins in Hebei province, Shanxi province and in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous region, respectively (Fig.1).

Chaohe River Baihe River Yanghe River Miyun Sanggan river Guanting

Yongdinghe River Chaobaihe River

Beijing city center Tianjing Hebei province province Hebei Jiyunhe River

Jumahe Beiyunhe River

Fig.1 Demonstration Map of Water Systems of Beijing

Within the border of Beijing Municipality, the annual average precipitation is 595 mm and the total annual average precipitation volume is 9.996 billion m3. Due to the impacts of atmospheric, geographic and topographic characteristics, the precipitation is not homogeneously distributed with time and space. The lowest annual precipitation is 242 mm, and the highest is 1406 mm according to the historical records. The continuously dry and wet periods have an average of 2-3 years. The longest observed wet and dry periods are 6 years and 9 years respectively. 80% of the annual precipitation occurs in the wet season from June to September, consequently floods can be easily triggered during these periods; whereas in the dry season, water shortage occurs frequently and seriously due to limited rainfall and large water consumption (Hao & Liu, 2000; PSAWR, 1999). In short, the hydrological and climatic characteristics of Beijing are 90% drought in spring and rainy in summer, possibly companied by storm floods and mud-rock due to its hilly topography.

280

The available water resources consist of surface water and groundwater, which are 1.5 and 2.633 billion m3 respectively and together up to 4.133 billion m3. However, as precipitation has been lower than the annual mean in recent years and the big needs in upstream regions for their economic development, therefore the inflows to the two main reservoirs, Guanting and Miyun, are reducing. Meanwhile, in order to meet the needs of municipal, industrial and agricultural water consumption, groundwater is over-used, and its water level is rapidly decreasing and its quality deteriorating due to pollution. As a result, the balance of available water resources, environment and economic development is broken.

As described above, surface water resources are declining due to extended drought and increasing consumption. At the same time, the ground water is being over-used. According to the water consumption and the available water resources, it is estimated that the water shortage will be 0.794 billion m3 in normal year, and 1.28 billion m3 in a dry year until 2005. If the current trend continues these figures will be 1.182 and 1.641 billion m3 respectively in 2010 (Hao, C.Y., 1999; PSAWR, 1999). Therefore, it is a rigorous challenge to settle down the shortage of water resources of Beijing in early 21st century.

MEASURES OF SOLVING THE SHORTAGE OF WATER RESOURCES

In order to meet the requirements of water consumption and to guarantee sustainable economic development in Beijing, a master plan for sustainable application of water resources in the early 21st century has been adopted. In this plan, three main types of measures are embraced: structural, managerial and emergency measures. Structural measures include development and protection of water resources, water re-use and water saving. Management measures consist of targets and schemes of reforming the current management system, amending laws and regulations and corresponding water related policies. Emergency measures are the strategies and actions of distributing water properly during extremely dry years. At the same time, the measures to improve water quality are implemented, too.

In following part, the structural measures are focused.

Water Supply Compensation Measures

The South-to-North Water Transfer Project is regarded as the primary and long-term measure to relief the shortage of water in Northern China. According to the plan of the middle route project, 0.705 billion m3 will be provided in a dry year and 1.2 billion m3 in an average year (IPSNWT, 1995). However, this project with huge investment and a long construction term is still in discussion. Consequently, other short- term and local compensative measures must be taken into account and executed before the water transfer project will put into operation.

Further Developing and Protecting Local Surface and Ground Water Resources

According to the measurement records from 1961 to 1997, there were 1.16 billion m3 of water per year flowing out of the Beijing territory. In addition, the 70% catchment is controlled by reservoirs, while the remaining 30% still out of control. Moreover, the Jumahe River, one of the five main rivers, is not controlled at all. Ground water might be over-used cautiously in emergency situations. These resources can be developed for further use. The corresponding measures are:

− Intercepting runoff in hilly areas; − Controlling flow in rivers for irrigation; − Building auxiliary water resources for emergency conditions, i.e. applying ground water properly in extremely drought conditions; − Removing sediments and improving the water quality in reservoirs.

281

Regarding to above strategies, 220 intercepting works are planned; 11 rubber dams will be built along the rivers and 42 wells be drilled as emergency water resources. After the implementing of these structural measures, an extra 135.5 mio. m3 of storage volume will be available. Additional 30 mio m3 in the Guanting reservoir will be available after removing the sediments. This volume can be used to regulate the local runoff and the flows from upstream. Besides, the rules of prohibiting sailing and trip around the reservoir areas had been mandated some years ago.

Promoting Re-Use of Water Resources

With above planed river controlling-irrigating works, a target of 142 mio m3 re-use water for agricultural irrigation will be available. If this target can be achieved, the water discharge from the two main reservoirs, Guanting and Miyun, for agricultural irrigation can be reduced by 1750 mio m3. At the same time, the consumption of ground water can be decreased by 40 mio m3 and the operation of 1000 groundwater wells be stopped.

The drainage from urban areas can be collected up to 2.45 million m3 per day. It is estimated that 0.9 billion m3 of clean water can be saved per year, if the part of drainage can be used after being treated properly.

Executing Water Saving Measures

Four types of water saving measures are taken account of, the domestic, industrial, agricultural and municipal ones.

Domestic water saving measurements are carried out by restricting water consumption in combination with increasing the price of water, promoting the installation of water saving facilities, such as water saving toilets and showers. Industrial water saving is executed by reforming the industrial structures, reducing the excessive use of water, applying techniques of water saving and promoting using water saving facilities. Meanwhile agricultural water consumption can be controlled by applying water saving irrigating techniques and developing agricultural plants of water saving etc. In addition, municipal water consumption will be reduced by 2.3 mio m3 per year via re-using water to irrigate gardens and green lands, wash city streets and other municipal utilities.

Storm Water Application

Rainfall is one of the two main water resources in Beijing. In order to make full use of the available resources, extensive measures of water collection are planned and are being implemented in urban, plain and mountainous areas. A pond with a capacity of 5 mio m3 will be built in a western suburb of Beijing. In addition, pervious roads, parking places and squares, infiltration wells for roofs and surfaces will be constructed. Green lands will be increased to detain rainfall and to compensate ground water. Moreover, enlarging river channels, maintaining water gates and rubber dams as well as improving lakes and tanks in plain areas in combination with constructing, expanding and strengthening reservoirs in mountain areas are being carried out simultaneously.

MEASURES OF FLOODS MITIGATION

There has been no severe flood occurring in Beijing since 1963. Consequently it is easily off their guards for governments, authorities and the public, especially in continuous drought years. As sudden floods can occur any time, flood mitigation measures have to be taken into account. According to the master plan of

282 water drainage of urban areas of Beijing (PWDUAB, 1999), following structural and non-structural measures are prepared:

− Controlling floods from the Guanting gorge by constructing the Yongding river detention reservoirs; − Carrying out the general principles and plans of floods control in the urban areas; − Increasing the accuracy of monitoring and the standards of flood control works; − Improving the municipal flood control communication and information system; − Ensuring the availability of physical and mental resources, the collaboration of the public and other social service systems.

The Yongdinghe River Detention Reservoir with a total storage capacity of 44.8 mio m3 situates in the right flood plain. It will function together with the Lugou Bridge key flood diversion project. While the Yongdinghe River encountered the flood of 1%, a flow of 2500 m3/s can be retained by the Lugou Bridge key flood diversion project and excess water can be impounded in the detention reservoir so that downstream safety can be ensured from the right levee's flood.

"Storing floods in the upstream western areas, intercepting flow from both of northern and southern areas and then draining them away in the downstream eastern areas" is the general principle of dispatching floods in urban areas of Beijing. The pond being built in the western suburb will control floods from the upstream 81 km2 catchment and preventing floods from entering urban areas. Draining flood in downstream eastern channel will be beneficial to the city's drainage. The concrete measures include increasing the sewer coverage rate from 50% to 90%, and raising the flood control standards of the main drainage channel from 2% to 1%. Intercepting flow in the southern and northern areas will be achieved by expanding the previous floodway and building a new lake flood diversion project. In addition, a series of other measures to reduce the surface runoff and recharge the ground water in the wet season, such as increasing green land areas, constructing pervious surfaces and collecting roof runoff, will be put into action step by step.

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSIONS

The severe water crisis in Beijing teaches us a lesson. Its experiences and the necessary measures to overcome the crisis can be valuable to the other countries and areas with similar problems. At present, the Central Government, the Ministry of Water Resources, Beijing Municipality and the relevant Departments are paying full attention and making great efforts to settle down the problems by taking internal and external, long term and emergency measures. The general and primary principle for development in the 21st century is to consider population, resources, environment and development as a unity. This is apparently a sustainable development strategy. The whole country is taking actions to regulate their policies and tasks towards this main goal.

Beijing is a large city with developed industry and agriculture. Therefore, water saving and water protection has to rely on these two main users. The goals are achieved by reforming production structures, avoiding repeating production; assembling water saving techniques and facilities; and promoting water reusing. Auxiliary measures are taken by controlling domestic and municipal water consumption.

In addition to the physical measures, it is crucial to carry out the laws of protecting water resources and the water environment, the law of floods control and the law of water and soil conservation. It is also essential to educate the publics not only to be able to cope with emergency situations caused by water scarcity and floods, but also to keep the awareness for saving water and protecting water in their daily life.

283

REFERENCES

Beijing Municipal Statistical Bureau (BMSB) (1999). 1999 Beijing Statistical Year Book. China Statistical Publishing House. Blaikie, P. & Cannon,T. etc.(1994). At Risk: natural hazards, people’ vulnerability, and disasters. London and New York: Taylor & Francis Group. Hao, Changyuan (1999). Instruction about Plan of Water Resources, Beijing Water Resources, 6, 3-4. (In Chinese) Hao, Zhongyong & Liu, Honglu (2000). Study on strategies of solving the shortage of water resources in Beijing, Beijing Water Resources, 5, 17-18. (In Chinese) Introduction of the Planning for South-to-North Water Transfers (IPSNWT) (1995) The Plan of Sustainable Application of Water Resources in Beijing in the Early 21st Century (PSAWR)(1999). (In Chinese) The Plan of Water Drainage in Urban Areas of Beijing (PWDUAB) (1999). (In Chinese).

284

VERS UN SERVICE UNIVERSEL : NOUVEAUX CONCEPTS POUR L'APPROVISIONNEMENT EN EAU ET L'ASSAINISSEMENT DES ZONES URBAINES À FAIBLES REVENUS

Alain Mathys Directeur de Projet Lyonnaise des Eaux

RESUME

L’accès précaire aux services d’eau et d’assainissement dans les nations en développement a pour origine la croissance soutenue de la population et sa concentration dans les mégapoles, la pauvreté et l’inadaptation des modèles de gestion des services d’eau et d’assainissement. Depuis plusieurs années, Lyonnaise des Eaux développe des approches spécifiques pour les quartiers défavorisés. Cet article décrit les principes tirés de cette expérience.

MOTS CLES

Assainissement, eau, infrastructures, mégapoles, pauvreté, privatisation.

INTRODUCTION

Il y a un peu plus de 20 ans que la communauté internationale a pris conscience du problème d’accès aux services d’eau et d’assainissement de la population urbaine et rurale des nations en développement. De nombreux chercheurs et les institutions spécialisées dans le développement international ont étudié, et continue d’étudier, les causes et les possibles solutions à cette situation intolérable. Des investissements considérables ont été concédés par les gouvernements et les agences de financement aux pays en développement, avec des résultants mitigés. Ces efforts n’ont toutefois pas été vains car une expérience considérable a été accumulée : de très nombreux enseignements ont été tirés des projets d’eau et d’assainissement implantés dans tous les continents. Des modèles institutionnels et techniques ont été élaborés et ajustés et font l’objet d’un consensus presque général. La mise en œuvre de ces modèles est toutefois encore limitée. Lyonnaise des eaux a contribué au développement des services, en zone rurale comme urbaine, pour les populations à faibles ressources économiques. Son expérience en terme de planification, financement, exécution est gestion de ce type de projets est une des plus riches à ce jour. Près de 4 millions d’habitants en Amérique du Sud, Afrique et Asie bénéficient de services appropriés et pérennes, mis en place à travers des opérations spécifiquement conçues et adaptées aux caractéristiques des communautés pauvres. Le présent article analyse les difficultés et les défis rencontrés dans les pays en développement. Il décrit les principes qui sont utilisés par Lyonnaise des Eaux et ses filiales opérationnelles dans le monde et le résultat largement positif de ces projets.

285

Tableau 1 : Concessions de Lyonnaise des Eaux où des opérations spécifiques ont été menées et nombre de personnes desservies au 31/12/2000.

Concession Population totale Population totale Population défavorisée desservie desservie Manille 7 000 000 6 000 000 300 000 Afrique du Sud (zones 2 200 000 2 200 000 rurales) Casablanca 3 500 000 3 500 000 8 000 Buenos Aires 7 500 000 7 500 000 900 000 Cordoba 1 360 000 1 300 000 155 000 Santa Fe 1 800 000 1 320 000 16 000 La Paz – El Alto 1 300 000 1 300 000 250 000 Total 3 829 000

LES EFFORTS INTERNATIONAUX

Depuis la Décennie Internationale sur l'Eau et l'Assainissement (1980-1990), la nécessité d'améliorer l'accès aux services d'eau et d'assainissement dans les zones rurales et urbaines a fait l'objet de beaucoup d'attention. Les investissements relatifs à l'eau effectués entre 1980 et 1990 se sont élevés à plus de 130 milliards USD. En conséquence, plus d'un milliard de personnes supplémentaires ont eu accès à l'eau et 750 millions aux services d'assainissement. L'objectif qui avait été fixé – couverture universelle en eau et assainissement en 1990 – n'a cependant pas été atteint.

Le Sommet Mondial pour les Enfants qui s'est tenu à New York en 1990 avait fixé l’objectif de donner accès à tous les habitants de la planète à l’eau potable et à un système d'évacuation des eaux usées avant l'an 2000. Ce but n'a pas été atteint non plus. La Décennie Internationale de l'Eau et de l'Assainissement a permis de faire prendre conscience de l'ampleur du problème, mais en dépit des gigantesques investissements réalisés par les gouvernements nationaux et les bailleurs de fonds, la fourniture des services d'eau et d'assainissement a continué à être insuffisante. Dans de nombreux cas, la gestion des services publics n'a pas été capable d'accompagner la rapide croissance urbaine et l'expansion des zones urbaines à faibles revenus et des bidonvilles.

DIFFICULTES ET DEFIS

La situation très difficile dans laquelle se trouve une partie importante de la population mondiale (on estime que le quart de la population mondiale ne dispose pas d’eau potable et la moitié n’a pas accès à l’assainissement) est le résultats d’une série de facteurs liés à la croissance de la population et des villes, à la pauvreté, à l’absence de financements appropriés des infrastructures et à l’inefficacité des modèles de développement et de gestion des services publics.

286

Croissance de la population et développement des villes

La population mondiale a passé le cap du 1er milliard en 1830. Il a fallu un siècle pour atteindre le second milliard. Notre terre a accueilli le 6 milliardième habitant en novembre 1999 et la population croît aujourd’hui au rythme de 1 milliard tous les 12 ans (soit près de 230 000 habitants tous les jours). La croissance de la population est beaucoup plus rapide dans les villes que dans les campagnes, sous le double phénomène de l’accroissement naturel et la migration de la population rurale vers les villes.

milliards 8 Fig 7 ure 20102010 1 : 6 Cro 19991999 issa 5 nce 19871987 4 de 19751975 la 3 pop 19601960 ulat 2 ion 1 mo ndia 0 le

1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Le pro cessus d'urbanisation est plus accentué dans les grandes métropoles, dont le nombre d'habitants double en moyenne tous les dix ans. Cette révolution devrait s'intensifier au cours des trois prochaines décennies. La population urbaine deviendra alors deux fois plus nombreuse que la population rurale. En 2015, 25 des 30 plus grandes villes de la planète devraient être localisées dans les pays en développement et Bombay, Sao Paulo et Lagos pourraient regrouper plus de 20 millions d'habitants chacune.

Pauvreté urbaine

Au phénomène du développement urbain s’accompagne celui de l'urbanisation de la pauvreté. Plus de 600 millions de citadins des pays en développement – et leur nombre va croissant – vivent déjà dans des habitats très médiocres, où l'approvisionnement en eau, l'assainissement et le drainage sont si insuffisants que leur vie et leur santé sont en permanence menacées.

Dans beaucoup de villes des pays en développement, une partie importante de la population vit dans des bidonvilles et des quartiers périurbains qui ne sont ni légalement reconnus, ni desservis par les autorités municipales. Les quartiers marginaux de la ville ne bénéficient d'aucun des avantages de la vie urbaine, tels que l’éducation, les soins médicaux et la fourniture d'eau potable courante ou d’électricité. Le besoin vital en eau et le manque de services structurés conduit à l'émergence de différents types de services non officiels. De l'eau de qualité médiocre est vendue à des prix élevés qui atteignent dix, trente ou même cent fois les prix officiels des compagnies de distribution d'eau.

287

La grande majorité de la population survit à travers des activités journalières ou d’un petit commerce qui ne lui permettent presque jamais de sortir du cycle de la misère et d'améliorer ses conditions de vie : 90% des ménages pauvres d'Amérique latine vivent en ville, 45% en Asie, 40% en Afrique selon le PNUD; en 2015, un tiers des citadins pourrait vivre sous la ligne de pauvreté.

Le défi financier

Dans beaucoup de grandes villes des pays en développement, les services n'atteignent qu'une faible proportion de la population. À Jakarta par exemple, 40 % des 15 millions d'habitants seulement sont connectés au réseau de distribution d'eau et aucun n'est raccordé à un système d'assainissement. L’écart entre le développement de la population et celui ces infrastructures se creuse toujours plus. Des investissements financiers gigantesques seraient nécessaires pour développer l'accès à l'eau et à l'assainissement pour tous. Au cours du 3ème Forum mondial de l’eau qui s’est tenu à La Haye en mars 2000, il a été estimé que 180 milliards de dollars US devraient être investis par année jusqu’en 2015, pour diminuer de moitié le déficit d’accès aux services d’eau et d’assainissement dans le monde. Dans les pays en développement, les capacités financières nécessaires à ces investissements sont hors de portée des gouvernements locaux ou nationaux. Le défi ne réside pas seulement dans le niveau des investissements requis mais aussi dans une gestion raisonnable des services urbains, impliquant notamment la fixation de tarifs d'un niveau approprié pour couvrir à la fois le coût des investissements et celui de l'exploitation.

Les limites du modèle de gestion publique

Devant les difficultés croissantes rencontrées par les services publics d’eau (nationaux ou municipaux) et d’assainissement, des projets importants d’appui financier au développement des infrastructures de production et de distribution d’eau ont été consentis par les bailleurs de fonds institutionnels et privés. Ces programmes d’investissements ont rapidement montré leurs limites, tant à cause de l’inadaptation des technologies proposées qu’aux difficultés liées à l’exploitation et à l’entretien de ces systèmes. A partir du début des années 1980, les institutions de développement ont alors proposé (ou imposé) des mesures de réformes institutionnelles des entreprises publiques (autonomie de gestion, contrat-plan) et d’appui à leur gestion (programmes de formation, réformes tarifaires, etc.).

Ces mesures n’ont pas, dans la plupart des cas, été couronnées de succès. L’absence de compte à rendre auprès de la population ou des autorités, le clientélisme politique, le manque de mesures d’incitation liées aux performances pour le personnel local, des tarifs inadaptés sont quelques- unes de tares communes qui ont non seulement empêché les systèmes d’eau et d’assainissement de se développer mais ont entraîné une rapide dégradation des infrastructures existantes et du niveau de service.

Devant l’échec partiel ou total de ces mesures appliquées aux compagnies publiques, les bailleurs de fonds, sous l’égide de la Banque mondiale, ont développé et promu de nouveaux modèles, donnant au secteur privé une responsabilité accrue dans le financement et la gestion des infrastructures et des services d’eau et d’assainissement (comme pour tous les autres services publics), tout en renforçant les capacités des autorités nationales ou locales dans la réglementation de ces services.

288

NOUVELLES APPROCHES ET NOUVELLES FORMES DE PARTENARIATS

Dans de nombreux pays, plusieurs municipalités importantes sont en train d'expérimenter de nouvelles formes de gestion des services d'eau et d'assainissement, avec le double objectif de réhabiliter et de renforcer les infrastructures et d’en ouvrir l'accès aux communautés à faibles revenus. Depuis 1993, Lyonnaise des Eaux intervient dans les pays en développement, en particulier en Amérique du Sud (Argentine, Bolivie, Brésil), Afrique (Maroc, Afrique du Sud) et Asie (Philippines, Indonésie) avec la responsabilité de financer le développement des infrastructures, d’exploiter et d’entretenir les systèmes d’eau et d’assainissement et de garantir l’extension de ces services auprès des communautés à faibles ressources économiques. L’expérience acquise à ce jour, et qui continue à se développer au travers de nouvelles concessions, démontre qu’il est possible de fournir des services efficaces et accessibles financièrement aux catégories les plus démunies de la communauté. Un cadre contractuel et institutionnel clair et bien défini et des partenariats bien conçus avec le secteur public et les usagers en sont des conditions essentielles.

Les avantages d’une gestion privée

La délégation du service des eaux au secteur privé présente de nombreux avantages. Tout d’abord, une entreprise privée peut prendre en charge la totalité des investissements nécessaires à la réhabilitation et au renforcement des systèmes d’eau et d’assainissement, libérant ainsi des ressources de l’Etat qui peuvent être alors destinées à des investissements de nature sociale (éducation, santé). A titre d’exemple, Lyonnaise des Eaux a investi plus de un milliard de dollars dans la concession de Buenos Aires entre 1993 et 1997, alors qu’avant la privatisation, l’entreprise publique consacrait en moyenne seulement 20 millions de dollars par an au renforcement de ses infrastructures.

La gestion financière des investissements et celle des coûts d’exploitation et d’entretien est intégrée au sein de la compagnie privée, ce qui apporte de nombreux gains en terme d’efficacité.

L’entreprise privée est engagée dans un programme à long terme, puisque la durée moyenne des concessions est de 25 à 30 ans. Des indicateurs de performances et de développement sont précisés dans les contrats et l’entreprise est responsable des résultats fixés vis-à-vis des autorités publiques. La plupart des contrats de concessions de Lyonnaise des Eaux dans les pays en développement imposent de desservir 100% de la population, y compris la population pauvre et marginalisée, dans un délai donné. En fixant ces objectifs contractuels, les autorités locales ou nationales se donnent ainsi les moyens d’assurer à l’ensemble des citoyens un accès aux services de base à moyen terme.

Le partenariat public – privé

L’efficacité du service des eaux n’est garantie que lorsqu’un réel partenariat est mis en place entre les autorités publiques et l’entreprise privée, que lorsque les rôles respectifs sont clairement définis et assumés. L’environnement légal et réglementaire et le contrat de concession spécifient les objectifs à atteindre et les normes de services. Un système de contrôle et de régulation permet de garantir l’application des clauses de la concession et protège la population des abus éventuels liés à la situation de monopole du concessionnaire. Le dialogue et la transparence entre les

289 acteurs publics et privés sont des éléments essentiels pour garantir la qualité et la pérennité du service.

Solutions adaptées aux communautés à faibles revenus

Une capacité d’investissement importante et un partenariat public – privé équilibré sont des conditions nécessaires pour qu’un mécanisme de solidarité sociale puisse être appliqué au service de l’eau et de l’assainissement. L’expérience nous a montré toutefois que ce n’était pas suffisant pour permettre aux communautés à faibles revenus de bénéficier des solutions techniquement appropriées et financièrement accessibles. Des approches spécifiquement adaptées au contexte socio-économique et urbanistique des quartiers à faibles revenus doivent être développées et mises en œuvre. L’expérience acquise par Lyonnaise des Eaux permet d’identifier une série de principes important à appliquer, afin de garantir le succès et la pérennité des actions entreprises :

Intégrer les communautés pauvres dans la concession : la délégation de service publique impose la desserte en eau (et en service d’assainissement) de la totalité de la population, quel que soit son niveau économique. L’extension des services dans les quartiers pauvres, les zones périurbaines et les bidonvilles doit être intégré dans le plan de développement de la compagnie et non pas représenter des actions ponctuelles ou un «geste» à but humanitaire. Cette intégration implique le développement d’un savoir-faire spécifique à ces quartiers, ainsi que la mise en place d’une politique sociale à l’intérieur de l’entreprise.

Optimiser les normes techniques : les quartiers dits défavorisés sont généralement caractérisés par une urbanisation irrégulière, l’absence de reconnaissance officielle de l’occupation des sols ainsi qu’une densité de population élevée. Ils sont l’objet d’une évolution rapide, de restructuration, de déplacements, etc. Les infrastructures doivent pouvoir s’adapter à ce contexte et pouvoir évoluer en fonction de la dynamique de l’habitat. Les quartiers pauvres sont des zones à faibles capacités de paiement et à faible rentabilité financière. Il est donc nécessaire de développer des solutions économiques tant pour l’usager que pour l’entreprise.

Assurer la participation active de communautés : le développement des services dans les zones à faibles revenus doit faire l’objet d’un engagement réciproque : le concessionnaire doit s’engager vis-à-vis de la communauté d’assurer la pérennité du système (fourniture du service et entretien des infrastructures dans le domaine public). La communauté doit s’engager à payer pour le service qu’elle reçoit et à assurer l’entretien des infrastructures dans le domaine privé ou communautaire. L’expérience montre qu’il est important d’impliquer les communautés dès le début du projet de développement des services et dans toutes ses phases : de la planification à la gestion des systèmes, en passant par la construction. On parle alors de système en co-gestion ou en gestion partagée. De cette manière-là la communauté se sent responsable et s’approprie les installations, et garantit ainsi la pérennité du fonctionnement des services.

Fournir un service, pas seulement une connexion : le développement de réseaux d’eau et d’assainissement dans les quartiers défavorisés ne garantit pas à lui seul l’accès aux services. Pour pouvoir bénéficier de l’assainissement, il faut disposer d’un minimum d’installations sanitaires (W-C, douche, lavabo). Il est important d’inclure un appui technique et éventuellement un appui financier, sous forme de micro crédit par exemple, à chaque foyer, afin de lui permettre de construire ces installations sanitaires. Un tel programme pourra s’accompagner de campagnes d’éducation sanitaire, afin d’informer les usagers sur les bonnes pratiques en matière d’hygiène et d’utilisation appropriée des installations sanitaires. La formation de plombiers, pouvant

290 participer à la construction et aux réparations des installations de leurs voisins, contribue également au bon fonctionnement des systèmes. Enfin, une politique commerciale et tarifaire spécifique doit être mise en place et adaptée aux ressources des usagers et à leur mode de revenus, afin de faciliter le paiement de services et d’éviter d’en être privé pour défaut de paiement.

L’approche décrite ci-dessus est mise en œuvre dans les concessions opérées par Lyonnaise des eaux et ses filiales opérationnelles depuis plusieurs années. Les résultats enregistrés à ce jour sont très encourageants. Ils permettent de penser que le slogan "de l'eau pour tous" pourrait devenir une réalité dans les villes de demain.

291

MACRO/MICRO GRIDLOCK: THE IMPLICATIONS OF A LOCAL TERRITORIAL CONFLICT FOR CENTRAL REGULATORY REFORM

R. Michael M'Gonigle EcoResearch Professor of Environmental Law and Policy, Faculty of Law, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada [email protected], (250-721-8184)

This study draws on a personal narrative, a story of water conflict in the rural/urban fringe where I live. In this region, water conflicts abound. At the same time, the potential for innovation is enormous--but is not being realized. In this paper I will tell the story of one particular water conflict in the community, Central Saanich, a municipality located at the southern tip of Vancouver Island, adjacent to the provincial capital city of Victoria.

The specific conflict I am concerned with involves the demand for a water pipeline extension to serve a small number of residents in the community. The issue provides a range of lessons, from the mundane to the strategic to the theoretical. Although these lessons are based on a case study, they are only, to a degree, limited to the specifics of that case. On the contrary, these limitations are not unique to this locale, but are repeated at a micro level in neighbourhood after neighbourhood, city after city, business after business, and government after government.

In common is what I call "macro/micro gridlock". As is well known, the emerging environmental movement in the 1970s was extolled to "think globally, act locally". Rene Dubos's famous phrase has implicitly guided much environmental activism in the three decades since. It is a wise incantation that people must make changes on the ground, and they must also share this knowledge widely. It is, perhaps, also implicit in this phrase that changes in local practice are more likely to occur than changes in policy at the upper levels of government and business. Again, this is partly true.

But my own local experience indicates another side to this, the way in which the inertia that bedevil changes at the policy level are replicated at the local level. It is widely understood that far-reaching policy change is not happening in water resource management and protection in provincial and national governments, or in our profligate irrigation and industrial water uses. At the local level, however, change is also blocked by outdated policies and status quo legislation, as well as by myriad, more subtle impediments that are also of a global/local nature. There is, in short, gridlock, global inertia blocking local innovation, local change not driving global change. The still unbuilt water pipeline through Central Saanich has much to teach about breaking this macro/micro gridlock.

THE "SENANUS ISSUE"

Six years ago, in the Spring of 1995, my family and I moved to Victoria where I took up my present post at the University. There I teach largely in two disciplinary fields, environmental law and policy, and ecological political economy. The concern that animates my work is the interplay between a theoretical of the "system dynamics" of our economic and political

292 institutions, and how these play out in practical problems. By system dynamics, I mean the inherent patterns of activity embedded within the nature (for example) of competitive economic growth, or centralized bureaucratic decision-making. This is the traditional ground of political economy.

Historically, the field of political economy has been dominated by the tension between socialist- capitalist thought, between state-planned, and market-driven, development. A concern for the “laws of nature” (a big and multi-faceted phrase) has largely been absent. Those involved in water engineering and the natural sciences, for example, pay virtually not regard to these social dynamics, although their dynamics drive the water issue. These are dynamics can be studied in a scientific--that is a critical/rational/systematic--manner.

On taking up my academic post, we moved to the Saanich Peninsula, a large thirty-mile long peninsula that sits like the curled-up toe of a boot, at the southern tip of Vancouver Island. The urban region, called the Capital Regional District, is home to fourteen separate municipalities, aggregated together under the intermediate jurisdiction of the Capital Regional District. Mine is a largely rural municipality a few miles outside the suburban fringe that was rapidly densified in the 1960s, 70s and 80s. An agricultural community with 60% of the land base in farming, but twenty minutes from downtown Victoria, it is a desirable place to live, and is thus under a lot of development pressure. It is also one of the best farming areas in the province, and was taken over for agriculture almost immediately upon colonization. Today, the area is scattered with some very old houses and some small cluster suburban developments. The peninsula is fringed by expensive waterfront homes. Many residents commute to downtown.

The water problems of the area are, I believe, typical to this common rural/urban situation. Competition exists between agriculture and residential uses, particularly in the summertime and early fall, when the season is very dry and agriculture uses are at their peak. The area relies largely on groundwater, except in denser developments and corridors that rely on regional water infrastructure. The valley that I inhabit is typical of the region, with large farms in the valley bottom and single family dwellings scattered throughout the hillsides. Hagen Creek runs through the valley and empties into Saanich Inlet, a once rich salmon producing inlet that is now in serious decline and is heavily polluted from a variety of urban sources, including industrial wastewater and residential septic runoff. At the mouth of the creek a small spit of land extends into the inlet, where the waterfront houses are served by a single roadway, Senanus Drive.

The Senanus issue stems from the desire of certain residents to have their water system upgraded by being connected to the regional pipeline system. This would entail the construction of about 3 miles of pipeline running along the main valley, Mt. Newton Valley, at the cost of over $1million. The conflict is apparent. A small group of 22 houses are seeking a large extension of urban infrastructure through the predominantly agricultural valley, with significant potential for facilitating urban sprawl. It is a classic conflict, with the traditional incentives oriented to further linear development and a host of obstacles arrayed before those seeking innovative, rational solutions.

A PERSONAL HISTORY

In my position in environmental law and policy at the University of Victoria, I have undertaken extensive work in regional land planning. Through our involvement with both academic research

293 and the local community, my work increasingly has come to fall under the rubric of what is now being called "Smart Growth". This approach contemplates economic development that is environmentally and socially compatible by (in part) shifting development planning from a supply orientation to one of demand management--fewer new roads, and better public transportation; fewer new power plants, and greater energy efficiency; fewer water pipelines, and wiser water use.

In conjunction with the Institute of Ocean Sciences, I initiated a long-term ecological restoration project for Hagen Creek. Concerned to restore the ecological health of the Saanich Inlet into which this creek, and others in the region, flowed, our goal was to find lessons of general applicability to the larger region by establishing a model project. As it has turned out, this small system is certainly appropriate for a model insofar as it contains a host of the ingredients of the larger water problems confronting urban industrialized cities.

While involved in this work, a long-standing proposal to build a water supply pipeline through the watershed re-surfaced. As noted, the watershed is largely agricultural in the valley bottom with residences scattered throughout the higher ground and along the ocean waterfront. The water needs of these residences, and the farm, are met by groundwater supplies, over which no regulatory framework exists. In the summer, the farm also draws water for irrigation from Hagen Creek. To alleviate purported quantity and quality problems in the small Senanus enclave on the waterfront, the pipeline was proposed by a small group of residents for the municipality. Many other residents, however, were concerned about the implications for urban sprawl for such a large infrastructural investment. As a result, the municipal council created a Water Advisory Task Force, on which I sat for a year as a member and for two years as chairperson. My experience on this taskforce provides the basis for this case study and analysis.

In the region, the municipal Council that has jurisdiction over this matter is considered a "green council". It is only marginally so (and certainly not in the European sense) as environmental credentials could be attributed to three or four of seven members of the council. Nevertheless, their support allowed the Task Force to produce innovative guidelines for infrastructural development, and to undertake extensive research into alternative solutions to the linear, supply- oriented, pipeline proposal.

Without going into detail on this conflict, the results of the Task Force assessments were that solutions should be approached on a hierarchical basis. At the base level, that of individual householders, the Task Force found that this was in fact the most appropriate approach given the limited nature of the problems, and the high cost associated with a broader solution. However, should this approach not lead to satisfactory solutions, it was proposed that a very local level solution (a community cistern with local distribution system) be considered for Senanus Drive. Substantial regulatory obstacles existed to this approach given the systemic orientation towards large-scale infrastructure and centralized standard setting for engineering and health. Nevertheless, it was concluded that such a large-scale, pipeline solution should be considered only when both individual and local/collective solutions have been found to be unworkable. And even then, it would be designed to have minimum potential to support further development (for example, through size limitations)).

At the time of this writing, the issue is un resolved. Council has refused to seek funding for the project, but has also taken very few steps toward the consideration of alternatives. The Senanus advocates have blocked any real study of the individual household situations and potential

294 solutions. They have actively intervened to oppose even the consideration of alternatives to the pipeline. Let me now turn to characterize the nature of the conflict in broader terms and then assess the potential for, and strategy related to, a substantial redirection in policy and practice.

DEGRESS OF ECOLOGICAL ILLITERACY

The pipeline conflict is emblematic of a larger conflict between what I would characterize as that betwee the neoclassical (ie. individualist/self-maximizing) and ecological (ie. communitarian/long-term) approaches. The neoclassical approach has historically emphasized supply-side/growth solutions which are of a linear character—providing more water, extending existing systems, creating large-scale infrastructure that depends on high levels of throughput, expanding central bureaucracies to support this, and seeking public subsidies for private ends. In contrast, an ecological approach focuses on reducing demand, recycling and reusing resources, developing new technologies, driving planning to be innovative, and so on. But the shift to ecological planning at the local level (acting locally) encounters the system-wide entrenchment of linear impediments. Coordinated action is needed between local and more central authorities-- but how?

The momentum underlying the pipeline expansion is clear. An existing infrastructure is already in place supplying a large portion of the regional district with water from a high-level dam. This water is of marginal quality in the summer months when quantity supply problems are often encountered in particularly dry years. Nevertheless, an incremental solution to water problems can most easily be resolved by simply expanding the line further and further into the rural countryside. With this system in place, incremental expansion is easier than systemic adaptation. Significant monetary benefits also accrue to those serviced by the pipeline, as their lots would now be available for more urban subdivision. Faced with this inbuilt historic momentum, a high degree of ecological “literacy” is needed to make change.

As a result, it is a challenge to explain to municipal staff, councillors, and the general public as to why one should consider taking another route. Even to understand the idea of a systemic approach is difficult, let alone to get people to understand the reasons for it. Instead, residents speak about "a right to clean water" which resonates well with the public and puts a high burden of proof on those seeking to develop more resource-efficient and economically responsible alternatives. People are being denied their rights!

The attitude of legal/moral entitlement is embodied in the personal habits of citizens who, although living in a semi-rural area, are imbued with the urban mentality that expects power to emerge at the flick of a switch, and water to flow endlessly with the turn of a tap. One indignant citizen, in fact, complained that she was forced to hope for rain during a dry spell because she was not connected to the pipeline. On the other side, some of the most ardent opponents of the pipeline are older immigrants who grew up in European countries where an ethic of husbandry and wise resource management was part of their childhood experience. Some of these individuals have developed intricate water collection and utilization systems that work very well despite low flows from their individual well. And they take great pride in being connected to, and responsible for, the sources of their sustenance.

In addition to a generally low level of personal ecological literacy is a drastically low level of citizen understanding about the political/economic dynamics of the development system. For

295 example, despite the widespread acceptance in many jurisdictions of restrictions on infrastructure as a legitimate instrument for controlling sprawl development, pipeline advocates argue that development should be controlled with zoning regulations alone. In fact, the lack of provision of infrastructure and services as a legitimate planning tool is actually evident in the local "official community plan" which designates the area as “rural residential” and thus entitled to a more limited set of services.

Similarly, many municipal planning staff (especially the older members) are quite unsympathetic to having to do anything other than approve standard, linear, capital-intensive, engineering projects. A whole host of regulations in provincial legislation support their approach, reducing their role to that of approving officers and regulators. Forcing innovation is in no way a part of their job description. Unfortunately, as well, the nature of local, municipal government gives these planners huge power over political decisions, not just technical ones. The most common ritual in a council meeting is for the mayor or a councillor to turn to his city clerk and ask "Can we do that?" The usual answer is, of course, No.

Finally, is the official political process of the municipal council. Despite the best intentions of many councillors, this is a part-time job for which councillors are paid $3,000 per year. Nevertheless, every Monday night councillors gather at the Council Chambers with some 100- 200 pages of documentation to consider. Being the closest thing that Canada has to "direct democracy" means that these councillors are subjected to regular verbal abuse by those members of the public that have the most to gain from a specific issue. In my time involved with this issue (three years), I have attended at least a dozen meetings where the pipeline advocates yelled at and threatened councillors who refused to support their position.

Councillors who do seek innovative solutions are thus hugely dependent on citizen advocates who must in turn spend literally hundreds of hours developing the information and analysis that can point to alternatives. This requires a very active and well-educated citizenry that has both a commitment to the general community interest (as opposed to the pipeline advocates' individual interest), and an unusual level of information and expertise to do a credible job.

Finally, the situation is characterized by a general fear of innovation. In fact, in our correspondence with the municipality, the Task Force was repeatedly told to downplay the use of the term "innovation" because it implied unknown consequences, risk taking, and, above all, potential exposure of the municipality to liability claims.

ELUSIVE SOLUTIONS

Freed of such concerns, the Task Force produced a large report outlining a hierarchy of solutions. To this date, however, the recommendations of the report have not been implemented. At the first level in the hierarchy is the potential for individual solutions. As noted, residents of Senanus Drive are all on groundwater wells. It is generally very high quality water, but with some aesthetic and hardness problemsand many potential treatment systems exist for the relatively minor set of problems in the area. (As this paper is not intended to assess the merits of the issue, readers will have to take this analysis on faith).

The second level considered was that of a communal system that draws its water from a high producing well in the area. This system being suggested for consideration could provide clean

296 water to the twenty-two houses by one pipe, and then might even have a return pipe carrying sewage that was then treated at the communal station, with a third pipe returning treated, recycled water for gardening and irrigation. This would help reduce the pollution problems in the Inlet, while also reducing the pressures on the groundwater by recycling the water. While the technology exists to achieve this, numerous barriers have been encountered in even considering this strategy. For example, who would manage such a system? If it failed, who would assume liability? What engineering standards would be applied to this new form of water treatment? For example, would three separate trenches have to be dug for each line, in order to comply with engineering standards requiring separate lines for sewage and water? Many such questions existed, the answering of which offered huge potential for policy and infrastructure improvements. Instead, the mere existence of these historical barriers has simply prevented serious consideration of this alternative. Turning to the top of the hierarchy, the pipeline option, an interesting contradiction exists. While a few residents complain about their water quality and quantity, it is actually agriculture in the valley that causes the water drawdown as a result of its intensive use of groundwater during the dry summer months. As a result, a pipeline to the residential areas does not address the real problem, which is the excessive use of groundwater by local agriculture. Indeed, because agriculture is seen to be a good thing, it is difficult to criticize its profligate waste of local water supplies, largely to grow hay for recreational horses. Meanwhile, farmers support the idea of a large urban-style pipeline as it makes it more feasible for their agricultural land to be subdivided into housing, all the while protesting that they need subsidized water for their crops.

Overall, therefore, a mismatch exists between the nature of the real source of the water depletion problem (water-intensive agriculture), and the problem that the proposed solution is intended to address (residential needs). As a result, an integrated solution that might lead to reduced demand from both agriculture and residential users, has essentially gone undiscussed. As it turns out, a large sewer pipe runs close to the area, carrying sewage to a relatively new treatment plant where, after removal of the sewage, the treated water is discharged directly into the ocean. This water offers a potentially huge resource, but it is inaccessible without yet another level of innovation-- the use of treated water to meet agricultural needs.

Again, however, the range of obstacles is enormous. The technology exists for a very high level of treatment, and in fact can be provided by a very innovative local wastewater treatment company, Hydroxyl Systems, that is the darling of many high tech advocates. But the thought of using recycled water in farming raises immediate resistance. Farmers fear the spread of damaging micro-organisms and bugs. One farmer was overheard to say at a Council meeting, “Piss, they are talking about putting piss on our crops!” At present, many of these farmers draw water from Hagan Creek, a creek which takes a significant amount of run-off from a nearby industrial area. Thus the farmers are already spreading a range of pathogens and heavy metals onto their fields. Nevertheless, use of highly treated recycled water would invoke health concerns, and a call for labeling, while no such concerns are evoked by the use of the local "natural" creek.

Finally, is the price. Groundwater is unregulated, and unpriced. Even relatively cheap recycled water would entail a net cost to farmers who presently draw down the water table at no charge.

297

A STRATEGIC SOLUTION

At its root, the issue of micro/macro gridlock described in this paper is an issue of governance. According to the definition in the report, Our Common Neighbourhood, governance refers to the whole complex of processes and actors that make decisions about economic and political life, not just decisions by formal levels of government. In that context, what is needed for innovation to occur is a new process of "ecological governance." This can be seen as involving three separate, but mutually supportive, groups. One group is composed of the few sympathetic public officials who are anxious to move to a more rational, demand-based management system. A second group is concerned citizens (civil society) who support a more innovation-oriented decision-making process that can meet economic, environmental and social needs. A third group includes the "green entrepreneurs" who need the appropriate pricing, regulatory, and social contexts to develop their new technologies and businesses. The shared goal of these groups would be to create a mutually supportive movement that might achieve the range of policy and practical changes necessary to overcome macro/micro gridlock.

1) Full cost accounting Nothing will change without a move to full cost accounting. Pipeline advocates are pressing for the pipeline to be financed from a provincial infrastructure grant. Farmers are happy to take advantage of a pipeline, financed for residents, that can facilitate their own potential subdivision planning. Farmers are also pleased to get a new source of water, especially if it is subsidized, but are meanwhile content to draw down the aquifer without paying any charges for so doing. Thus, while innovative solutions have a real economic price tag attached to them, incremental expansion of the central supply system is subsidized in numerous ways. Without fuller, and more balanced, pricing, rational water management is handicapped.

2) Innovation-based planning In additional to full cost accounting, the nature of the planning process must change in order to avoid the further provision of "inappropriate" infrastructures. This could be achieved by requiring planning officers to implement "best practices" wherever this can be done. This approach contrasts with planning that assumes a “right” to clean water, and a corrolary expectation that this right will be met with subsidized public infrastructure. In contrast, innovation-based planning would shift the burden of proof onto the proponents of new infrastructure, requiring them to demonstrate how their approach embodies existing "best practices" in efficient water use and management. At present, the onus of proof is on those opposing the subsidized extension of regional infrastructure.

With a shift to best practices, planning would shift to an innovation-based approach. Over the past decade, in some environmental permitting processes, a so-called “prior justification procedure” exists that requires any applicant for a discharge permit to demonstrate why a closed- loop (ie. no discharge) system cannot be employed. Similarly here, a demand management strategy would become the default position in the absence of an explanation as to why a supply- oriented strategy is necessary. If this approach were enshrined in provincial as well as municipal regulations, an entire structure of incentives for water efficiency and innovation would be in place. This would, for example, support the adaptation of the sewage treatment plant to provide recycled water for farmers, while encouraging individual homeowners to reduce their demand on centralized supplies, and recycle their water where possible. The public debate and administrative planning would focus on the real issues of technological feasibility, and cost. In

298 addition, high level decision-makers would be able to allocate subsidies explicitly to support innovative technologies in contrast with the current situation where subsidies are either hidden or allocated in response to political pressure for extension of mainstream infrastructure.

3) Forcing technology and economy With full pricing, and innovation-based planning, great change would occur. The impact would be “force” new technologies onto the market, and support those new businesses promoting their use. This was the goal as well of a new a billion dollar Green Infrastructure program, announced by the federal government in the Spring of 2000. To ensure that the program did not fall prey to bureaucratic caution, $150 million of this program was initially allocated for distribution to a small sustainability office within the non-governmental Federation of Canadian Municipalities. More efficient individual systems, the development of integrated potable and recycled water systems, and the redeployment of large centralized systems into a demand management framework have all been targetted. It was a vindication to many at the local level to see this program come into force. Although early in its mandate, this new program will provide interesting models of change and, in all likelihood, useful lessons in policy development for this area.

In addition to supporting new infrastructure, regulatory standards need a major overhaul. Industry talks of deregulation as the answer, and there is a lot of merit in its concerns about over- regulation. Central regulations tend to be undynamic, and often constraining of the very activities they seek to promote. This is certainly the case with recycled versus fresh water. Take, for example, the regulation that water delivery pipes must be buried at depths of three feet in our municipality, a 100 year-old regulation emanating from central Canada and partially justified by a concern for winter freezing. (Yet, on the west coast of Canada, it doesn’t even snow, let alone freeze. In addition, a line for recycled water would be used largely in the summer months when irrigation is needed for crops.) In addition, health regulations discriminate against recycled water. Add to these health regulations the issue of consumer acceptance (who wants to eat tomatoes grown with recycled water from a sewage plant?), and another range of obstacles appears.

While existing environmental and health standards are not without merit, they can impede innovation even where such innovation might ultimately lead to a high standard of water. Only an open debate on standards, and their relationship to new technologies and practices, can move beyond this impediment. At the same time, policy changes to reduce the obsession with potential liability are also mandatory. Fear of liability is the mantra of status quo planners.

4) Ecological governance In the era of globalization, two solitudes exist. On the one hand are the boosters of economic growth through the expansion of international trade. As protective national laws fall in the pursuit of this ideological goal, the nature of the state itself has become very much a topic of debate. On the other side are the "anti-globalization forces" that envision, however little understood they might be, alternative conceptions of wealth and society. With so little international democracy, the conversation between these solitudes takes place with one group entrenched in a negotiating fortress with the other wandering through tear gas-laden streets.

This democracy deficit at the macro level is reflected on the micro level. Full cost accounting does not occur, and planning is in general anything but innovative. To the extent that these changes are even in conversation, it is often as a result of local groups, and advocacy

299 organizations demanding change in the face of entrenched planning obstacles. This is certainly the case with the Senanus pipeline issue where a growth and development interest would clearly get its way were it not for the continued activism of the innovation and democracy lobby. As at the global level, economic and democratic interests seem to be in conflict when, in reality, they are not. At stake is what form of economic growth we want to pursue.

As has happened in past centuries, new challenges to the standard processes for "creating wealth" are slow to be understood and long to be implemented. This was the case with labour activists in the nineteenth century; so it is today with the ecologists who are concerned to draw attention to the real contribution of nature to the production of wealth. The profligate use, and abuse, of water is one such unvalued contribution. Today, giving a fuller recognition of nature's contribution to the creation of economic capital will ultimately produce a very different economic system than exists today. This is nowhere better embodied than in the concept of "smart growth", a concept that espouses greater resource efficiency (ie. reduced throughput) as the key to better economics. Sprawl that consumes land is costly; urban densification that builds community is cheap. Recycled water demands technological innovation, yet will take pressure off costly supply systems. With our production and regulatory systems premised on centuries of doing with more, and more, adaptation to doing more with less does not come easy. The Senanus story tell us that the key to this transition is opening up the regulatory process to those active interests that can promote the community needs in the face of those promoting individual interests. The key to unlocking the market forces that generate innovative outcomes will come not by "deregulation" but by enhanced democratic participation.

CONCLUSION: UNBLOCKING THE GRID

This essay has attempted to demonstrate the extensive nature of what I call the macro/micro gridlock. Acting locally is not, after all, all that different from acting globally. Best practices can be found anywhere, and one of the side effects of the computer age is to allow such practices to be adopted everywhere. At the local level, in the case of the Senanus pipeline issue one form of educated local activism confronts another form of profiteering activism. In common is the question of how we create human wealth and utility. When the true causes of water wastage and the true potential for entrepreneurial innovation are factored in, almost anything seems possible. Strategic changes are needed in pricing, planning, democratic decision-making, and technological standards and development. Making this happen through the renovation of the state at all levels is the challenge for successful local action.

300

L'ASSAINISSEMENT URBAIN DANS LES PAYS EN VOIE DE DÉVELOPPEMENT LE BESOIN D'UNE STRATÉGIE ALTERNATIVE

ROUMAGNAC Alix – BENEDETTI Murielle

Directeur du Département Eau 1105, avenue Pierre Mendès France – BP 4001 30001 NIMES cedex 5, FRANCE 04.66.87.50.63 [email protected]

RESUME

Le développement urbain dans les pays en voie de développement génère aujourd'hui un besoin très important dans la mise en œuvre d'infrastructures d'assainissement. Malgré ce, aujourd'hui très peu de projets voient le jour. Les raisons de ces blocages sont autant techniques, financières qu'institutionnelles. Les modèles occidentaux ne peuvent être appliqués sur ces situations sans adaptations fortes. L'urgence de la situation sanitaire et environnementale impose la mise en œuvre d'une stratégie alternative.

MOTS CLES

Assainissement urbain, pays en voie de développement, stratégie, financement, environnement, santé publique

CONTEXTE

Le développement urbain dans les pays en voie de développement génère aujourd’hui un besoin très important dans la mise en œuvre d’infrastructures d’assainissements. En effet, très peu d’ouvrages sont aujourd’hui opérationnels que ce soit en terme de traitement mais également en réseau de collecte. L’augmentation du niveau de desserte en eau potable aggrave la problématique de la gestion des rejets. L'explosion de la croissance urbaine est aussi facteur d'accélération des problèmes et aujourd'hui la situation se dégrade. L’utilisation directe des eaux brutes pour l’irrigation, la dégradation des milieux en proximité urbaine ou subsistent des usages traditionnels (pêche, baignade), la dégradation de la qualité des ressources en eau, sont des problèmes sanitaires et environnementaux graves.Face à cette situation, il est essentiel de réagir rapidement.

DIAGNOSTIC

Aujourd'hui peu de pays et peu de villes dans ces pays ont engagé des démarches opérationnelles sur le sujet (peu de réflexions et surtout très peu de réalisations).Si la plupart possèdent des amorces de réseaux rudimentaires non opérationnels, les systèmes d'épuration sont quasi inexistants.

301

Ces systèmes sont immédiatement saturés à la première pluie, de nombreux débordements sont observés en milieu urbain, les effluents bruts sont rejetés dans le milieu naturel sans traitement préalable. Ces milieux récepteurs sont le plus souvent très sollicités par les populations locales (pêche, baignade, irrigation,…). Cette situation aboutit donc à de graves problèmes sanitaires et environnementaux. Les infrastructures peu développées connaissent de plus, de graves déficit de maintenance et d'exploitation. En effet dans la plupart des cas les systèmes d'assainissement sont sous la responsabilité des municipalités qui n'ont ni les moyens techniques, ni humains, ni financier de pouvoir les gérer correctement. Le service n'étant pas rendu aux populations, il est difficile de pouvoir facturer la prestation et donc les moyens financiers ont du mal à se mettre en place et de ce fait les capacités humaines et techniques ne suivent pas. L'enjeu des années à venir sera d'arriver à trouver les solutions pour sortir de "ce cercle vicieux". Le cercle vicieux des problèmes d'assainissement dans les pays en voie de développement

Absence de ressources financières

Incapacité à financer Lacunes des moyens le service techniques et humains

Problèmes sanitaires Absence de structures et de gestion cohérente des et environnementaux systèmes

302

LA DÉMARCHE ET LES ÉCUEILS

L'objectif est d'atteindre à terme un système permettant une protection satisfaisante de la santé publique et des milieux naturels. Pour cela la démarche consiste à établir un constat clair de la situation, définir des objectifs réalistes, identifier les solutions les plus appropriées. Ensuite il est nécessaire de mettre en place les financements pour la réalisation des travaux, concrétiser les infrastructures, mettre en place un service opérationnel d'exploitation des systèmes et mettre en œuvre les conditions de durabilité de cet ensemble.

Dans cette démarche les écueils sont nombreux, s'il est fréquent d'obtenir un constat clair de la situation il est déjà plus difficile de discuter sereinement d'objectifs réalistes. En effet entre les situations actuelles souvent catastrophiques et une situation idéale il est parfois difficile de faire accepter un processus évolutif qui oblige à passer par des étapes intermédiaires non totalement satisfaisantes sur le plan de la santé ou de l'environnement. Dans ce même esprit il est fréquent de voir proposer des solutions techniques parfaites qui du fait de leur coût ou de leur niveau technologique inadapté ne pourront jamais être mises en œuvre. L'acceptation de techniques plus rustiques non parfaites mais apportant une amélioration réelle est là encore difficile à obtenir.

Il est enfin essentiel de détailler le problème du financement. La plupart des pays occidentaux ayant réalisé leurs systèmes d'assainissement l'ont fait grâce à l'utilisation massive de subventions publiques, en effet les besoins sont tellement énormes par rapport aux capacités et à l'acceptabilité à payer des usagers qu'il est impossible d'autofinancer en totalité ce type de projet. En France si l'exploitation est à peu près autofinancée par le service, des investissements notamment système d'épuration peuvent être subventionnés entre 50 et 80 %.

Pour prendre un exemple pratique de la comparaison entre le besoin et les capacités le schéma national d'assainissement du Maroc estime à 3,5 DH/m3 les besoins en financement pour la mise en œuvre de l'assainissement sur l'ensemble des grandes villes (> 100 000 habitants). L'étude des capacités contributives et l'analyse de l'acceptation à payer montre que les ressources disponibles sont d'un peu moins de la moitié (1,5 dH/m3). Le Maroc, pays avancé sur le plan économique et sur le plan de la mise en place des infrastructures met en évidence cette distorsion entre besoins et ressource financière pour mettre en œuvre une stratégie rationnelle d'assainissement. Pour finir, la recherche de la mise en place de conditions durables de fonctionnement d'un système de gestion se heurte à des soucis institutionnels. La mise en place d'une structure opérationnelle d'exploitation nécessite dans la plupart des situations des modifications institutionnelles profondes.

303

Démarche de mise en œuvre d'une politique d'assainissement et points clés de la réussite du processus

La démarche Les points clés

Etre objectif et extraire Etablissement du constat les priorités

Définition des objectifs Arrêter des objectifs réalistes

Choisir des solutions faisables Identification des solutions non obligatoirement parfaites

Trouver l'adéquation entre Mise en place des financements ressource et besoin financier

Les réaliser dans les délais Concrétisation des infrastructures avec la qualité

Mise en place d'un service Transformation institutionnelle

opérationnel forte

Pérenniser le fonctionnement Mettre en œuvre les systèmes de

du système recouvrement des coûts adéquats

304

LES PISTES POUR DES ACTIONS ALTERNATIVES

Il est donc possible d'identifier les pistes de réflexions face aux différents points clés du processus.

Diagnostic clair

L'ampleur de la tache à réaliser implique un esprit de synthèse et une obligation de priorisation des problèmes pour mettre en œuvre une politique qui aboutisse à une réelle amélioration de la situation. Le cas d'Oujda sera pris en exemple dans la présentation. Définir des priorités par grande famille de problèmes (pluvial, traitement, réhabilitation…)

Objectifs réalistes

L'acceptation d'une progressivité dans l'obtention des objectifs à atteindre est au préalable essentiel dans la mise en œuvre d'une amélioration réelle par contre la volonté absolue d'obtenir immédiatement l'objectif final peut bloquer totalement le projet et figer la situation en l'état. Cette acceptation d'objectifs progressifs peut se retrouver dans les objectifs de qualité des rejets mais également dans les occurrences de protection vis à vis des inondations. Le cas d'Agadir illustrera le schéma (passage par une situation intermédiaire de traitement non définitif sur un système "rustique" : traitement par le sable). Différentes options techniques seront envisageables : - Traitement plus rustique avec des niveaux de traitement moins complet, - Période d'occurrence de protection contre les inondations moins contraignantes, - Techniques alternatives d'assainissement pluvial…

Choix de solutions réalistes

Cet élément est à traiter en parallèle de la définition d'objectifs réalistes, les technologies doivent être adaptées aux objectifs et permettrent une évolution et un phasage. Ces points sont importants sur les volets traitements des effluents et techniques de drainage.La mise en œuvre de traitement secondaire par filière compacte est difficilement immédiatement transposable dans la plupart des cas. A ce stade il est intéressant de mettre en évidence l'intérêt de l'assainissement autonome, de la réutilisation des eaux usées, des technologies de traitement non conventionnelles ou des techniques alternatives en drainage pluvial. L'intégration des contraintes d'assainissement dans une planification urbaine intelligente est également un facteur essentiel de progrès.Le cas de Lomé sera présenté pour l'assainissement autonome et Oujda pour l'assainissement pluvial (utilisation de techniques alternatives pour l'assainissement pluvial permettant des économies).

305

Mise en place des financements

L'évaluation des investissements issue des réflexions sur les solutions à mettre en œuvre aboutit de plus souvent à des montants impossibles à mettre en œuvre par l'autofinancement du secteur. Des mécanismes particuliers d'aide à l'investissement doivent être trouvés. L'exemple du financement des infrastructures en France pourra appuyer la discussion sur le besoin de l'aide publique au secteur.

Mise en place de structures opérationnelles durables

Le bon fonctionnement d'un système d'assainissement passe évidemment par la réalisation d'infrastructures mais également par l'existence d'un service d'exploitation opérationnel. Celui-ci doit disposer de moyens techniques, humains et financiers nécessaires à la bonne réalisation des prestations des services.

Aujourd'hui dans la plupart des cas la responsabilité de l'assainissement dépend des municipalités qui ne disposent d'aucune ressource pour effectuer le service correctement (cas du Togo). Le passage de cette responsabilité à la société qui gère l'eau est souvent un progrès, cependant il faut prendre garde au fait que ce transfert ne soit pas déstabilisant sur le plan financier pour ces sociétés à l'équilibre souvent fragile. Les conditions financières de ces transferts doivent être soignées pour permettre la durabilité du système. La durabilité de ces structures passe par un équilibre financier de l'exploitation et de la maintenance des systèmes d'assainissement. Ce point impliquera en préalable une compréhension et une acceptabilité des populations nécessitant une politique de formation et de communication volontariste sur les sujets de la santé et de l'environnement. La voie de la privatisation peut être réfléchie dans des situations particulières. L'exemple marocain de transfert aux Régies sera présenté.

CONCLUSION

L'urgence de la situation sanitaire et environnementale, l'état d'inertie des projets nous oblige à engager une action volontariste pour faire évoluer le secteur. L'ensemble des acteurs, politiques, bailleurs de fonds, administration, ONG doivent rapidement engager des réflexions initiatives de la mise en place de solutions durables. Dans les questions devant être débattues les axes suivants semblent prioritaires : - Quelles organisations pourront permettre de développer le secteur ? - Quels montages financiers sont acceptables pour favoriser l’émergence de solutions durables pour l’assainissement des agglomérations urbaines des pays en voie de développement ? - Jusqu’où peut-on aller dans le compromis pour accepter des solutions techniques transitoires ? Des réponses à ces questions sortiront peut-on l'espérer une politique cohérente permettant d'amorcer la résolution des problèmes d'assainissement des pays en voie de développement.

306

Abstracts of Poster Presentations

TASHKENT IRRIGATION NET IN TASHKENT CITY – PROBLEMS AND DECISIONS

Makhmudov, E.J. & A.D. Ganiev

ABSTRACT

Tashkent is a capital of Uzbekistan; its population exceeds 2, 5 mln. people. It’s the biggest city of the Middle Asia. Tashkent has continental climate characterized by long dry hot summer (temperatures in July 40-42°C) and warm winter with little snow. The annual average amount of precipitation is 400 mm, in the mean time the annual average of evaporation is 1000 mm. In these conditions agriculture is not possible without irrigation. Irrigation net in the city has many branches, supplied from Chirchik River Basin. Water inlet from the river is carried out with five irrigating mains, that deliver water to the city and for irrigation of agricultural fields in the suburban areas.

Irrigation net inside Tashkent includes canals with ground and concrete beds by total length of more than 300 km. Large canals Salar and Lower Bozsu work also as catchers of waste water. The canals Salar (length is 25 km, flow rate is 26 m 3 /s) and Lower Bozsu (length is 12 km, flow rate is 15 m 3 /s) have transformed into a source of chemical and biological contamination of the environment. A problem of the irrigation net exploitation has become very acute after the destroying earthquake in 1966. During restoration work considerable widening of the city borders took place. Afterwards it has appeared that the sources of irrigation cannot meet the inner irrigation net requirements. Green plantations in the city are irrigated by drinking water. Therefore daily water consumption has been greatly increased and reached by the present time 800 liters per a person. It is, undoubtedly, a very high index in the conditions of increasing deficit of drinking water with good quality.

Another important problem of the city irrigation is the fact that 15 km 2 of Tashkent area ( its total area is 285,2 km 2 ) is being flooded because of unsatisfactory technical conditions of the net diverting waste water. Acuteness of the city irrigation problems is stipulated by separated structure of irrigation systems management in Tashkent. They are subordinated to 4 bodies carrying out different tasks. After proclamation of Uzbekistan independence research, reconstruction and design works have been begun in order to improve irrigation net management and rational use of water resources.

KEY WORDS: irrigation net, urbanization of water problems, water use

307

THE CHALLENGES FOR URBAN WATER MANAGEMENT IN TROPICAL COASTAL MEGACITIES: BANGKOK, JAKARTA AND MANILA

Yoslan Nur

ABSTRACT

Over the last three decades, cities in Asia-Pacific have been growing rapidly and transforming functionally and physically. The most spectacular phenomenon of urbanisation in the region is undoubtedly the emergence of megacities, which are characterised by an intensive urbanisation process in their adjacent suburban areas, the urbanised areas extending up to 100 km into cities hinterlands. The term megacity is used for the cities with at least 10 million inhabitants. For the city managers this phenomenon pose both old and new problems, because megacity development has gone hand in hand with urban poverty concentration and environmental degradation, particularly in urban hydrological systems. Hydrological impacts then include the effects of these changes on the natural drainage, runoff, groundwater, sediment, water quality, water demands etc. Even where economic “miracles” have occurred in Asian megacities during the last three decades, urban water supply and sanitation services have remained well below standard. The objectives of this paper are to discuss the issues the challenges of urban water management in three Asian tropical coastal megacities: Bangkok, Jakarta and Manila. The paper also proposes an alternative to improve urban water management to ensure the sustainability and equality of water related services.

KEYWORDS: megacity, urban water management, urban poor, water supply, sanitation and flood.

LA VILLE NOUVELLE DE SIDI ABDELLAH ET LE DEVELOPPEMENT DURABLE UN EXEMPLE D'AMENAGEMENT A PARTIR DE LA GESTION DES EAUX URBAINES

M. Souag *, S. Dorbhan* * Etablissement Public d'Aménagement de l'Agglomération Nouvelle de Sidi Abdellah, Route de Douéra, Mahelma, BP 213, Zeralda, Alger, Algérie. E-mail :[email protected].

RESUME

La ville nouvelle de Sidi Abdellah est un projet qui intègre dans sa conception la problématique des ressources hydriques. L'approche adoptée dans le cadre du développement durable participe d'une nouvelle façon de penser l'urbanisme à l'orée du nouveau millénaire. Elle s'applique non seulement à préserver l'environnement en général et l'eau en particulier, mais aussi exploitée toutes les potentialités du site, et ce en tant que partie prenante de l'aménagement urbain.

MOTS CLES: Ville Nouvelle, Aménagement, Développement Durable, Gestion des eaux urbaines.

308

URBAN RIVER CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION - A LONG TERM EXPERIENCE AS A MODEL FOR THE FUTURE

Frank Sperling

ABSTRACT In Northrhine-Westfalia, the most densely populated state in Germany, flows the river Emscher, a tributary of the river Rhine. Its 800 km² river catchment is one of the largest urban-industrial zones of Europe. Population-density, degree of pavement, industry- and enterprise-density cause intensive water resources activities. The permanent challenge in this catchment is to fulfill justified demands for various water uses in accordance with a sustainable concept for the limited water resources in an socioeconomic sensitive environment.

Before industrialisation the landscape of the river Emscher was characterised by flat swamp land. At that time the scarce population had positive (fishing, operation of mills) and negative (flooding, water borne diseases) experiences with water. The process of industrialisation led to a fast growing population and urbanisation. Concurrently the situation of drinking water, waste water and rivers collapsed. Malaria and other water borne diseases went over the population.

In 1899 the mayors and responsible persons in the industry concluded to found a river catchment association, called Emschergenossenschaft (EG). The association had to maintain rivers, protect against flooding, purify waste water and other tasks on the basis of a river catchment concept. It is a notprofit and selfgoverned organisation on the basis of a special law. Its members are communities, enterprises and other institutions using the river system.

This was later a model for other associations such as the Tennessee Valley Authority (1932). Today the European Water Framework Directive was influenced by this organisational form. The worldbank favours such selfoverning body as a model for the future as well. In the mediterranian region new regulations demand the installation of autonomous associations or „agences“ also influences by the french „Agences de l’eau“.

Today the Emscher region consists of a number of cities which form a coherent urban region covering most of the river catchment with a mean population density of 2900 inh/km². The river system itself is strongly anthropogeneously influenced. One third of the catchment is polder and has to be dewatered artificially.

The biggest actual project is the reconstruction and revitalisation of the whole river system as well as the completion of the sewerage system and waste water treatment. The project cost amount to 9 billion DEM, to be spent over 30 years. It is the biggest project of its kind in Europe.

As a main challenge within this project appears the necessity of finding a balance between sound ecological results and a potential for recreation and further urban planning without overstressing the economical potential of the region. A strong unnatural gap between low and high flow of those rather flat land rivers causes severe technical challenges as well as urban restrictions to achievable ecological qualities. Within the time the consent of the public for increase in fees and charges is diminuishing and ecologically pleasable solutions become potentially expensive. To cope with this gap is one of the most difficult tasks within the project.

309

Some other examples and an comparison between different organisational forms show that the selfgoverning form combined with the nonprofit character makes such an association to a serious alternative to privatisation as well as to authorities. For all aspects the long version will provide quantitative details, figures, charts and literature.

EFFICIENT URBAN WAER MANAGEMENT: THE CASE OF THE MEXICO CITY METROPOLITAN AREA

Cecilia Tortajada Third World Centre for Water Management, Avenida Manantial Oriente 27, Los Clubes, Atizapán, Estado de México, 52958, México, E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The Mexico City Metropolitan Area (ZMCM) is one of the most rapidly growing urban centres in the country, with a population of more than 25 million people, a very high rate of immigration and numerous illegal settlements. In order to meet the escalating water demand, successive governments have focused almost exclusively on supply management and engineering solutions, which have resulted in investments of millions of dollars and the construction of major infrastructure projects for inter-basin transfer of surface and groundwater. Important alternatives like demand management, reuse and conservation have thus far been ignored for all practical purposes. In addition, there is at present no real strategy to manage water and wastewater in the ZMCM. There is no planning at the regional level to manage the water resources of the basin, even though the demand of water for the municipal, agricultural and industrial users of the ZMCM is severely affecting the neighbouring areas from which the water is extracted and transported, resulting this in conflicts between users.

Environmental policies associated with water management are inadequate and insufficient, which is resulting in increasing deterioration in the environmental and health conditions of the population living in one of the largest urban agglomeration of the world.

Keywords: Mexico City Metropolitan Area, water infrastructure, Cutzamala system, water supply, water demand, environmental policies.

310

Workshop 6

PRIVATE PARTICIPATION IN THE PROVISION OF URBAN WATER SERVICES

Convenors: Groupe des Eaux de Marseille International Water Association Agence de l’Eau Rhône-Méditerranée-Corse

311

PARTNERSHIP FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN WATER UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH-WEST, NIGERIA: ISSUES AND PROSPECTS.

Yemi Akegbejo-Samsons

Department of Aquaculture & Fisheries Mgt, University of Agriculture, PMB 2240, Abeokuta, Nigeria.

ABSTRACT

Water and water resources are vital to all human existence. There is no life without water and consequently there can be no agricultural activity whatsoever without water. Throughout the continent of Africa, the countries are facing a growing number of coastal and marine changes as a result of development and increased population pressure. People are migrating into the urban cities in thousands of hundreds, and these movements exert pressure on urban water needs and utilization, housing and urban transportation and other population-induced pressures. The need for water outside agricultural options had risen so high that human existence can be termed to be in jeopardy in some cities in Africa. This paper discusses the present status and trends of urban water utilization and its management in South-west Nigeria. The existing capabilities in Nigeria to implement sustainable development strategies are assessed. a partnership that involves international and the local stakeholders is recommended.

KEYWORDS: management, Nigeria, partnership, sustainable urban water utilization.

INTRODUCTION

As the world's human population increased over the years, the obvious impact and its negative influence on the genetic resources of the earth had continued to loom large. In realization of this fact, the idea of a global convention on Biodiversity was introduced in 1985 by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 finally came up with some clear-cut pronouncements. These in part state that (a)the convention recognizes that biological diversity is essential to our planetary life support system; (b) commits countries to a series of national level obligations including making inventories of biological resources, developing national conservation strategies and integrating conservation in development planning; (c) recognizes the role of indigenous and local communities in protecting biodiversity; and (d) requires developed countries to assist developing countries in carrying out their conservation programmes (Akegbejo-Samsons, 2000). For most of the past decades, water and water resources have dominated the front-line most especially in the sahel and other semi- arid zones of the world. For example in Chad, Niger, Somalia, Kenya and Ethiopia the need for water both for agriculture and human consumption has reached international concern (Dupriez & de Leener, 1992). Water as a consequence of precipitation, for human and agricultural use has dominated national priorities where its scarcity has caused severe drought and on the contrary where its over- abundance has caused floods, dam bursts and swollen basins. This paper looks at water and water resources, with the benefit of hindsight that these resources cannot be consumed

313 independent of the water. Water, either conserved for hydro-electric power generation, accumulated for irrigation or dammed for human consumption or dedicated for its fisheries resources and other allied local benefits can only fulfill its economic value under a sustainable management policy.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Five states of South-west Nigeria were selected for the study. In each state, four major urban cities or towns were randomly selected for study. The water needs of each city or town were assessed in terms of (a) agricultural (home gardens, aquaculture,horticulture); (b) Social; (c) Institutional; (d) Household consumption. Structured questionnaires were distributed to randomly selected respondents in the different city areas. The existing capabilities to meet demand by the water councils and city workers responsible for urban water generation and distribution were assessed. This was corroborated by visits to some power stations responsible for water distribution and discussion with both State and Federal authorities.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Nigeria’s water needs and availability

Nigeria is blessed with an expanse of inland water and water resources. Ita et al (1985) reported that 149,191 km2 (almost 15.9% of Nigeria's total land area) of inland waters exist in Nigeria. These are made up of major lakes, ponds, flood- plains, reservoirs, mining and stagnant pools. The major rivers were put at about 10,812,400 hectares, which is about 11.5% of the total surface of Nigeria. Other water bodies including small reservoirs, fish ponds and miscellaneous wetlands suitable for rice cultivation cover another 3,221,500 hectares. The country has an extensive mangrove ecosystem, and are estimated to cover between 500,000 and 885,000 hectares (Ita, 1993). It is from these water sources that water supply for human consumption are tapped. These are usually in form of dammed reservoirs, boreholes from underground water, potable waters that have to travel hundreds of kilometers to get to the kitchens of domestic users. Today, most cities in South-west Nigeria, which include Lagos, Ibadan, Abeokuta Oshogbo, Akure, Ado-Ekiti etc offer hopes that lure people to them. they see the opportunity of a job, advancement and a more secure future for themselves and their families. As they arrive a seemingly endless expansion of urban areas overwhelms the efforts of the city councils. This is not only in terms of adequate housing and provision of roads and services, but majorly in terms of water provision and management.

Urban water sources and utilisation

Generally urban water sources in South-west Nigeria come from the following: (a) Surface water, usually runoff and stagnant water; (b) Underground water, these are free water , groundwater tables and geological tables; (c) Aerial water, usually rain water ; and (d) Biomass water, found in plants and animals. In some of the major cities under this study, the various sources of untreated surface water include, streams, rivers (Ogun in Abeokuta, Ogunpa in Ibadan, Oshun in Oshogbo, Ala in Akure, Ajilosun in Ado-Ekiti), dug-out wells, brooks, bore-holes etc. Utilization varies from domestic to industrial from one city to another. This is due to factors such

314 as population size, level of industrialization, categories and types of institution in the city, mode and type of housing systems, technological variability in the city etc. However, water supply and distribution schemes in the study area is directed towards two major components. These are mainly (a) municipal and (b) industrial. Municipal schemes are focused on the supply of treated water to homes, hostels, hotels, hospitals etc while the industrial schemes are geared towards the supply of both treated and untreated water to small-scale and large-scale industrial units.

Demand and supply position

None of the cities under study could meet their urban water demand inspite of various World Bank assisted programmes in cities like Ibadan, Oshogbo and Lagos There are cases where potable water are non-existent for over 8 months in some cities.Reasons for this include lack of funds or gross mis-appropriation of funds for such projects, lack of technological know-how, lack of proper supervision of urban water projects, lack of modern town planning program in some of the cities to mention but a few. This has led to the influx of small-scale outfits that store and sell water in nylon sachets and polythene bags. This is popularly called 'pure water' in the major streets of all the cities under study. The cost of a sachet of such water is 5 naira, approximately less than $0.005. Alternative supplies to industries where adequate supply of water does not exist was observed to be done by contractors who use water -holding vehicles to supply water. This ranged from 500 to 33,000 litres per drop per location. The cost of such is however subjected to demand and supply indices.

Health implication of the result of the study

Over 89% of city/urban dwellers have no continuous access to potable water round the year in all the study area. Private boreholes and wells (dug-out water receptacles) were found to cover over 76% of urban centers like Ibadan, Akure and Ado-Ekiti. Bilharzias and typhoid fever were found to be very virulent in cities like Ibadan, Abeokuta and Lagos due to consumption of untreated water. Except during the wet season, demand for water for urban agriculture was extremely high in cities like Ibadan, Lagos and Oshogbo. (Table 1) Diarrhea, is known to kill over 25 million people each year in the developing countries, and 80% of the world's diseases is linked to unsafe water and poor sanitation (Agarwal, 1981). Nigeria is no exception. With the influx of different brands of 'sealed' water popularly called "pure water' into the knooks and crannies of Nigeria's major cities, unofficial reports confirm incidences of water related outbreaks, where unsafe water were consumed.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This study shows that efforts have to be made to address the issue of urban drift of people from rural to the already congested cities, the need to embark on rigorous urban town planning program in future city plans should be pursued. There is the real need for a sustainable program of urban water supply and management in most of the study areas through a partnership arrangement between International bodies such as UNESCO, UNDP, UNEP, World Bank and the newly created Water Forum of the World Bank (Table 2). This could be looked at from a Regional point of view, as being a Regional Project. Protection and sustainable development of the groundwater resources becomes mandatory in framing solutions to the problems identified in

315 this study. This is envisaged to be followed by cultural and well articulated social urban planning programmes.

Desired Urban Planning and means. For an efficient urban water supply, the following urban planning suggestions and water distribution options are proposed: (I) Discreet Units Supply Scheme This scheme is suggested to cover the following: (a) Construction and Installation of boreholes for categorized neighborhoods. (b) Development of natural springs for better utilization especially for urban agriculture, horticulture and aquaculture. (c) Industrial Selective Water Supply for Industries and Production Plants such as Coca-Cola, 7-Up, Nigeria Breweries etc. (2) Re-focusing funds for Dam construction. The first loan by the World Bank to a developing country, Chile in 1948 was for an irrigation and hydro-electric power project. By 1982, over $27 Billion had gone out for agriculture programmes with more than a third of the funds going to 285 irrigation schemes (Biswas, et al, 1983). Evidences of serious ecological and environmental consequences caused by major water engineering schemes abound in many developing ( Hollis & Thompson,1993). The general opinion is that series of smaller projects would provide most of the benefits at a lower investment cost and greatly reduce social and environmental impacts (CTA,1989)

REFERENCES

Agarwal, A. (1981) Water, Sanitation, Health- For All ? Earthscan, London & Washington. 1981.

Akegbejo-Samsons, Y. (2000). Partnership for sustainable utilization and conservation of Biodiversity: Water Resources and Protected areas. In Partnership in Sustainable utilizationand conservation of Biodiversity in Protected areas, ed. B.A.Ola-Adams, pp19-28. BRAAF Seminar. Biswas, A.K (1983) Long Distance Water Transfers: A Chinese Case Study and International Experiences. Tycosly Int. Dublin, pp xii. CTA (1989) Land and Food. The Challenges of sustainable Agriculture in the Tropics. CTA. Wageningen. Netherlands, pp 96. Dupriez, H & de Leener, P. (1992). Ways of Water. Run-off, Irrigation and Drainage. CTA Tropical Handbook. Netherlands. Hollis, G.E & J.R. Thompson (1993). Water resources developments and their hydrological impacts. In The Hadeija-Nguru Wetlands:Environment, Economy and Sustainable Development of a Sahelian floodplain wetland, ed. G.E. Hollis, W.M. Adams & M. Aminu-Kano. ppxviii + 244, IUCN, Glands Switzerland & Cambridge, UK. Ita, E.O. (1993). Inland Fishery Resources of Nigeria. CIFA Occasional Paper No 20, CIFA/OP 20 FAO, Rome. Pp 120 Ita, E.O., E.K.Sado, J.K.Balogun, A. Pandogari & B. Ibitoye (1985). Inventory survey of Nigeria Inland waters and their fisheries resources: Preliminary check-list of inland water bodies in Nigeria with special reference to ponds, lakes, reservoi and major rivers. Kainji Lake Research Institute Technical Paper Series No 14. pp. 51.

316

Annex.

Table 1: Basic Water requirement for human domestic needs

Purpose Recommended Current status (l/per/day) (Nigeria) Drinking water 5 2 Sanitation services 20 3 Bathing 15 8 Food preparation 10 2 * Sources: Gleick 1996 & Current Field work in Nigeria.

Table 2: Rank of importance of urban water sources in SW Nigeria.

Rank Sources Present status Future Trend

High Bore Holes & Wells Private enterprise Very expensive Trade of water increasing High Pottable Tap water Government controlled, May collapsed Insufficient, unreliable, and unstable Medium Rain water Highly dependable Requries storage & sanitation Medium Rivers, streams Highly dependable Requries storage & sanitation

317

THE IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOUR FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF URBAN WATER SYSTEMS

R. M. Ashley*, N. Souter** and S. Hendry***

*Department of civil & environmental engineering, University of Bradford, West Yorkshire, UK. E-mail: [email protected] ** Scottish Waste Awareness Group (SWAG), c/o Keep Scotland Beautiful, 7 Melville Tce, Stirling FK8 2 ND. Scotland. *** Dundee Business School, University of Abertay Dundee, Bell Street, Dundee, Scotland. E- mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Technical innovations which tend toward the provision of water infrastructural systems which are more sustainable can only be utilised within the context of the society within which they are set. Growing public consciousness and action to resist changes to systems which are perceived to be locally or more broadly unacceptable now necessitates the inclusion of public awareness, perception and behavioural elements within decision making processes. Ideally all stakeholders need to be included within the decision making process when planning changes to water infrastructure systems, not simply ‘consulted’ as was the approach used in the past. The big challenge now facing the water professions is how to provide information to the various stakeholders to ensure that they can make judgements based on an appropriate level of information. This will be even more crucial in the future, given the increasing worldwide privatisation and competition in water service provision and requisite setting of performance targets for these operators. Ironically, whether or not to privatise water service provision is usually an issue dealt with only by central governments, with no real opportunity for other stakeholder groups to participate in the decision. A new paradigm is needed to span the ‘top- down’ and ‘bottom-up’ approaches used in the past which includes an understanding of the awareness of each stakeholder group, appropriate information provision and inclusion in decision processes.

KEYWORDS

Infrastructure, performance, PFI, public, rats, stakeholders, sustainability.

INTRODUCTION

The traditional approach to devising and managing urban water systems in the developed world (and typically elsewhere) has been based on the ‘top-down’ model. ‘Experts’ identify where developments can be made in conjunction with Institutions and political structures. The ‘best’ solution to a particular development is then devised and implemented. As part of the process, the public are normally ‘consulted’ or ‘involved’ in the selection of the solution from a number of options. Their views are taken into account to a greater or lesser extent dependent on the political and cultural mores of the community.

318

The Rio summit in 1992 had, as a primary paradigm, the greater inclusion of all stakeholders in this process, via a ‘bottom-up’ approach. This is encapsulated in the very successful implementation of Agenda 21 in many countries. Partly in response to this, and also because of increasing public awareness of environmental and associated issues, there has been growing public consciousness about developments and the public’s ability to really influence the way in which needed changes are implemented (e.g. Jeffery, 2000; EAWAG, 2001). Unfortunately, it is rare that the public possess all of the information required on which to base judgements, often about very complex proposals. In fact it is often the social knowledge and Institutional systems which constrain the development of more sustainable infrastructure systems rather than the technical constraints (Loucks & Gladwell, 1999).

It should not be forgotten however, that it is frequently the experts who are the most reluctant to change ‘custom and practice’ and to innovate. This is the so-called ‘QWERTY’ problem, by analogy to the mechanical typewriter (Geldof, 1999), which encompasses a range of points of inertia to change systems which are not sustainable. The origins of the QWERTY problem are in the design of the mechanical typewriter with keys located to avoid jamming. Transposition to computer technology was by default and not from ergonomic considerations as to the best layout for typing. Geldof, 1999 recommends the evolution of sufficient ‘critical mass’ to overcome the QWERTY problem. An example of this is the re-introduction in Scotland of more use of at- source control measures for dealing with urban drainage. A concerted ‘evangelisation’ programme, mostly championed by the then Forth River Purification Board (now Scottish Environmental Protection Agency) has resulted in such systems becoming virtually mandatory in Scotland and of growing use in the rest of the UK. However, one unfortunate by-product of this ‘evangelisation’ process has been the adoption of an unrealistic term for these systems: SUDS (Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems). In fact it is likely that the majority of the systems being constructed in the UK are not sustainable (or even any more sustainable than traditional piped drainage systems) as no studies have been undertaken to investigate the sustainability in terms of detailed pressure-response-feedback loops. The latter is a good example of one of the (Geldof, 1999) QWERTIES, the ‘creeping-in untruth’.

Thus when considering the social and institutional aspects of introducing water resource systems which are likely to be more sustainable, it is essential to consider all of the relevant stakeholders. These comprise politicians, experts and the public as a whole. It will be essential if we are to survive, to develop new ways of getting the message across to each of these groups. The process must entail:

• Determination of the baseline of knowledge in the various stakeholder groups • Ascertaining the acceptability of potential system changes within constraint (e.g. legislative) boundaries • Engaging stakeholders in the process of determining and implementing acceptable system changes via a two way dialogue

Often, in countries like the UK, the public derogate their involvement in issues (such as those related to water) to local government or other representatives. Unfortunately, there may be little interest in water where institutional systems are such that local governments perceive that their role is limited. For example, at a recent UK research council meeting with the Local Government Association there was virtually no interest in water related issues (Milsom & Sykes, 2000) as this was perceived to be the province of others. Hence it is essential to engage representatives of the

319 public in order to raise their awareness of all elements of society. As an aside, it is notable that the most powerful advertising medium, TV, is occasionally used to encourage people to behave more responsibly in terms of e.g. drinking and driving, but is never used to promote more sustainable ways of living.

This paper provides an illustration of the way in which stakeholder opinion is often ill-informed, but nonetheless, can constrain changes to water service provision which may overall be beneficial.

PUBLIC OWNERSHIP OF WATER IN SCOTLAND

Scotland, population just 5.1 million, has exploitable surface water resources equivalent to 16,000m3 per person per year (Wright, 1995), well in excess of the European average of 4600m3. In Scotland, water was managed by Regional Councils up until April 1996, when 3 new Water Authorities were created. A public pressure campaign, around the mantra “Scotland’s Water - Safe Clean Affordable Public”, meant the retention of publicly owned Water Authorities, despite other options seemingly being preferred by Government (Scottish Office 1992). A referendum in the Glasgow region (some 50% of Scotland’s population) revealed that more than 97% of the population wished to retain public ownership. Nonetheless, the Minister at the time was quoted as stating that ‘there was a measure of support for privatisation’. Clearly this ‘public‘ decision did not suit the Government of the time (Westminster parliament), both for doctrinaire reasons and also as this put pressure on the Public Sector Borrowing Requirement (PSBR) because of the huge investments needed in Scottish water infrastructure. Hence a way of maintaining low PSBR was determined by utilisation of the Private Finance Initiative (PFI), an approach increasingly adopted across the UK for transport, health and other service provision (e.g. Evans, 1996; Henderson, 1998). PFI for a while became almost a ‘religion’ in the UK, as illustrated by the articles in the UK’s PFI journal and much of the UK’s infrastucture investment in the past decade has utilised this way of avoiding PSBR increases.

At the time of formation, the UK Government determined that borrowing by the new Scottish Authorities could not exceed the £2.5bn needed for the routine replacements over the first 15 years of their life. This meant that the other £2.5bn required to finance the new raft of EU standards within the tight timescales required had to be found from elsewhere, hence the need for PFI funding. Since then all major wastewater infrastructure schemes in Scotland have been undertaken using this approach. The re-established Scottish Parliament has devolved responsibility for water and the environment under the Scotland Act 1998, but competition law is reserved to Westminster and new provisions under the Competition Act 1998, may de facto see the end of the public sector monopoly in Scotland. In 1996, water and sewerage were removed from local government. Although Scotland’s water services are ostensibly ‘public’, they are controlled by an unelected appointed quango and a ‘Commissioner’ covering economics and customer service regulation. Since the middle of the 19th century this has been the preferred administrative form for the UK, giving overall control to Ministers whilst leaving the Board answerable to Parliament and the public for its own activities. The Competition Act 1998, introduced in response to European law, will probably have a bigger impact on the Scottish WSPs than those in the rest of the UK, as the way to introduce some form of competition into what is currently a public service, is not clear, even for the Commissioner. Unlike the Director General of Water Services in England & Wales, the Commissioner has no power to appoint additional undertakers to operate in Scotland. The Scottish Executive is substantially revising the

320 existing guidelines on joint ventures in order to allow the Water Authorities to enter into new forms of partnership to pursue new business opportunities (Scottish Executive, 2000).

The use of PFI for the major investment schemes (based on the BOO: Build-Own-Operate model) is seen by many as ‘privatisation by the back door’, and an inefficient way of providing water services. The main problems are (New Civil Engineer, 1995): • 25 year long private operational licences for plant are needed to ensure attractiveness to private investors, hence prolonged private operation is essential • financial partners prefer low risk (and hence low innovation) plant design and operation • risks are difficult to quantify at each project stage and hence higher margins will be expected, particularly to ‘second-guess’ future legislation • cost of borrowing is higher in the private than public sectors • private investors require profitability • The water authorities are committed to provision of flows and loads over the 25 year licence periods as agreed with the BOO operator.

When viewed within the perspective of sustainability, these constraints militate against innovation, minimisation (at source) and preclude the efficiencies of operation arising from integrated operation of entire wastewater systems. It is difficult to conclude that PFI as operated in Scotland can be efficient and effective for anyone but the contractors and bankers who own and operate the new treatment plants. Recently there has been a move away from PFI in Scotland toward PPP (Public Private Partnership) schemes. This has accompanied new cost saving demands made by the water Commissioner, with £134m to be saved by 2006 as part of a current public consultation exercise (Scottish Executive, 2001) and the move toward a unitary Water Authority for Scotland.

Elsewhere in the world the form of provision of water services is very mixed, although the ongoing ‘march’ of more and more private ownership and/or operation can be seen, despite the very limited evidence that private operation has ‘by definition’ to be more efficient (Neuwirth & Rynowecer, 1999). Curiously, one of the main tenets of capitalism is competition, yet we still have to see where there is any real competition in the privatised ‘monopoly’ water service providers. In any case, attempts to transfer the regulatory functions into the private sector have not been successful, even in the UK when the English industry was privatised, and governments at various levels must continue to ensure that water services are properly overseen in order to maintain public health (Hukka & Katko, 2000).

SANITARY WASTE DISPOSAL

In developed countries domestic sewage is normally disposed of using water-borne collection systems (sewers) leading to wastewater treatment plants (WTPs). Sewage includes a range of solid material, generally introduced via the water closet (WC): faecal matter, toilet paper and 'sanitary waste’. The main items that make up sanitary waste are: female sanitary products including sanitary towels; panty liners; backing strips; tampons and applicators; and general bathroom refuse. In the UK for example, some 2.5 million tampons, 1.4 million sanitary towels and 700,000 panty liners are flushed every day and now an unquantified amount of baby wipes (Ashley & Souter, 1999). Whilst pressure can be applied to manufacturers to develop fully biodegradable forms of these products, and to use less plastic, the current nature of the items

321 means that the numbers and weights being disposed of are unlikely to reduce in the foreseeable future. Disposal of these items via the WC presents a problem for wastewater system operators and incurs an unacknowledged customer cost.

In a recent study undertaken to assess which of two routes for disposal of these items was likely to be more sustainable, either the WC or the waste bin, the three main indicative areas: of economy, environment and society were studied in detail, and in each area disposal via the solid waste route was found more sustainable. Application of cost-benefit analysis using a 45 year timescale showed the present worth of benefits was significantly greater than the present worth of the costs. There were considerable costs savings. (about £6000 annually for a 2000 population catchment, and some £120,000 for 60,000 population) likely to arise from even a 50% change in public disposal habits from the waterborne to the solid waste route. There were no legal, institutional or health impediments to promoting a change in public behaviour, and encouraging more binning and the issue was found to be one of education alone. The increased amounts of materials which would be introduced to the solid waste collection system (circa 0.3% by mass from a 100% behavioural change) were found to be negligible compared with the total amount of municipal solid waste currently being collected. As sanitary waste is in any case, ultimately disposed to the same point as municipal solid waste, with sewage screenings going to landfill or incineration, there is likely to be no difference between the ultimate fate of the sanitary solids removed from wastewater systems, and any change which would mean that more of these solids were placed directly into the municipal solid waste stream closer to their point of origin. Direct environmental benefits also accrue due to a reduction in the numbers of items of Sewage Related Debris (SRD) being discharged from wastewater systems into the environment. Despite recent Regulations making screening of such discharges mandatory (and now being implemented in the UK), current screen technologies are unable to ensure that all such items are prevented from 'escaping' on to beaches or watercourses, prior to their screened removal for controlled disposal.

Quantitative Before Survey Public attitudes to sanitary Focus groups waste disposal before Door to door questionnaire TBYF campaign

Campaign Design ‘Think Before You Flush’ Campaign Six month period in each test area Public attitudes to Steering Group Steering sanitary waste disposal after TBYF campaign Quantitative After Survey Door to door questionnaire Appraise effectiveness of campaign methods

Figure 1 Methodology to assess societal attitudes and change behaviour

322

The main aims of the study included assessing public knowledge and responsiveness to encouragement to change sanitary waste disposal practices. Subsequently an appraisal of the effectiveness of high profile public campaigns was made to reduce waterborne disposal and to assess the consequential effects. This was then extended more globally to develop general rules for such campaigns (Ashley et al., 1999).

A summary of the methodology adopted to assess societal issues is given in Figure 1. Initially qualitative studies via focus groups were used to determine the attitudes of householders and to aid in the campaign design. The analytical themes derived from this phase of the project were used to inform the construction of a questionnaire designed to elicit more detailed information about people’s disposal habits. Following a six-month outreach programme within the four communities studied a postal survey analysis was undertaken to appraise the effectiveness of the campaign. It was concluded that increasing public awareness via specific campaigns could significantly reduce sanitary waste inputs to wastewater systems, particularly if the public were shown via a detailed and scientific study that to so do would lead to a more sustainable mode of behaviour. The study developed a methodology for the water industry to follow when implementing such campaigns and which has now been successfully implemented in a wide variety of communities throughout Scotland, attaining reductions of sanitary waste flushing of between 45% and 83% (unpublished data).

The public behavioural research demonstrated that outreach efforts such as the strategy employed by the campaign targeted to specific audiences are more effective than broad-based efforts. Awareness amongst the communities was achieved not via a single activity, but through the use of a combined approach, incorporating a range of promotional and educational activities, including: interactive school presentations, public beach-cleans, mobile displays, computer games etc., aimed at targeting all stakeholders within a community. Audience perception, values and needs were considered, this ensured stakeholder participation and involvement and guided stakeholders towards making their own decisions within their community. Simultaneously, expert buy-in was achieved via a number of means. Face-to-face, workshop and seminar discussions led to the majority of the professionals involved in wastewater provision accepting the approach, however, a minority remain sceptical about the possibility of changing public behaviour.

RATS, SEWERS AND LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE

The public are very concerned that the numbers of rats in the UK are increasing. This is fuelled by regular media reports. Most of these suggest that a reduction in investment in rodent control procedures by the UK water industry has resulted in an increase in rat problems, particularly surface sightings of rats emerging from sewers (e.g. Battersby 1999). Problems of hygiene, health and aesthetics have been highlighted from this supposed increase in surface sewer rat sightings. In addition, it has been claimed that as there are more rats ‘below than above’ ground, there must inevitably be increasing problems for sewer maintenance. These reports have been picked up by the populist media and used to engender alarmism and fears amongst the population of the UK (e.g. Neale & Irvine, 1997; Daily Express, 2000). Nonetheless there is no scientific evidence that there is an increase in sewer-related rat problems, particularly surface sightings of rats emerging from sewers. In a comprehensive survey of every agency in the UK, reported recently by the UK’s Water Industry Research organisation, UKWIR, responses were received from 97% of sewerage utilities, 41% of local authorities and 40% of specialist rodent control contractors

323

(UKWIR, 2000). Over a 5 year period up until 1998, the confirmed complaints reported by the local authorities surveyed actually show a decline. The utility records also provided evidence which indicate a decrease in reported complaints. About 10% of the local authority sightings of rats were attributed to sewer systems, some of which can be related to local, household drains, rather than main sewers. For the period 1997 - 1998 the average number of confirmed infestations per head of population for the UK’s main sewerage network was reported as only 1 in 11,600. Between 1993 and 1998, 58 of the sewerage utility respondents, reported some 129 incidents of sewer damage attributable to rats, with 15 of the utilities reporting no evidence of damage. When considered in the context of the length of the UK sewer network (304000km), the damage figure is very small, suggesting that rat burrowing and gnawing in sewers may be generally insignificant.

The sewerage utilities currently use a number of approaches to rat control, within the general categories of: reactive – responding to sightings or other incidents of infestation; proactive – with a planned programme of poison baiting progressively across their networks. With the proactive approach, all utilities also use a reactive strategy, as rat sightings and complaints still occur. This indicates the limitations of the proactive approach. Some utilities adopt separate proactive/reactive strategies whereas others use both approaches. In terms of effectiveness, the reactive approach appears to be just as successful as the proactive/reactive combination, and at just over £2 per km of sewer, compared with about £10 per km of sewer, respectively, the reactive approach is significantly cheaper than the proactive/reactive combination. Hence, rat control in sewers would appear to be most cost-effective using the reactive approach. However, for public relations purposes, the reactive-only approach will not be acceptable, and some level of proactive baiting will have to be maintained. The public appear to be willing to pay higher charges for a service which is not needed, largely through a lack of knowledge and incitement by the media.

It would seem that current practices for rat control are maintaining a balance which appears to be generally acceptable, in terms of sightings, damage and value for money in the UK. However, many of the sewerage utilities have very limited knowledge of the problem and do not keep adequate incident records. Hence, an auditable rat incident data collection system is required, with performance indicators and suggested service levels based on both annual incidents and temporal outbreaks of infestation (Ashley & Hopkinson, 2000). As this issue is very emotive, with recurrent outbreaks of media reports of rat epidemics in the UK, it is essential that the water utilities adopt a more proactive approach to media relations. Greater cooperation is needed with both local authorities, the media and in mounting public awareness campaigns. In terms of appropriate performance, it may well pay water utilities to invest more in promoting public awareness and more sensible behaviour (refuse and food scraps) than continuing to waste money on expensive proactive (and largely unnecessary) sewer poison baiting.

324

CONCLUSIONS

The various stakeholders in the supply chain of water service provision have different levels of understanding and differing impacts on defining the most efficient way to manage the processes involved. Evidence presented here suggests that no stakeholder group is entirely objective about the best way of providing water services. Governments have wider ‘political’ perspectives, as do regional bodies like the EU. Professionals have, to various degrees, the need to sustain their own positions; private companies need to profit from whatever activity they undertake. Private individuals (customers) are most often the part of the chain where the least knowledge resides and hence tend to make the most emotive judgements. Ironically, whilst ‘customers’ seem to have more and more influence on the selection of options for ‘local’ developments, they typically have less and less influence on the WSP institutional framework. It is probable that the majority of customers would prefer public rather than private provision of water services, nonetheless because of doctrinaire perspectives, most societies are increasingly utilising some form of private provision, supposedly with ‘competition’ being introduced. The cases described here show firstly that ‘public’ institutional arrangements can be compromised by (economic) constraints which compel them to rely on expensive private investments. The second case demonstrates that unsustainable public behaviour may be changed by appropriate information provision (provided in a variety of ways). Finally, evidence is shown that the way in which services are provided for the control of rats in sewers in the UK is inefficient and wasteful of resources largely in order to assuage public fears about this highly emotive issue.

If water systems are ultimately to be devised, managed and operated in as sustainable a way as possible, it will be necessary to find a way to effectively involve and inform all stakeholders in deciding on the best ways to do this. Neither a ‘top-down’ nor a ‘bottom-up’ approach is adequate and it is time to find a new paradigm for stakeholder cooperation at all levels. The key to the new paradigm is education, communication and empowerment (e.g. EAWAG, 2001). For the latter, professionals, politicians and others, need to give more respect to including the public more effectively in these processes. Traditionally, engineers have not been good at dealing with the ‘public’ for development proposals, and perhaps new approaches using models (a language engineers do understand) will be more successful (e.g. Tillman et al, 1999). Existing formal mechanisms for consultation (statutory and non-statutory) are not sufficient. They are too formal; respondents (especially if from community/public) may not be representative nor feed back effectively; in any case these consultations take place after scoping and selection of options. The public must be better informed and involved at earlier stages and throughout the evolution of a project if they are to provide useful input, feel empowered and take ‘ownership’. For other stakeholders the same principles apply; cooperation across institutions and internal information flows. Opening up of decision-making to appraise options not normally considered, using a sustainability analysis and utilising a variety of approaches – focus groups, poster presentations, email or web-based discussion groups are all appropriate at operative and lower-management level in organisations involved with water services. This would allow cross-discipline debate and could be inter- and/or intra-institutional. At senior management, politician or regulator level, opening up is harder to achieve but more valuable for long-term policy changes. Perhaps encouraging better communication and freedom of discussion at other levels will put pressure on top-level decision-makers to make more sustainable decisions. Only at that level can the fundamental (legislative and economic) policy constraint failures be remedied. The media has a key role – it is currently under-utilised in this area. It can be used by all stakeholders and needs to be managed effectively, especially at operative and management levels to promote more sustainable ways of providing our infrastructure.

325

REFERENCES

Ashley R M., Souter N. (1999). Urban Drainage: The human dimension. Keynote paper presented at the 8th International Conference on Urban Drainage, Sydney. Ashley R M., Hendry S., Souter N., Blackwood D J., Moir J., Dunkerley J. (1999). Domestic sanitary waste disposal via the WC – unsustainable. Proc CIB W62 Conference Water supply and Drainage for Buildings. Sept. Edinburgh. Ashley R M., Hopkinson P. (2000). Sewer systems and Performance indicators – into the 21st Century. Conf. Performance indicators in the water industry. CIWEM/IAHR. Dec. University of Hertfordshire Battersby S. (1999). Urban rat control, underground drainage and public health. Report of Research seminars. Robens Centre for Public and Environmental Health, University of Surrey. Daily Express (2000). Thursday November 9th. EAWAG (2001). EAWAG news 50e, February. Evans A. (1996). Accounting for PFI. Private Finance Initiative Journal. Vol. 1, Issue 6. P6-8. Geldof G. (1999). QWERTIES in integrated urban water management. Proc. 8th Int. Conference on Urban Drainage, Sydney. Aug-Sept. Ed. Joliffe I B., Ball J E. ISBN 0 85825 718 1 Henderson J. (1998). Investing in Scotland. Private Finance Initiative Journal. Vol. 3, Issue 3. pp. 20-23. Hukka J J., Katko T S. (2000). Privatisation of water services – Puzzling experiences, yet little discussion. European water management. Vol.3 (3). pp. 43-44. Jeffery P. (2000). The human dimensions of water use. Water 21. Oct. pp. 11-13. Loucks D P., Gladwell J S. (Eds.) (1999). Sustainability criteria for water resource systems. Cambridge University Press. UNESCO. ISBN 0 521 56044 6. New Civil Engineer (1995). Private function. Water Supplement. October. Neale G., Irvine D. (1997). Privatised sewer patrols may lead to rat epidemic. Electronic Telegraph. UK news Sunday 16th November. Neuwirth R., Rynowecer M (1999). Public utilities can match private utilities. Utility Executive. Vol.2 No.3. WEF. Scottish Executive (2000). Managing Change in the Water Industry: A Consultation Paper. June. Scottish Executive (2001) http://www.scotland.gov.uk/consultations/environment/awas-00.asp (accessed 25-01-01) Scottish Office (1992). Water and Sewerage in Scotland : Investing in Our Future. Stationery Office Edinburgh. Tillman D., Larsen T A., Pahl-Wostl C., Gujer W. (1999). Modelling the actors in water supply systems. Wat.Sci.Tech. 39(4) p 203-211 UKWIR (2000). Rodent control in sewers. UKWIR project report WM-07a. Wright, P. (1995). Water Resources Management in Scotland. Journal of Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management 9(2) 153.

326

IS PRIVATISATION OF URBAN WATER SUPPLY SERVICES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES A SUSTAINABLE ALTERNATIVE? EXPERIENCES FROM ARGENTINES RECENT PRIVATISATION STRATEGY

J. Bundschuh and A. Fuertes

Universidad Nacional de Salta UNSa, Latin-American Centre for Groundwater Research INASLA, Buenos Aires 177, 4400 Salta, Argentina, [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Argentine's former public water and sewerage services were characterised by short-term planning and investments. Tasks were executed as purely technical and classical project by project planning. In the 1990s, Argentine's national and provincial governments privatised the majority of the public water and sewerage services by granting long-term private concessions. These allow long-term management, planning and investments where in an integrated approach social- economic, technical-scientific, environmental and political-institutional aspects can be considered as such is required for a sustainable development. With two exceptions, this privatisation resulted in the studied urban areas in an improvement for the consumers. This improvement was by far not optimal, as such would have been possible when the responsible governments would have taken more care and time for the privatisation. Principal faults are: (1.) Bad elaborated and weak contracts which do not, or only insufficiently include social and environmental performance objectives; additionally they do not consider all possible cases, which may occur; (2.) missing independent, powerful and competent regulatory systems where consumer organisations are involved.

KEYWORDS

Argentina; integrated water resources management; privatisation; sustainability.

INTRODUCTION

Especially in the quickly expanding urban areas of developing countries, water becomes increasingly strong interconnected with numerous social-economic, financial, environmental, scientific-technical and political-institutional aspects. Due to the increasing water scarcity and competition, the water resources management can no longer be viewed as purely technical and the classical project-by-project planning becomes increasingly inadequate. The water use must be integrated among different competitive users like: environment, economy and society. Correspondingly water must be considered as a multi-dimensional issue in which different groups as politicians, society, private sector and scientists are involved in different levels and scales and in different ways: by multiple purposes, multiple objectives, multiple means and multiple constituencies.

The corresponding need of an integrated approach of water resources management is widely recognised, but barely implemented. Reasons are missing strategies, tools and local knowledge.

327

Additionally exists the widespread outdated opinion of all involved groups, governments, private sector and society, that water is different from other goods. Due to the high water availability in the case study Argentine and many other developing countries, they all considered water unlimited in both, in quantity and quality, as free public good and hence of low value. So anybody wanted to use water as a public good that belongs to everybody, but nobody wanted to invest for its long-term conservation. The costs from the resulting environmental impacts are not paid by the user or polluter, but by a third party, e.g. by the society or by the nature. So Argentines former public sewage services preferred contamination instead investing to improve sewage treatment plants and to increase the coverage of sewerage services. The former public water supply services preferred high losses of water in their supply system instead of investing money for maintenance or new pipes.

In most Latin-American countries, as in many developing countries with an elevated gross national product, actually the privatisation of the water and sewage services is realised or considered. In Argentine, most services were privatised in the 1990s. The resulting changes shall be analysed and compared for different urban areas. Comparison with the situation under the former public providers shall show whether, why and how privatisation of water supply services may be used for a more integrated water resources management. It shall be analysed which technical-scientific, social-economic, environmental, and political-institutional performance objectives must be considered to improve sustainability. It must be mentioned that this study remains incomplete. Reasons therefore are the limited access to information and the verification of the same. In several cases, the persons were afraid to speak since they feared consequences for their posts and careers.

THE NEED OF CHANGE

In the time of the former public water supply and sewerage services, existed no long-term thinking, planning and investment. Water conservation, environmental and social aspects were not considered. The tasks were only executed as purely technical and classical project-by-project planning. Reasons are obvious: From 1912 on, most Argentine's water and sewerage services were national. In 1980 they were overtaken by provincial providers who showed generally an inefficient service, missing significant investments for maintenance and coverage extension. The knowledge of the personnel was generally low and not actualised to the international standard. Directed by chiefs in political positions, often unqualified for their tasks, and a missing database, decisions were made often in ignorance. Their 4-years appointment made a long-term planning impossible. Water was considered as free good and only the service was charged. Consequences were similar in the urban areas all over Argentina: Only 73 % of the population had drinking water supply, only 69 % by house connections. Only 39 % of the population had sewerage. Unaccounted for water was over 50 %. Programmed water shortages were common. Two thirds of the sewage received no treatment, 27 % received primary and 8 % secondary treatment. Due to increasing population and increasing poverty in the urban areas, under the public service providers these numbers moved continuously to more negative values causing worsening of the social and environmental conditions.

328

THE REASONS FOR SELECTING THE PRIVATISATION OPTION

Without doubt, the situation of incompetent and ineffective public water and sewerage services needed to be changed. Therefor different options were possible: • A radical restructuring of the public services including a long-term investment programme which requires to obtain loans from national and international banks. Thereby public services have the same access to these loans like private companies. Carried out in an appropriate manner, such public services operate cheaper than a private company, which must make profits. Missing local experts and guidance on institutional restructuring make this option unsuitable for the Argentine case as in general for developing countries. • Public-public partnerships, where assistance to improve their services is given to the public service providers in form of consultancy, capacity building and assistance to get finance for the required investments. This assistance can be provided by other foreign or national public sector organisations including international agencies of technical co-operation and universities. • Privatisation of the public services, either in form of short-term service contracts or long-term concessions, where the provider is also responsible for investments. This guarantees the input of international experts and knowledge of the highest international standard.

In Argentine, only the privatisation option was considered. Reasons were (1.) the governments required urgently money, (2.) the politicians wanted to be excused from the load of public services.

THE PRIVATISATION

The privatisation of most of Argentine's water and sewerage services was realised in the 1990s in the frame of a far-reaching privatisation campaign of the Peronist government of president Menem (Tab. 1). Long-term concessions were transferred generally for 30 years to multinationals. This allows long-term planning and gives the private providers a powerful tool for more sustainability compared with public providers. With this change, a chance was given to move towards long-term investments, a more integrated water resources management and to apply the experiences of international firms. The concessionaires must meet defined performance objectives as (1.) to reduce tariffs, (2.) to improve operation, service quality, water quality, pressure, and the quality of sewer effluents, (3.) to improve coverage and infrastructure, and (4.) to introduce new technologies. The concessionaire is responsible for operation and maintenance of the services and must finance all investments to fulfil the performance objectives. In the Buenos Aires case this means: from 1993 to 2023 the coverage of drinking water supply will be increased from 70 % to 100 %, sewerage coverage from 58 to 90 %, wastewater to receive primary and secondary treatment from 4 to 93 %. Unaccounted for water will be decreased from 45 to 25 %, and a percentage for renovation of water supply and sewerage network is guaranteed. Unconsidered remained important performance objectives like (1.) social and environmental aspects, (2.) the application of integrated sustainable management strategies, (3.) not to overexploit the aquifers, (4.) not to contaminate the water resources by improper exploitation, and (5.) to spent a certain amount for data collection and monitoring.

329

Table 1: Overview on selected concessions (modified after Rais, 1999).

Name Population Initiation of Drinking water Ghange in initial tariff served concession coverage compared to that ex- (millions) or transfer initial after 5 years isting before start of of services (%) (%) concession (%) Aguas Argentinas 8.8 1993 70 85 -15.67 Aguas Prov. de Santa Fe 1.7 1995 82 100 -13.2 Aguas Cordobesas 1.3 1997 77.3 82 -8.2 Aguas del Aconquija 1.0 1995 70.5 100 +67.9 Aguas de Corrientes 0.5 1991 60 72 +2 Aguas de Salta 214,000 clients 1998 -- -- 0

EXPERIENCES FROM THE PRIVATISATION - EXAMPLES

Example Buenos Aires – insufficient time for preparing a good contract

The bidding for the water and sewerage services of Buenos Aires must be seen as emergency response due to the crisis state that the state company was in (Hall, 1999). For the government, there was no time to elaborate a good designed contract which considers, e.g. social and environmental aspects, and there was no possibility to do so in order not to decrease the attraction for the investors.

Example Buenos Aires (2000) – Bad elaborated concession contract

In a suburb of Buenos Aires, the private provider Aguas Argentinas closed wells, which provided the consumers with groundwater. From there on, the supply was by water imported from another area. The cut of the groundwater exploitation resulted in a rise of the groundwater level and inundations of buildings. The solution was clear: Pumps needed to be installed to lower the groundwater level. Problem was: Aguas Argentinas denied to pay for the pumps and their operation and maintenance costs. So considerable time was lost for negotiations with the government, a time where many consumers lived under inhuman conditions in wet houses. Reason for the problem was that such a case and the responsibility of the private provider therefor were not foreseen in the contract (as such is required). To avoid such problems, in the contract the provider must be also obliged to carry out impact studies before initiating activities. That was also not included in the contract.

Example Salta (2000/2001) - Bad elaborated concession contract

As in the previous example, in an extended part of Salta (500,000 inhabitants), the private provider Aguas de Salta S.A. (ASSA), plans to close wells which deliver groundwater to the area. In future, the water supply of this area shall be by surface water imported from outside the area. ASSA does not want to pay for an impact-study which the regulators requested to estimate the expected rise of the groundwater level and the resulting consequences. Reason: In the contract, the service provider is not obliged to carry out environmental impact or feasibility studies for his activities.

330

Example - Missing readiness of providers to invest own money and for risks

In the contracts, the multinational concessionaires promised huge investments. It was generally assumed that this money comes from the concessionaires. In reality, the multinational firms do not want to invest and risk their own capital. So they finance most of the investments by loans. In the case of Buenos Aires, Aguas Argentinas invested during the first 5 years only US$ 120 million of its own money, the rest of the US$ 1,000 million investment came from loans (Hall, 1999). The multinationals do not give their own properties as guaranties for these loans, and hence again reduce their own risk. These risk reductions decrease the motivation of the provider.

Example Salta and La Rioja - Reaching a 24-hour service of water supply

During the last 37 years before the privatisation, in large parts of Salta water shortages were programmed lasting generally from 9 o'clock in the evening to 5 o'clock next morning. Similar water shortages existed in La Rioja. The private providers of the concessions La Rioja and Salta stopped these programmed shortages.

Example Salta (2000, 2001) - Water quality, missing installation of water-meters

In 2000, the concessionaire ASSA provided for months, large parts of the downtown of Salta with turbid water. The regulator considered no penalties, sanctions or measures to import clear water from other sources to these consumers. Water-meters, which should be installed after the contract, are not yet installed. So as before in the time of the public providers, only the service of water supply is charged to the consumers. Consequently the water consumption by the customers remained with daily 380 l/person unaltered high. Additionally to this volume, daily 150 l/person, which is due to leakage in the supply system must be added, resulting in a total daily exploitation of 530 l/person. These large volumes result in a correspondingly high volume of sewage.

Example Buenos Aires province – severe performance problems, eventual contract recission

The water and sewerage services for most of Buenos Aires province were granted in July 1999 to AZURIX. Few months later, performance problems started in different regions. Several cities were for several days without water (General Villegas, Pehuajó, Carlos Casares, 9 de Julio and the provincial capital La Plata). Low water pressure was also observed at different sides. Additionally occurred errors in the bills (too high). The worse case affected Bahia Blanca where in the middle of 2000 during one month the consumers received dirty water, unsuitable for consumption or hygienic purposes. In January 2001, the governor of Buenos Aires asked the legislature to analyse a recission of the contract. Additionally, the concessionaire announced a tariff increase, which the governor announced to reject. In return, AZURIX says, that the province is not executing promised constructions. In case of a recission of the contract, AZURIX would file a 530 million suit against the province to get back its investments. On January 15, 2001, a provincial court obliged AZURIX to provide free of charge drinking water to consumers whose water supply is insufficient. Additionally they were obliged to resolve the supply problems in the suburbs of La Plata within five days.

331

Example Buenos Aires - The situation after 5 years of privatisation

In the first 5 years of the concession (1993 to 1998), Aguas Argentina spent over US$ 1,000 million to improve the water and sewerage services. That is four times more than spent by the former public providers in the decade before. The coverage of drinking water supply by house connections was increased by 25 %, (from 6.2 to 7.7 million inhabitants) and the connection to the sewerage system by 20 % (from 4.8 to 5.8 million inhabitants). Huge amounts of money were spent for starting with the renovation of the over-altered dilapidated water supply and sewerage system. Nevertheless 3.5 million people are still without access to water by house connections and sewerage services (Hall, 1999). Assuming (a) 8.6 million of inhabitants in the concession area, and (b) a population increase of 200,000 the coverage objective of 85 % corresponds to 7.7 million inhabitants which must be connected to the water services after five years (Tab. 1). As above numbers show, this is fulfilled. When assuming a population of 10 million in the concession area, the reached coverage would only reach 77 %. Hence the promised increase from 70 % to 85 % would be only half reached. This shows, how difficult the verification of fulfilling performance objectives is if no exact numbers of populations are known. That is especially reality in large cities like Buenos Aires.

Example Buenos Aires - Service extension to poor areas

Aguas Argentinas found out that in the poor areas the people could not pay the connection costs for their services and that they are making losses in these areas. So they stopped the extension of their services to these areas and extended their services to other areas to fulfil the performance objective coverage extension. They said that they have invested the amount mentioned in the contract and so fulfilled the contract (bad contract). They renegotiated with the government, which wanted this extension to the poor areas and came in November 1997 to an agreement. As return for expanding services to poor areas they obtained permission to increase prices and tariffs (by 2 US$ per month). It was agreed that customers in poor areas, which could not pay the initial connection costs, pay these costs distributed over five years. Aguas Argentinas stated, that this contract modification would facilitate the access of three million people to tap water and sewerage services. This contract modification earned much criticism and in March 1998, the high court decided that the price increases, which were permitted by the government, were illegal. The response of Aguas Argentinas was that under such condition they would cut its investments in the water system. In January 2001, the contract was again modified. The regulator ENOHSA approved that Aguas Argentinas increases the tariffs for water up to 2003 by annually 3.9 % (starting in February 2001). This implies a tariff increase of 12 % up to 2003. As equivalent, Aguas Argentinas promised inversions of US$ 1,100 million up to 2023. Additionally Aguas de Salta promised to spend annually US$ 4 million for installing water connections for poor people, which can not pay the connection costs.

Agitated by above experiences and considering that up to the end of the concession in 2023 total coverage of water supply by house connections must be reached and considering that in Buenos Aires more than 2 million people are living in poor areas, Suez-Lyonnaise de Eaux went new ways. In 1997, Aguas Argentinas brought in the International Institute for Environment and Development IIED (Mathys, 2000). IIED is a non-profit organisation that carries out policy research and project implementation in relation to sustainable services for the urban poor. For the Buenos Aires case, they developed four models for establishing a participatory approach (Tab. 2) to integrated solutions considering social aspects.

332

Model Population size Agreement between Realised up to 2000

Participatory Water up to 2,500 concessionaire, municipality, community 15; comprising 30,000 Service Scheme (residents paying for connections with people mainly in the their labour) concession's northern and NGO Intervention 2,500 to 15,000 concessionaire, township, southern zone Scheme neighbourhood, an NGO of the area acting as link Tax Generation 11; in the southern zone Agreement System Employment up to 50,000 concessionaire, municipality, provincial 5; involving 115,000 Generating Unit government (paying the costs of people in the southern and Scheme materials and the cost of labour western zones Tab. 2: Models for establishing a participatory approach (compiled after data from Mathys, 2000).

Example Santa Fe province - Introduction of new technologies

In Santa Fe province, 5 of 15 cities (200,000 inhabitants) depend on groundwater with an average arsenic concentration of 0.2 mg/l. In 1996, the public water supply services were granted as long- term concession (30 years) to APSF (operator Lyonnaise de Eaux). One of the performance objectives, is to provide drinking water with less than 0.1 mg As/l (provincial limit). Since the Argentine alimentary code permits only 0.05 mg/l, the company decided to use this limit to avoid conflicts. They plan to install low-cost treatment devices which can be installed directly at the wells. As consequence of numerous laboratory tests, a pilot treatment installation was recently installed at the outlet of one of the wells (Madiec, 2000). This treatment reduces arsenic from 0.2 to 0.03 mg/l.

Example Tucumán – bad contract and political problems

The most severe performance problems, which were accompanied, by political problems were in Tucumán with Vivendi's contract (Vivendi: formerly Generale de Eaux). Here in July 1995, the French concern Vivendi obtained from the Peronist government (Governor Ortega) a 30-year concession to run the water service. Few months later, it increased the tariffs by 100 % (Hall, 1999); (67 % after Rais, 1999) to finance its investment programme (instead of investing own money or obtaining loans). This resulted in heavy criticism. The situation became worse when the new governor Bussi (1995 - 1999) from a conservative party was elected (Fuerza Republicana). He used the privatisation of the water services carried out by the former Peronist government and the extreme tariff increase for his own political purposes and against his political enemies. The governor even encouraged the people not to pay the water bills. The situation escalated when nearly during the whole January 1996, the drinking water became brown (provoked by Vivendi or by the provincial government?). Now most of the citizens of Tucumán were convinced that the privatisation was bad, and more than 80 % of them stopped to pay their bills. The results of renegotiations between provider and government were rejected by the legislature. That forced the concessionaire to rescind its contract and to file a 335 million suit against the provincial and national government. The base for this suit was a mutual agreement from 1991, where the national governments of Argentine and France signed an agreement of promotion and protection of inversions. The suit of Vivendi was presented to the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) in Washington, a court that depends on the World Bank. The ruling of its arbitration body is mandatory and can not be appealed. The case

333

ARB/97/3 was decided in November 2000. The accusation was rejected and it was stated that the lawsuit must be directed to the court of Tucumán. The principal position of the accuser that the provincial government used the water services for political purposes and tried to destroy the concession (which was strictly denied by Argentines national government), and provoked them to rescind, was not accepted by ICSID. In their decision, ICSID valued the renegotiations of the government positively for the accused. After Vivendi rescinded from the contract, public authorities (National Regulators, ENOHSA) run again the water and sewage services in Tucumán. The actual governor Miranda (1999 - 2003) from the Peronist party has recently received tenders to privatise the services again. Considering the Tucumán case, many-sided questions rise when asking why the privatisation failed: Was the contract weak elaborated? Was there no control? Was the private concession misused for political purposes? Was there an agreement between the government and lawyers to earn giant honoraria for the defence? Clear is that neither side was perfect and that the consumers were the damaged third party.

Example La Rioja – Problems with tariffs and collection

During the time of the public providers, only 20 % of the consumers paid their bills. The private provider increased this number to 48 %. The actual idea is to combine the water bill with the bill for electricity (as positively applied in other provinces). This lets expect that 80 % of the consumers will pay for the water and sewerage services.

Examples Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Santa Fe, Tucumán - Renegotiations of contracts

Bits by different interested groups shall guarantee the competitive principle and the selection of the most suitable future service provider. Reality is that in many cases good-looking bits were submitted and selected and that afterwards the contracts were changed towards more unfavourable conditions for the consumers. So in all the three concessions owned by Suez- Lyonnaise de Eaux (Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Santa Fe) the original contract was changed and the concessionaire was permitted to increase its prices and tariffs. Also in Tucumán, Aguas de Aconquija renegotiated tariffs. In Salta, the concession contract of Aguas de Salta was two times illegally modified.

Regulatory systems – Insufficient, inadequate, inefficient, incompetent, not independent

Especially the provincial regulatory systems are inadequate and insufficient. Principal reasons are missing competence, missing independence and insufficient power. The existing regulatory work is predominantly technical and financial. Social and environmental aspects are generally missing. Lascano & Riobo (2000) from the national regulator (ENOHSA) of Buenos Aires state: Within the privatisation process, one of the most badly executed task has been the organisation of the state's role of regulation and control. This was ignored and underestimated. There is no cooperation between regulators and users' associations. It seems that the regulatory systems, which were often created by government decrees, were considered as formality, rather than to take on responsibility. After Lascano & Riobo (2000), the society see them as adjunct of the private service provider. The same authors describe that the private operators who also maintain very good relations with the government press the regulatory agencies. Similar observations could be made in the case of Salta.

334

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

• With exceptions of Tucumán and Buenos Aires province, Argentines privatisation campaign of water and sewerage services, has improved the situation of the consumers compared to the former time of public providers (even if many performance objectives were not reached). This improvement was by far not optimal, as such would have been possible when the responsible governments would have taken more care and time for the privatisation. This concerns especially social and environmental aspects. Reasons are (1.) weak contracts, (2.) renegotiation of contracts, (3.) corruption, (4.) a missing competent, powerful and independent regulatory system, (5.) missing transparency, and (6.) insufficient co-operation between private providers, the regulatory system and the consumers. • The contracts are generally bad elaborated and weak. Often they overestimate the performance objective price and tariff reduction so e.g. in the Buenos Aires case where this objective was the principal criterion for selecting the provider. The contracts do not consider and define all necessary objectives, which must be fulfilled so serve the consumers in an optimal way. Reasons are: (1.) the lack of experts, (2.) missing time, (3.) the need to attract investors, and (4.) corruption. • In many cases, the profits of the multinational providers are less than expected. One reason is that many consumers do not pay their bills. This resulted in renegotiations of the contracts. Good elaborated original contracts could have prevented that. • One of the providers' principal problems is the extension of the services to poor areas. In cases where the original contract contains as performance objective to achieve 100 % coverage of water supply by house connections, it can not be that the government pays subsidies to finance low-income people. It is the task of the service providers to find and finance appropriate solutions. Again, a good elaborated contract, could have prevented these problems. • The regulatory systems are generally not considered to be of importance. So they are often insufficient, and characterised by inefficiency and incompetence. In practice, they are not independent as required. They are pressed by the private services or by the government. There is no co-operation with users' associations. The consumers consider the regulatory system as adjunct of the private service provider or as political institution and have no confidence in it.

These facts are limiting the success of the privatisation to optimise the benefits for the consumers. To defend the interests of the consumers, considering social and environment aspects and an increase of sustainability, necessary tasks are: • Elaboration of good, detailed contracts, where all possibly occurring cases are considered. The contracts must include social and environmental aspects as performance objectives and must oblige the provider an integrated approach of the whole system. As performance objective, the expansion of the services to poor areas and the financing method must be clearly specified. • The regulatory system must be significantly improved: The management of the system and its legal position (more power) must be reinforced. The personnel must obtain high technical and other skills. A permanent integration of user's representative organisation as independent judgement is required. A solution must be found to give the regulators more independence from government and private service providers.

335

As far as possible, these aspects must be considered in the actual but especially for future privatisations. Only so an optimal improvement of the water and sewerage services can be provided to the consumers guaranteeing a long-term integrated management of water resources and environment and a sustainable development.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hall, D. (1999). Water and Privatisation in Latin America. Public Services International Research Unit, Report number: 9909-W-Latam.doc., University of Greenwich. Lascano, M. & Riobo, R. (2000). Regulation of drinking water and waste water - Special Contribution. Water Supply 18(1): 85 – 86. Madiec, H., Cepero, E. & Mozzionaccai, D. (2000). The removal of arsenic - Treatment of arsenic by filter coagulation: a South American advanced technology. Water Supply 18(1): 613 - 618. Mathys, A. (2000). Extending services to poor areas. Water 21. June 2000: 14 - 18. Rais, J. (2000). The use and management of service contracts: participation in the private sector - National Report Argentina. Water Supply 18(1): 14 – 15.

336

WATER PROVISIONING IN DAR ES SALAAM, TANZANIA: THE PUBLIC - PRIVATE INTERFACE

M. Kjellén

Department of Human Geography, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden, and Stockholm Environment Institute, P.O. Box 2142, SE-103 14 Stockholm, Sweden. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Residents of Dar es Salaam face chronic water shortages and often have to combine several sources of different cost and quality. The parastatal Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority (DAWASA) caters for most of the bulk water supplies to the city. However, only a third of the households receive their water directly from the utility, creating a large niche for the private commercial sector in water distribution. The paper reviews the role of public and private actors in Dar es Salaam’s water system, and finds parts of the distribution system – both the piped and unpiped – already to be in private hands. This ‘privatisation by default’, manifested in the important role of private water vendors in the city’s water distribution as well as the private ‘spaghettisation’ of the piped network, is a consequence of the ‘withdrawal of the state.’

KEYWORDS

Privatisation, Urban water management, Water vending

INTRODUCTION

The Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority (DAWASA) caters for most of the bulk water supplies to the city of Dar es Salaam, but as only a third of the households receive their water directly from the utility, the private commercial sector plays a major role in water distribution. Commonly, households access water from other households that have a connection to the public piped water system, or that have sunk a private well. Sometimes, reselling and water storage is undertaken on a large scale, allowing for distributing vendors to buy water for further delivery to other households and businesses.

At present, Dar es Salaam’s water utility is about to be privatised. International private water companies are bidding for a lease contract to run the city’s water supply network. The role of the public sector is envisaged to be reduced to ownership of assets and regulation of the private actors. The present paper reviews the roles of public and private actors.

Dar es Salaam had a population of 1.2 million in the 1988 census (United Republic of Tanzania, 1996) and is the major city in Tanzania. The present population is not known, and estimates vary substantially, although most newspapers put it at some 3 million people. About a third of the households are estimated to be connected to the piped water network. But because few water sources are reliable, people need to draw from a variety of sources. Over 50% of the population make use of neighbours’ sources, and over 50% also buy from vendors, and the same proportion are also engaged in rainwater harvesting from their own roofs. Some 30% of Dar es Salaam’s

337 households draw water from shallow wells, 17% from surface water sources, but only 8% claim to make use of public taps (Mwandosya & Meena, 1998).

PUBLIC SECTOR WATER SUPPLY AND PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE

The physical infrastructure for water abstraction and distribution in Dar es Salaam was built by government agencies, and has always been run by public actors. While the distribution to customers has been highly deficient – giving large room for small-scale private operators – the bulk supplies to the city are still in public hands. The following section describes the existing water infrastructure and how the connections to consumers have become increasingly a private affair.

Dar es Salaam’s Water Infrastructure

Dar es Salaam’s main source of water is the Ruvu River. The development of the river commenced in the 1950s with a plant at Upper Ruvu, some 65 kilometres west of Dar es Salaam. The Lower Ruvu scheme, some 55 kilometres west (or north-west) of the city, was commissioned in 1976. There is also a smaller surface water plant at Mtoni just South of the city centre, which along with boreholes, complement the water supply, mainly in the Southern parts of Dar es Salaam. The capacity of the sources supplying Dar es Salaam were in 1995 estimated to 273 megalitres per day (Howard Humphreys, 1995), but only a portion of that quantity reaches the city, due to consumption and leakage along the transmission lines from Ruvu.

Investment in distribution mains has been limited in recent decades. Hence, few households and establishments have distribution mains nearby. When opting to connect to the piped water network, the cost of service pipes, due to the distance, will be higher. While the public investments in distribution mains (pipes serving local areas, to which service lines can readily be connected) have been lagging behind, the privately financed service lines are taking over. Spaghetti-like bundles of parallel PVC pipes can be seen at numerous junctures in the city. These pipes are much more sensitive to damage, and are of course less efficient for conveying the same volumes of than what one major pipe would be. Most of the service pipes are badly laid and riddled with bursts, leaks and sub-standard fittings (Howard Humphreys, 1995). The (excessively) long service pipes (due to the scarcity of mains) are often laid by DAWASA employees, but the full cost is borne (in accordance with regulations) by the customer. There are hence no subsidies for connections.

Public Water Distribution

Connection costs to the piped distribution network is high for individual households. This is because of the high cost of piping (given the shortage of distribution mains to local areas) as well as connection fees. Hence, as estimated by the Water Demand Study in 1995 (Mwandosya & Meena, 1998), only about a third of the households in Dar es Salaam were connected to the network, and most households needed to make use of several alternative sources. In an estimate for 1990 presented by JICA (1991), about 30% of the households had house connections, 24% yard connections, and 45% had no connections. The registered house and yard connections accounted for 30% of the net volumes supplied, whereas only 6% of the water were delivered through standpipes/kiosks. The remainder of the water supplied went to illegal connections (29%) and leakage (30%) in JICA’s estimate. How the available water quantities are distributed is actually not known. However, dividing the projected revenues from different customer

338 categories with the applicable tariff (Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority, 1999; DAWASA Divestiture Technical Team, 1998), the proportions can be deduced. The resulting proportions are as follows; 64% to domestic users, 18% to industrial/agricultural users, 11% institutional, and 7% went to commercial customers. On top of this, between 20% and 50% of the water is estimated to leak out of the system (DAWASA Divestiture Technical Team, 1998).

The tariff which is the basis for what DAWASA charges its customers – generally flat rates, based on the water pressure or regularity of distribution to different areas – defines different price levels for different categories of customers. The volumetric rate for households in use during early 2000 was 1,225.00 shillings per 1000 gallons, equivalent to about US$0.34 per cubic metre (Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority, 1999). DAWASA are authorised to increase the tariff by 15% twice per year, but the rate of increase has been more moderate, given that price escalations are sensitive when services are poor.

It is estimated that 80% of the water produced is billed. But as only about 50% of the payments are collected, the combined billing and collection efficiency reaches only 40% (DAWASA Divestiture Technical Team, 1998). During 2000 DAWASA undertook an ambitious ‘disconnection exercise’ where defaulters were visited and given the option of paying their debts up front or facing disconnection, and the prospect of a reconnection fee when resuming payments and services. The exercise caused heated debates in the newspapers. Many people complained about not getting any water – so why should they pay? And if they use vendors, they have already paid for the water they use! Nonetheless, when facing disconnection, most people pay anyway (DAWASA, pers. comm.)

Privatisation of the Water Utility

As a part of structural adjustment, Tanzania has initiated a privatisation exercise. Privatisation is part and parcel of the whole economic reform programme, but is mainly viewed as a means for the government to get rid of costly state owned enterprises, i.e. to ‘stop losing money’ (Dar es Salaam Chamber of Commerce, pers. comm.). While the process of economic reform was initiated in the mid-1980s, the parastatal sector reform policy was first pronounced, as a national policy, in 1992 (PSRC, 2000). By the end of 1999, 270 out of the 395 parastatals earmarked had been privatised (Panafrican News Agency, 2000).

Dar es Salaam’s water supply is to be privatised by means of a ten year lease contract to an International Professional Partner who will form a local Operating Company together with a Local Partner. This Private Operator (with the international partner having at least 51% of the shares) will operate Dar es Salaam’s water system, charging the tariff which is the basis for the International Professional Partner’s financial bid (DAWASA Project Coordinator, Ministry of Water, pers. comm.). DAWASA is to be converted into a Public Granting Authority and will be responsible for the major capital investment programme, estimated at over US$ 100 million, which will be implemented in parallel with the lease contract. The Government of Tanzania will get loans from the World Bank, African Development Bank, European Investment Bank and Agence Française de Développment in order to carry out the capital investment programme (PSRC, 2000).

Changes in legislation in order to allow for privatisation was done during 1999. Bids from two French companies, Saur International and Vivendi (Generale des Eaux), were received in January 2000. The technical submissions were opened first, and were both deemed acceptable (Makawia,

339

2000; PSRC, 2000). The financial submissions were opened in late February, but were not totally comparable, requiring the Government of Tanzania to rethink the way forward (PSRC, 2000), and eventually cancel the bidding. The World Bank is concerned that starting over will delay the lease and accompanying investment programme (Principal Water & Sanitation

PRIVATE WATER DISTRIBUTION – COMMERCIAL VENDING

In Dar es Salaam, most households get water to the house by carrying home buckets of water purchased from neighbours, who in turn are connected to the piped water system. It is only those with sufficient incomes that can pay others to carry their water, such as tanker trucks in the wealthier areas, and pushcart vendors in the poorer areas. Still, most households pay for some proportion of their water. There are few free sources, although some use surface water for part of their water needs, and limited numbers of donated wells and public standpipes do exist.

Households (Re-)Selling Water

As mentioned before, most of the bulk water is supplied to the city by means of the DAWASA operated pipe network. But since few are directly connected to the network, many of the households that are connected re-sell water to their neighbours. Since connected households almost invariably pay a flat rate to DAWASA, the volumes sold to others will not affect their monthly bill. Nevertheless, there are usually significant investments that go with selling water. Where pipe-water is rationed, those aiming to sell on a regular basis must construct storage facilities in order to be able to sell water during ‘off-turns’. Also, in order to make sure that the storage facilities are filled, it may be necessary to connect a booster pump in order to suck (the low pressure) water out of the pipe system. Many households, particularly in peripheral areas, may also sink wells in order to ensure a continuous supply. As long as there is electricity, they are able to continue pumping. However, not all areas have groundwater and it is often saline.

One household selling water by the bucket to other households and vendors estimated their sales to T.Shs. 20-25,000/= per day in the dry season, and to about 5,000/= per day in the wet season. The family had constructed a large tank, and when piped water was insufficient, it was topped up by pumping from a well. The monthly water bill paid to DAWASA amounted to T.Shs. 15,000/= shillings per month. Although significant earnings are needed to cover the investments in tanks and pumps, re-selling of water is a good business. The going price for resold water is 20 shillings per (about 20 litre) container (US$1.25 per cubic metre) in most areas of Dar es Salaam. The DAWASA operated water kiosks, as well as many reselling households, use this price.

Water Distribution by Pushcarts21

Pushcart vendors, like many households, often buy their water from re-selling households, and then deliver the water by the container to households and small-scale businesses. Commonly, 20 litres are delivered for 100 shillings (US$6.25 per cubic metre), but the price varies depending on the area. These small-scale water vendors operate mostly in the less well off Western and Southern parts of the city, where water is rationed, either on a daily or a weekly basis, or where piped water is altogether absent. Vendors, as do households, hence need to have alternative sources of water.

21 The results of a survey among pushcart water vendors is presented in (Kjellén, 2000a) and (Kjellén, 2000b).

340

Pushcart vendors tend to be younger men with some schooling, seeking ways to earn an income. Most carts carry six or seven plastic jerricans. The major problem the vendors face when getting started is the toughness of the job. During my survey, many complained of pains in the chest and joints, and very often fall sick with fever. Unlike the other forms of water vending (stationary reselling and tanker distribution), the initial investment required to enter this business is very small. The pushcarts, and even the jerricans can be rented on a daily basis. Hence, there are virtually no barriers to entry, and the number of vendors operating varies with market conditions. The earnings are generally low, and vendors claim they at times go hungry.

Water Distribution by Tank Trucks

Tanker trucks fill an important role in water distribution in low density areas with well off residents but poor water distribution networks. It is estimated that some 16 tankers are involved in the business of ferrying water to premises with underground water tanks (PSRC, 2000). The Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey of 1991/1992 captured 1.3% of the households in Dar es Salaam as relying on tankers for their drinking water (Ngallaba et al., 1993). Although a small percentage, these households’ water use is larger than average, so the tankers may be significantly more important in terms of quantities conveyed. Moreover, a number of luxury hotels depend on truck deliveries.

Most of the trucks gather at the DAWASA operated filling station at St. Peters in Kinondoni District. The major area of tanker sales is along the Indian Ocean coastline, where most of Dar es Salaam’s wealthier inhabitants live. While the supply could be expected to be ample and reliable, as it is not far from the Lower Ruvu Transmission Line, it is actually very deficient in some areas. Service lines are of PVC and leak profusely, resulting in very low pressure.

Truck operators buy water from DAWASA at just over five shillings per litre (Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority, 1999). A truckload of 10,000 litres hence cost the tanker operators just over T.Shs.50,000/= (roughly US$6.3 per cubic metre). That load may be sold for T.Shs. 60-65,000/= in nearby Oyster Bay and 75,000/= in Makongo Juu, some 10 kilometres away. Sometimes, better deals can be arranged, as prices are negotiable, and tankers may at times be able to access water at a lower cost.

THE PUBLIC – PRIVATE INTERFACE IN WATER PROVISIONING

The public – private interface in the water distribution system is by no means a clearly delineated line. There are many different actors, a great mixture of roles, and, particularly in the ‘private’ sphere there is a great variation as regards different degrees of formality, or regulation. Although not part of the present study, there are several NGOs that seem to work fairly well in collaboration with the public utility as well as the communities they either represent or assist.

While Dar es Salaam’s water utility is in the process of being privatised, privatisation has to a large extent taken place by default, as the state withdraws, or diminishes its role in water distribution. There are two main dimensions of this creeping privatisation:

341

1) Private re-distribution of water. That is, water vending - ranging from the home-based quasi-legal re-sellers and informal low-income pushcart vendors to more formalised (regulated) truck distributors delivering water to people’s homes.

2) ‘Spaghettisation’ of piped water network, where individual (privately financed) service lines are increasing, out of proportion to the (collectively financed) distribution mains, and hence in practice directing investments/expansion of the distribution system.

Both types of creeping privatisation increase as the city grows, and the water utility lags increasingly behind in serving the city’s population. The interface between the public and the private is diffuse. In principle, the piped water network is public up to the border of a customer’s premises. However, as the individual service lines start long distances away from the customer’s plot, and in fact, are the main type of investments made in piped water distribution, this ‘expansion’ is under private control (or rather, lacks control). The financially strapped public utility can make few investment decisions by itself, and is in no position to play a pro-active role in directing private investments.

The formal privatisation plan includes measures to bring back the investment initiative into the public sphere. In tandem with the leasing out of operations to a private operator, the present utility is to be converted to a public granting authority. This authority is to be entrusted with loans for a major investment programme. New investments in order to improve the present distribution system are sorely needed, in order to replace, repair and extend distribution pipes, and thus reduce the need for individually laid and exaggeratedly long service lines. Hence, extending the ‘collective’ piped water system closer to the users, would reduce the private ‘spaghettisation’ of the distribution system – a major contributor of the profuse leaks.

I believe that privatisation is often a way of implementing changes that many feel should be done anyway. Organisational adjustments to promote higher efficiency within the existing institutional structure in Dar es Salaam would probably be a daunting task. Privatisation can then become an opportunity to get a ‘fresh start.’ But, as Lobina & Hall (2000) show with a number of case studies, efficiency is not necessarily higher in privately owned water corporations. Nonetheless, in the case of Dar es Salaam, privatisation is also a way of securing the major capital investment programme financed through the World Bank and other donor institutions. (The credit is conditional on that privatisation takes place.)

A more accessible piped distribution system is key to addressing the current inequities, but even with the alluded capital investment project (which only brings the system to operating standards for the private operator) Dar es Salaam will be a long way from universal coverage with piped water. Distributing vendors should thus be recognised as a very important means for water distribution in Dar es Salaam. The price to the customer purchasing water from vendors or re- sellers is however manifold higher than the utility’s tariff. This inequity is caused by the exclusion of the majority of the population from the piped network, inherent in the high cost of connection. However, structured collaboration between DAWASA and water vendors could help lower the prices to end-users. If vendors (and indeed, households carrying their own water) could access water for less than 1 shilling per litre, say through special wholesale prices, end-user costs could be reduced. This could be one way of helping some of the water shortages that mainly low- income households face in Dar es Salaam.

342

REFERENCES

Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority (1999) New Tariff. DAWASA Divestiture Technical Team (1998) Due Dilligence on Dawasa. Dar es Salaam: Presidential Parastatal Sector Reform Commission. Howard Humphreys (1995) Rehabilitation of Dar es Salaam Water Supply System. Feasibility Report. Main Report. The United Republic of Tanzania, National Urban Water Authority. JICA (1991) The Study on Rehabilitation of Dar es Salaam Water Supply in the United Republic of Tanzania. Final Report. Volume 2: Main Report. Dar es Salaam: Japan International Cooperation Agency. Kjellén, M. (2000a) Complementary water systems in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: The case of water vending. Water Resources Development. 16, 143-154. Kjellén, M. (2000b) Uuzaji wa Maji katika Jiji la Dar es Salaam. Utafiti Kuhusu Binadamu na Mazingira Afrika ya Mashariki No. 1. Stockholm: Environment and Development Studies Unit (EDSU). Makawia, C. (2000) "PSRC to announce preferred bidder for DAWASA March". The Guardian, February 26, 2000. Mwandosya, M. J. & Meena, H. E. (1998) Dar es Salaam Water Demand: An End-use Perspective. Dar es Salaam: The Centre for Energy, Environment, Science and Technology (CEEST). Ngallaba, S., Kapiga, S. H., Ruyobya, I. & Boerma, J. T. (1993) Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey 1991/92. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Columbia, Maryland USA: Bureau of Statistics, Planning Commission, Macro International Inc. Panafrican News Agency. (2000) "Two French Firms Bid For Tanzania's Water Utility". Africa News Online, February 4, 2000. PSRC (2000) Privatisation in Tanzania. Presidential Parastatal Sector Reform Commission. http://www.psrc.tanzania.cc/ United Republic of Tanzania (1996) Dar es Salaam Regional Statistical Abstract 1993. Dar es Salaam: Bureau of Statistics, The Planning Commission, President's Office.

343

THE PARTICIPATION OF THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN URBAN WATER SERVICES PROVISION

Jack Moss Marketing Director - Lyonnaise des Eaux

ABSTRACT

This paper looks at the growing role of the private sector in contributing to solving the ever increasing problems posed by urban water management. It focuses on the Public Private Partnership (PPP) contract approach. The need for close collaboration between the contracting parties is discussed. The importance of involving all stakeholders who must act in a responsible way, and the need for a constructive and positive approach is stressed.

KEYWORDS

Public Private Partnership, Stakeholders, Partnership, Water management, Contract

INTRODUCTION

Water professionals, we cannot afford an impasse, that is a non option. Nor can we leave our future to hope. We are faced with the imperative of finding solutions that will ensure the future of our society in a sustainable relationship with its environment. This requires a constructive approach based on effective contributions of all sectors of society. It requires thought, innovation, co-ordination, and action.

THE URBAN DYNAMIC

Cities are for individuals to live their private lives, they are the centres of economic creation of modern communities where wealth is generated by groups of people collaborating in industry, business, commerce, academia or associations. Cities grow and change. Their shape, their purpose, their function, their wealth, their size and the technologies that sustain them are all constantly evolving.Water has always been a key factor in the location and development of all urban settlements. Cities need water, they pollute water, they modify the water cycle and impact the environment. When the water or wastewater systems fail, the failure of the city is not far behind. Cities require government to ensure that they function properly and that a balance between individual interests and collective needs of its citizens are achieved. They also need operators who are skilled and competent to deliver water services to the inhabitants and who can install and maintain the infrastructure that produces these services.

PRIVATE SECTOR HAS ALWAYS PLAYED AN IMPORTANT ROLE

Since the first settlements were created around a source of water for drinking, the private sector has played a role. The water carrier, the well digger, the sweeper are among the earliest forms of

344 commercial activity. There have always been several different ways of solving similar problems of water and sanitation. This will continue to be the case. The private sector’s contribution can be identified in the many answers that it has provided to urban water needs. The roles of the private sector have grown as cities have grown, and an evolutionary path can be mapped out. Water and its link with public health was for example the motivation for a number of philanthropists to set up private water companies in England in the 18Th and 19th centuries. Most of the private water operations in the USA can trace their origins to the needs for private developers to provide water and sewerage to their developments. We can still see this motivation behind the establishment of water systems in Asia. This is particularly evident within the development fringes of the megacities such as Jakarta or Bangkok where the public supplies have not been able to keep pace with city growth. It is also at the root of some of the recent speculative "inset appointment" initiatives in England.

THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE PRIVATE SECTOR

There are two major trends driving the needs for urban water management today. In the developed world it is the ever increasing standards that are sought for the protection of health, comfort and environment. In the developing world it is the more pressing need to provide the essential supply of water and sanitation to cities and peri-urban communities that are growing at a very rapid rate. Today the majority of the world’s urban water needs are provided by the public sector. Whilst modest in absolute terms, the private sector has been playing an increasingly important role, and has indeed been called in to help the public sector in some of the most difficult situations. Meaningful results have been achieved in both the developing and the developed world. Examples range from providing first time water filtration on a massive scale in Sydney, through resolving serious pollution problems in Rostock, improving billing in Mexico City, to completely restructuring and restoring a full service as in Buenos Aires. Various forecasts exist for the effort that is needed to meet these demands during the next two to three decades. Combining several different views, we can come to a forecast investment requirement for the urban world as a whole between now and 2025 of $1,000 billion. Another view is that taken by the Global Water Partnership for the 2nd World Water Forum. This places the increase in spending from current levels at $325 billion for water supply and $425 billion for sanitation for the same period. These estimates may not be all that reliable due to a chronic shortage of meaningful statistics. They do show however that what is needed is probably far beyond the reach of the existing public sector. There is little doubt that the private sector can make a significant contribution to filling the gap. It can mobilise funds from additional sources, and can also often leverage those funds to make them go further and achieve more.

PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTORS MUST WORK TOGETHER

In some circles people seem to be pinning all their hope on the private sector as the solution to the problems. In others a dogmatic debate opposing public and private sectors rages on in an impasse of ideology. Neither of these positions is going to lead us to the effective and efficient action that is needed to build the future. What is needed is quite literally to take the best of both these worlds. The use of Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) has been increasing and does show

345 good results. Estimates show a cumulative annual growth rate of around 10% since the mid 1980s. In 1985 only one international contract was awarded. By 1999 this number had risen to over 50. Partnership is the key word. It means using the real strengths of each partner to the full and clearly defining the role of each. It is by no means a soft option, and it requires rigour and discipline both to set the relationship in place and to maintain it afterwards. There are a variety of contract models that can be used to establish and control these Public Private Partnerships. In selecting the appropriate solution there is almost always a need to adapt the general principles to the specifics of an individual city. It is necessary to take a realistic and pragmatic view of the situation at the start of the contract, and also to allow the relationship and objectives to change as the situation evolves in ways that it is impossible to predict at the start.

It is also important to recognise that each partner needs to interact with other segments of the urban population and stakeholders in a constructive and positive way. Other water users, civil society, the NGOs, and community associations all have their roles to play and can legitimately speak up to defend their interests. All parties have rights but must also live up to their responsibilities as citizens. There is a natural tendency for each stakeholder or stakeholder group to try to obtain more than its fair share of the cake. It is easier for a single interest point of view to win its point over those who are trying to take a more complex and balanced view. Good rules in the form of laws, contracts and regulations can help in large part to avoid the worse excesses, but ultimately it is necessary for government to manage and arbitrate between the different points of view in the best interests of the whole of the society involved.

Good, balanced city governance is absolutely crucial. The challenge that this represents for politicians is considerable. The complexity of the issues is enormous, and the time-spans between decision and result can be very long. It is often difficult to reconcile an unreasonable but vociferous demand of a small minority with the much more important but undefended interests of a silent majority. Equally it is rarely possible that all conflicts of interest can reconciled and all objectives met. Choices must be made, and once made they can not be reversed without facing the consequences.

The separation of the complex governance issues from the equally complex operational issues is one of the reasons that can lead a municipality or city government to decide to enter into a partnership arrangement with a private operator. This route enables the political decision maker to escape a number of issues that arise from an internal conflict of interest between governing and operating. It also allows him to draw on the advice and expertise of an operationally orientated contractor. It frees the operational aspects of providing water and wastewater services from the constraining environment of government financing and places them in the more constructive arena of private sector investment.

As indicated above all situations are in constant evolution, and it is therefore necessary for the public and private interests in such a partnership to be in continuos dialogue and to work together to identify and find solutions to the problems caused by these changing pressures.

KEY ISSUES FOR PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS IN WATER

To put in place an effective partnership there are a number of areas where the parties have to work together with particular care. These include:

346

Definition of scope and objectives

The public procurement process is an ideal way of setting out what the scope of the arrangement is to be and the objectives that are set by the authorities at the start of the contract. Writing a request for proposal, pre-qualifying and short-listing bidders, and drafting invitations to tender are all important steps in refining the scope of works. The final specification, bidders proposal, bid evaluation and contract finalisation complete the process.

Roles and responsibilities of the parties

Drafting a contract is an excellent process for defining who is responsible for what. The process requires clarity for the contract to become operable, and this clarity should enable each party to perform its tasks and interact effectively with the others.

Measurement and control of performance

Once the two preceding issues have been clearly established, it is possible to set out the way in which the performance of each parties obligations is measured and controlled. These procedures also need to be set out in the formal contract. Once the contract has started to operate, these processes give rise to valuable information. This information is useful as it provides the basis for better decisions than can be taken in situations where no contract exists which is the case of government overseeing its own public sector operation..

Non performance and Penalties

The above processes also lead to the necessity and ability to monitor performance and to set penalties on either party if they fail to honour their responsibilities or meet their obligations. Again, this situation does not exist in a public sector run situation. In this context, it is also important to stress that good and equitable governance of the contract and issues associated with it is vital for success. Penalties need to be avoided by either side, and non performance of obligations by the municipal government (or contract letter) should incur penalties in the same way that non performance by the operator (contractor) is sanctioned.

Tariff and payment

For a contract to work it obviously needs an economic basis, which is founded on the revenues that arise from the tariff structure. The contract approach has the merit of setting out this tariff structure in a transparent way that is tested by market forces. It also requires the payment and eventually any redistribution processes to be clearly defined. A very frequent deficiency of water services managed by the public sector is the setting of tariffs that are too low to cover the costs of the service provision. This is often exacerbated by further revenue deficiencies that arise from un-recovered bills. The reasoning that low tariffs are necessary to ensure that low income groups can have access to these services rarely if ever stands the test of reality. A commercial operation can not survive with sub-economic tariffs, so involving the private sector introduces reality into the picture. Many of the case studies of private sector performance that now exist show that service can be improved and access to the poor provided while economically viable tariffs are applied.

347

Financial structures and financial security

Whether it is the private sector or the public sector or a combination of both that provides the investment and operating capital, it is necessary to establish the financial structures with care. These structures must afford adequate security to ensure that the money is available and is used as intended. The adequacy or otherwise of this aspect of a partnership contract on its own can make the difference between a workable and an unworkable arrangement. It can also have a significant impact on the tariff needed to make the contract work.

Asset management

Most of the physical assets needed to make water and wastewater system operate satisfactorily have a very high cost to establish and are expected to last a very long time. Obtaining the optimum balance between the capital cost, the quality and productivity and the maintenance and renewal of these assets presents some very complicated and practical issues. These issues are manifest throughout the life of the contract, but in most cases also require specific treatment at the beginning and end of the contract period. What assets exist, what condition they are in and how well are they performing are crucial issues to both parties.

Economic equilibrium

There is a close relationship between issues outlined in relation to tariff, finance and asset management that come together in what is termed the economic equilibrium of the contract. This means that taken over its total duration the contract must produce an acceptable return for the operator. This concept is particularly important where a private operator is called in to restore a service that has fallen into disrepair, or has not been able to keep up with the rate of urban expansion. In these situations the operator is frequently faced with a situation where in the early years of the contract he has very high levels of capital investment to make, and also very high operating costs to overcome. He is frequently also faced with tariffs that have been maintained at levels that are inadequate to cover costs. These factors combine to create a loss-making situation in the early years of the contract. This can only be accommodated if the concept of economic equilibrium is accepted as a principle and operated in practice. The impact of the losses incurred in the early years needs to be compensated by better than average returns in the later years.

Risk and risk management

Risk and risk management issues are the subject of enormous debate, which it would be difficult to summarise within the scope of this paper. It suffices to say that risk assessment and risk management should be a serious preoccupation of both parties. Careful identification and allocation of risk can substantially improve the contract and greatly reduce the costs. The principle of allocating risk to the party best able to manage it is widely know. It is much more difficult to apply risk engineering in wholly public managed systems, because risks often go unidentified until the risk event occurs or because there is no party to allocate them to or share them with. Involving private partners opens real opportunities in this area. It is nevertheless essential to recognise that the private sector can absorb many but not all risks. Some are much better carried by the public partner or in the case of residual risk, shared equitably between both parties.

348

Social and community objectives

The largest unsatisfied demand for water and wastewater services today is in the urban and peri- urban areas of the developing world. These are the urban areas that are growing the fastest, and which are populated by people with low incomes and precarious lifestyles. Poverty and its associated scourges of health and societal difficulties, is a serious and growing problem. There is a very strong consensus that poverty alleviation is the most serious challenge for the world today. Providing or improving water and sanitation is a very cost effective contribution to meeting this objective. Unfortunately the consensus often ends at this point and dogma takes over. It is a tempting argument to say that the poor cannot afford to pay an economic price for water. The consequence of this argument is to set tariffs at levels that are too low to enable the services to be run efficiently and coverage to be extended to the expanding areas where the poor live. The people therefore have to find other sources which are in reality between 10 and 40 times more costly than what an economically sustainable tariff would be. This problem is even more difficult in the case of wastewater services, which are extremely difficult to provide in areas of precarity and uncertain land tenure. Lack of the basic services of water and sanitation have a direct effect on the poor people suffering these conditions. These problems extend to the community and the city as a whole, because they increase significantly the burdens of public health and, impose serious limits on economic development. Dogmatically defending unrealistic tariffs is a serious case of the kind of ideological impasse that we cannot afford. Fortunately there are some good grounds for hope in its positive sense in this context. There is a growing body of evidence that clearly shows how the public sector can work with committed private sector operators and the NGOs and informal sector to produce solutions. Over the last few years, our company has been researching and developing a variety of techniques that can solve these problems. This programme continues today and is supported by a strong corporate commitment. The major emphasis has been on the situations found in the urban environment in the developing world. It is however not limited to this sector alone. Fruitful initiatives have also been completed with good results for poor rural communities and for pockets of urban poor in cities of the developed world. There is no unique technique but rather a range of different approaches that can be applied according to circumstances. The common factor is a real partnership between all the stakeholders involved. This requires a strong commitment of the government, the people themselves (individually and in formal or informal associations), NGOs, and the private sector operator. They require a realistic acceptance of the social, political, economic and technical situation facing the area in question and the city as a whole. They work because there is an acceptance of all the issues raised above in the context of a public private partnership. They are a success because each party is committed, and fulfils its role within a community of common interest and mutual respect.

Accommodating changing circumstances

The public private partnerships that give the best results need to have a relatively long term. They commonly run from between 10 and 30 years. Over such a long period may events will arise and developments occur that can not be foreseen with any degree of clarity if they can be foreseen at all. This means that some of the conditions and responsibilities will have to be modified during the life of the contract. This is a concept that is very difficult for some contract draftsmen to accept, but it is essential that the contract makes adequate provision for coping with changing circumstances.

349

Contract governance and Regulation

From what has been said so far, it will have become apparent that public private partnerships are of necessity complicated. They have to face a plethora of issues that are internal to the contract, and which are rarely easy to define and measure with precision. These contracts also have to accommodate the pressures of a great number of externalities. This is a result of the large number of stakeholders and multiplicity of interfaces with other aspects of the urban environment and urban activity. Both of the contracting parties need to pay constant attention to ensuring that they conduct their relationship within the letter of the contract, but even more importantly within the spirit of real partnership that it implies. A rigorous and balanced approach by both to the governance of the contract is therefore essential.

These same complexities also require an independent and external view. Regulation is required to guarantee transparency and consistency in the way certain key issues are treated. It is also needed to oversee the application of a certain number of constraints and quality control measures. Regulation of public private partnerships can be much more light handed than in the case of full privatisation. It is nevertheless necessary. Care should however be taken to ensure that the regulator does not overly interfere with the effective running of the contract. There is a danger that too much regulation diverts the contracting parties from their real objectives and commitments and leads them to place satisfying the regulator as a higher priority than meeting the customers' real needs. Regulation should also be carried out as far as possible by an organisation or authority that is independent of both parties and fair to both of them.

Dialogue and facing reality

In the very complicated environment of urban water and wastewater management, the key to success is very clearly the ability for the various parties involved to work together. This is true of all the stakeholders involved, but particularly so of the contracting parties. A true spirit of cooperation can and is developed through a strong common purpose, through constant and open dialogue, and through a willingness for the parties to face the reality of each situation as it arises openly and honestly. It is only by facing difficulties squarely, with a willingness to share mutual competencies and contribute to solutions, that they can be overcome.

WHY THE PRIVATE SECTOR PERFORM OPERATIONS WELL

The private sector is designed and adapted to undertake operational activities. It is structured on the basis of investment to create growth, and judged on its abilities to deliver services that have value whilst optimising the input of resources. It must satisfy its customers as well as its shareholders if it is to survive. It must live with the pressure of competition and also public opinion. This position is very different from the public sector which has to operate in the more restrictive context of political control, split objectives and limiting the expenditure of tax revenues. This means that it is easier for the private sector to invest on the long term, to undertake R&D, to manage and motivate the workforce, to innovate with technical and managerial methods and to concentrate on producing and delivering service.

CONCLUSION

In face of the formidable challenges posed by modern urban water management, we water professionals must strive towards practical and workable solutions. We can not give up or opt

350 out, nor can we act vaguely in “hope”. We must recognise that urban water management is particularly complex and will become more so. The key to resolving these complexities is to utilise both the public and the private sectors. It is necessary to recognise the different capacities, functions and strengths of each sector and bring them together in effective partnerships for action. It is equally important for both sectors to recognise the widely differing interests and constraints of the different stakeholders. These include industry, agriculture, the rich as well as the poor, the employees and the providers of capital. Actively seeking consensus and creating understanding is essential. This is working positively for a solution. It is stronger and more positive than weakly hoping for a solution. It is equally important that when illegitimate demands and behaviour that is against the common good are encountered that they are exposed as such. If behaviour of this kind is based on dogma then we are surely all headed for the impasse. That impasse is unacceptable. Water professionals, politicians, the private sector, all people involved, must face reality together and ensure that by concerted effort the frontiers of urban water management are pushed forward quickly. It can be done. It will be done.

351

A NEW APPROACH FOR THE DELIVERY OF SUSTAINABLE SERVICES IN POOR PERI- URBAN AREAS: BUSINESS PARTNERS FOR DEVELOPMENT KWAZULU-NATAL PILOT PROJECT

Rousseau, P.* and E. Tranchant*

*Vivendi Water South Africa Office 711 – 717, Musgrave Office Tower, 115 – 125 Musgrave Road, Durban 4001, South Africa E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

An innovative tri-sector partnership has been formed in two peri-urban areas of Durban and Pietermaritzburg, in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, which aims to provide sustainable water and sanitation services to these previously disadvantaged communities. This forms part of the world-wide Business Partners for Development (BPD) programme initiated by the World Bank to bring together the diverse resources, expertise and perspectives of three distinct sectors: business sector, public sector and civil society, in particular Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO’s). The focus includes infrastructure upgrading, water loss management, community involvement and capacity building, education and awareness on water conservation, health and hygiene, and customer management. The establishment of a common research framework examining impacts and outcomes, and an international sharing and learning programme will, it is hoped, lead ultimately to better and replicable practices.

KEY WORDS

Partnership; poor peri-urban; services; sustainable

INTRODUCTION

In 1998, the World Bank initiated a three-year Programme, called Business Partners for Development (BPD), aimed at demonstrating the added-value of tri-sector partnerships between business, civil society and government, each contributing its resources, expertise and perspective, in areas of major concern around the world. The general objective is to explore new ways or methods of providing services and sustainable development, in particular to deprived urban and peri-urban communities. The BPD programme comprises four cluster areas: education & youth development, natural resources, road safety and water & sanitation. Each cluster aims to develop a limited number of projects around the world designed to demonstrate the benefits of the partnership approach and to disseminate the lessons learned to other projects and other clusters.

352

THE WATER AND SANITATION CLUSTER

The area of Water and Sanitation has been chosen because of its vital role in the well-being of populations and of the growing needs of low-income groups in an urban or peri-urban environment. The BPD Water and Sanitation Cluster is an informal network of businesses, civil society (Non-Governmental Organisations - NGO’s) and Public Utilities. It plans to produce solid evidence that tri-sector partnerships offer win-win benefits for all three parties. Eight focus projects are currently in this cluster, representing many parts of the world: Colombia, Indonesia, Haiti, Bolivia, Argentina, Senegal and South Africa. Members of the cluster will learn lessons from all the projects. Vivendi Water is co-convenor of the programme together with the World Bank and WaterAid of the United Kingdom.

THE KWAZULU-NATAL PILOT PROJECT

Project history

The new South Africa has an inheritance of deep imbalances in the provision of water and sanitation services. The challenge facing the country today is the extension of services from the urban areas of primarily white towns to the former townships now incorporated into the new municipalities and this is putting tremendous strain on local authorities’ resources. At the same time, however, South Africa has a strong technical and engineering base, developed educational, legal and political systems and financial markets. South Africa is therefore well placed to develop solutions to the problems posed which could be of benefit elsewhere.

For all these reasons, Vivendi Water and Mvula Trust, a major South African NGO, have, in association with Umgeni Water, proposed that a project be developed in KwaZulu-Natal. Discussions on the tri-sector pilot project approach began with Pietermaritzburg in February 1998 followed by Durban in July. This has involved all partners in an analysis of the technical and socio-economic environment and problem identification, the involvement of local councillors and the political process, the joint selection of pilot project areas together with the involvement of other potential contributors, in particular, local community service providers and established consultants. Both Durban and Pietermaritzburg, through due municipal process, formally approved the BPD project in March 1999.

The partnership

The tri-sector Partnership is built on co-operation between: - Durban Metro which has seen its population increase in recent years from around one million to nearly three million following the amalgamation of more than 30 local authorities and the incorporation of the former surrounding townships into the Metropolitan area. This has placed considerable pressure on the provision of basic services, in the first instance drinking water, without a corresponding increase in the revenue base. - The City of Pietermaritzburg, has like Durban, amalgamated with former townships (Edendale) and the new Authority has a total population of 450 000, of whom 238 000 live in the Greater Edendale area. - Umgeni Water, the regional Water Board, representative of the Central Government, through the Department of Water Affairs.

353

- The Mvula Trust, an NGO, is a leading independent charitable Trust in South Africa whose mission is the improvement of water and services for poor communities. - Vivendi Water, the principal water utility in France and world-wide, with a particular experience in the operation and management of municipal water and waste water services. - Water Research Commission, a research funding body that addresses water issues, is also a partner.

Project budget

The overall budget for the KwaZulu-Natal project is approximately US$2,5 million, and derives from the contributions of the partners and third party funding.

Project organisation

For each of the two projects (Durban and Pietermaritzburg), a Steering Committee has been established, which comprises: - one representative from each of the local authorities, Umgeni Water, Mvula Trust, Vivendi Water, Water Research Commission; - the councillors from the pilot areas; - the municipal unions. A Task Team has also been established for each project, comprising representatives from the partners together with the Project Director (from Vivendi Water).

OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The programme is designed to improve the access to safe and sustainable water and sanitation of the urban and peri-urban poor communities of defined districts in Durban Metro and Pietermaritzburg. Two areas in Inanda (Amatikwe and Bhambayi), one in Ntuzuma (Ntuzuma Extension G), and three areas in Edendale (Ashdown, Imbali and Newtown) have been identified as being suitable for the BPD programme.

Bhambayi is an informal area of about 1400 households (7000 people). In Ntuzuma, the extension called Ntuzuma G has 750 formal stands, approximately 5000 people. The area of Amatikwe phase 1&5b, in Inanda, consists of 800 units classified as informal, and has a population of approximately 5000 inhabitants. Newtown, in Edendale, is a semi-rural settlement of approximately 700 low-income families (5 000 inhabitants). Ashdown is a formally developed district in the north-east of Edendale, of 1100 houses (6000 inhabitants). Imbali is a formal area of 4400 houses (approx. 29 000 inhabitants) in the south-eastern sector of Edendale. These six pilot areas cover a broad range of typical situations encountered in poor urban and peri- urban zones.

During the three years of the project, the partners are focusing on the following objectives: − provision of an adequate, acceptable and affordable level of service; − community awareness on water conservation, health and hygiene;

354

− relate the delivery of drinking water to sanitation issues; − address water losses, operation and maintenance; − customer management, including tariff policy, billing systems and cost recovery procedures; − involvement of the communities in the achievement of these objectives.

The two components of the overall KwaZulu-Natal Project (i.e. the Edendale and Inanda- Ntuzuma projects) are distinct and autonomous, each remaining within the responsibility of its municipality. The programme allows, however, for co-operation and sharing between the two projects on the major issues and lessons learnt, in the same way that the overall KwaZulu-Natal project keys into the global BPD Programme of dissemination and sharing.

PROJECT ACTIVITIES

Immediately following the official launch of the BPD KwaZulu-Natal Project on the 29th of April 1999, the partners defined seven components encompassing all the tasks identified to achieve the objectives of the project. Each component is under the responsibility of one or several managers who belong to the Task Team. Within the different components, the tasks are carried out either directly by the partners or by a consultant appointed by the partner involved. The project components and tasks are the following: • Community Liaison • Project Environment - Co-ordination with other Institutions and Neighbouring Projects - Projects Institutional and Financial Issues - Land and Environmental Issues • Education and Awareness - Water and Sanitation Awareness - Participatory Health and Sanitation Transformation (PHAST) Programme - School Health & Hygiene Programme • Technical activities / Inanda-Ntuzuma Project - Community based construction of water networks - Provision of ground or roof tanks and standpipes - Water loss management programme - Setting up of an operational water and sanitation GIS - Identify, train and implement community emerging contractors for maintenance on private properties - Sanitation pilot project: use of an Anaerobic Baffled Reactor for the treatment of domestic wastewater from dense peri-urban settlements • Technical activities / Edendale Project - Upgrading of services - Network location and condition survey - Setting up of an operational water and sanitation GIS - Water loss management programme - Identify, train and implement community emerging contractors for maintenance on private properties - Sanitation pilot projects: re-use of grey water management of pit latrines

355

• Customer Management - Socio-economic surveys to assess affordability - Review of the impact of tariff levels and structures - Appreciation of billing procedures and payment recovery - Information exchange and input on tariff policies, billing and customer service • Monitoring of awareness, knowledge and behaviour • Reporting and communication of BPD project activities and outcomes

PROJECT PROGRESS AT THE END OF 2000

At the end of 2000, the achievement of the project is as follows:

• A real and dynamic partnership is in place • An ongoing and critical community liaison has been implemented • Information pertaining to the overall Project environment is continuously collected • The education and awareness programmes have started and include: - Water and wastewater awareness, - Participatory Health And Sanitation Transformation (PHAST), - School health and hygiene awareness • With regard to the technical activities: - The community-based upgrading of water and sanitation services in Ashdown and provision of water pipelines in Amatikwe is completed. - In the Edendale pilot areas, the water and sewer network surveys as well as the GPS capture of the network elements have recently been completed. - GIS projects in both Durban and Pietermaritzburg have begun. - A new and innovative service level is being tried in Newtown (Pietermaritzburg). - A water loss management study is underway in Ntuzuma (Durban). - The study on the management of pit latrines in Newtown is completed. - Two other sanitation initiatives are also underway: The use of an anaerobic baffled reactor to treat wastewater from dense peri-urban settlements; The investigation of safe and healthy disposal and re-use of grey water in Newtown (Edendale area, Pietermaritzburg) • In the Customer Management component: - Socio-economic surveys have been conducted in the pilot areas. - A customer management pilot project has started in Ashdown (Pietermaritzburg)

These activities have all something in common: community involvement and capacity-building, which is the key for a sustainable development in poor peri-urban areas.

CONCLUSION

For all the partners involved in the KwaZulu-Natal Project, the BPD tri-sector partnership is a new, innovative and challenging approach. The preparation of the project has taken almost a year to conclude, but one must bear in mind that genuine partnerships do take time to put in place. Consultation and involvement at all levels are paramount to the KwaZulu-Natal Project, and buy- in has been achieved from all the necessary stakeholders, in the first instance the communities.

356

Today, at the end of 2000, real and dynamic BPD teams are in place for both Edendale and Inanda-Ntuzuma pilot projects, with a commitment and involvement of all. In the difficult context of poor peri-urban areas, the partners are learning while walking. The key lesson to date is that the communities need to be further involved. Communication and liaison with the residents of the pilot areas as well as with all the stakeholders (councillors, development committees, various Pietermaritzburg and Durban’s departments, etc.) have to be strengthen in order to achieve endorsement and sustainability.

There is still a long way to go, but an exciting one …

357

THE CHALLENGE OF URBAN WATER MANAGEMENT IN AFRICA

Simon Thuo Department of Water Development, Nairobi, KENYA

ABSTRACT

Africa has undergone tremendous and wrenching changes in the last thirty years. Most of the economies of the African countries have seen steady decline over the period, and its infrastructure has rapidly deteriorated. The population has increased fivefold in the same period. Africa has probably the most delicate environment. Inefficient, slash and burn agriculture and overgrazing on grasslands have left the soil badly exposed to the elements, when it rains gullies are formed in the hills and siltation in the lower reaches, when it shines wind erosion clears more soil. In many countries, woodfuel is the main source of energy. In Kenya, for instance, 90% of household energy is from wood. This is not only destroying the less than 3% remaining forest cover, but there exists no suitable alternative that is affordable for the majority of the population, who get by on less than $1 per day. The harsh realities of this continuous degradation of the environment has come to bear on urban dwellers. The Elnino phenomenon killed hundreds of slum dwellers in flash floods. The ensuing three year drought has dried up major rivers. There is electricity rationing throughout the month; many labourers have been laid off in a vicious cycle of low production leading to a worsening economy and low purchasing power. Water rationing is supposed to be in place, but in reality, given the poor operational logistics of the city water authorities, this just means fewer and fewer residents get water services at all. Competition for water use has become intense. The cities, with their greater political clout, have the predominant claim on water. However, given poor policing of water abstraction, well organised farmers are making it increasingly difficult to achieve equitable distribution. The vulnerability of cities to water drawn from far off sources has never been more apparent. The most important task for water managers in urban areas is to reduce water losses. In many African towns, unaccounted for water is up to half the production. Direct leakage, and illegal connections make up to 40% of the water. Clearly, the fastest and ost environmentally friendly approach would be to ensure this amount of water is used productively. However, the institutional bottlenecks, poor operational practices and “gatekeeping” make this an all but impossible task. This paper examines the various options that exist to make the task of providing more water without investment in new facilities, and will highlight the alternative approaches underway in Africa towards improving effectiveness of water service delivery in various parts of Africa. The water situation in Kenya is used to provide a backdrop to challenges facing the continent in general.

WATER RESOURCE ISSUES

Conflicts

Sub-Saharan Africa enters the third millennium with a complex, intractable challenge for its people, their livelihood and their environment. The greatest of the challenges is brought about by conflict, between traditional social, economic and way of life in the past on one hand, and the contemporary forms of government, administrative systems and invisible yet powerful borders that defy logic. Conflict between the pastoral communities whose life depends on free movement over thousands of square kilometers in search of pasture for cattle, their only source of food, which is the basis for their social and economic value system, and the settled peasants who have

358 fenced off large areas for inefficient agriculture. Conflict between traditional rain fed farming methods and the horticultural irrigation systems that dam off dry weather flows that have been depended on for millennia, but have powerful backing because of their greater economic returns. Pressure from exploding population, pushing people to environmentally fragile areas as productive land becomes less and less available. Modern weaponry freely available that has transformed tribal warfare from relatively benign social conflicts that were used to prove manhood, to bloodbaths where thousands are killed in cattle raids and fights over grazing areas. Conflict between wildlife and the human activities that have cut off migratory routes, water points and upset the natural food chain the wild animals need to survive, and the reduction of diverse habitat they used to occupy.

Limited Productive Land

Kenya is in the heart of this dilemma. Land of agricultural potential constitutes only 16% of total land surface. Of this, cultivated land comprises 30% (i.e. <5% of total land), pastureland 30%, and the rest is reserved for National Parks or forests. The arid and semi-arid land that consists 83% of the total land area, only 31% can be used for pasturage ( 25% of total land area). The rest is desert. The little forest cover is under severe pressure. 70% of total energy for domestic use, and over 90% of household consumption rely on firewood and charcoal.

Degrading Utilisation of Natural Resources

Poor technology in timber production and processing, with the larger percentage of potential tree capacity wasted has left large tracts of forests destroyed. Slash & burn agriculture, unplanned cultivation in marginal areas and overgrazing as a result of population that has doubled in 20 years have resulted in reduced land production capacity, increased surface runoffs and reduced percolation of water that recharges groundwater and surface water downstream, and siltation of water retaining structures.

Unpredictable Weather Patterns

Rainfall patterns have been difficult to predict. El Nino, the deluge destroyed the modest infrastructure there was in 1997. The ensuing drought has lasted over eighteen months in the already vulnerable areas, resulting in widespread famine from Turkana in the North and West of Kenya, through Pokot, Baringo, Samburu in the middle to shores of the Indian Ocean on the Eastern side. Kenya is the relative sea of calm in an area best by long running conflicts.

Refugees in Fragile Environment

In a clockwise direction, it is bordered by Sudan (30 years war between Muslim, Arabised north and Aninimist/Christian South), Ethiopia (which is fighting Eritrea in the north and separatist entities on Kenya’s border), Somalia (collapsed as a state in 1990, is now run by warlords), Tanzania (peaceful), Uganda (fighting insurgents in its north and west). In the wider region, and still affecting Kenya, are Burundi, Rwanda (high genocide in 1995, now slowed down but still active) and Congo (former Zaire, everyone is fighting). The conflicts above drove hundreds of thousands of refugees with their livestock into Kenya’s most fragile areas, destroying shrubs, forests, stressing local grasslands. Huge influx of arms accompanied fighters from the various wars. Kenya was a colony of Britain until 1963. The British left a modern system of government, with an administrative apparatus that was irreconcilable with traditional cultural, social,

359 economic and value systems. The legacy for contemporary Kenyans is conflicting social systems, dislocation of tribes as borders that follow no logic were imposed, and a breakdown of reconciliation systems that settled differences within communities and between tribes.

Population Pressure

Kenya’s population at Independence was 6 million. It is now 30 million, with an average age of 15 years. The increased population is mostly in the 5% area that is agriculturally productive, and in the fast growing cities. In the cities, 60% to 70% live in informal settlements without running water and mostly no form of sanitation. Sewerage systems were constructed 20 to 30 years ago; with little maintenance have little treatment capacity for wastewater. Outmoded technology is prevalent in the agro-based and other forms of industry, with inadequate capacity or incentive to conform to pollution regulation. You may therefore surmise that the environment is severely stressed. Due to modern economies, streams and rivers have been diverted to the more lucrative horticultural sector, which provides over 60% of the much-needed foreign exchange.

The Way Forward in Water Resource Planning

The challenge therefore calls for an integrated, multidisciplinary approach, a process centered, long term perspective that looks at the human equation in its totality. It calls for engineers and planners to sit with anthropologists and sociologists as they device wholesome solutions to the problems that beset the population. Economists should incorporate agronomists and livestock experts as they chart out sectorial and periodic development plans. Urban planners and sociologists should consult with engineers, water quality scientists the private sector and industries to have cleaner environment and optimize use of scarce resources. Factor IV and X conceptual framework should be extended further into maximized use and recycling of natural resources and products that are increasingly difficult to replenish. The urgency and desperation of the situation does not allow stopping the clock in order to learn. Best practices from around the world, with skilled adaptation due to Africa’s unique circumstances, joint efforts from the local governments, support agencies and genuine commitment to human centered development taking into account individual and community cultural diversity offer hope in the way forward.

WATER SERVICES AND EFFICIENCY

The Problem

Kenya’s water sector has faced overwhelming problems in the last ten years. In water provision, the level of service and coverage has been steadily falling, despite modest investment in upgrading and new utilities.The Minister in charge of water issues stated that over six hundred water schemes have stalled. Many more, especially those which have extensive pumping units, operate at less than half the installed capacity.

The Causes

Constant underfinancing, poor commercial procedures, heavy, repeated revenue arrears, particularly from government institutions, schools and health facilities make operations difficult, and maintenance impossible. In their own operation, many water schemes experience unaccounted-for-water levels ranging from 40% to 75%, implying that upto three quarters of potential revenue is simply lost. Illegal connections, and weakness of laws to deal with

360 malefactors, worsen the situation. Leakages and pipe bursts, unserviced appurtenances and losses even at treatment works are major contributory factors.

Initiatives In order to alleviate the burden this places on consumers, the Government is pursuing alternative management arrangements, with the aim of increasing efficiency of service delivery. Recent initiatives include setting up of companies which, although owned by the councils, have autonomy of operation having been set up under company regulations, which provide for a Board of Directors to oversee functions according to the articles of incorporation.

Commercial Operation The Boards have been set up with key representation of the private sector, line government departments, the municipal authorities and the consumers, in order to obtain a balance in decision making between stakeholder interests. This initiative, which has been supported by GTZ, has had a positive impact in participating municipalities, but there is room for improvement.

Public/Private Partnerships Greater private participation through management contracts is also under trial, and is increasingly being seen as the most attractive option to achieve performance improvement while keeping the assets in public domain, a sensitive consideration in the era of privitisation. The information on water utilities is not adequate to enable private companies make decision on investment requirements, a prerequisite for competitive bidding for the deeper options. This may therefore be met by having short term management contracts which are intended to enable all stakeholders identify operational status, strength, weakness and potential, in order to provide for the basis of making informed decisions. In future, as the public gets to see more of the benefits of greater private sector involvement, other options such as longer term lease and maybe time bound concessions are expected to take an increasing role in the sector..

The Rural Water Sector For rural areas, direct transfer of operational responsibility to organised consumer user groups is the official government policy, although it is now becoming apparent that institution and human resource capacity building needing heavy investment is necessary to achieve intended impacts.

CONSTRAINTS

The major impediments to progress in private sector participation remains public perception that it will lead to unaffordable prices for water as the privateers rip off short term profit, that the systems will not be adequately maintained for the same reason, and that lack of transparent process in the bid for private management will result in lopsided contract that is not most beneficial to the consumers. For the professionals in the sector, there is worry of lack of regulatory capacity, that existing laws are not sufficient to provide necessary protection for both the consumer and the private operator, and that arbitrary decision common in this part of the world increases the perception of risk factor to the private operator. Perhaps, most critically, is the political dimension. Key decision makers are not well informed on the benefits, safeguards and options, and the fact that privatisation has not succeeded as well as expected in other utilities may make it difficult to sell the concept to the public, given the emotive reasoning when it comes to water issues. To reduce the problems in water and sewerage service delivery in the African context, considering widespread poverty, hence ability to meet long term marginal cost of water services, social impacts, experiences and lessons indicate that in the way forward, institutional, legal and economic reforms are seriously needed to provide a more enabling framework to achieve both effective services and social obligations.

361

Abstracts of Poster Presentations

URBANISATION AND WATER INDUSTRY GROWTH IN MALAYSIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN THE NEW MILLENIUM

Hashim, N. M. Spatial Study Unit , Faculty Of Development Science Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia UKM Bangi 43600 Selangor, Malaysia

ABSTRACT

In Malaysia, most river basins are in the process of being regulated but there is a need for further regulation to meet long term demand. In order to fulfill future needs the water resources of this country must be managed carefully. The main problem faced by Malaysia is fulfilling the acceptable quality and quantity of water demand at the right time and place. This is due to water pollution problem as well as the scattered distribution of rainfall. The quality and reliability of a source of water vary considerably both in time and space. Under the Federal Constitution of Malaysia, land as well as water matters are the responsibility of the states. Hence, in terms of water supply, the states governments are responsible to develop the resource as well as maintain the good quality of clean water. Under the states legislation, the authorities or organisations responsible for water works are either state Public Works Department (PWD), State Water Supply Department, State Water Supply Board or State Water Supply Corporation or Company. Federal PWD headquarters in Kuala Lumpur is the coordinating and implementing agency for all water supply planning schemes in Malaysia. It is noted that more and more states are favouring the formation of water boards or towards privatisation and some of the states planning towards fully corporatisation of the agency to reduce the public administration budget. In terms of urbanization in Malaysia, the growth is still in progress despite the recent economic downturn. Development on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia especially the state of Selangor, Negri Sembilan and Johor is espected to increase in the near future with the commencement of hi-tech based industrial operations and other forms of manufacturing activities as well as new urban centers. A substantial increase of water demand is expected and in addition rapid development of landuse activities such as urbanisation and industrialisation have caused a great change on the quality of water resources. Based on the above discussion, it seems that the avaibility of water supply will become insufficient for Malaysia in the near future due to rapid development and population growth. This paper attempts to highlight the latest government efforts in managing water resources as well as clean water supply to fulfill the urban demand. It also focusses on the issues and challenges in managing the resources in line with the principles of sustainable water use in the new millennium.

362

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF URBAN WATER MANAGEMENT. THE CITY OF THESSALONIKI CASE

E. G. Kolokytha , Y. A. Mylopoulos, A .K. Mentes Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Department of Civil Engineering Div. of Hydraulics and Environmental Engineering 540 06 Thessaloniki Greece E-mail: lpcol @ civil.auth.gr , mylop @ civil.auth.gr , [email protected]

ABSTRACT

This paper deals with the integration of social and economic aspects of sustainable water supply policy, with reference to the city of Thessaloniki . In order to implement a more sustainable water supply policy the Water Supply Authority of the city of Thessaloniki in cooperation with Aristotle University of Thessaloniki has conducted a research to investigate social and economic aspects of the water supply policy. The level of awareness of the public, quantitative water supply issues, water quality issues, water pricing policy, project planning policy, the level of public information concerning environmental and water issues, are among the most important aspects examined and analyzed through a questionnaire conducted in 2150 citizens of the city of Thessaloniki. Useful remarks and conclusions are derived, concerning the way the Water Supply Authority of the city of Thessaloniki should reorient the current water supply policy towards sustainability, in an effort to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of urban water management and planning.

KEYWORDS:: water pricing, public awareness, urban water management, sustainable water supply policy, city of Thessaloniki

WATER SUPPLY OPTIONS IN URBAN INDIA – INSTITUTIONAL CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

Saravanan, V.S. National Council of Applied Economic Research, Parisila Bhawan, 11 Indraprastha Estate, New Delhi 110 002. India. Email: [email protected] and [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The task of providing urban water supply is a significant challenge in the face of the water crisis in India. Conscious policy effort to overcome the crisis is further complicated by the emergence of fresh challenges. Institutional failure to govern urban water supply remains at the heart of the crisis and much of problem can be attributed to the structure of incentives that govern the operation. Despite these challenges, the paper illustrates coping strategies evolved by diverse institutions (government and private) and individuals in different metropolitan cities in India offer hope for managing urban water supply. Each institution plays a major role in enhancing the well being and freedom of individuals in the society and the world at large. By identifying the strengths and weaknesses of each institution, the paper identifies some common and key elements: foresight, co-ordination, credibility

363 of the actors, and predictability of the institutions, for mediating different peoples' access to resources. The paper presents a framework for promoting institutional complementarity through a cohesive governance system where superiority of one form of governance takes shape depending on the issue in place.

KEYWORDS: governance; India; institutional complementarity; institutional theory; water harvesting; urban water supply.

364