Fire Management today Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003
WWHAT’’SS AT RISKISK?
United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Fire Management Today is published by the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business required by law of this Department.
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Ann M. Veneman, Secretary April J. Baily U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager
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Jerry Williams, Director Madelyn Dillon Fire and Aviation Management Editor
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2 Fire Management Today Fire today Management Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 CONTENTS On the Cover: The Wildland/Urban Interface: What’s Really at Risk? ...... 4 Paul Summerfelt
Historical Fire Regime in Southern California ...... 8 Jon E. Keeley and C.J. Fotheringham
Trigger Points and the Rules of Disengagement ...... 10 Jason Greenlee and Dawn Greenlee Melted newspaper boxes bear testimony to the heat of the A Cooperative Fire Prevention Adventure ...... 14 1996 Skeleton Fire after it Sara Patterson made a run through the Sundance subdivision of Dome Peak Fire: Witnessing the Extreme ...... 16 Bend, OR, near the Deschutes Mike Cornwall National Forest. The photo won first place for wildland/ Big Ed Pulaski and the Big Blowup...... 19 urban interface fire in the Gerald W. Williams Fire Management Today photo contest for 2001 (see Inventing the Pulaski ...... 22 page 24). Photo: Thomas Gerald W. Williams Iraci, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR, 1996. Photo Contest 2001 ...... 24 Hutch Brown
Author Index—Volume 62 ...... 33 The FIRE 21 symbol (shown below and on the cover) stands for the safe and effective use of wildland fire, now and throughout the 21st century. Its shape represents the fire triangle Subject Index—Volume 62 ...... 34 (oxygen, heat, and fuel). The three outer red triangles represent the basic functions of wildland fire organizations (planning, operations, and aviation management), and the three critical SHORT FEATURES aspects of wildland fire management (prevention, suppression, and prescription). The black interior “It Is Not Understood Why Forest Fires Should represents land affected by fire; the emerging green points symbolize the growth, restoration, Get Away” ...... 37 and sustainability associated with fire-adapted General Land Office ecosystems. The flame represents fire itself as an ever-present force in nature. For more informa tion on FIRE 21 and the science, research, and innovative thinking behind it, contact Mike Websites on Fire...... 9 Apicello, National Interagency Fire Center, 208-387-5460. National Fire Plan at Work ...... 23
Guidelines for Contributors...... 38
Annual Photo Contest ...... 39
Firefighter and public safety is our first priority.
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 3 THE WILDLAND/URBAN INTERFACE: WHAT’S REALLY AT RISK?
Paul Summerfelt
and managers and wildland fire professionals have long debated A new definition of the L fire protection in the wildland/ wildland/urban interface is needed, urban interface (W/UI). After the along with a commitment to protect and preserve release of the National Fire Plan in the fall of 2000 and subsequent all neighborhood and community at-risk values. congressional appropriations designed to treat hazardous fuels, new contingents have added their how structures ignite during a voices to the W/UI discussion. The wildland fire.* Some people point to W/UI, which is bigger than most the results of Cohen’s work to people realize, can easily encompass justify their position that hazardous several jurisdictions and owner fuel mitigation work should be ships. limited to areas that are close to structures. Others believe that Current Understanding taxpayer dollars should not be spent to protect those who choose to live Various definitions and perceptions in areas that have a high wildland exist about what the W/UI is and fire risk. Still others are opposed to where it is located.* A common tree cutting for any purpose. belief is that the W/UI is a geo graphic area where structures, However, most people agree that primarily homes, are next to Plume from the 1994 Star Gulch Fire in landowners must build wisely and naturally occurring flammable Idaho, viewed from the Oregon border implement vegetative treatments fuels. Some people explain that (above) and the wildland/urban interface (below). Such enormous fires can easily adjacent to their structures. Addi W/UI is within a “dog’s walk” of a blow from the backcountry into the tionally, to be truly effective, vege structure. Others think that the wildland/urban interface, threatening tative treatments must occur on W/UI starts at the point where a golf homes and communities—and making the interface bigger than most people realize. both sides of the boundary line. ball hit from the porch of a struc Photos: USDA Forest Service, 1994. Work done close to a structure can ture lands. Although these percep prevent its loss, whereas work done tions about the W/UI are diverse, at a distance can prevent or miti they all describe the W/UI as an area gate the other damaging effects of a from 30 to 600 feet (9 to 91 m) severe fire. around a structure or within sight of a structure. Structure damage or loss is not the only risk from wildland fire. Public Jack Cohen, a scientist with the safety is an even more important Forest Service’s Fire Sciences concern. The threats from a wild- Laboratory in Missoula, MT, directs land fire might endanger public a research project that focuses on safety during the incident and for many years thereafter. Other Paul Summerfelt is the fuel management officer for the Flagstaff Fire Department, immediate and secondary fire Flagstaff, AZ. threats help illustrate the need for revising the definition of the W/UI. * For a set of definitions used in the West, see Brian F. Weatherford, “Types of Wildland–Urban Inter-face,” Fire * For information about Cohen’s research project, see Management Today 62(1) [Winter 2002]: 11.
4 Fire Management Today Immediate Fire Threats number of doctor visits and hospital the result might be catastrophic. Fires can be dramatic and frighten admissions rose dramatically during Chambers of commerce, tourism ing for neighborhoods and commu and immediately after the fires. bureaus, and merchant associations nities. The immediate threats go Many of those affected lived a often spend considerable time and well beyond the palpable danger to considerable distance away from the money to bring visitors back follow homes. fires. ing a fire.
Structures/Infrastructure. Many Firefighter Safety. In 1997, the Depending on a fire’s severity, State wildland fires threaten not only TriData Study: Wildland Firefighter and Federal money might be structures, but also fences, Safety Awareness Study was com available to help offset recovery powerlines, communication sites, missioned to find ways to improve costs. However, the amount of staff or other infrastructure. Because the firefighter safety.** Of the 114 time needed to document losses and threat to homes is often the most recommendations, the need to meet accounting requirements is dramatic and compelling part of a “implement a large-scale, long- often extensive, and it might be news story from a wildland fire range fuel management program” years before a settlement is reached incident, reports often lead with was the most important. Fire and and payouts are made. “structures threatened,” with land managers must conduct accompanying graphic photo hazardous fuel reduction on a Transportation. Fires can often graphs. landscape scale to improve disrupt air, rail, or vehicle travel firefighter safety. corridors. Shortly after the 1994 Treatments that reduce fire inten South Canyon Fire on Colorado’s sity in the immediate area around Fire Behavior. Fire spread can be Storm King Mountain, debris structures might dramatically rapid and spectacular. In May 2000, flowed from the fire site and improve their survivability. How the Viveash Fire on the Santa Fe blocked the westbound lanes of ever, treating only these areas does National Forest in New Mexico Interstate 70, causing significant not protect other at-risk values, traveled an estimated 8 miles (13 km) delays in the flow of goods and which might be as important or in one burn period (typically from services and in personal travel. even more important to a neighbor 10 a.m. to sundown), incinerating hood and community. approximately 18,000 acres (7,300 Recreation. Many people cherish ha) of forest. The convection the opportunity to enjoy the out Public Panic. Wildland fires can column during that period was doors. Outdoor activities are as produce fear, concern, and panic, larger than what many veterans had diverse as those who seek them. increasing calls to the local dispatch ever witnessed. However, most individuals will not center. If this happens, other travel to fire-blackened sites for any emergency responses are compro Secondary Fire Threats type of recreation experience. The mised. In addition, people might After a fire is controlled and both recreation opportunity is “lost” clog access routes as they flee or try the media and suppression re until most of the visible fire effects to return home. Examples of chaos sources have gone home, commu are healed. and confusion caused by wildland nity recovery can be long and fires include the Florida fire siege in difficult. Rebuilding. In most areas, struc 1998; the firestorm near Spokane, tures and infrastructure damaged WA, in 1991; and the Oakland Hills Financial Losses. Every fire or destroyed during a wildland fire Fire in California, also in 1991. season, the loss of revenue suffered will be repaired or replaced. For by local businesses due to fire many communities, this involves Public Health. During the 2000 activity is the subject of many rezoning requests, public hearings, fire season, residents of Montana’s reports. Losses can be particularly new permits, and work-related Bitterroot Valley incurred the crippling at the height of a summer inspections. Building and engineer health risks associated with living tourist season. As the multiplier ing departments are quickly over in an active fire zone. Besieged by effect ripples through a community, taxed, which is frustrating to many fires, people were exposed to everyone involved. heavy smoke for weeks during ** For the complete report, now called the SAFE Initiative, see
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 5 Environmental Costs. A devastat Public Confidence/Support. question the level of confidence ing wildland fire carries a variety of Following any major incident, the placed in individuals, institutions, environmental costs. One of the public might review the effective- and activities. Private groups that most obvious is destruction of ness of incident management have either opposed or advocated a wildlife and plant habitat. Some officials and programs. People often particular course of action are sites most at risk are home to various threatened, endangered, or sensitive (TES) species. Too often, TES species habitat listed as threat ened in daily summary reports is later noted as destroyed in postfire narratives.
Watershed values are another important environmental concern. An example of fire damage to watersheds was the 1996 Buffalo Creek Fire, which raged across 11,000 acres (4,450 ha) outside Denver, CO. The fire burned through part of the South Platte River drainage, a major contributor to metropolitan Denver’s water supply. Following fire control, the A large wildland fire (above) can have devastating results in the wildland/urban interface area experienced severe soil erosion. (below). Photos: USDA Forest Service. Cheeseman Reservoir was drained and dredged. In 5 years following the fire, 13 100-year flood events occurred in the area, and two lives were lost. The 2002 Hayman Fire in the same watershed threatens to make the situation worse.
In the aftermath of a wildland fire, forest health suffers. Although fires occur naturally, many western ecosystems did not evolve with the fire intensity recently experienced. In the past 120 years, fire exclusion, grazing, and logging practices have altered stand composition and compromised native plant commu nities. Dense stands of small trees now proliferate in many western coniferous forests. The current fuel loads support stand-replacement fires where low- or mixed-severity fire regimes once prevailed. These unnatural conditions are not sustainable, as the increasing size and severity of forest fires show.
6 Fire Management Today usually quick to scrutinize incident Emotional/Spiritual. Many people This definition broadens the per management. Although postevent have a special bond to a particular spective of what the W/UI is and scrutiny is beneficial, efforts to site. Damage caused by a wildland where it is located. It implies the prevent the event or to mitigate its fire to these sites can cause mental need for action outside the “struc effects before the event occurs or even physical pain to an indi ture envelope.” should be encouraged. vidual, a family, or a culture. For example, the San Francisco Peaks The goal in the W/UI must be to Scenic. Picturesque vistas are an are sacred to American Indian tribes protect all at-risk values, not just important component of our living in the Four Corners area of structures. Those who are account landscape. Many people travel great the United States. able to the public and have a distances to enjoy the beauty of our responsibility to act during wildland national parks and forests. For Rethinking the W/UI fires must reduce the fire threat some, long-distance vistas might be Based on immediate and secondary across jurisdictions and ownerships a daily experience—an open-space fire threats, a good definition of the and at considerable distances from area passed on their daily commute. W/UI might be: structures. Anything less neglects For others, they might be alto our duty and jeopardizes the health gether out of reach; but simply An area in and adjacent to a and sustainability of our neighbor ■ knowing that scenic, undeveloped neighborhood or community where hoods and communities. places exist is important. Although the immediate or secondary effects property insurance helps to rebuild of a wildland fire threaten at-risk homes that have survived a wild- values and will be a serious detri land fire, there is no fix but the ment to the area’s overall health passage of time for a black, desolate and sustainability. landscape ravaged by fire.
FUELS MANAGEMENT IN FLAGSTAFF
Flagstaff, AZ, takes a successful staff of 5, augmented by a 10-person teams, to help ensure proper approach to mitigating the fire seasonal crew plus 1 or 2 university response to W/UI fires. threat in the wildland/urban student interns. Annually, the interface (W/UI). With several program treats more than 1,300 In addition, the city participates hundred incidents each year in acres (520 ha) through selective in efforts to reduce dangerous and around the city, wildland tree thinning, brush disposal, and fuel accumulations and to fire is the area’s number one fire prescribed fire. restore forest health outside city threat. The Flagstaff W/UI limits, but within the W/UI. If a extends for several miles outside An active public outreach and project is within the threat zone the city’s corporate limits. It education effort encourages of the city, Flagstaff’s fuel man includes private, county, State, Flagstaff’s property owners to agement specialists provide and Federal lands. implement treatments around their advice, prepare forest steward homes. New housing developments ship plans, designate trees for The Flagstaff Fire Department’s must complete fuel hazard reduc cutting, oversee treatments, and Prevention Bureau has a fuel tion before occupancy. Fire person conduct prescribed burns. For management program for nel receive ongoing classroom and more information, contact Paul protecting all at-risk values field training, including member Summerfelt by e-mail at threatened by fire within the W/ ship on regional and national
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 7 HISTORICAL FIRE REGIME IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
Jon E. Keeley and C.J. Fotheringham
he historical variability in fire regime is a conservative indica In southern California, fire suppression has not T tor of ecosystem sustainability. even come close to excluding fire—unlike in many Understanding the natural role of coniferous forests of the Western United States. fire in chaparral ecosystems is therefore necessary for effective fire management. After reviewing the evidence, we Management concluded that the degree to which In December 2001, we published Implications fire regimes vary between the two two papers (Keeley and Fothering We question the claim that destruc regions is debatable. Moreover, any ham 2001a, 2001b) that contradict tive wildfires in southern California differences that exist cannot be earlier studies suggesting that the are a modern artifact of fire sup conclusively attributed to differ “natural” fire regime in southern pression. Our findings suggest that ences in fire suppression. Indeed, California was one of frequent small landscape-scale prescribed burning wildland fire records from the fires that fragmented the landscape is not an effective means of prevent USDA Forest Service and the into a mixture of stand age classes, ing large, stand-replacing fires in California Department of Forestry thereby preventing large, cata southern California’s shrublands. and Fire Protection show clearly strophic crown fires. Limited and strategically placed that in the ecosystems of southern prescribed burns are more cost- California, fire suppression has not effective for protecting communi Stand-Replacing Fire even come close to excluding fire— Regime ties and wildland resources. One of unlike in many coniferous forests of the most important roles for fire It has been claimed that the natural the Western United States. managers of chaparral ecosystems fire regime in chaparral was lost is to educate land planners on the because of overly effective fire sup Historical records show that the inherent limitations of fire hazard pression, and that if fire managers natural fire regime in southern reduction in these natural crown could “restore” it with widespread California shrublands included fire ecosystems. prescription burning, they could large, high-intensity fires. In fact, eliminate the hazard of catastrophic the historical fire regime was not References fires. The primary supporting substantially different from the evidence is a comparison of con Keeley, J. E.; Fotheringham, C.J. 2001a. The contemporary fire regime. There is historical role of fire in California temporary burning patterns in no evidence that fire management shrublands. Conservation Biology. 15: southern California (subject to fire policies have created the contempo 1536–1548. suppression) with patterns in rary fire regime dominated by Keeley, J. E.; Fotheringham, C.J. 2001b. History and management of crown-fire northern Baja California, Mexico massive fires driven by Santa Ana ecosystems: A summary and response. (without effective fire suppression). winds. Increased expenditures on Conservation Biology. 15: 1561–1567. ■ fire suppression, and increased loss of property and lives, are the result of human demographic patterns that place increasing demands on Jon Keeley is the station leader for the fire suppression forces.* USDI U.S. Geological Survey, Sequoia and Kings Canyon Field Station, Western Ecological Research Center, Three Rivers, CA; and C.J. Fotheringham is a graduate student in the Department of Organismic Biology, Ecology and Evolution, University * See Jon E. Keeley, “We still need Smokey Bear!”, Fire of California, Los Angeles, CA. Management Today 61(1): 21–22.
8 Fire Management Today Postfire greenup on the Angeles National Forest, CA. Stand-replacing fires every 20 to 40 years are typical in southern California’s native shrublands. Fire triggers germination in seed-banked annuals, which return to dormancy after shrubs such as chamise, resprouting from root crowns and/or from fire-activated seeds, reestablish the canopy cover. Photo: USDA Forest Service, 1990.
WEBSITES ON FIRE*
Six Minutes for Safety Site visitors can either access 12 months of calendars The Federal Fire and Aviation Safety Team (FFAST) containing “safety-of-the-day discussions” or select includes the USDI Bureau of Land Management, discussion topics from a drop-down list. The 200- to National Park Service, Bureau of Indian Affairs, and 300-word papers cover a variety of safety topics. Fish and Wildlife Service and the USDA Forest Readers can learn about the perils of fighting fires at Service. Team members have collaborated to develop night, what to do when fire engines are trapped, or the first interagency safety initiative that daily how to take a nap near the fireline. If you’re involved addresses the high-risk situations that historically in firefighting, check out the valuable, succinctly have meant trouble for firefighters. The FFAST, in an written safety information at the Six Minutes for effort to continue to find innovative ways to keep Safety Website. firefighters safe on the fireline, believes that the new initiative will have a tremendous positive impact. Found at
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 9 TRIGGER POINTS AND THE RULES OF DISENGAGEMENT
Jason Greenlee and Dawn Greenlee
ine decades of wildland firefighter fatalities have led to Operating in a high-risk, Ngrowing numbers of rules for high-consequence environment working on wildland fires. The most requires constantly staying alert. common lists of firefighter safety rules include the: rules of disengagement address present tactics are about to become • 10 Standard Firefighting Orders; when a firefighter should disengage unsafe and that it is time to disen • 18 Situations That Shout Watch from the attack for safety reasons. gage from the fire and move to a Out; The point that defines when a safety zone (see the sidebar). The •Common Denominators of Fire change is needed is called a trigger lead time that a trigger point Behavior on Tragedy Fires; point. provides depends on the time •Urban Interface Watch Out needed to move the slowest re Situations; A trigger point on a wildland fire is sources to safety, allowing extra •Downhill Fireline Construction a set of preplanned, easily recog time for unforeseen incidents. Guidelines; nized conditions indicating that the • Lookouts, Communications, Escape Routes, Safety Zones; and • Aircraft Watch Out Situations.* Smokejumper making a training Unfortunately, because of poor jump. The Missoula situational awareness, firefighters smokejumpers use trigger points to help sometimes find themselves in the them decide when to wrong place at the wrong time. disengage from Most fatalities on wildland fires attack. Photo: Paul Fieldhouse, USDA stem from this failure—the original Forest Service, plan was good, but things changed Missoula Smoke- and the importance of the changes jumper Base, was not appreciated. Missoula, MT. Rules of Disengagement The Missoula, MT, smokejumpers use a simple concept to help leaders and crew members stay alert. The
Jason Greenlee is the fire management officer for the USDA Forest Service, Osceola National Forest, Olustee, FL; and Dawn Greenlee is the prescribed fire specialist for the USDI U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, Boynton Beach, FL.
* For additional information on firefighter safety rules, see the Fireline Handbook (NWCG Handbook 3, PMS 410–1, NFES 0065, National Wildfire Coordinating Group, Boise, ID, 1998).
10 Fire Management Today Tactical Trigger Points the lookout(s), are assigned to Is Your Safety Zone There are tactical, strategic, and monitor conditions for the whole Really Safe? administrative trigger points. In crew or division. For example, When evacuating the crew to a this article, we consider tactical someone with a psychrometer must safety zone, the USDA Forest trigger points, where all members monitor 1-hour fuel moisture and Service’s Fire Sciences Laboratory of the firefighting team must be someone with fire behavior training in Missoula, MT, advises making the alert to changes in their environ must monitor the fire’s rate of zone radius four times the expected ment. spread. flame length (a diameter of eight times the expected flame length). When selecting a trigger point: The location and skills of the Flame length is the distance from monitor are critical to successful the base of the flame at ground level •Talk to local people and those who trigger point use. The monitor to the average tip of a visible flame. were on the last shift; must assess the approach of a •Choose a trigger point that is trigger point by monitoring condi The 4X rule assumes a circular relevant and can be easily moni tions in the entire area around the safety zone without any barriers to tored; and fire. Qualified monitors have intercept radiant heat. However, •Decide on a trigger point that training in fire weather and fire areas that are not perfect circles can provides adequate time to move behavior; they work diligently to be good safety zones if, because of to a safety zone. take humidity measurements on the probable direction of fire representative sites. Credibility is a movement, topographic variation, By discussing trigger points in big factor. Leaders and crews must or natural radiation barriers, they briefings, crews are involved in believe that the monitor is the most provide the necessary 4X separation environmental monitoring and qualified person for the position. between firefighters and the source receive advanced warning (see Then, when the monitor says that it of radiant heat. sidebar). However, each firefighter is time to move, crew leaders must not work independently to respond by quickly moving every In brush and grass, the 4X standard evaluate changes in the environ one to one or more predetermined for a safety zone is not a problem. ment. Instead, specialists, usually safety zones. However, in forest cover it is often
TYPES OF TRIGGER POINTS
The following situations might be •Wind exceeds a certain speed or • Lookouts are ineffective due to used as triggers to recognize shifts in a particular direction. features of the terrain or vegeta situational changes that might •A storm front or lightning ap tion. require firefighters to disengage pears in or near the operational •Elements necessary to support and move to a safety zone: area. current tactics are compromised •The fire approaches a certain or missing (such as water or •Crown fire is imminent. Humid geographic landmark that would retardant delivery and mecha ity falls and wind increases, compromise escape routes. nized equipment). approaching a point where •Control over the operational • Adjacent units are experiencing crown fire is likely to threaten environment is failing. For problems requiring adjustments the perimeter, erratic or ex example, radio traffic is becoming in tactics. treme fire behavior is observed, so excessive that communication •Unforeseen difficulties and or frequent spot fires occur. is impaired; or heavy equipment challenges, such as broken tools •Darkness approaches.* is above a crew working on a and equipment, are greatly rocky slope. slowing planned rates of fireline production. * In the United States, disengagement usually occurs well before dark due to many incidents involving falling snags and rolling rocks.
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 11 difficult to find or build a zone big A trigger point defines when enough. If the fire behavior predic an immediate change is needed tion in a 100-foot (30-m) tree canopy is expected to produce a in tactics and/or strategies. 200-foot (60-m) flame length at the height of the burning period, the required safety zone would be 1,600 marine flows during part of the watched. Time of day may not be a feet (480 m) wide! burning period. good trigger point. Often, it is better to select a trigger point that This dilemma has caused compro If trigger points are used to miti- is sensitive to the parameter that mises in the size of the safety zones gate a safety zone that does not will trigger unacceptable conditions to reduce costs, increase expedi meet the 4X standard, fire behavior (see the sidebar). ency, or protect the environment in trends will need to be closely areas with potentially high flame lengths. Consequently, many incident action plans on large fires have poor safety zones. Many safety zones are only deployment zones and some are not even adequate as deployment zones.*
Reevaluating Safety Zones Because safety zone size depends on weather-related fire behavior, each safety zone should be reevaluated before each shift begins. If long flame lengths are not expected during a shift, a smaller safety zone is adequate for that shift. However, if weather conditions are expected to worsen in the same area on the next shift, today’s safety zone might not be tomorrow’s safety zone.
In this case, firefighters should either adjust the trigger points needed to reach a better safety zone, improve the marginal safety zone, or not work on that part of the line on that shift. If snags or other hazards related to visibility are not a problem, firefighters should consider night operations, when flame lengths are likely to be lower. It might be possible to use predict able and consistent diurnal flows or
View from a safety zone. From the Salmon Mountain lookout, smokejumpers were able to * Misjudging a safety zone can have tragic results. See, safely observe a smoke column from the Lonely Fire on the Bitterroot Wilderness Complex for example, Hutch Brown, “Thirtymile Fire: Fire Behavior and Management Response,” Fire Management in 2000. Photo: Dawn Greenlee, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Loxahatchee National Today 62(3) [Summer 2002]: 23–30. Wildlife Refuge, West Palm, FL, 2000.
12 Fire Management Today Trigger points must be chosen Safety zones must be reachable by to provide enough time to use the designated the slowest resource well within the timeframe of the warning system. escape route and to get to the safety zone. In planning escape routes, firefighters should consider all possible delays, such as communi cations, slope, fatigue, visibility, and SUCCESSFUL TRIGGER POINT USE detection errors. Although this article focuses on crew resource On July 23, 2000, 16 smoke- However, because the safety zone management, firefighters should jumpers were sent to the 5-acre was about 2 miles (3 k) away, the remember to plan for pulling out (2-ha) Smoke Creek Fire on the jumpers gave themselves extra other resources as well. Sometimes, Bitterroot National Forest in time by setting the trigger points bogged-down heavy equipment Missoula, MT. Smokejumper as follows: slows evacuations or compromises Todd Onken was in charge. The escape routes. Enough time should morning forecast gave a Red Flag •Relative humidity = 25 percent; be planned to evacuate the slowest, Warning for gusty winds and low •Windspeed = 12 miles per hour most cumbersome resources. relative humidity. (5.4 m/s) at 20 feet (6 m); and • Spot fires not easily contained. Plan Ahead A jumper designated by Onken Advance planning and good selec requested a spot weather forecast If the established parameters tion of trigger points, escape routes, when she hit the ground, and were met, the jumpers would and safety zones can save lives, this spot forecast confirmed the disengage from the fire until it especially when adhering to the 4X morning forecast. The fire was was declared safe to return to standard for safety zones is not burning in a mixture of lodge work. possible. Firefighters should pole pine and subalpine fir with remember to select appropriate moderate 1,000-hour fuel load During the first afternoon shift, trigger points; pack, sling out, or ing. Thousand-hour fuel mois jumpers reached their trigger stash unneeded gear; preassign tures, which the crew had point; they spent the afternoon in evacuation duties; flag and scout discussed at morning briefings, the safety zone. During the escape routes; obtain and use were between 15 and 20 percent second afternoon, trigger point accurate maps; provide the needed throughout much of the Salmon conditions were not reached and support resources, such as River area. Live fuel moistures fireline work continued through prepositioned buses; and drill were at record lows. the shift. The crew contained the personnel in disengagement ma fire and completed half of the neuvers. Do these things, remem From their jump spot, the crew mopup after 48 hours, when the ber your lunch, and have a safe day. could see the nearby Cougar fire was handed over to two Peak Fire develop a smoke hotshot crews. Acknowledgments column and could speak with the jumpers on that fire as it The smokejumpers worked safely The authors thank Paul transitioned into a large fire. by using trigger points to remove Chamberlin, Paul Fieldhouse, Risa Onken held a briefing at the themselves from the fire during Lange-Navarro, Todd Onken, Jim jump spot. The crew did not the few hours on the first shift Steele, and Edmund Ward, Forest expect crown fire activity until when conditions were potentially Service, Aerial Fire Depot, Missoula, the humidity reached 20 percent. dangerous. MT; Brett Butler, Forest Service, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT; and John Caffin, Forest Service, Southern Region, Atlanta, GA, for their comments and encourage ment. ■
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 13 A COOPERATIVE FIRE PREVENTION ADVENTURE
Sara Patterson
wo days of physical toil and mental challenge, combined Thanks to the National Fire Plan, Twith lots of laughter and local schoolchildren got in free camaraderie, provided State and to visit educational fire exhibits at the Federal foresters and Science Museum of Western Virginia Science Museum of Western Virginia. employees with the satisfaction of a job well done. A banner 12 feet (3.6 women and men who conduct budgetary cutbacks, was delighted m) long announced the collabora ground and air firefighting opera- with the support provided by its tive effort, “FIRE Cooperation into tions. new cooperators—the Virginia the Future: Virginia Department of Department of Forestry and the Forestry and USDA Forest Service.” A long-time museum member and George Washington and Jefferson Soon, the doors would open to supporter, Thomsen strongly National Forests. As the fire re- thrill and educate the 30,000 supports the Division of Forestry’s source assistant for the national visitors expected over the next 3 fire prevention and fire use out- forest, I was the primary Federal months. reach efforts. Undeterred by the cooperator. repeated reply “No A Vision Realized available funds,” Two years ago, Chris Thomsen, Thomsen continued supervisory forester at the Virginia searching for the Department of Forestry, saw the funding to bring the movie Wildfire: Feel the Heat, movie to people living released in 1999 by Discovery in the W/UI areas of Pictures, a division of Discovery western Virginia. Communications, Inc.* He realized Through his persever the relevance of the film for the ance, the right con wildland/urban interface (W/UI) tacts were made and communities nestled in the beauti the right buttons ful Blue Ridge and Appalachian pushed. Mountains. After successfully Thomsen’s vision was to present the tapping into the fire film, which shows fires in varying education and preven topography and population settings, tion portions of the at the Science Museum of Western National Fire Plan Virginia, which serves Roanoke and (NFP), Thomsen was surrounding communities. The able to fund the movie dramatically surrounds the movie print costs and audience with sights and sounds, royalties. Additional recognizing the heroic work of the NFP funds— $72,000—subsidized Sara Patterson is the fire resource assistant museum and movie Smokey with friends Benjamin (youngest) and Matthew for the USDA Forest Service on the George admission for local McCrickard. Thanks to funding through the National Fire Washington and Jefferson National Forests Plan, schoolchildren were able to visit with Smokey at the in Roanoke, VA. schoolchildren. Science Museum of Western Virginia and view the museum’s exhibits on wildland fire management. Photo: Sara Patterson, USDA Forest Service, George Washington * For a film review, see Hutch Brown, “Fire on the The museum, having Really Big Screen: A Documentary With a Difference,” and Jefferson National Forests, Roanoke, VA, 2001. Fire Management Today 60(1) [Winter 2000]: 17–18. suffered recent
14 Fire Management Today Gathering gear, and artifacts. For the younger many “oohs” and “ahs” from the Momentum crowd, we offered blank “magic” strolling crowds. A spiffy Smokey The project snowballed! The mu paper that, when rubbed with Bear, courtesy of the Forest seum contacted Thomsen, wonder crayons, revealed the image of Service’s Southern Regional Office, ing if the cooperators could fill Smokey and the message “Only You sauntered the premises greeting 2,800 square feet (260 m2) of exhibit Can Prevent Forest Fires.” visitors and thrilling children. space that would soon be empty. Hundreds of helium-filled balloons When the effort began in early floated overhead, adding to the Thomsen, Glen Stapleton, fire staff January 2001, we did not imagine festive atmosphere. officer for the George Washington that during the next 9 months we and Jefferson National Forests, and would make hundreds of phone After the movie premier, State I brainstormed ways to fill the vast calls, order 10,000 True Story of Forester Jim Garner hosted an area. We collaborated with Fred Smokey Bear comic books, secure elegant reception, assisted by Turck, forest protection coordinator additional Conservation Education Bettina Ring, Deputy State Forester. for the State of Virginia, and and Urban Forestry grants for In attendance were many Forest solicited ideas from Bill Sweet, followup educational outreach, and Service managers, including exhibits manager for the Forest master the assembly of 17 erector- Elizabeth Estill, Regional Forester, Service’s Southern Region. set displays! Southern Region; Tom Harbour, Deputy Director of Fire and Avia Commitments rolled in for exhibits Opening Night tion Management (F&AM), Wash that we could borrow—a risk The public outreach efforts of 15 ington Office; Ron Coats, Director calculator to help homeowners Forest Service and 15 State employ of F&AM, Southern Region; and Bill determine their degree of fire risk ees helped to make the kickoff event Damon and Alice Carlton, respec and a rollicking coin-operated a huge success. On display in the tively forest supervisor and deputy Smokey Bear jeep ride with sirens. pedestrian area of the museum’s forest supervisor, George Washing We also developed new ideas. A entry were four pieces of heavy ton and Jefferson National Forests. timeline showed major fire events firefighting equipment—a humvee, and fire uses from prehistoric to dozer, regular engine, and antique Rave Reviews present time, with associated tools, Forest Service engine—eliciting School field trips have brought many young guests to the museum to view Wildfire: Feel the Heat and the educational fire exhibits. In addition to experiencing the movie and exhibits, college students from Virginia Tech enjoyed a question and-answer session about seasonal and full-time careers in fire.
Every visiting school group has benefited from a fire prevention and fire education talk provided by either a Forest Service or State employee. Many Forest Service employees have also viewed the film. Type 1 crews from the Western United States and a lead plane pilot appreciated the show, which cel ebrates America’s heroic smokejumpers, helicopter Firewise exhibit at the Science Museum of Western Virginia. The exhibits were effective rappellers, and hotshot crews. ■ tools for learning about fire use, firefighting, and other aspects of wildland fire manage ment. The visitor count for the exhibits was 26,049. Photo: Sara Patterson, USDA Forest Service, George Washington and Jefferson National Forests, Roanoke, VA, 2001.
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 15 DOME PEAK FIRE: WITNESSING THE EXTREME
Mike Cornwall
ome Peak lies on the edge of the Wenatchee National Forest, It was the first time I had ever heard a DNR pilot Dabout 30 miles west of Yakima, state that nothing could be done about a fire. WA. At 6,530 feet (2,070 m), the peak towers above surrounding ridges covered by dense forests of (CWICC) in Wenatchee, WA, asking and running in heavy timber. I lodgepole pine, western larch, and me to organize the initial attack. I arrived on the fire about an hour subalpine fir. By August 2001, after immediately ordered a strike team later. No roads led into the immedi months of regional drought in the of engines working in the Yakima ate area of the fire; we took a dead- Pacific Northwest, the forests were area. I also requested assistance end logging spur to reach a point unusually dry. from a Washington Department of across a canyon from the fire. We Natural Resources (DNR) helicopter turned the engines around to be On August 12, a dry-lightning strike that was working on the Spruce ready for a quick exit, if needed. I ignited the Spruce Creek Fire just Creek Fire. When I south of Rimrock Lake. With checked on the temperatures exceeding 90 ºF availability of (32 ºC) and a relative humidity of other aerial only 20 percent, the fire had spread resources, CWICC to 300 acres (120 ha) in steep and told me that all rugged canyons just a few miles airtankers were west of Dome Peak. committed to other incidents. Fire Start The next day, as the sun came up Twenty minutes over central Washington, it found after the initial the sky full of “popcorn” clouds. report, the DNR These clouds, as any seasoned helicopter was wildland firefighter knows, can over the fire. The signal a thunderstorm. A small pilot’s report gave storm cell soon developed over me a start: It was Dome Peak and adjacent Stroback the first time I had Mountain. The cell delivered two ever heard a DNR bolts of lightning. One struck pilot state that harmlessly in a rock slide, but the nothing could be other ignited a stand of heavily done about a fire. diseased timber on the south side of Dome Peak. By the afternoon, a The first resources smoke column was building. soon arrived in the vicinity of the fire. At 2:30 p.m., my radio crackled. It The first overhead was the Central Washington Inter- officer to arrive agency Communication Center reported that the fire had spread to Mike Cornwall is a fire management forester 40 acres (16 ha) Dome Peak Fire during initial attack. A strike team awaits orders (retired) for the Alpine District, Washington and was crowning while standing on a dead-end road across a canyon from the fire. Department of Natural Resources, Roslyn, WA. Photo: Mike Cornwall, Three Rivers Imaging, Fruitland, ID, 2001.
16 Fire Management Today The fire behavior was some of the most extreme small twigs. I felt very uncomfort- that I have seen in my 30 years with the DNR. able on that dead-end road with an angry fire looking over my shoulder! Huge patches of timber literally exploded. I immediately had the engine leaders make sure they had radio then posted lookouts to warn me knew the wind would switch in late contact with me and could account immediately if they saw a spot fire afternoon, strengthening and for the whereabouts of every on our side of the canyon. At that coming from the west; it worried crewmember. Then, because initial point, we would evacuate the area. me. There were many miles of attack could not accomplish much, unbroken heavy timber between the I requested that the local engines Extreme Fire Behavior fire and the next natural firebreak. and the strike team move back The fire behavior was some of the There were also many homes and towards Yakima and become most extreme that I have seen in summer cabins hidden in the available for initial attack on other my 30 years with the DNR. Huge timber. fires. I also asked CWICC to notify patches of timber literally exploded. the local fire department of the Spot fires became raging infernos When the wind began to change, I possible danger to structures. I within minutes. Radiant heat from saw something I had never seen monitored the fire through the the main fire ignited treetops 300 to before except on television. In video night; if it made a big run toward 400 feet (90–120 m) away. Walls of clips taken by “storm chasers” in the area with homes and cabins, I flame reached 250 to 300 feet (75– the Midwest, I had seen the entire would contact CWICC, which in 90 m) into the sky, dwarfing subal cloud formation start to rotate just turn would notify the fire protec pine firs that were 100 to 120 feet before a tornado formed. I saw tion district. To keep the public out (30–35 m) tall. something similar happen on the of harm’s way, I requested that all Dome Peak Fire. As the wind roads into the Cowiche Canyon and At first, I felt fairly secure where we shifted, the huge column of smoke North Fork Ahtanum Creek drain were. A slight east wind was push began not only to change direction, ages be closed by the Yakima ing the fire away from our vantage but also to rotate. We were soon County sheriff’s office. point and towards a cliff overlook pelted by ash, needles (both burned ing the Rimrock Lake basin. But I and green), toasted leaves, and Fire Complex The fire behaved itself through the first night. It spotted across a large meadow and burned slightly towards the north and east, away from my position across the can yon. At about 3 a.m., an inversion set in over the lower two-thirds of the fire, the portion burning inside the canyon. As the sun came up just before 6 a.m., a 5-acre (2-ha) patch of timber just above the inversion exploded. The ensuing mushroom cloud sucked the inversion out of the canyon in a matter of minutes. The fire awoke from a night’s sleep, ready to get on with the day’s work.
During the night, the Spruce Creek Fire and the Dome Peak Fire became the the Spruce–Dome Fire Complex. CWICC told me that I Extreme fire behavior on the Dome Peak Fire. Photo: Mike Cornwall, Three Rivers Imaging, Fruitland, ID, 2001. would be re-lieved at 8 a.m. by a
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 17 type 1 incident management team. I When the wind began to change, I saw something was to brief the team upon arrival. I had never seen before except on television. The My initial-attack resource order had smoke column started twisting like a tornado. included the initial-attack dozer for the DNR’s Alpine District and two contract dozers. The district dozer enough, because on the fourth or As I walked through some of the and its operator arrived on the fire fifth day of the fire, about half an heaviest burned areas, I was amazed at about 6:30 a.m. We studied the inch (13 mm) of rain fell and the to find lodgepole pine cones where burn and decided that if we could crews were able to get a dozer trail there was not a lodgepole pine in get the dozer across the creek at the around the head of the fire to stop sight. The cones were lying in the bottom of the canyon, we could it. On Labor Day weekend (Septem ash, popped open and with the start direct attack on the lower part ber 1–3, 2001), responsibility for seeds falling out. I realized that the of the fire, which had burned into the fire was reassigned to the DNR’s cones were transported there by the meadows. We pinpointed areas of Alpine District. I reassumed the role awesome forces unleashed by the cooling black as our escape routes of IC, taking charge of mopup and fire. A new forest would be growing and safety zone. The dozer started rehabilitation. soon. ■ work at 8 a.m. on the fire’s south western flank. Anchoring to the creek, the dozer built a tight trail Dome Peak uphill to the west, toward the cliffs Fire during that overlook Rimrock Lake. mopup. A crewmember flakes one of At about 9 a.m., the two contract many pieces of dozers arrived. They started a hose as mopup flanking action anchored to the winds down. Photo: Mike creek in a southeasterly direction. Cornwall, Our plan was to get around the Three Rivers fire’s east flank and tie the fireline Imaging, Fruitland, ID, from the creek to the rocky ridge- 2001. top before the usual afternoon winds arrived, blowing stronger and from the west.
The type 1 team relieved me as incident commander at about 1 p.m. I briefed the incoming inci dent commander on my plan. He told me that if it worked, I would be a hero; the fire behavior specialist had predicted that the Spruce– Dome Fire Complex would grow to 10,000 acres (4,000 ha). It was now at 400 acres (160 ha). Seeds of a New Forest I headed home for some much- needed rest. On the following day, the fire blew out of its lines and made a huge run. All told, about 2,500 acres (1,000 ha) burned. Mother Nature must have had
18 Fire Management Today BIG ED PULASKI AND THE BIG BLOWUP
Gerald W. Williams
here are many stories about the Big Blowup of August 20–21, “Some men went berserk, clamoring over the T1910, when a massive million- prostrate bodies, choking, gasping. acre firestorm charred vast areas of Others praying. Others laughing.” national forest and remote towns in western Montana and northern –William Chance, survivor in the Pulaski mine Idaho. More than 85 lives were lost. The Montana towns of DeBorgia, Grand Forks, Haugan, Henderson, d’Alene divide working on fires in Fear became a factor. Men packing and Taft were completely destroyed. the two Big Creeks.” The stage was in supplies to the firefighters simply set for an encounter between a dumped their loads and fled back to In Idaho, the flames swept around massive, uncontrollable forest fire town. With “the whole world” the frontier town of Wallace, and the fortitude and determination seemingly ablaze, many firefighters destroying many homes and build of a small group of firefighters “thought that it really was the end ings. Wallace sits in Silver Valley, a trying to save their lives. of the world.” Pulaski abandoned all peaceful valley 40 miles (64 k) long, hope of fighting the fires and simply east of Coeur d’Alene and west of From the Horse’s tried to get his crew to safety. Lookout Pass. The community was Mouth very small in 1910; even today, In 1923, the journal American He managed to gather 45 men. there are less than a thousand Forests and Forest Life held an Barely making himself heard “above residents. essay contest asking subscribers to write about their most exciting Wallace was home to Ed Pulaski, experience as a forest ranger. PULASKI’S STORY whose tale is the most enduring Pulaski submitted his story “Sur story associated with the Big rounded by Forest Fires,” which Editor’s note: Ed Pulaski for Blowup. In the summer of 1910, was printed in the journal’s August mally told his story only once, in Pulaski was 42 years old. A native of issue (see the sidebar). After that, the August 1923 edition of Amer Ohio, he had wandered west at age he “never wrote another word about ican Forests and Forest Life. The 16 to work in the mills and mines of the Great Fires or, for that matter, following excerpt illustrates his Montana and Idaho. In 1910, he was spoke of them further in any formal simple, straightforward style. barely 2 years into his Forest way,” noted the fire historian Service career as the district ranger Stephen J. Pyne (2001). On August 20 a terrific hurricane on the Wallace Ranger District, broke over the mountains. It Coeur d’Alene National Forest. Pulaski told a simple story. On picked up fires and carried them August 20, there was “a terrific for miles. The wind was so strong “Big Ed” was a physically imposing hurricane” that was “so strong it it almost lifted men out of their man. Like others in the USDA almost lifted men out of their saddles, and the canyons seemed Forest Service, Pulaski was leading saddles.”* The winds carried fire for to act as chimneys, through a crew of firefighters against the miles, joining the fires, which which the wind and fires swept Great Fires of 1910, which hit the “swept with the roar of a thousand with the roar of a thousand Northern Rockies beginning in July. freight trains.” The intense smoke freight trains. The smoke and “By August 19,” wrote Charles K. and heat made it difficult to heat became so intense that it McHarg (1931), “Pulaski had about breathe. was difficult to breathe. The men 120 men on the St. Joe/Coeur who were packing in supplies refused to go to their destina
* Early fire crews often used horses and mules to reach tions, dumped their loads, and Jerry Williams is the national historian for remote fires and resupply firefighters in the back fled back to Wallace. … the USDA Forest Service in Washington, D.C. country.
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 19 the noise of the fire and wind,” he directed the men to take blankets and follow him. “Trees were falling all about” and it was “almost impossible to see through the smoky darkness,” but Pulaski was familiar with the backcountry trails. He led his crew to an old mine tunnel, reaching it just in time before the fire closed in behind them.
Pulaski ordered the men to lie face down to keep from suffocating, “for the tunnel was filling with fire gas and smoke.” One man panicked and tried to rush into the firestorm, but Homestead in the Northern Rockies on the eve of the Big Blowup. Homesteaders fled the Pulaski stopped him at gunpoint. flames to local towns, which were often evacuated by train. Photo: B.L. Wheeler, USDA Forest Service, Boise National Forest, ID, 1909. “The first man who tries to leave this tunnel I will shoot,” he said. blindness and pneumonia. His the prostrate bodies, choking, When the mine timbers caught fire, experience left him with “poor eyes, gasping. Others praying. Others Pulaski hung wet blankets over the weak lungs, and throat; but, thank laughing. I’ll never forget one man entrance. Filling his hat with water God, I am not now blind.” lustily singing, ‘The Pride of the from the mine floor, he doused the House is Mama’s Baby.’” burning timbers. “The men were in A Survivor’s Story a panic of fear, some crying, some Sherry Devlin (2000), a staff writer Chance passed out. Awakening, he praying.” Many passed out from the for the newspaper The Missoulian, crawled toward the mine entrance heat, smoke, and fumes. Pulaski recounted a letter from William and found Pulaski there, badly battled the blaze at the mine Chance, a member of Pulaski’s burned after trying to extinguish entrance until he, too, lost con crew, about the heroism of Big Ed. burning timbers with his hands. sciousness. Chance was new to firefighting, Chance helped Pulaski and others barely a day on the fireline when crawl down the mountainside to Pulaski remained unconscious for the Big Blowup came. Wallace. In town, Pulaski took the hours. Then he heard someone say, hungry to a restaurant and the rest “Come outside, boys, the boss is “Fire came at us rapidly,” wrote to a hospital, then went home to his dead.” “Like hell he is,” he replied. Chance. The blaze was unimagin wife and 7-year-old daughter. It was 5 a.m. on August 21, and the ably ferocious. Pulaski told his men men were becoming conscious. to follow him back to town. How Pyne’s Story Dragging themselves outside to a ever, the people of Wallace had Stephen J. Pyne (2001) offers a creek, they found the water still too ignited a backfire, trapping Pulaski comprehensive account of the warm to drink. Five men never and his men between two converg Pulaski story in his masterful book regained consciousness. The rest ing walls of flame. The crew took Year of the Fires (see the sidebar). staggered back toward Wallace. refuge in an old adit. On August 20, Pulaski and others Rescuers met them on the way. were riding up the West Fork when The firefighters were skeptical the fire began burning behind The survivors were “in a terrible about their chances of surviving them. Perhaps these new fires were condition, all of us hurt or burned.” inside the tunnel. But Pulaski backfires started by residents of Pulaski himself was temporarily “emphasized his point with his six- Wallace to save their town. blinded, with terrible burns on his shooters.” “Inside, the tunnel was a hands. He spent nearly two months mad house,” Chance wrote. “Some Pulaski began to lead the crew to in the hospital, recovering from men went berserk, clamoring over safety, but the fire threatened them
20 Fire Management Today “The first man who tries to leave this tunnel PYNE TELLS THE I will shoot.” PULASKI STORY –Ed Pulaski Editor’s note: Stephen J. Pyne, the leading fire historian in the from all sides. “They advanced but “were a little better off,” and the United States, conducted ex haltingly, as Pulaski would dash men dragged themselves out of the haustive research on the Big ahead to scout the way and then mine. They called roll and realized Blowup for his book Year of the return to lead the terrified group to that some men were missing. Five Fires (2001). The following the next spot.” The terrified men were found dead inside the tunnel. excerpts illustrate Pyne’s stuck with Pulaski only because Two horses had also survived inside masterful account of Ed they did not know the trail. the mine “but in such wretched Pulaski’s story. condition that they were shot on Pulaski, “with a wet gunnysack over the spot.” The final dash was a horror. his head,” located the Nicholson Only the fact that they were Mine and determined it was safe. Folk Hero trailing the creek, tucked into Then he led the men toward it. “The Big Ed carried the scars of the Big the ravine, while the flames final dash was a horror,” with one Blowup, especially on his hands and raced with the wind along the man lagging behind and dying. face, for the remainder of his life. upper contours of the slopes, Finally, Pulaski urged the remain For years, he was the only person likely spared them from being ing 44 men into “a shaft 75 to 80 who regularly tended the graves of instantly incinerated. By now feet deep, barely the height of a the fallen firefighters. Pulaski the fire was around them, and man, with a trickle of water run worked on the Wallace Ranger the winds bellowing like thun ning through it.” District for another 20 years, der, and the embers thick as retiring in 1930. He died in 1931 snowflakes. The tortured winds The crew retreated as far as possible from injuries associated with an snapped off giant cedars and into the mine. “[T]he men packed auto accident. For a nation suffer hurled them across the hills. … the narrow passage like oats in a ing through the Great Depression, feedbag, while Pulaski tried to beat Ed Pulaski became, according to The crew became almost out the flames at the entrance with Pyne (1982), “a celebrity, a symbol senseless. They could neither a horse blanket and a hat full of of a strenuous life spent bravely hear nor speak nor see nor taste water.” Others might have tried to battling the reckless waste of nor barely feel. They clung to help. With “their fresh air shrinking natural resources. … For one another and ran and and their fears swelling,” the men firefighters he became a folk hero.” stumbled along the trail, only began to panic. At least one man because that took less thought tried to push his way out, but at the References than anything else they might entrance “he met Big Ed Pulaski, do. Richard Wood lagged and Devlin, S. 2000. The big blowup. The pistol in hand, who said that he Missoulian (Missoula, MT). August 20. died, possibly crushed by a would shoot the first man who tried McHarg, C.K. 1931. Letter. Repr. in Eduard flaming tree. Along the way a to leave.” C. Pulaski, 1868–1931 [obituary]. Journal bear joined the cavalcade. … of Forestry. 29(8) [December]: 986–988. Pulaski, E. 1923. “ Pulaski finally passed out at the Pyne, S.J. 1982. Fire in America: A cultural entrance to the mine. When he history of wildland and rural fire. Seattle: University of Washington Press. regained consciousness, “[h]is Pyne, S.J. 2001. Year of the fires: The story lungs were a mess, his eyes almost of the Great Fires of 1910. New York: useless.” Those inside the mine Viking. ■
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 21 INVENTING THE PULASKI
Gerald W. Williams
ost firefighters know that the pulaski firefighting tool was Early firefighting usually involved “knocking down” Mnamed for Ed Pulaski, the or beating out the flames, because water was hero of the Big Blowup of 1910. generally not available. Pulaski, a jack-of-all-trades, is often credited with inventing the tool in the years following the Big Blowup. For many years, “ranger inventors” claimed to have invented a pulaski However, stories abound about the toyed with the idea of building one like tool by having a local black tool’s invention, and not every tool that could do several jobs and smith modify a lightweight mining account is the same. be carried on a horse or pack mule pick. He said he used the tool for and by a firefighter or tree planter. firefighting in the Forest Service’s Early Tools Many variations of such tools were Northern Region in 1907. James B. Davis (1986), a research tried and discarded. Several did rise forester for the USDA Forest Ser to the top, including the Macleod William G. Weigle, supervisor of the vice, noted that the Collins Tool tool, invented in 1905 by Ranger Coeur d’Alene National Forest, also Company developed a tool as early Malcolm Macleod on the Sierra took credit for inventing a pulaski as 1876 that was designed to clear National Forest in California. This like tool, though not for firefight land. This farm tool, still on display sturdy combination rake-and-hoe ing. Weigle wanted a new tool to at the Smithsonian Museum of Arts or ax-and-mattock has withstood replace the mattock for planting and Industry, looked and functioned the test of time, although it never and other forestry work. In late essentially like today’s pulaski. It is gained the popularity of the pulaski. 1910 or 1911, Weigle sent Rangers not clear why the Collins land grub Joe Halm and Ed Holcomb to bing tool was not used either to put Pulaski Origins Ranger Ed Pulaski’s home black out fires or as a model for a practi Davis (1986) describes the pulaski’s smith shop to turn out a combina cal firefighting tool. disputed origins. Earle P. Dudly tion ax, mattock, and shovel. As Davis (1986) points out, early fire tools were whatever firefighters happened to have available. Early firefighting usually involved “knock ing down” or beating out the flames, because water was generally not available. Beating out was usually done with a coat, a slicker, a wet sack, or even a saddle blanket. “A commonly used tool,” notes Davis (1986), “was a pine bough cut on arrival at the fire edge.” Farming and logging tools came into use, including the shovel, ax, hoe, and rake. “[L]ittle thought was given to size, weight, and balance,” notes Davis (1986).
Firefighters with pulaskis in Oregon in 1939. By the 1920s, pulaskis were a standard Jerry Williams is the national historian for firefighting tool throughout much of the United States. Photo: Ray M. Filloon, USDA the USDA Forest Service in Washington, D.C. Forest Service, Umatilla National Forest, OR, 1939.
22 Fire Management Today The device proved to be too awk Pulaski Legend congressional memorial, or recov ward for use as a planting tool. But Ed Pulaski might not have invented ered memory.” Every time a fire Pulaski kept using and improving the tool that bears his name, but he fighter reaches for a pulaski, he or it. He abandoned the shovel part certainly helped to develop, im she figuratively retells “the story of and reshaped the ax and mattock prove, and popularize it (Davis Big Ed and the Big Blowup, the blades. By 1913, he had a well- 1986). Today, many thousands of saga of the Great Fires and the year balanced tool with a sharp ax on pulaskis are ordered every year by that tried to contain them” (Pyne one side and a grubbing blade on the Federal Government, as well as 2001).* the other. by State and county firefighting organizations. Forestry supply References By 1920, the Forest Service’s catalogs always seem to have a Davis, J.B. 1986. The true story of the Northern Region had “adopted the category for pulaski fire tools. pulaski fire tool. Fire Management Notes. tool as its own,” according to the 47(3): 19–21. Pyne, S.J. 2001. Year of the fires: The story fire historian Stephen J. Pyne For more than 75 years, firefighting of the Great Fires of 1910. New York: ■ (2001). The Forest Service asked for has been defined by the tool named Viking. commercial production in quantity, for Ed Pulaski. Pyne (2001) calls it and the pulaski and shovel soon “the supreme fire tool,” noting that * For the story of Ed Pulaski, see the article by Jerry became “the dominant, defining it “embedded the legend of 1910 Williams on page 19 of this issue. tools of fire control” (Pyne 2001). more firmly than any agency stunt,
YOUR NATIONAL FIRE PLAN AT WORK*
Assessing Postfire Other efforts by SFSC scientists using NFP funds Emergency include: Rehabilitation Conditions • Signing agreements to collaborate with other research institutions in updating a model that Funded by the National Fire identifies time trends in watershed response and Plan (NFP), scientists at the monitors water yield responses to wildland fire and USDA Forest Service’s Southwest Forest Science fuels reduction treatments in the Southwest; Complex (SFSC) in Flagstaff, AZ, are providing land •Researching soil chemical or physical properties managers with postfire data from predictive models after a fire or after fuel treatments, in partnership to help prevent erosion and catastrophic flooding. with a JFSP study on the microbiological effects of The models are also used to research the effects of fire in ponderosa pine ecosystems; erosion on wildland fire, vegetation treatments, •Restoring a gauging station in the Workman Creek hydrology, and geomorphology. watershed, Sierra Ancha Experimental Forest, to continue to monitor water and sediment yields Similar SFSC research efforts using NFP monies from the Coon Creek Fire in Arizona; include collaboration with the Joint Fire Sciences •Remeasuring riparian geomorphic and vegetation Program (JFSP) to link a study about the effective- transects on four streams in and adjacent to the ness of contour-felled logs in retaining soil in high 1991 Dude Fire in Arizona’s Tonto National Forest; severity burned areas to research about postfire and watershed responses. • Preparing a manuscript for publication in 2002 on the processing of archived hydrologic data used to *Occasionally, Fire Management Today tells a success story or describes an exemplary project under the National Fire Plan. Readers can find many more such assess the effects of wildland fire on postfire snow- accounts on the Website for the National Fire Plan at
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 23 PHOTO CONTEST 2001
Hutch Brown
e had some excellent sub Do you have a photo that tells a turn to page 39 for instructions on missions for our 2001 photo story about wildland fire manage how to enter our 2001 photo W contest. We solicited photos ment? Would you like the thrill of contest. ■ in six categories: seeing your photo in print? If so,
•Wildland fire, • Prescribed fire, •Wildland/urban interface fire, • Aerial resources, •Ground resources, and •Miscellaneous (fire effects, fire weather, fire-dependent commu nities or species, etc.).
We evaluated photos submitted in three steps. First, we looked for technical flaws, such as soft focus. For print publication, photos must have the highest technical quality. We automatically eliminated submissions with technical flaws, even though many were otherwise outstanding. First Place, Wildland Fire. Firewhirl in a crown fire burning in fir and pine on the Hash Rock Fire, Ochoco National Forest, OR. Photo: Thomas Iraci, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Next, we judged the remaining Northwest Region, Portland, OR, 2000. photos based on traditional photog raphy criteria. We asked such questions as:
• Is the composition skillful and dynamic? • Are colors and patterns effective? •Does the photo tell a story?
Finally, we made the awards, based partly on absolute merit. For example, if we decided that there was only one excellent photo in a category, then we would make only one award in that category—First, Second, or Third Place, depending on how outstanding we thought the photo was. Winning photos are reprinted here.
Hutch Brown is the managing editor of Fire Second Place, Wildland Fire. Lone snag silhouetted against a crown fire burning in down Management Today, USDA Forest Service, and standing lodgepole pine on the Hash Rock Fire, Ochoco National Forest, OR. Photo: Washington Office, Washington, DC. Thomas Iraci, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR, 2000.
24 Fire Management Today Third Place, Wildland Fire. A fast-moving firestorm sweeps upslope through pine on the Hash Rock Fire, Ochoco National Forest, OR. Photo: Thomas Iraci, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR, 2000.
First Place, Aerial Resources. A Sikorsky S–64 Skycrane delivers retardant on the 1996 Clark Peak Fire, Coronado National Forest, AZ. Photo: Marvin Carpenter, USDA Forest Service, Helena National Forest, Helena Ranger District, Helena, MT, 1996.
Second Place, Aerial Resources. A Canadian CL–415 loads water on the Fraser River in British Columbia, Canada. Photo: Allen Farnsworth, Coconino National Forest, Peaks Ranger District, Flagstaff, AZ, 1997.
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 25 Third Place, Aerial Resources. View from the cockpit during aerial monitoring of lightning-caused wildland fires in North Cascades National Park, WA. Photo: Allen Farnsworth, Coconino National Forest, Peaks Ranger District, Flagstaff, AZ, 1997.
First Place, Wildland/Urban Interface. Melted newspaper boxes bear testimony to the heat of the Skeleton Fire in the Sundance subdivision of Bend, OR, near the Deschutes National Forest. In the background are brush rigs from the Bend Fire Department. Photo: Thomas Iraci, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR, 1996.
26 Fire Management Today Second Place, Wildland/Urban Interface. A Buddha watches over a home that failed to survive the Skeleton Fire in the Sundance subdivision of Bend, OR, near the Deschutes National Forest. Photo: Thomas Iraci, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR, 1996.
Third Place, Wildland/Urban Interface. Remains of a home destroyed in the Shepard Mountain Fire, Custer National Forest, MT. Photo: Marvin Carpenter, USDA Forest Service, Helena National Forest, Helena Ranger District, Helena, MT.
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 27 First Place, Prescribed Fire. A prescribed burn for fuels management adjacent to a home under construction in Flagstaff, AZ. The Flagstaff Fire Department uses prescribed fire to manage fuels in neighborhoods throughout the city. Photo: Allen Farnsworth, Coconino National Forest, Peaks Ranger District, Flagstaff, AZ, 1996.
Second Place, Prescribed Fire. State and local firefighters, supported by students from the Prescribed Fire Training Academy, use prescribed fire to reduce fuels in a neighborhood in Palm Coast, FL. Photo: Allen Farnsworth, Coconino National Forest, Peaks Ranger District, Flagstaff, AZ, 2000.
28 Fire Management Today Third Place, Prescribed Fire. A prescribed burn for fuels management in Palm Coast, FL. Hard hit by wildland fires in 1998, many Florida communities use prescribed fire to reduce fire hazards. Photo: Allen Farnsworth, Coconino National Forest, Peaks Ranger District, Flagstaff, AZ, 2000.
First Place, Miscellaneous. Sunburst through smoke on a lightning-ignited fire on the Mill Creek Wilderness, Ochoco National Forest, OR. The fire was managed for wildland fire use. Photo: Thomas Iraci, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR, 1995.
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 29 Second Place, Miscellaneous. Sunrise over the Grand Canyon reveals smoke from the North Rim Fire Complex. The flat smoke pall suggests a temperature inversion, a common nighttime phenomenon in the deep, steep valleys and canyons of the West. Photo: Allen Farnsworth, Coconino National Forest, Peaks Ranger District, Flagstaff, AZ, 1998.
Third Place, Miscellaneous. The Salmon River reflects a flame at the base of a ponderosa pine on the Main Salmon Fire Complex, Salmon National Forest, ID. Photo: Allen Farnsworth, Coconino National Forest, Peaks Ranger District, Flagstaff, AZ, 1998.
30 Fire Management Today Honorable Mention, Miscellaneous. The Moran Fire leaves a patchwork of burns below the Teton Peaks on Jackson Lake, promising future landscape diversity in Wyoming’s Grand Teton National Park. Photo: Allen Farnsworth, Coconino National Forest, Peaks Ranger District, Flagstaff, AZ, 2000.
First Place, Ground Resources. An engine crew foams a cabin threatened by the Graves Fire, which became part of the Nine Mile Fire Complex, Lolo National Forest, MT. Photo: John M. Orton, Idaho Panhandle National Forests, St. Joe Ranger District, St. Maries, ID, 2000.
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 31 Honorable Mention, Ground Resources. Sunburst through smoke during a burnout operation, MHRD Fire, El Dorado National Forest, CA. Photo: Thomas Iraci, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR, 1999.
Honorable Mention, Ground Resources. A firefighter in Slovenia foams vegetation during a winter prescribed burn. Photo: Muhicv Darko, Postojna, Slovenia, 2001.
Honorable Mention, Miscellanous. Foam protects a small tree during a winter prescribed burn in Slovenia. Photo: Muhicv Darko, Postojna, Slovenia, 2001.
32 Fire Management Today AUTHOR INDEX—VOLUME 62
Alexander, Martin E. The staff ride approach Evans, Jill. A unique aviation tool for Potter, Brian E.; Sawin, Thor; Martin, to wildland fire behavior and firefighter firefighting. 62(4): 55–56. Jonathan. How accurate are Haines Index safety awareness training: A commentary Farnsworth, Alan; Summerfelt, Paul. forecasts on the University of Wisconsin 62(4): 25–30. Flagstaff interface treatment prescription: Website? 62(2): 21–23. Bailey, Cynthia. Firewise workshops ignite Results in the wildland–urban interface. Rains, Michael T.; Hubbard, Jim. Protecting community action. 62(1): 4–6. 62(2): 13–18. communities through the National Fire Barrett, Stephen W. Moose Fire: The Fastabend, Michael. Kenai Peninsula Plan. 62(2): 4–12. historical perspective. 62(4): 42–44. Borough: A spruce bark beetle mitigation Saveland, Jim. Book review: How the way Barrett, Stephen W. Three small smokes. program. 62(1): 22. we talk can change the way we work. 62(4): 57. Finn, Moira. Hub helps prepare for fire 62(4): 38–41. Benefield, Mike. About the way we fight season. 62(2): 36–37. Schwab, Erich J. Accelerated aviation fires. 62(2): 30–33. Fulé, Peter Z.; Verkamp, Greg; Waltz, Amy training. 62(2): 38. Bosworth, Dale. Revisiting the loss of our E.M.; Covington, W. Wallace. Burning Scott, Joe H.; Reinhardt, Elizabeth D. own. 62(3): 4–5. under old-growth ponderosa pines on Estimating canopy fuels in conifer Bowen, Traci. Texas volunteer firefighters lava soils. 62(3): 47–50. forests. 62(4): 45–50. benefit from new legislation. 62(4): 51– George, Charles W. Coming soon: Gum- Thirtymile Fire Accident Review Board. 52. thickened fire retardants. 62(2): 34–35. Causal factors in the Thirtymile Fire Brauneis, Karl. 1937 Blackwater Fire Greenlee, Dawn; Greenlee, Jason. Changes accident. 62(3): 9–12. investigation: Boost for smokejumpers? in fire hazard as a result of the Cerro Thirtymile Fire Accident Review Board. 62(2): 24–26. Grande Fire. 62(1): 15–21. Recommended changes in wildland fire Brauneis, Karl. Fire Orders: Do you know Hesseltine, Ross. Firesafe Spokane: Working management. 62(3): 14. the original intent? 62(2): 27–29. with the community. 62(1): 23–24. Thirtymile Fire Accident Review Board. Brown, Hutch. Rush to judgment on the Hollenshead, Ed. Safety first! 62(4): 57. Thirtymile Fire Prevention Action Plan. Thirtymile Fire. 62(3): 31–35. Hubbard, Jim. Cooperative fire protection 62(3): 14–18. Brown, Hutch. Thirtymile Fire: Fire in Colorado. 62(1): 13–14. Thomas, Dave; Cook, Wayne. Dude Fire behavior and management response. Iverson, Dave. Book review: Managing the Staff Ride. 62(4): 4–5. 62(3): 23–30. unexpected. 62(4): 36–37. USDA Forest Service. Crosswalk between Casaus, Louie. Cost-effective engine plays Keller, Paul. Walk back into tragedy: A OSHA violations and accident prevention vital role. 62(1): 40. quantum leap forward. 62(4): 16–21. plan. 62(3): 22. Connell, Rick. Mobile fire-mapping units Keller, Paul. What’s a staff ride? 62(4): 6–7. USDA Forest Service. Initial Hazard support wildland fire suppression. 62(2): Kissinger, Judith K. Mobilized! 62(2): 43. Abatement Plan. 62(3): 19–21. 19–20. Kissinger, Judith K. So you want to be a Walker, Allison. Wild fire. 62(2): 49. Dillon, Madelyn. Smokey’s new wildland fire firefighter. 62(2): 39–42. Weatherford, Brian F. Study supports prevention message. 62(1): 41. Laursen, Dianne Daley. Smokey Awards cooperative fire protection in the West. Ebert, Danny; Handly, Jody. Fire Education presented for 2000 and 2001. 62(2): 44– 62(1): 8–12. Corps assists homeowners. 62(1): 7. 48. Weick, Karl E. Human factors in fire Editor. Author index—Volume 61. 62(1): 36. Limtiaco, David. A fire hazard mitigation behavior analyses: Reconstructing the Editor. Correction: Roscommon Equipment plan for Guam. 62(1): 25–28. Dude Fire. 62(4): 8–15. Center’s origins. 62(1): 6. Mangan, Richard J. Injuries, illnesses, and Williams, Jerry. Lessons from Thirtymile: Editor. Subject index—Volume 61. 62(1): fatalities among wildland firefighters. Transition fires and Fire Orders. 62(3): 6– 37–39. 62(3): 36–40. 8. Editor. National Fire Plan at work. 62(2): Melvin, Sylvia. Bullets to buckets: Florida’s Williams, Jerry. Next steps in wildland fire 37. new helicopter. 62(4): 53–54. management. 62(4): 31–35. Editor. National Fire Plan at work. 62(3): Mutch, Bob. Why don’t we just leave the Zabinski, Mary. No demobing before rehab! 12. fireline? 62(4): 22–24. 62(1): 33–35. Editor. Websites on fire. 62(1): 12. Orbus, Dennis. Recycling Forest Service fire Zentz, H. Alan; Berst, John; Sebasovich, Editor. Websites on fire. 62(2): 33. engines. 62(1): 29. Paul. Pennsylvania’s Firewise Medal Editor. Websites on fire. 62(3): 8. Potter, Brian E.; Borsum, Dan; Haines, Don. Communities Program. 62(1): 30–32. ■ Editor. Websites on fire. 62(4): 37. Keeping Haines real—or really changing Haines? 62(3): 41–46.
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 33 SUBJECT INDEX—VOLUME 62
Alaska Cooperation Smokey’s new wildland fire prevention Kenai Peninsula Borough: A spruce bark Cooperative fire protection in Colorado. Jim message. Madelyn Dillon. 62(1): 41. beetle mitigation program. Michael Hubbard. 62(1): 13–14. Fastabend. 62(1): 22. Cost-effective engine plays vital role. Louie Equipment and Engineering Casaus. 62(1): 40. Bullets to buckets: Florida’s new helicopter. Arizona Fire Education Corps assists homeowners. Sylvia Melvin. 62(4): 53–54. Flagstaff interface treatment prescription: Danny Ebert; Jody Handly. 62(1): 7. Coming soon: Gum-thickened fire retar Results in the wildland–urban interface. A fire hazard mitigation plan for Guam. dants. Charles W. George. 62(2): 34–35. Alan Farnsworth; Paul Summerfelt. David Limtiaco. 62(1): 25–28. Correction: Roscommon Equipment 62(2): 13–18. Firesafe Spokane: Working with the Center’s origins. Editor. 62(1): 6. Human factors in fire behavior analyses: community. Ross Hesseltine. 62(1): 23– Cost-effective engine plays vital role. Louie Reconstructing the Dude Fire. Karl E. 24. Casaus. 62(1): 40. Weick. 62(4): 8–15. Firewise workshops ignite community Hub helps prepare for fire season. Moira Walk back into tragedy: A quantum leap action. Cynthia Baily. 62(1): 4–6. Finn. 62(2): 36–37. forward. Paul Keller. 62(4): 16–21. Flagstaff interface treatment prescription: Mobile fire-mapping units support wildland Results in the wildland–urban interface. fire suppression. Rick Connell. 62(2): 19– Art Alan Farnsworth; Paul Summerfelt. 20. Three small smokes. Stephen W. Barrett. 62(2): 13–18. Recycling Forest Service fire engines. 62(4): 57. Kenai Peninsula Borough: A spruce bark Dennis Orbus. 62(1): 29. Wild fire. Allison Walker. 62(2): 49. beetle mitigation program. Michael Fastabend. 62(1): 22. Fire Behavior Aviation Mobile fire-mapping units support wildland Changes in fire hazard as a result of the Accelerated aviation training. Erich J. fire suppression. Rick Connell. 62(2): 19– Cerro Grande Fire. Dawn Greenlee; Jason Schwab. 62(2): 38. 20. Greenlee. 62(1): 15–21. Bullets to buckets: Florida’s new helicopter. Pennsylvania’s Firewise Medal Communities Estimating canopy fuels in conifer forests. Sylvia Melvin. 62(4): 53–54. Program. H. Alan Zentz; John Berst; Paul Joe H. Scott; Elizabeth D. Reinhardt. Coming soon: Gum-thickened fire retar Sebasovich. 62(1): 30–32. 62(4): 45–50. dants. Charles W. George. 62(2): 34–35. Protecting communities through the How accurate are Haines Index forecasts on A unique aviation tool for firefighting. Jill National Fire Plan. Michael T. Rains; Jim the University of Wisconsin Website? Evans. 62(4): 55–56. Hubbard. 62(2): 4–12. Brian E. Potter; Thor Sawin; Jonathan Recycling Forest Service fire engines. Martin. 62(2): 21–23. Awards Dennis Orbus. 62(1): 29. Human factors in fire behavior analyses: Smokey Awards presented for 2000 and Study supports cooperative fire protection Reconstructing the Dude Fire. Karl E. 2001. Dianne Daley Laursen. 62(2): 44– in the West. Brian F. Weatherford. 62(1): Weick. 62(4): 8–15. 48. 8–12. Keeping Haines real—or really changing Texas volunteer firefighters benefit from Haines? Brian E. Potter; Dan Borsum; Burned-Area Rehabilitation new legislation. Traci Bowen. 62(4): 51– Don Haines. 62(3): 41–46. No demobing before rehab! Mary Zabinski. 52. Lessons from Thirtymile: Transition fires 62(1): 33–35. and Fire Orders. Jerry Williams. 62(3): 6– Crews 8. California 1937 Blackwater Fire investigation: Boost The staff ride approach to wildland fire Accelerated aviation training. Erich J. for smokejumpers? Karl Brauneis. 62(2): behavior and firefighter safety awareness Schwab. 62(2): 38. 24–26. training: A commentary. Martin E. A unique aviation tool for firefighting. Jill About the way we fight fires. Mike Alexander. 62(4): 25–30. Evans. 62(4): 55–56. Benefield. 62(2): 30–33. Thirtymile Fire: Fire behavior and manage Texas volunteer firefighters benefit from ment response. Hutch Brown. 62(3): 23– Colorado new legislation. Traci Bowen. 62(4): 51– 30. Cooperative fire protection in Colorado. Jim 52. Hubbard. 62(1): 13–14. Fire Ecology Education Burning under old-growth ponderosa pines Communication Fire Education Corps assists homeowners. on lava soils. Peter Z. Fulé; Greg Book review: How the way we talk can Danny Ebert; Jody Handly. 62(1): 7. Verkamp; Amy E.M. Waltz; W. Wallace change the way we work. Jim Saveland. Firewise workshops ignite community Covington. 62(3): 47–50. 62(4): 38–41. action. Cynthia Baily. 62(1): 4–6. Moose Fire: The historical perspective. Book review: Managing the unexpected. Firesafe Spokane: Working with the Stephen W. Barrett. 62(4): 42–44. Dave Iverson. 62(4): 36–37. community. Ross Hesseltine. 62(1): 23– Rush to judgment on the Thirtymile Fire. 24. Fire Organization Hutch Brown. 62(3): 31–35. Pennsylvania’s Firewise Medal Communities No demobing before rehab! Mary Zabinski. Websites on fire. Editor. 62(1): 12. Program. H. Alan Zentz; John Berst; Paul 62(1): 33–35. Websites on fire. Editor. 62(2): 33. Sebasovich. 62(1): 30–32. Revisiting the loss of our own. Dale Websites on fire. Editor. 62(3): 8. Smokey Awards presented for 2000 and Bosworth. 62(3): 4–5. Websites on fire. Editor. 62(4): 37. 2001. Dianne Daley Laursen. 62(2): 44– 48.
34 Fire Management Today Fire Research Moose Fire: The historical perspective. New Mexico Burning under old-growth ponderosa pines Stephen W. Barrett. 62(4): 42–44. Changes in fire hazard as a result of the on lava soils. Peter Z. Fulé; Greg Three small smokes. Stephen W. Barrett. Cerro Grande Fire. Dawn Greenlee; Jason Verkamp; Amy E.M. Waltz; W. Wallace 62(4): 57. Greenlee. 62(1): 15–21. Covington. 62(3): 47–50. Walk back into tragedy: A quantum leap Cost-effective engine plays vital role. Louie Estimating canopy fuels in conifer forests. forward. Paul Keller. 62(4): 16–21. Casaus. 62(1): 40. Joe H. Scott; Elizabeth D. Reinhardt. 62(4): 45–50. Incident Management Pacific Islands How accurate are Haines Index forecasts on About the way we fight fires. Mike A fire hazard mitigation plan for Guam. the University of Wisconsin Website? Benefield. 62(2): 30–33. David Limtiaco. 62(1): 25–28. Brian E. Potter; Thor Sawin; Jonathan Causal factors in the Thirtymile Fire Recycling Forest Service fire engines. Martin. 62(2): 21–23. accident. Thirtymile Fire Accident Review Dennis Orbus. 62(1): 29. Injuries, illnesses, and fatalities among Board. 62(3): 9–12. wildland firefighters. Richard J. Mangan. Crosswalk between OSHA violations and Personnel 62(3): 36–40. accident prevention plan. USDA Forest About the way we fight fires. Mike Keeping Haines real—or really changing Service. 62(3): 22. Benefield. 62(2): 30–33. Haines? Brian E. Potter; Dan Borsum; Fire Orders: Do you know the original Injuries, illnesses, and fatalities among Don Haines. 62(3): 41–46. intent? Karl Brauneis. 62(2): 27–29. wildland firefighters. Richard J. Mangan. Initial Hazard Abatement Plan. USDA Forest 62(3): 36–40. Fire Weather Service. 62(3): 19–21. Mobilized! Judith K. Kissinger. 62(2): 43. How accurate are Haines Index forecasts on Lessons from Thirtymile: Transition fires So you want to be a firefighter. Judith K. the University of Wisconsin Website? and Fire Orders. Jerry Williams. 62(3): 6– Kissinger. 62(2): 39–42. Brian E. Potter; Thor Sawin; Jonathan 8. Texas volunteer firefighters benefit from Martin. 62(2): 21–23. Mobile fire-mapping units support wildland new legislation. Traci Bowen. 62(4): 51– Keeping Haines real—or really changing fire suppression. Rick Connell. 62(2): 19– 52. Haines? Brian E. Potter; Dan Borsum; 20. Don Haines. 62(3): 41–46. Next steps in wildland fire management. Pennsylvania Jerry Williams. 62(4): 31–35. Pennsylvania’s Firewise Medal Communities Florida No demobing before rehab! Mary Zabinski. Program. H. Alan Zentz; John Berst; Paul Bullets to buckets: Florida’s new helicopter. 62(1): 33–35. Sebasovich. 62(1): 30–32. Sylvia Melvin. 62(4): 53–54. Recommended changes in wildland fire management. Thirtymile Fire Accident Planning Fuels Management Review Board. 62(3): 14. Next steps in wildland fire management. Burning under old-growth ponderosa pines Rush to judgment on the Thirtymile Fire. Jerry Williams. 62(4): 31–35. on lava soils. Peter Z. Fulé; Greg Hutch Brown. 62(3): 31–35. Verkamp; Amy E.M. Waltz; W. Wallace The staff ride approach to wildland fire Policy Covington. 62(3): 47–50. behavior and firefighter safety awareness Causal factors in the Thirtymile Fire Changes in fire hazard as a result of the training: A commentary. Martin E. accident. Thirtymile Fire Accident Review Cerro Grande Fire. Dawn Greenlee; Jason Alexander. 62(4): 25–30. Board. 62(3): 9–12. Greenlee. 62(1): 15–21. Thirtymile Fire: Fire behavior and manage Crosswalk between OSHA violations and Estimating canopy fuels in conifer forests. ment response. Hutch Brown. 62(3): 23– accident prevention plan. USDA Forest Joe H. Scott; Elizabeth D. Reinhardt. 30. Service. 62(3): 22. 62(4): 45–50. Thirtymile Fire Prevention Action Plan. Initial Hazard Abatement Plan. USDA Forest Flagstaff interface treatment prescription: Thirtymile Fire Accident Review Board. Service. 62(3): 19–21. Results in the wildland–urban interface. 62(3): 14–18. Lessons from Thirtymile: Transition fires Alan Farnsworth; Paul Summerfelt. Walk back into tragedy: A quantum leap and Fire Orders. Jerry Williams. 62(3): 6– 62(2): 13–18. forward. Paul Keller. 62(4): 16–21. 8. A fire hazard mitigation plan for Guam. Why don’t we just leave the fireline? Bob Next steps in wildland fire management. David Limtiaco. 62(1): 25–28. Mutch. 62(4): 22–24. Jerry Williams. 62(4): 31–35. Firesafe Spokane: Working with the Recommended changes in wildland fire community. Ross Hesseltine. 62(1): 23– Media management. Thirtymile Fire Accident 24. Rush to judgment on the Thirtymile Fire. Review Board. 62(3): 14. Firewise workshops ignite community Hutch Brown. 62(3): 31–35. Thirtymile Fire Prevention Action Plan. action. Cynthia Baily. 62(1): 4–6. Thirtymile Fire Accident Review Board. Kenai Peninsula Borough: A spruce bark Montana 62(3): 14–18. beetle mitigation program. Michael Moose Fire: The historical perspective. Why don’t we just leave the fireline? Bob Fastabend. 62(1): 22. Stephen W. Barrett. 62(4): 42–44. Mutch. 62(4): 22–24. Protecting communities through the National Fire Plan. Michael T. Rains; Jim National Fire Plan Prescribed Fire Hubbard. 62(2): 4–12. National Fire Plan at work. Editor. 62(2): Burning under old-growth ponderosa pines 37. on lava soils. Peter Z. Fulé; Greg History National Fire Plan at work. Editor. 62(3): Verkamp; Amy E.M. Waltz; W. Wallace 1937 Blackwater fire investigation: Boost 12. Covington. 62(3): 47–50. for smokejumpers? Karl Brauneis. 62(2): Protecting communities through the 24–26. National Fire Plan. Michael T. Rains; Jim Hubbard. 62(2): 4–12.
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 35 Prevention Revisiting the loss of our own. Dale Washington Firesafe Spokane: Working with the Bosworth. 62(3): 4–5. Firesafe Spokane: Working with the community. Ross Hesseltine. 62(1): 23– Why don’t we just leave the fireline? Bob community. Ross Hesseltine. 62(1): 23– 24. Mutch. 62(4): 22–24. 24. Firewise workshops ignite community Thirtymile Fire: Fire behavior and manage action. Cynthia Baily. 62(1): 4–6. Standards ment response. Hutch Brown. 62(3): 23– Smokey Awards presented for 2000 and Fire Orders: Do you know the original 30. 2001. Dianne Daley Laursen. 62(2): 44– intent? Karl Brauneis. 62(2): 27–29. 48. Weather Forecasting Smokey’s new wildland fire prevention Suppression How accurate are Haines Index forecasts on message. Madelyn Dillon. 62(1): 41. About the way we fight fires. Mike the University of Wisconsin Website? Benefield. 62(2): 30–33. Brian E. Potter; Thor Sawin; Jonathan Publications Coming soon: Gum-thickened fire retar Martin. 62(2): 21–23. Book review: How the way we talk can dants. Charles W. George. 62(2): 34–35. Keeping Haines real—or really changing change the way we work. Jim Saveland. Haines? Brian E. Potter; Dan Borsum; 62(4): 38–41. Telecommunications Don Haines. 62(3): 41–46. Book review: Managing the unexpected. Hub helps prepare for fire season. Moira Dave Iverson. 62(4): 36–37. Finn. 62(2): 36–37. Wildland/Urban Interface Changes in fire hazard as a result of the Safety Training Cerro Grande Fire. Dawn Greenlee; Jason Causal factors in the Thirtymile Fire Accelerated aviation training. Erich J. Greenlee. 62(1): 15–21. accident. Thirtymile Fire Accident Review Schwab. 62(2): 38. Cooperative fire protection in Colorado. Jim Board. 62(3): 9–12. Book review: How the way we talk can Hubbard. 62(1): 13–14. Crosswalk between OSHA violations and change the way we work. Jim Saveland. Fire Education Corps assists homeowners. accident prevention plan. USDA Forest 62(4): 38–41. Danny Ebert; Jody Handly. 62(1): 7. Service. 62(3): 22. Book review: Managing the unexpected. A fire hazard mitigation plan for Guam. Fire Orders: Do you know the original Dave Iverson. 62(4): 36–37. David Limtiaco. 62(1): 25–28. intent? Karl Brauneis. 62(2): 27–29. Dude Fire Staff Ride. Dave Thomas; Wayne Firesafe Spokane: Working with the Human factors in fire behavior analyses: Cook. 62(4): 4–5. community. Ross Hesseltine. 62(1): 23– Reconstructing the Dude Fire. Karl E. Fire Orders: Do you know the original 24. Weick. 62(4): 8–15. intent? Karl Brauneis. 62(2): 27–29. Firewise workshops ignite community Initial Hazard Abatement Plan. USDA Forest Human factors in fire behavior analyses: action. Cynthia Baily. 62(1): 4–6. Service. 62(3): 19–21. Reconstructing the Dude Fire. Karl E. Flagstaff interface treatment prescription: Injuries, illnesses, and fatalities among Weick. 62(4): 8–15. Results in the wildland–urban interface. wildland firefighters. Richard J. Mangan. Injuries, illnesses, and fatalities among Alan Farnsworth; Paul Summerfelt. 62(3): 36–40. wildland firefighters. Richard J. Mangan. 62(2): 13–18. Lessons from Thirtymile: Transition fires 62(3): 36–40. Pennsylvania’s Firewise Medal Communities and Fire Orders. Jerry Williams. 62(3): 6– Mobilized! Judith K. Kissinger. 62(2): 43. Program. H. Alan Zentz; John Berst; Paul 8. So you want to be a firefighter. Judith K. Sebasovich. 62(1): 30–32. Next steps in wildland fire management. Kissinger. 62(2): 39–42. Protecting communities through the Jerry Williams. 62(4): 31–35. The staff ride approach to wildland fire National Fire Plan. Michael T. Rains; Jim Recommended changes in wildland fire behavior and firefighter safety awareness Hubbard. 62(2): 4–12. management. Thirtymile Fire Accident training: A commentary. Martin E. Study supports cooperative fire protection Review Board. 62(3): 14. Alexander. 62(4): 25–30. in the West. Brian F. Weatherford. 62(1): Safety first! Ed Hollenshead. 62(4): 57. Walk back into tragedy: A quantum leap 8–12. The staff ride approach to wildland fire forward. Paul Keller. 62(4): 16–21. behavior and firefighter safety awareness What’s a staff ride? Paul Keller. 62(4): 6–7. Wyoming training: A commentary. Martin E. Why don’t we just leave the fireline? Bob 1937 Blackwater Fire investigation: Boost Alexander. 62(4): 25–30. Mutch. 62(4): 22–24. for smokejumpers? Karl Brauneis. 62(2): Thirtymile Fire: Fire behavior and manage 24–26. ment response. Hutch Brown. 62(3): 23– United States—West 30. Study supports cooperative fire protection Thirtymile Fire Prevention Action Plan. in the West. Brian F. Weatherford. 62(1): Thirtymile Fire Accident Review Board. 8–12. 62(3): 14–18.
36 Fire Management Today “IT IS NOT UNDERSTOOD WHY FOREST FIRES SHOULD GET AWAY …”
Editor’s note: The directive excerpted here was issued by the General Land Office, the agency responsible for managing the Nation’s forest reserves from 1891 to 1905, a time when a single ranger might oversee hundreds of thousands of acres of trackless wildland. The directive is from the archives of Jerry Williams, a historical analyst for the USDA Forest Service, Washington Office, Washington, DC.
Department of the Interior,
GENERAL LAND OFFICE,
Washington, D.C., June 2, 1903
Forest Officers.
Gentlemen:
The season is now at hand when your special attention should be directed against forest fires, owing to the dry condition of your territory. … During last season reports relative to forest fires received from the forest officers were very encouraging, generally speaking, but in some cases gross neglect of duty must have prevented fires from being discovered. It is not understood why forest fires should get away from the rangers, or rather why they do not find them and extinguish them more promptly. It seems reasonable that a ranger provided with a saddle horse and constantly on the move, as is his duty, should discover a fire before it gains much headway. This statement is made knowing that some of the rangers’ districts are ex tremely large. … When absolutely necessary, the rangers should engage emergency help at once. … It would seem, however, that if the ranger does his duty, fires would be discovered so quickly that it would seldom be necessary for him to employ extra men. … When reporting fires to this office you should be careful to mention in which ranger’s district said fire originated. … In the absence of a satisfactory explanation, supervisors and rangers will be held personally responsible for any fire that is allowed to escape. Please acknowledge receipt of this letter.
Very respectfully,
J. H. Fimple Acting Commissioner
NOTE. – Copy of this circular should be furnished to each forest ranger.
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 37 GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS Editorial Policy Paper Copy. Type or word-process the manu label all photos and illustrations (figure 1, 2, 3, Fire Management Today (FMT) is an interna script on white paper (double-spaced) on one etc.; photograph A, B, C, etc.). At the end of the tional quarterly magazine for the wildland fire side. Include the complete name(s), title(s), manuscript, include clear, thorough figure and community. FMT welcomes unsolicited affiliation(s), and address(es) of the author(s), as photo captions labeled in the same way as the manuscripts from readers on any subject related well as telephone and fax numbers and e-mail corresponding material (figure 1, 2, 3; photo to fire management. Because space is a information. If the same or a similar manuscript graph A, B, C; etc.). Captions should make photos consideration, long manuscripts might be is being submitted elsewhere, include that and illustrations understandable without reading abridged by the editor, subject to approval by the information also. Authors who are affiliated the text. For photos, indicate the name and author; FMT does print short pieces of interest to should submit a camera-ready logo for their affiliation of the photographer and the year the readers. agency, institution, or organization. photo was taken.
Submission Guidelines Style. Authors are responsible for using wildland Electronic Files. See special mailing instruc Submit manuscripts to either the general fire terminology that conforms to the latest tions above. Please label all disks carefully with manager or the managing editor at: standards set by the National Wildfire Coordinat name(s) of file(s) and system(s) used. If the ing Group under the National Interagency manuscript is word-processed, please submit a 3 USDA Forest Service Incident Management System. FMT uses the 1/2 inch, IBM-compatible disk together with the Attn: April J. Baily, F&AM Staff spelling, capitalization, hyphenation, and other paper copy (see above) as an electronic file in one Mail Stop 1107 styles recommended in the United States of these formats: WordPerfect 5.1 for DOS; 1400 Independence Avenue, SW Government Printing Office Style Manual, as WordPerfect 7.0 or earlier for Windows 95; Washington, DC 20250-1107 required by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Microsoft Word 6.0 or earlier for Windows 95; tel. 202-205-0891, fax 202-205-1272 Authors should use the U.S. system of weight and Rich Text format; or ASCII. Digital photos may be e-mail: [email protected] measure, with equivalent values in the metric submitted but must be at least 300 dpi and system. Try to keep titles concise and descriptive; accompanied by a high-resolution (preferably USDA Forest Service subheadings and bulleted material are useful and laser) printout for editorial review and quality Attn: Hutch Brown, Office of Communication help readability. As a general rule of clear writing, control during the printing process. Do not Mail Stop 1111 use the active voice (e.g., write, “Fire managers embed illustrations (such as maps, charts, and 1400 Independence Avenue, SW know…” and not, “It is known…”). Provide graphs) in the electronic file for the manuscript. Washington, DC 20250-1111 spellouts for all abbreviations. Consult recent Instead, submit each illustration at 1,200 dpi in a tel. 202-205-1028, fax 202-205-0885 issues (on the World Wide Web at
CONTRIBUTORS WANTED We need your fire-related articles and photographs for Fire Management Today! Feature articles should be up to about 2,000 words in length. We also need short items of up to 200 words. Subjects of articles pub lished in Fire Management Today include:
Aviation Firefighting experiences Communication Incident management Cooperation Information management (including systems) Ecosystem management Personnel Equipment/Technology Planning (including budgeting) Fire behavior Preparedness Fire ecology Prevention/Education Fire effects Safety Fire history Suppression Fire science Training Fire use (including prescribed fire) Weather Fuels management Wildland–urban interface
To help prepare your submission, see “Guidelines for Contributors” in this issue.
38 Fire Management Today PHOTO CONTEST ANNOUNCEMENT Fire Management Today invites you Rules Service (see sample statement to submit your best fire-related •The contest is open to everyone. below). Include your full name, photos to be judged in our annual You may submit an unlimited agency or institutional affiliation competition. Judging begins after number of entries from any place (if any), address, and telephone the first Friday in March of each or time; but for each photo, you number. year. must indicate only one competi • Photos are be eliminated from tion category. To ensure fair competition if they have date Awards evaluation, we reserve the right stamps; show unsafe firefighting All contestants will receive a CD– to change the competition practices (unless that is their ROM with all photos not eliminated category for your photo. express purpose); or are of low from competition. Winning photos •Each photo must be an original technical quality (for example, will appear in a future issue of Fire color slide or print. We are not have soft focus or show camera Management Today. In addition, responsible for photos lost or movement). (Duplicates— winners in each category will damaged, and photos submitted including most overlays and other receive: will not be returned (so make a composites—have soft focus and duplicate before submission). will be eliminated.) • 1st place—Camera equipment Digital photos will not be • Photos are judged by a photogra worth $300 and a 16- by 20-inch accepted because of difficulty phy professional whose decision is framed copy of your photo. reproducing them in print. final. • 2nd place—An 11- by 14-inch •You must own the rights to the framed copy of your photo. photo, and the photo must not • 3rd place—An 8- by 10-inch have been published prior to Postmark Deadline framed copy of your photo. submission. First Friday in March • For every photo you submit, you Categories must give a detailed caption Send submissions to: •Wildland fire (including, for example, name, Madelyn Dillon • Prescribed fire location, and date of the fire; CAT Publishing Arts •Wildland-urban interface fire names of any people and/or their 2150 Centre Avenue • Aerial resources job descriptions; and descriptions Building A, Suite 361 •Ground resources of any vegetation and/or wildlife). Fort Collins, CO 80526 •Miscellaneous (fire effects; fire •You must complete and sign a weather; fire-dependent commu statement granting rights to use nities or species; etc.) your photo(s) to the USDA Forest
Sample Photo Release Statement (You may copy and use this statement. It must be signed.) Enclosed is/are ______(number) slide(s) for publication by the USDA Forest Service. For each slide submitted, the contest category is indicated and a detailed caption is enclosed. I have the authority to give permission to the Forest Service to publish the enclosed photograph(s) and am aware that, if used, it or they will be in the public domain and appear on the World Wide Web.
Signature Date
Volume 63 • No. 1 • Winter 2003 39 5614
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