Research Corporation a foundation for the advancement of science

ANNUAL REPORT 2004

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Image Credits Credits Image 31

Advisory Committee & Staff & Committee Advisory

Board of Directors, Program Program Directors, of Board 30

Condensed Statements of Financial Position Financial of Statements Condensed 29

and Changes in Net Assets Net in Changes and

Condensed Statements of Activity Activity of Statements Condensed 28

Awards Awards 24

Program Review Program 22

Exploring Light: Optical Sciences and the Visual Arts Visual the and Sciences Optical Light: Exploring 6

Message from President-Elect from Message 5

President’s Message President’s 4

] [

Table of Contents of Table PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE

The past twenty-two years mark an extraordinary phase of both my personal life and that of Research Corporation. Noteworthy changes have been consolidating the foundation’s activities in Tucson, creating Research Corporation Technologies to carry out the foundation’s technology transfer mission, placing the foundation on a firm financial footing, and partnering in building the world’s largest and most powerful optical instrument, the Large Binocular Telescope.

More important than any of these, however, is the large number of young faculty members in U.S. and Canadian colleges and universities whose teaching and research careers we have helped launch. Programs such as the Cottrell College John P. Schaefer president from 1982 – 2004 Science Grants, Cottrell Scholars, Partners in Science, Research Innovation Awards, and Research Corporation’s Department Development Program will have an enduring impact on the individuals and institutions that they have touched. Like ripples on a pond, each of these programs will continue to influence future generations of students and faculty far beyond the points of immediate impact.

The success of Research Corporation is due in large measure to the dedication and imagination of its staff and advisors and the wisdom and guidance of its Board of Directors. Hallmarks of Research Corporation have always been a willingness to take substantial risks to fund projects on the cutting edge of science and a culture with the determination to “make a difference.” These characteristics have served us well over the past ninety-two years and will continue to be mileposts for the foundation in the future.

The opportunity to play a leadership role at the foundation for more than two decades has been an extraordinary privilege for which I shall always be grateful.

John P. Schaefer

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[ 5

James M. Gentile M. James

education and will, indeed, continue to “make a difference.” a “make to continue indeed, will, and education

Research Corporation will continue to be at the forefront of science and science science and science of forefront the at be to continue will Corporation Research

edge of science. I look forward with enthusiasm to working hard to insure that that insure to hard working to enthusiasm with forward look I science. of edge

has always been willing to take substantial risks to fund projects on the cutting cutting the on projects fund to risks substantial take to willing been always has began his presidency in 2005 in presidency his began

James M. Gentile M. James

As noted by John Schaefer in his message in this volume, Research Corporation Corporation Research volume, this in message his in Schaefer John by noted As

highest order. We are committed to this task. this to committed are We order. highest

science faculty develop as both scholars and educators is a responsibility of the the of responsibility a is educators and scholars both as develop faculty science

cally literate society. Helping Helping society. literate cally scientifi a produce to help as well as education) of

education must go hand-in-hand as we seek to train future scientists (at all levels levels all (at scientists future train to seek we as hand-in-hand go must education

only to the faculty of today, but also to the faculty of the future. Research and and Research future. the of faculty the to also but today, of faculty the to only

not attend must we and enterprise, development faculty a also is it research,

c c scientifi support to is Corporation Research of mission primary the While

and temporally. temporally. and

of our physical and living world across all levels of organization, both spatially spatially both organization, of levels all across world living and physical our of

Indeed, new ways of collecting and analyzing data will allow for the exploration exploration the for allow will data analyzing and collecting of ways new Indeed,

tween physical, computational and life scientists, mathematicians, and engineers. engineers. and mathematicians, scientists, life and computational physical, tween

gain a deeper understanding of such systems only through collaborations be- collaborations through only systems such of understanding deeper a gain

In particular, the study of complex systems is moving to center stage. We will will We stage. center to moving is systems complex of study the particular, In

these interfaces will be the drivers of science for the next decade and beyond. beyond. and decade next the for science of drivers the be will interfaces these

and probe the frontiers of other questions as yet unimagined. Questions at at Questions unimagined. yet as questions other of frontiers the probe and

‘unanswerable’ scientific questions questions scientific ‘unanswerable’ currently of secrets the unfold to opportunities

articulations between the physical and life sciences. Such interfaces offer exciting exciting offer interfaces Such sciences. life and physical the between articulations

and the NSF all focus on “fuzzy boundaries” of disciplines, particularly the the particularly disciplines, of boundaries” “fuzzy on focus all NSF the and

pace. Recent reports from the White House-OSTP, Congress, the NAS/NRC, NAS/NRC, the Congress, House-OSTP, White the from reports Recent pace.

c disciplines are converging and will continue to do so at a remarkable remarkable a at so do to continue will and converging are disciplines c scientifi of

however, we must also understand the climate for science overall. The boundaries boundaries The overall. science for climate the understand also must we however,

astronomy, and will continue to do so. In addition to these key areas of study, study, of areas key these to addition In so. do to continue will and astronomy,

Research Corporation traditionally supports research in the physical sciences and and sciences physical the in research supports traditionally Corporation Research

of the future through educational initiatives. educational through future the of

the cutting edges of science as well as enhancing the development of the scientists scientists the of development the enhancing as well as science of edges cutting the

forward. Research Corporation will continue its legacy of supporting research at at research supporting of legacy its continue will Corporation Research forward.

and nurturing of young scientists who are the main reason why science moves moves science why reason main the are who scientists young of nurturing and

support the through importantly more perhaps but funded, has it initiatives

made a distinct mark on the future of science not only because of the research research the of because only not science of future the on mark distinct a made

of Research Corporation. Under John’s leadership Research Corporation has has Corporation Research leadership John’s Under Corporation. Research of

President as Schaefer John succeed to opportunity the have to honored am I MESSAGE FROM JAMES M. GENTILE, PRESIDENT-ELECT GENTILE, M. JAMES FROM MESSAGE [EXPLORING LIGHT: Optical Sciences and the Visual Arts Science and art both use creativity and technology to explore, under- stand and give meaning to the world. The relationship between these two activities raises important questions. How do they affect each other? Does science change the way art is created? Does art change the way science is understood? What can scientists and artists learn from each other?

This article examines connections between the optical sciences and the visual arts. Both involve the inter- actions of energy and matter, as studied through the exploration and manipulation of light and color. History shows that both benefit from an open flow of ideas. However, the barriers between these two disciplines can be formidable.

Many of the lessons that emerge from this examination of the optical sciences and the visual arts can also be found at the interface of other sciences and arts. Although we have chosen to focus on one slice of that interface, possible pairings for further exploration might include mathematics and music; anatomy and dance; or chemistry and the culinary arts. Perhaps this will be a starting point for readers’ exploration of the relationship between their particular science and art.

SCIENCE AND ART–TODAY’S BARRIERS THE MOST BEAUTIFUL THING In today’s world of specialization, individuals examine slivers of experience and WE CAN EXPERIENCE IS THE nature. Each discipline and subdiscipline of science or art establishes its own MYSTERIOUS. IT IS THE paradigm for looking at the world—determining which aspects of life can be SOURCE OF ALL TRUE ART examined and which aspects are out-of-bounds; setting the criteria to evaluate

AND ALL SCIENCE. HE TO merit and reward excellence; and creating a technical language and vocabulary to communicate with others in the field. This disciplinary specialization leads to WHOM THIS EMOTION IS A steady progress in the field, but it can also create barriers around that discipline. STRANGER, WHO CAN NO If the barriers surrounding individual disciplines within the sciences (or within the LONGER PAUSE TO WONDER arts) are high, the barriers between the worlds of science and art are even greater. AND STAND RAPT IN AWE, As described most famously by scientist and novelist C.P. Snow in his 1959 Rede IS AS GOOD AS DEAD: Lecture, “The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution,” a profound gap is HIS EYES ARE CLOSED. often perceived to exist between the sciences and the humanities—and between

– Albert Einstein their practitioners. Snow observed:

A good many times I have been present at gatherings of people who, by the standards of the traditional culture, are thought highly educated and who have [ 6

[ 7 now. But they are there, as it were, in a a in were, it as there, are they But now.

breakthroughs came. The chances are there there are chances The came. breakthroughs

activity that has been where some of the the of some where been has that activity in the creation of their paintings. paintings. their of creation the in

creative chances. In the history of mental mental of history the In chances. creative assist —to obscura camera instrument—a

so far as that goes—ought to produce produce to goes—ought that as far so (1378–1444) used a different, earlier optical optical earlier different, a used (1378–1444)

disciplines, two cultures—of two galaxies, galaxies, two cultures—of two disciplines, Eyck (1390–1441) and Robert Campin Campin Robert and (1390–1441) Eyck

The clashing point of two subjects, two two subjects, two of point clashing The convinced that Flemish painters Jan van van Jan painters Flemish that convinced

as 1430. Hockney eventually became became eventually Hockney 1430. as

art. As Snow observed in “The Two Cultures”: Two “The in observed Snow As art.

observed in paintings created as early early as created paintings in observed

creative work at the interface of science and and science of interface the at work creative

that the “photographic quality” could be be could quality” “photographic the that

in the sciences, it makes sense to encourage encourage to sense makes it sciences, the in

found he painters; earlier of works the

Just as we encourage interdisciplinary research research interdisciplinary encourage we as Just

studying began Hockney , lucida camera

the with experience his by Intrigued subjects to explore new ways of creating art. art. creating of ways new explore to subjects

places. Likewise, some artists cross the barriers between different media and and media different between barriers the cross artists some Likewise, places.

“tracing” they are making from it. from making are they “tracing”

several disciplines, and many of the important breakthroughs happen at these these at happen breakthroughs important the of many and disciplines, several

to simultaneously see the image and the the and image the see simultaneously to

peers consider “good art.” Of course, some scientists work at the interface of of interface the at work scientists some course, Of art.” “good consider peers

subject above the paper, allowing the artist artist the allowing paper, the above subject

art that are creative yet stay comfortably within the bounds of what the artist’ the what of bounds the within comfortably stay yet creative are that art s s

1806, that projects a virtual image of the the of image virtual a projects that 1806,

Kuhn’s critique of “normal science” might be applied to “normal art”—works of of art”—works “normal to applied be might science” “normal of critique Kuhn’s

English chemist William Wollaston in in Wollaston William chemist English

compact prism-like device, invented by by invented device, prism-like compact

already supplies. already

is a a is lucida camera The devices. these of

directed to the articulation of those phenomena and theories that the paradigm paradigm the that theories and phenomena those of articulation the to directed

Hockney began experimenting with one one with experimenting began Hockney

c research is is research c normal-scientifi Instead, others. by invented those of intolerant

the process of creating these portraits, portraits, these creating of process the

Nor do scientists normally aim to invent new theories, and they are often often are they and theories, new invent to aim normally scientists do Nor

—in —in lucida camera instrument—a optical

t the box are often not seen at all. all. at seen not often are box the t fi not will that those indeed phenomena;

a hunch that Ingres may have used an an used have may Ingres that hunch a

careers .... No part of the aim of normal science is to call forth new sorts of of sorts new forth call to is science normal of aim the of part No .... careers

quality” to Ingres’ portraits. Following Following portraits. Ingres’ to quality”

Mopping-up operations are what engage most scientists throughout their their throughout scientists most engage what are operations Mopping-up

(1780–1867), noticed a “photographic “photographic a noticed (1780–1867),

Thomas Kuhn observed: observed: Kuhn Thomas Revolutions, Scientific of

a London exhibition of the works of Ingres Ingres of works the of exhibition London a

however, occur when individuals venture outside the paradigm. In In paradigm. the outside venture individuals when occur however, The Structure Structure The

renowned artist David Hockney, attending attending Hockney, David artist renowned

cant creative breakthroughs, breakthroughs, creative cant signifi most The fields. their advancing on work

The controversy began when world- when began controversy The

Within the paradigm of each scientific or artistic discipline, scientists and artists artists and scientists discipline, artistic or scientific each of paradigm the Within

ments while creating their masterpieces. their creating while ments

have about as much insight into it as their Neolithic ancestors would have had. have would ancestors Neolithic their as it into insight much as about have Renaissance painters used optical instru- optical used painters Renaissance

physics goes up, and the majority of the cleverest people in the western world world western the in people cleverest the of majority the and up, goes physics controversial issue of whether early early whether of issue controversial

ce of modern modern of ce edifi great the So language. same the speaking was I that felt magazines have all covered the the covered all have magazines American

—not more than one in ten of the highly educated would have have would educated highly the of ten in one than more —not read? you Can New Yorker New the Scientific Scientific and Smithsonian ,

c equivalent of saying, saying, of equivalent c scientifi the is which acceleration, or mass, by mean you Daily Telegraph Daily and Times newspapers, and and newspapers,

I now believe that if I had asked an even simpler question—such as, What do do What as, question—such simpler even an asked had I if that believe now I , a BBC documentary, the documentary, BBC a , Minutes New York York New

science. But in the past five years, CBS’s CBS’s years, five past the in But science. 60 60

Have you read a work of Shakespeare’s? of work a read you Have of:

lenses on technical subjects such as optical optical as such subjects technical on lenses

was also negative. Yet I was asking something which is the scientific equivalent equivalent scientific the is which something asking was I Yet negative. also was

The media rarely focus their editorial editorial their focus rarely media The

could describe the Second Law of Thermodynamics. The response was cold: it it cold: was response The Thermodynamics. of Law Second the describe could

Instruments and Art and Instruments twice I have been provoked and have asked the company how many of them them of many how company the asked have and provoked been have I twice

Theories of Optical Optical of Theories

with considerable gusto been expressing their incredulity of scientists. Once or or Once scientists. of incredulity their expressing been gusto considerable with vacuum, because those in the two cultures can’t talk to each other. It is According to Hockney, these artists used a camera obscura to project an image of the subject bizarre how very little of twentieth- onto paper or canvas. Key portions of the projected image could then be quickly traced to century science has been assimilated capture key elements of perspective, complex geometric detail, and transitory facial expressions. into twentieth-century art. The painter used the notational marks or more detailed tracings made from the projected images as just one of many tools and techniques in the process of creating the final painting. Today’s barriers between science and art are not absolute. And if we look back in The use of the camera obscura, Hockney argued, played an important role in the dramatic time, to the Renaissance, we will see that transformation of western art in the fifteenth century, when Flemish artists brought painting the barriers were once much lower. to a new and heightened level of natural realism.

Hockney’s theory, which drew heavily on his qualitative experience as a practicing artist, attracted the attention of Charles Falco, professor of optical sciences at the University of SCIENCE AND ART DURING Arizona. Falco contacted Hockney, and they began a correspondence and collaboration. Falco THE RENAISSANCE analyzed a number of paintings, using measurements of elements in the paintings (e.g., interpupil The barriers between science and art distances, that is, the spacings between the pupils of the portrait subjects’ eyes) to determine weren’t always so strong or so high. magnifications, and then using equations from geometrical optics to calculate focal lengths, During the fifteenth, sixteenth and depths of field and lens diameters. With this analysis, Falco established a quantitative foundation seventeenth centuries, many scientists to support Hockney’s thesis. Hockney documents his theory and his collaboration with Falco and artists were active in both the in Secret Knowledge: Rediscovering the Lost Techniques of the Old Masters. Among the paintings sciences and arts. analyzed by Falco were van Eyck’s “Portrait of Cardinal Niccolò Albergati” (1432) and “Arnolfini Marriage” (1434). The great astronomer Galileo Galilei Falco’s findings have been widely (1564–1642) was a master of published in scientific journals, perspective drawing and attended the and he has presented over fifty Accademia del Disegno (Academy seminars and talks at academic of Drawing). His studies of light and conferences, universities and shadow on complex geometric forms, museums worldwide. an important exercise in the chiaroscuro approach (from the Italian words for Falco reports that his findings “light” and “dark,” the use of light and have been warmly received by shadow in two-dimensional imagery, scientists and practicing artists. especially the illusion of rounded, three- On his website, he wrote, “My dimensional form created through experience has been that scientists and engineers over-whelmingly under-stand the evidence gradations of light and shade rather and our scientific analysis of it, and find our conclusions convincing. …Artists recognize the than line) to drawing allowed him to utility of lenses as an aid for transforming the three-dimensional world onto a two-dimensional realistically illustrate the mountains and surface. Given the opportunity to use a new tool that would make their efforts easier, many valleys he observed when he turned his working artists have commented that ‘of course’ they would use it themselves.” telescope toward the moon.

However, Falco has found that art historians are much less receptive. He estimates that “fewer Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), German than half of art historians accept our basic conclusion that artists such as van Eyck and Bellini painter and engraver, also studied used lenses.” Falco observes, “The most common objection is the lack of documentary perspective and originated the field evidence, by which they mean the lack of written description of the use of lenses by artists of descriptive geometry. Many of his or by subjects of portraits (of course, David [Hockney] and I point out that the paintings woodcuts, such as those found in themselves are the documentary evidence). Early on, I often heard the comment that there Underweyssung der Messung (Treatise on Measurement), elevated scientific illustration to fine art. [ 8

[ 9

. His His . sculptor and painter astonishing an was he and age, any of scientist any

elds than than elds fi more in genius a was He lived. ever who people amazing most the

I’ve been fascinated by da Vinci’s work since I was 10. Leonardo was one of of one was Leonardo 10. was I since work Vinci’s da by fascinated been I’ve

million in 1994. On his homepage, Gates wrote, wrote, Gates homepage, his On 1994. in million

, for $30.8 $30.8 for , Leicester Codex the notebooks, Vinci’s da of one purchased Gates Bill

documented today in novels, biographies, exhibits, CDs and websites. websites. and CDs exhibits, biographies, novels, in today documented

other individual. Da Vinci’s accomplishments in science, technology and art are are art and technology science, in accomplishments Vinci’s Da individual. other

book per year was published on the subject of da Vinci, more than about any any about than more Vinci, da of subject the on published was year per book

fty-year period from 1869 to 1919, an average of one full-length full-length one of average an 1919, to 1869 from period fty-year fi the during that,

, reported reported , Eye Innocent The in Shattuck, Roger centuries. several back goes art

Public fascination with da Vinci’s ability to bridge the gulf between science and and science between gulf the bridge to ability Vinci’s da with fascination Public

Virgin and Child with St. Anne.” Anne.” St. with Child and Virgin

other masterpieces include “The Last Supper,” “Virgin of the Rocks” and “The “The and Rocks” the of “Virgin Supper,” Last “The include masterpieces other

In art, his “Mona Lisa” is arguably the world’s most famous painting, and his his and painting, famous most world’s the arguably is Lisa” “Mona his art, In

ying machines, weapons and water-lifting devices. devices. water-lifting and weapons machines, ying fl include inventions and designs Eyck’s drawing “Portrait of Cardinal Niccolò Niccolò Cardinal of “Portrait drawing Eyck’s

anatomy and turbulence in water. In technology and engineering, his futuristic futuristic his engineering, and technology In water. in turbulence and anatomy that the remarkable similarity between van van between similarity remarkable the that

da Vinci (1452–1519). In science, da Vinci is best known for his studies of optics, optics, of studies his for known best is Vinci da science, In (1452–1519). Vinci da Germany) have also provided evidence evidence provided also have Germany)

The greatest model of the complementary nature of science and art is Leonardo Leonardo is art and science of nature complementary the of model greatest The

Prints, Drawings and Manuscripts in Dresden, Dresden, in Manuscripts and Drawings Prints,

VINCI DA LEONARDO Thomas Ketelsen, a curator at the Museum of of Museum the at curator a Ketelsen, Thomas

of the painting. Stork and others (including (including others and Stork painting. the of

of the mirror depicted in the background background the in depicted mirror the of

room and from the relatively small focal length length focal small relatively the from and room however, one towers above the rest. the above towers one however,

from the limited illumination available in the the in available illumination limited the from and art during the Renaissance. Among this group of remarkable individuals, individuals, remarkable of group this Among Renaissance. the during art and

could have been constructed constructed been have could obscura camera Clearly, many scientists and artists traveled freely between the worlds of science science of worlds the between freely traveled artists and scientists many Clearly,

expressed doubts about whether a useful useful a whether about doubts expressed

planetary motion with his three laws). three his with motion planetary

in van Eyck’s “Arnolfini Marriage.” He also also He Marriage.” “Arnolfini Eyck’s van in

with a strong interest in geometry, perspective and theology, who described described who theology, and perspective geometry, in interest strong a with

about the multiple vanishing points found found points vanishing multiple the about

astronomer and mathematician, mathematician, and astronomer

infrared reflectography to raise questions questions raise to reflectography infrared

and Johannes Kepler (1571–1630, (1571–1630, Kepler Johannes and

computer simulations, geometrical optics and and optics geometrical simulations, computer

) ) Sculpture On and Architecture On

Scientific American Scientific 2004 a In article, Stork used used Stork article,

, , Painting On including arts, visual

electrical engineering at Stanford University. University. Stanford at engineering electrical

several important treatises on the the on treatises important several

Ricoh Innovations and consulting professor of of professor consulting and Innovations Ricoh

musician and artist who wrote wrote who artist and musician

vigorously by David Stork, chief scientist at at scientist chief Stork, David by vigorously

(1404–1472, mathematician, mathematician, (1404–1472,

been critiqued by several scientists, most most scientists, several by critiqued been

individuals include Leone Alberti Alberti Leone include individuals

historians, the Hockney/Falco theory has has theory Hockney/Falco the historians,

and experiences. Examples of such such of Examples experiences. and

In addition to the criticisms cited by art art by cited criticisms the to addition In

ideas of mélange rich this from

raised anymore.” anymore.” raised

emerged that accomplishments

and a magnifying glass, so that objection isn’t isn’t objection that so glass, magnifying a and

|and art have documented the the documented have art |and

paintings showing concave mirrors, spectacles spectacles mirrors, concave showing paintings

science of Historians religion.

all my talks I include Tomaso da Modena’s 1352 1352 Modena’s da Tomaso include I talks my all

in science, mathematics, art and and art mathematics, science, in

existed in the fifteenth century, but now in in now but century, fifteenth the in existed

interests maintained humanists

was no evidence appropriate lenses even even lenses appropriate evidence no was

of other scientists, artists and and artists scientists, other of

number a period, time this During notebooks were hundreds of years ahead of their time. Albergati” and a larger oil painting of the They anticipated submarines, same name could have been achieved by helicopters and other modern mechanical, rather than optical, copying inventions. and enlarging techniques. His scientific ‘notebooks’ are Like Falco, Stork has made public and scientific awe inspiring not simply as presentations on this subject, and Stork repositories of his remarkable reports that his audiences of scientists find ideas but as records of a great his arguments and analyses compelling. On mind at work. In the pages of his website, Stork wrote, “From these lectures the Codex Leicester, he frames and numerous discussions, I think it is fair to important questions, tests conclude that if a scientist hears only the concepts, confronts challenges, arguments in favor of the Hockney theory, he and strives for answers. His or she is likely to find it persuasive. However, writings demonstrate that if that person hears the counter-arguments creativity drives discovery, and at the very least he or she will not agree that art and science—often seen as opposites—can in fact inform and with Hockney and Falco that the case for the influence each other. projection theory has been ‘proven.’ More likely, the scientist will reject the theory Among his many interests and studies, da Vinci displayed special interest in optics altogether often because they learn of and visual arts. In particular, he focused on the human eye. In his note-books, da historical or other facts that they’d never Vinci wrote: even considered before.” The eye, which is said to be the window of the soul, is the primary means by While the question of whether Old Masters which the sensus communis [the coordinating center for sensory impressions] of such as van Eyck, Campin and Lotto used the brain may most fully and magnificently contemplate the infinite works of optical instruments in the fifteenth and nature….The eye is commander of astronomy; it makes cosmography; it guides sixteenth centuries remains somewhat and rectifies all the human arts; it conducts man to various regions of the world; controversial, the use of a camera obscura by it is the prince of mathematics; its sciences are most certain; it has measured the Jan Vermeer (1632–1675) in the seventeenth height and size of the stars; it has disclosed the elements and their distribution; century is widely speculated by both scientists it has made predictions of future events by means of the course of the stars; it and art historians. has generated architecture, perspective and divine painting. Oh excellent above In Vermeer’s Camera: Uncovering the Truth behind all other things created by God….And it triumphs over nature, in that the the Masterpieces, Philip Steadman (professor constituent parts of nature are finite, but the works that the eye commands of of urban and built form studies at University the hands are infinite, as is demonstrated by the painter in his rendering of College London) built a case that Vermeer numberless forms of animals, grasses, trees, and places. used a camera obscura while painting many of Da Vinci believed that the eye worked geometrically, like a camera obscura his masterpieces. Using optical calculations, [a chamber with a small aperture in one wall through which light passes. Early Steadman reconstructed the precise geometry versions were darkened rooms or boxes, and an artist could climb into the of Vermeer’s studio, including the location of darkened chamber. The image is projected, inverted, onto the wall opposite. Later the camera obscura lens for different paintings. more sophisticated models added a lens to the aperture, increasing its affinity to Steadman suggested that Vermeer’s “optical the human eye or the photographic camera. Its strength as an aid to drawing resides consultant” may have been Antony van in its ability to project onto a flat surface the confused visual information which strikes the eye.]. He systematically studied the effects of light on single and multiple bodies, using single and multiple sources of varied sizes. He studied shadows,

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– Ogden Rood Ogden –

NERVOUS SYSTEM OF LIVING BEINGS. LIVING OF SYSTEM NERVOUS

COLOR IS BUT A SENSATION AND HAS NO EXISTENCE OUTSIDE THE THE OUTSIDE EXISTENCE NO HAS AND SENSATION A BUT IS COLOR

accessible to painters. painters. to accessible

in 1879, which helped make the principles of color science more more science color of principles the make helped which 1879, in Chromatics

Modern his published Columbia, at physics of professor Rood, Ogden • •

color science to firmer scientific ground. scientific firmer to science color

light and color and the various phenomena of diffraction), in 1704, moved moved 1704, in diffraction), of phenomena various the and color and light

(Newton’s study of the nature of of nature the of study (Newton’s Opticks Newton’s Isaac Sir of publication The •

[

THE STUDY OF COLOR OF STUDY THE

Renaissance include: Renaissance

uences of optical sciences on the visual arts after the the after arts visual the on sciences optical of uences infl many the of Some

c in a broad sense.” broad a in c scientifi as regard now would we that goals towards aspired

century.” Kemp wrote, “a significant number of those involved in art consciously consciously art in involved those of number significant “a wrote, Kemp century.”

the visual arts and the sciences in Europe from the Renaissance to the nineteenth nineteenth the to Renaissance the from Europe in sciences the and arts visual the

nity between the central intellectual and observational concerns in in concerns observational and intellectual central the between nity affi of kinds

The Science of Art of Science The in relationship this documented , commenting on the “special “special the on commenting ,

art, from the time of the Renaissance to the Enlightenment and beyond. Kemp Kemp beyond. and Enlightenment the to Renaissance the of time the from art,

Optical science and technology have played major roles in the history of western western of history the in roles major played have technology and science Optical

CONTINUE TO INFLUENCE THE VISUAL ARTS VISUAL THE INFLUENCE TO CONTINUE

AFTER THE RENAISSANCE: OPTICAL SCIENCES SCIENCES OPTICAL RENAISSANCE: THE AFTER

in the shadows, and so on.” on.” so and shadows, the in

pherics, translucently blended reflections of colour, the glimmer of back-reflections back-reflections of glimmer the colour, of reflections blended translucently pherics,

oating vapours, intangible atmos- intangible vapours, oating fl veils, semi-transparent pebbles, variegated

“Leonardo’s late paintings are full of felicitous subtleties of light and colour: colour: and light of subtleties felicitous of full are paintings late “Leonardo’s

, , Seurat to Brunelleschi from Art Western in Themes Optical Art: of Science The in

atmosphere and depth in his paintings. As described by art historian Martin Kemp Kemp Martin historian art by described As paintings. his in depth and atmosphere

, to create create to , sfumato called technique a color, translucent of layers superimposed

that an object’s detail and color seem to change as it recedes in the distance. He He distance. the in recedes it as change to seem color and detail object’s an that

lifelike quality. Through his careful studies of objects at a distance, he realized realized he distance, a at objects of studies careful his Through quality. lifelike

at, two-dimensional outlines, he gave his paintings a soft and and soft a paintings his gave he outlines, two-dimensional at, fl as of instead

ned by light and shadow, shadow, and light by ned defi bodies three-dimensional as objects treating By

Da Vinci’s paintings reflect many of the lessons he learned from his optical studies. studies. optical his from learned he lessons the of many reflect paintings Vinci’s Da

he correctly argued came from reflections off the earth’s surface. earth’s the off reflections from came argued correctly he

(ashen light) on the shaded side of the moon, which which moon, the of side shaded the on light) (ashen cinererum lumen so-called the

illuminated surfaces into shaded areas, and he used this phenomenon to explain explain to phenomenon this used he and areas, shaded into surfaces illuminated

ections of light from from light of ections refl secondary the plotted He painting. in used are color

ections, developing a new way to explain how light and and light how explain to way new a developing ections, refl and intensity colors, [ THE INVENTION AND Leeuwenhoek, a pioneer in microscopy, a fellow citizen of Delft, Netherlands, and the DEVELOPMENT OF PHOTOGRAPHY executor of Vermeer’s estate. AND CINEMATOGRAPHY

Not all scholars are convinced by Steadman’s arguments. One of the skeptics is Walter Some of the key figures and milestones Liedtke, curator of European paintings at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and in this timeline include: the Museum’s specialist for Dutch and Flemish paintings. In an article for the online museum, • Henry Fox Talbot created permanent WebExhibits.org, Liedtke wrote, “I don’t oppose the notion that Vermeer in some way negative images using paper soaked responded to the camera obscura, but I DO oppose drastic devaluations of the role of art.… in silver chloride and fixed with a salt Vermeer must have admired certain effects of color, light, and focus in a camera obscura, solution, as well as positive images by but…he persistently departed from what he actually saw—in the camera, in his studio, or in contact printing onto another sheet of another artist’s work—in accord with his own highly refined aesthetic and expressive goals.” paper in 1834. Vermeer’s use of a camera obscura as a tool in his painting does not diminish his artistic • Louis Daguerre created images on genius, according to Steadman. “The camera allowed the artists to enter a newly revealed silver-plated copper which was coated world of optical phenomena and to explore how these might be recorded in paint.…As with silver iodide and “developed” Kemp puts it [in The Science of with warmed mercury in 1837. Art], ‘the use of a camera in no way prescribes the artistic choices • James Clerk Maxwell, Scottish to be made at each stage of physicist, demonstrated a color the conception and making of a photography system involving three painting.’ …Vermeer’s obsessions black-and-white photographs, each with light, tonal values, shadow, taken through a red, green or blue and color, for the treatment of filter, in 1861. which his work is so admired, are very closely bound up with his • Eadweard Muybridge helped Leland study of the special qualities of Stanford settle a bet on whether “a optical images.” horse’s four hooves ever leave the ground at once” using time-sequenced In the end, the specific question— photography in 1877. whether a camera obscura was used by early Renaissance painters • Harold (“Doc”) Edgerton developed to trace key elements of their strobe photography at MIT in 1931. subjects—points to broader questions that apply to the relationship between art and science. • Edwin Land developed the first color If artists use scientific instruments or scientific theories while creating art, is their artistic instant film in 1963. creativity enhanced or diminished? When can an image captured by a camera be considered a “work of art?” Can a closer examination of the relationship between science and art • Eastman Kodak Company unveiled contribute to increased public understanding and appreciation of both science and art? As the first commercially available digital scientists and artists closely observe nature and develop ways to represent and understand camera in 1990. what they’ve observed, what can they learn from each other? ] Optical science and photography had another profound influence on the history of art—freeing artists from the goal of approximating nature through realism.

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conventions of perspective and the the and perspective of conventions

Their revolutionary assaults upon the the upon assaults revolutionary Their

Shlain wrote, wrote, Shlain

the relationship of space, light and matter. matter. and light space, of relationship the

devoted a lifetime to studying and painting painting and studying to lifetime a devoted

dimension of time. And Paul Cezanne Cezanne Paul And time. of dimension

since the Renaissance to investigate the the investigate to Renaissance the since

haystack series, became the first artist artist first the became series, haystack

Monet, through paintings such as his his as such paintings through Monet,

horizon up off the picture plane. Claude Claude plane. picture the off up horizon

point, curving the horizon, and moving the the moving and horizon, the curving point,

of perspective—obscuring the vanishing vanishing the perspective—obscuring of

experimented with well-established rules rules well-established with experimented

at time and space. Edouard Manet Manet Edouard space. and time at

looking of ways new with experimented

according to Shlain, three visionary artists artists visionary three Shlain, to according

At the end of the nineteenth century, century, nineteenth the of end the At

artists foreshadowed the discoveries of the analytical scientist.” analytical the of discoveries the foreshadowed artists

the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, as before, the precognition of the intuitive intuitive the of precognition the before, as Renaissance, the and Ages Middle the

nity. In In nity. infi of point vanishing the discerning in and sections; conic of importance

in recognizing the importance of the stationary observer at rest; in perceiving the the perceiving in rest; at observer stationary the of importance the recognizing in

Mars looking at the earth’s motion. Shlain wrote, “Artists anticipated scientists scientists anticipated “Artists wrote, Shlain motion. earth’s the at looking Mars

book and using the artist’s technique of perspective while imagining himself on on himself imagining while perspective of technique artist’s the using and book

later, Kepler immersed himself in the study of conic sections, studying Alberti’s Alberti’s studying sections, conic of study the in himself immersed Kepler later,

circular forms in order to accurately portray objects. Nearly two hundred years years hundred two Nearly objects. portray accurately to order in forms circular

demonstrated the necessity of drawing conic sections through cylindrical and and cylindrical through sections conic drawing of necessity the demonstrated

1472). These two artists, with strong interests in geometry and perspective, perspective, and geometry in interests strong with artists, two These 1472).

in 1618, can be traced back to the artists Giotto (1267–1337) and Alberti (1404– Alberti and (1267–1337) Giotto artists the to back traced be can 1618, in

Shlain suggested that the origins of Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, published published motion, planetary of laws Kepler’s of origins the that suggested Shlain

by artists. In fact, Shlain asserted that art often precedes science. science. precedes often art that asserted Shlain fact, In artists. by

expressed and perceived rst fi is that context cultural a of out arise technology

that many new developments in science and and science in developments new many that

suggested Shlain Leonard , Light and Time

Art and Physics: Parallel Visions in Space, Space, in Visions Parallel Physics: and Art In

rise to new ideas in science? science? in ideas new to rise

give ever art in approaches new Do direction:

of whether influence also flows in the opposite opposite the in flows also influence whether of

art. More controversial, however, is the question question the is however, controversial, More art.

and technology giving rise to new approaches to to approaches new to rise giving technology and

The history of art is full of examples of science science of examples of full is art of history The

QUESTION CONTROVERSIAL MORE DOES ART INFLUENCE SCIENCE? A A SCIENCE? INFLUENCE ART DOES LIGHT IS A THING THAT CANNOT BE REPRODUCED, BUT MUST BE REPRESENTED BY SOMETHING ELSE – BY COLOR. – Paul Cezanne

integrity of the straight line forced upon their viewers the idea that the organization of space along the lines of pro- jective geometry was not the only way it can be envisioned. Once people began to see space in non-Euclidean ways, then they could begin to think about it in new ways too…. It would take the elegant calculations of Einstein years later to provide the proof in black and white of what had been stunningly accurate artistic hunches expressed in form and color.

Shlain’s grand theory, that visionary artists play an important role in scientific revolutions, is thought-provoking, but many scientists and historians remain unconvinced. Art historian Kemp wrote, “I am skeptical of claims that visual discovery in art played a causative role in any major sense in the scientific revolutions of the period.”

At the level of individual scientists and artists, however, it is possible to find examples of art influencing science. Physiologist/writer Robert Root-Bernstein cites a number of examples in his articles and books. In his essay, “For the Sake of Science, the Arts Deserve Support,” which appeared in The Chronicle of Higher Education (July 11, 1997), Root-Bernstein wrote:

As unexpected as it may sound, artists often invent techniques that outstrip the methods of contemporary science and technology. Consider Abbott H. Thayer, a turn-of-the-century nature painter sometimes described as Audubon’s successor. Thayer discovered the concept of camouflage. He not only revolutionized our understanding of the co-evolution of animals and their environment, but also suggested that the principles of camouflage be applied to protecting soldiers and their equipment on the battlefield.

The exact nature of how art might influence science and scientists is an ongoing subject of research and controversy. Yet it’s clear that there is a two-way flow of influence between art and science.

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most scientifically creative periods.” creative scientifically most

once in a while. I have to do something [artistic]. This happens to me only in my my in only me to happens This [artistic]. something do to have I while. a in once

that might otherwise take years of study,” says Heller. “I have a compulsion every every compulsion a have “I Heller. says study,” of years take otherwise might that

get straight to the essence of the matter and get an almost intuitive comprehension comprehension intuitive almost an get and matter the of essence the to straight get

science, suggesting further avenues of research. “Through art, one can sometimes sometimes can one art, “Through research. of avenues further suggesting science,

nds inspiration in science. In return, the art sometimes informs the the informs sometimes art the return, In science. in inspiration nds fi who artist an

s also also s He’ chaos. quantum and theory scattering mechanics, quantum few-body

Eric Heller, professor of physics and chemistry at Harvard University, studies studies University, Harvard at chemistry and physics of professor Heller, Eric

communicate the results of one’s thinking visually, verbally, or mathematically. mathematically. or verbally, visually, thinking one’s of results the communicate

organism” or empathy with the objects of study; and to synthesize and and synthesize to and study; of objects the with empathy or organism”

what the Nobel-Prize winner Barbara McClintock called “a feeling for the the for feeling “a called McClintock Barbara winner Nobel-Prize the what

to recognize and invent patterns (the “rules” governing a system); to gain gain to system); a governing “rules” (the patterns invent and recognize to

(how does it move?); to identify the essential components of a complex whole; whole; complex a of components essential the identify to move?); it does (how

does an object look like when I rotate it in my mind?) and kinesthetically kinesthetically and mind?) my in it rotate I when like look object an does

These skills include the abilities to observe acutely; to think spatially (what (what spatially think to acutely; observe to abilities the include skills These

skills associated with, and often learned from, the arts. arts. the from, learned often and with, associated skills

study creativity. A consensus is emerging that scientists and engineers need need engineers and scientists that emerging is consensus A creativity. study

historians of science and technology, psychologists, and other scholars who who scholars other and psychologists, technology, and science of historians

have become apparent in the past several decades, as a result of studies by by studies of result a as decades, several past the in apparent become have

ourishing of the arts. The reasons for this connectedness connectedness this for reasons The arts. the of ourishing fl similar a of absence

ourished in the the in ourished fl never have technology and sciences the that shows History

essay, Root-Bernstein wrote: wrote: Root-Bernstein essay, Chronicle

physics, chemistry and biology. Summarizing his conclusions in his 1997 1997 his in conclusions his Summarizing biology. and chemistry physics,

thinking. In his books and articles, he cited many individual examples from from examples individual many cited he articles, and books his In thinking.

c creativity taps into visual and nonverbal nonverbal and visual into taps creativity c scientifi that believes Root-Bernstein

. Discovering and People

Sparks of Genius: The Thirteen Thinking Tools of the World’s Most Creative Creative Most World’s the of Tools Thinking Thirteen The Genius: of Sparks

it relates to creativity in science, and he’s published two books on the topic, topic, the on books two published he’s and science, in creativity to relates it

as science and art between relationship the at looks he particular, In methods.

He also studies historical and philosophical perspectives on science and its its and science on perspectives philosophical and historical studies also He

suppression. its and autoimmunity to approaches experimental and theoretical

basis of physiological interactions between peptides, monoamines and drugs; and and drugs; and monoamines peptides, between interactions physiological of basis

University and a MacArthur Fellow, studies molecular complementarity; chemical chemical complementarity; molecular studies Fellow, MacArthur a and University

As a research scientist, Root-Bernstein, professor of physiology at Michigan State State Michigan at physiology of professor Root-Bernstein, scientist, research a As

Art Can Enhance Scientific Creativity and Imagination and Creativity Scientific Enhance Can Art

Here are three ways scientists and artists can help each other. each help can artists and scientists ways three are Here

ts. ts. benefi mutual about bring can that one as art and science between relationship

If we move beyond defensiveness and turf battles, however, we can look at the the at look can we however, battles, turf and defensiveness beyond move we If

territory its on in moving is side other the that perceives side one whenever up . .

go to tend science and art separate that barriers the that nature human just It’s

TODAY ART AND SCIENCE BETWEEN RELATIONSHIP THE Charles Falco, professor of optical sciences at the University of Arizona, has spent many hours collaborating with artist David Hockney on the theory that an optical device, the camera obscura, was used by many of the Old Masters. When artists and scientists collaborate, Falco notes, they can ask each other naïve— and insightful—questions that “professionals would be chagrined to ask.” Recently, while Hockney was painting his portrait, Falco used breaks between posing to jot notes on how Hockney worked—where he looked and how long he looked. Falco says, “I ask artists questions and learn from them... [Hockney] taught me how to visualize things. As a result, I’m now exploring some new ideas about computerized image analysis, and it’s come from my work with David Hockney.”

David Stork, chief scientist at Ricoh Innovations and consulting professor of electrical engineering at Stanford University, has also taught in the Department of Art and Art History at Stanford. He’s been a participant in the debate about the possible use of optics by Renaissance painters. Stork’s area of scientific expertise is computer vision and pattern recognition, and he’s coauthored a widely used textbook, Pattern Classification. Stork believes the arts can help scientists expand their abilities to recognize patterns. “If you look at so many scientific breakthroughs, they happen when someone recognizes a pattern in something—a pattern in genes or a pattern in the movement of celestial bodies,” says Stork. “The arts can teach you ‘pattern recognition,’ that is, being able to recognize structure and pattern. It could be rhythm and meter in a poem; melodies and WATER IN SWIMMING POOLS CHANGES ITS LOOK MORE THAN IN ANY their interrelationships in a sonata OTHER FORM... ITS COLOUR CAN BE MAN-MADE AND ITS DANCING or symphony; or the form, structure RHYTHMS REFLECT NOT ONLY THE SKY BUT, BECAUSE OF ITS TRANSPARENCY, and style that allows you to recognize THE DEPTH OF THE WATER AS WELL. IF THE WATER SURFACE IS ALMOST a particular painter. Developing these pattern recognition abilities STILL AND THERE IS A STRONG SUN, THEN DANCING LINES WITH THE is something that the arts do in a COLOURS OF THE SPECTRUM APPEAR EVERYWHERE. playful, and often rigorous, way.” – David Hockney Roald Hoffmann, 1981 Nobel Prize winner in Chemistry, is a theoretical chemist at Cornell University. He’s also a poet, an essayist and a playwright. He says, “I have a very strong interest in the visual arts. I almost went into art history instead of chemistry.” When asked whether scientists can learn from artists, he offered a critique of science education and an endorsement of arts education:

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seems to appreciate that.” that.” appreciate to seems

public the and art, good of part is approach direct-line-to-your-subconscious

information transfer of the normal sort, like reading or listening to a lecture. This This lecture. a to listening or reading like sort, normal the of transfer information

you directly. It comes through some mysterious conduit rather than through through than rather conduit mysterious some through comes It directly. you

an intuitive understanding, maybe even a subconscious ‘gut reaction,’ brought to to brought reaction,’ ‘gut subconscious a even maybe understanding, intuitive an

get to is art of point The it. understand really to part somebody’s on time of lot a

requires it because to, them expect I do physics]—nor [quantum it understanding

the essence of the phenomenon being displayed. “The public may not come away away come not may public “The displayed. being phenomenon the of essence the

and excitement of sense a convey can art believes Heller physicist Theoretical

the whole article. The illustration hooks them to want to learn more.” more.” learn to want to them hooks illustration The article. whole the

nd the caption interesting, they might glance over over glance might they interesting, caption the nd fi they Once caption. the read

.’ Then they want to to want they Then .’ Trek Star like just that’s ‘Wow, think, and landscape alien an

visually oriented,” says Cook. “If you put a picture there, they see a planet with with planet a see they there, picture a put you “If Cook. says oriented,” visually

science illustrations help draw the audience into a subject. “So many people are are people many “So subject. a into audience the draw help illustrations science

Lynette Cook, a science illustrator who specializes in space art, believes that good good that believes art, space in specializes who illustrator science a Cook, Lynette

along.” follow

my conclusions. I can see the audience getting pale, but they are interested and and interested are they but pale, getting audience the see can I conclusions. my

them I’m going to teach them the optical science that they will need to understand understand to need will they that science optical the them teach to going I’m them

members of the general public. Says Falco, “I reach a point in my talk when I tell tell I when talk my in point a reach “I Falco, Says public. general the of members

Renaissance, has found that art can be a “wonderful entrée into the sciences” for for sciences” the into entrée “wonderful a be can art that found has Renaissance,

Optical scientist Falco, while giving dozens of presentations on optics and the the and optics on presentations of dozens giving while Falco, scientist Optical

or understood science or math. or science understood or

business, politics and academe—to claim unapologetically that they never liked liked never they that unapologetically claim academe—to and politics business,

“Two Cultures,” it is still common for nonscientists—including leaders in in leaders nonscientists—including for common still is it Cultures,” “Two

their science to members of the general public. Nearly half a century after Snow’ after century a half Nearly public. general the of members to science their s

communication methods often fail miserably when scientists want to convey convey to want scientists when miserably fail often methods communication

scientists well in communicating with each other. However, these dry and precise precise and dry these However, other. each with communicating in well scientists

The technical vocabulary, graphs and equations found in journal articles serve serve articles journal in found equations and graphs vocabulary, technical The

Art Can Enhance Public Appreciation and Understanding of Science of Understanding and Appreciation Public Enhance Can Art

That’s what we do in the laboratory as scientists. as laboratory the in do we what That’s

that they have to work with hands and mind combined—not just the mind. mind. the just combined—not mind and hands with work to have they that

laboratories. I think we have to have an alliance with the artists. They know know They artists. the with alliance an have to have we think I laboratories.

with craftsmanship and hands-on work, which is exactly what goes on in in on goes what exactly is which work, hands-on and craftsmanship with

that’s how you judge whether a work of art works—but it also has a lot to do do to lot a has also it works—but art of work a whether judge you how that’s

on art. Sure, it has a lot to do with the imagination applied to the emotions— the to applied imagination the with do to lot a has it Sure, art. on

solving in ways which could help a science course. So I’m supportive of hands- of supportive I’m So course. science a help could which ways in solving

Studio art courses, on the other hand, emphasize creativity and problem- and creativity emphasize hand, other the on courses, art Studio

There’s all this material to deal with, stoichiometry, gas laws and the like. the and laws gas stoichiometry, with, deal to material this all There’s

a freshman chemistry or physics course. The problem is that there is no time. time. no is there that is problem The course. physics or chemistry freshman a

at its frontiers can seem so regimented and authoritarian at its beginnings, like like beginnings, its at authoritarian and regimented so seem can frontiers its at

free so something how amazing It’s science. teaching in problem a got We’ve The experiences of Falco, Cook and Heller are examples of a phenomenon that’s been observed by other scientists through the years. By turning to art—including visual arts, music, dance, theater, architecture and the literary arts—scientists are able to reach out to the public.

Institutions also realize the important role art can play in bringing science to new audiences. When designing new buildings or redesigning existing spaces, Research Corporation, as well as other scientific organizations—such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, the National Academy of Sciences and the National Institutes of Health — are now including gallery space. Some scientific institutions, including NASA, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory at Cal Tech, and MIT, have artists-in- residence on their scientific staff.

Science and Art Together Can Open Up New Frontiers Optical instruments like the camera, telescope and microscope have enabled us to explore new frontiers of time and space. With cameras, time can be frozen for a moment, speeded up, slowed down, collapsed and reversed. Time can even be rolled back to its very beginning—cosmologists are using today’s powerful cameras, computers and telescopes to study the Big Bang and the earliest moments of the universe. Telescopes and microscopes have opened vast new realms of size and space. As scientists, artists and the public began traveling freely between the world of atoms and the world of galaxies, they needed a map to guide them on their journey.

Designers and filmmakers Charles and Ray Eames provided that new conceptual map in Powers of Ten, a film developed for the 1968 annual meeting of the Commission on College Physics. Over the subsequent decade, working with

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no one else had ever done. done. ever had else one no library, where art and research materials materials research and art where library,

that way a in sense quantitative a in down as a unique blend of archive, museum and and museum archive, of blend unique a as

technique for exposing and developing film film developing and exposing for technique at the University of Arizona, envisioning it it envisioning Arizona, of University the at

to Schaefer, “Ansel put the concept and and concept the put “Ansel Schaefer, to

the Center for Creative Photography (CCP) (CCP) Photography Creative for Center the

the image that you see.” you that image the

in the scene being photographed. According According photographed. being scene the in

In 1975, Schaefer and Adams helped establish establish helped Adams and Schaefer 1975, In

of the day, technique really is invisible—it’s invisible—it’s is really technique day, the of

print based upon the measured light values values light measured the upon based print

was president of the University of Arizona. Arizona. of University the of president was the impact that his images have. At the end end the At have. images his that impact the

finished the of “visualization” of idea the

and an accomplished amateur photographer, photographer, amateur accomplished an and he used. The technique is part and parcel of of parcel and part is technique The used. he

finished photographs. Adams also pioneered pioneered also Adams photographs. finished

in 1974 when Schaefer, a chemist by training training by chemist a Schaefer, when 1974 in that technique the in up shows scientist

paper, thus giving them better control over over control better them giving thus paper,

from Ansel Adams. Schaefer first met Adams Adams met first Schaefer Adams. Ansel from According to Schaefer, “The mind of a a of mind “The Schaefer, to According

see into specific densities on negatives and and negatives on densities specific into see

good fortune of working with and learning learning and with working of fortune good

us, and how to use them.” use to how and us,

they light the translate to photographers

Corporation from 1982 to 2004, had the the had 2004, to 1982 from Corporation

for do will equipment other and

“zone system,” a technique that allows allows that technique a system,” “zone

John P. Schaefer, president of Research Research of president Schaefer, P. John

come to know intuitively what our lenses lenses our what intuitively know to come photography that became known as the the as known became that photography

when art and science become partners. partners. become science and art when awe of this miraculous device. We must must We device. miraculous this of awe

Adams developed an approach to to approach an developed Adams

stands as testament to what can be achieved achieved be can what to testament as stands every serious photographer stands in some some in stands photographer serious every

approached questions.” approached

knowledge and meticulous experimentation experimentation meticulous and knowledge about the image formed by a lens. Surely Surely lens. a by formed image the about

about the way he did things, the way he he way the things, did he way the about

Adams’ synthesis of artistic vision, technical technical vision, artistic of synthesis Adams’ continued, “There is something magical magical something is “There continued,

because he was just so clear and precise precise and clear so just was he because

techniques to free my vision.” Adams Adams vision.” my free to techniques

Presidential Medal of Freedom. of Medal Presidential

loved to have had as a graduate student, student, graduate a as had have to loved

myself an artist who employs certain certain employs who artist an myself

America’s highest civilian honor, the the honor, civilian highest America’s

Adams as “the kind of person I would have have would I person of kind “the as Adams

a scientist.’ I am not a scientist. I consider consider I scientist. a not am I scientist.’ a

of the 1960s and 1970s, and earned him him earned and 1970s, and 1960s the of

the negative appeared.” Schaefer remembers remembers Schaefer appeared.” negative the

“Brett [Edward Weston] states, ‘Ansel is is ‘Ansel states, Weston] [Edward “Brett

the American environmental movement movement environmental American the

be of everything he did—before the print or or print the did—before he everything of be

writing the following in his autobiography: autobiography: his in following the writing

heart of the American public, helped launch launch helped public, American the of heart

possible. He knew what the outcome would would outcome the what knew He possible.

as well as an artist. But Adams disagreed, disagreed, Adams But artist. an as well as

science and art. Adams’ images captured the the captured images Adams’ art. and science

uncertainty in the photographic process as as process photographic the in uncertainty

his fellow photographers to be a scientist scientist a be to photographers fellow his

both precise and passionate—that combined combined passionate—that and precise both

so that he could remove as much of the the of much as remove could he that so

technique, he was considered by some of of some by considered was he technique,

Park, resulted from an approach—at once once approach—at an from resulted Park,

about testing all his equipment and materials materials and equipment his all testing about

craftsmanship, materials, equipment and and equipment materials, craftsmanship,

West, especially those of Yosemite National National Yosemite of those especially West,

the craft of photography. He was meticulous meticulous was He photography. of craft the

With Adams’ careful attention to to attention careful Adams’ With

the world. His pictures of the American American the of pictures His world. the

an artist really dedicated to understanding understanding to dedicated really artist an

most-recognized and best-loved images in in images best-loved and most-recognized

principles.”

scientist. He was clearly an artist, but he was was he but artist, an clearly was He scientist.

Ansel Adams (1902–1984) are among the the among are (1902–1984) Adams Ansel

down, but he certainly understood the the understood certainly he but down,

with the soul of an artist, but the mind of a a of mind the but artist, an of soul the with

The black-and-white photographs made by by made photographs black-and-white The

all the up-to-the-moment scientific jargon jargon scientific up-to-the-moment the all

Schaefer. “Ansel approached photography photography approached “Ansel Schaefer.

was talking about. He may not have had had have not may He about. talking was

taught me a lot about photography,” says says photography,” about lot a me taught

processing. He very much knew what he he what knew much very He processing.

became good friends over the years and he he and years the over friends good became

optics or the chemistry of developing and and developing of chemistry the or optics

“Ansel is one of my artistic heroes. We We heroes. artistic my of one is “Ansel

intelligent conversation with him about about him with conversation intelligent

public holding of Adams’ photographs. photographs. Adams’ of holding public quite technical. A scientist could have an an have could scientist A technical. quite

prints crown the world’s most extensive extensive most world’s the crown prints with Polaroid fills a filing cabinet, and it’s it’s and cabinet, filing a fills Polaroid with

proof prints. Approximately 2,500 exhibition exhibition 2,500 Approximately prints. proof says Schaefer. “His correspondence correspondence “His Schaefer. says

and negatives 20,000 over and orabilia, with Kodak. “He kept meticulous notes,” notes,” meticulous kept “He Kodak. with

monographs, camera equipment, mem- equipment, camera monographs, for many years, and he also worked closely closely worked also he and years, many for

and manuscripts, ledgers, periodicals and and periodicals ledgers, manuscripts, and a consultant to Edwin Land and Polaroid Polaroid and Land Edwin to consultant a

voluminous correspondence, book layouts layouts book correspondence, voluminous major photographic institutions. He was was He institutions. photographic major

CCP’s Ansel Adams archive includes includes archive Adams Ansel CCP’s Adams was pursued as a consultant by the the by consultant a as pursued was Adams

Because of his technical expertise, expertise, technical his of Because

Photography is world renowned. renowned. world is Photography

medium. Today, the Center for Creative Creative for Center the Today, medium. sequences of exposing and developing film.” developing and exposing of sequences

understanding of photography as a creative creative a as photography of understanding very precisely and predictably—the con- predictably—the and precisely very

presented together would offer a full full a offer would together presented “With his system, one could understand— could one system, his “With

Photography and Science: and Photography

Ansel Adams and John Schaefer John and Adams Ansel physicist Philip Morrison and educator Phylis Morrison, they expanded and refined their ideas, releasing a more polished version in 1977, titled Powers of Ten: A Film Dealing with the Relative Size of Things in the Universe and the Effect of Adding Another Zero.

The film takes the viewer on a nine-minute journey exploring the very large and the very small. The movie starts with an image (on the scale of 1, or 100, meter) of a man sleeping in a Chicago park. The camera gradually pulls back, moving ten times further away for every ten seconds of time that passes, eventually reaching the edge of the universe (1025 m). Then, zooming forward, the camera travels into the sleeping man’s hand, finally reaching the inside of a carbon atom (10-18 m).

Between the 1968 and 1977 versions of the movie, the filmmakers added two orders of magnitude, reflecting new frontiers opened up by science. Since 1977, scientists and artists have continued exploring the worlds found at each level of this journey, from large to small. Science writer Ivan Amato documents that journey through both art and science. In Super Vision: A New View of Nature, Amato wrote:

For all but the most recent pages of the human story, to see nature has been to see the world as one’s own eyes—and ears and nose and other sensory anatomy—could take it in.

The compulsion to record this sensory experience of nature seems to be as fundamental a part of being human as is using that sensory input to perceive what matters in the environment—attractive mates, sharp-clawed predators, the color and smell of nutritious fruit, the bitter taste of poison. Those famous Paleolithic cave paintings, such as in the Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc cave in France, where lions, bears and sparring rhinoceroses grace the walls, provide hard evidence that the drive to depict nature was being expressed 30,000 years ago and earlier. That drive has never stopped.

What has changed utterly in the meanwhile, particularly in the past half-millennium, and most particularly in the last few decades, is that we now have the ability to assist and boost our raw senses with miraculously capable technologies.

In the foreword to Amato’s book, Philip Morrison wrote, “Since the 1970s and 1980s, when my wife and I worked with the office of Charles and Ray Eames

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– Marshall McLuhan Marshall –

BEGINNING TO HAPPEN. HAPPEN. TO BEGINNING

IS WHAT CULTURE OLD THE TELL TO ON RELIED BE ALWAYS CAN THAT

SYSTEM WARNING EARLY DISTANT A IS SIGNIFICANT MOST ITS AT ART

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, an examination of the sizes of objects in the universe and and universe the in objects of sizes the of examination an , Ten of Powers … on [ PROGRAM REVIEW 2004 ] Since 1946, the Award Programs Advisory Committee, more commonly called the “Advisory Committee,” has played a crucial role in the success of our awards programs. In our evaluation process, it is they who make the final recommendations on all proposals submitted by individual faculty to our regular awards programs. They also advise us on issues of importance to the scientific community. The committee, chaired by the president of Research Corporation, is made up of academic scientists from beyond the foundation and throughout the nation. These men and women have established strong records of research productivity, broad scientific interests, and a deep understanding of the issues facing the research community. They display fairness, open flexible minds, and

Raymond Kellman extraordinary judgment of proposals. These scientists give generously of their Vice President time – time that many of their peers are unable or unwilling to give – so that others might maintain their independent research programs. They do so without compensation and for terms of three to six years. Every year committee members are asked to evaluate several hundred proposals that have been submitted to our Cottrell Scholar, Cottrell College Science and Research Opportunity Award programs. Each committee member individually receives these proposals along with their peer-reviews, and provides individual evaluations. Advisors meet in full committee twice a year, in spring and in fall, to discuss and to render decisions on each proposal. In addition to evaluating scientific merit, the committee carries the obligation of making decisions that adhere to the mission of the foundation and to the specific goals of each program. That will, from time to time, mean that our advisors’ decisions are not coincident with those of our peer-reviewers. Whatever the circumstances, decisions are made only after each committee member has an opportunity to express his or her point of view, and the committee has come to consensus. Once rendered, committee decisions cannot be altered by foundation staff. Our advisors strive to fund the most significant, innovative and challenging research in the realm of the physical sciences. Perhaps more importantly, it is they who provide the imprimatur of integrity and scholarly excellence to our selection process. We at Research Corporation are proud of the work they do. The scientific research community owes them great gratitude for their extraordinary efforts to identify and support individuals whose research ideas are most likely to advance science significantly. Pages 24 through 27 list those proposals recommended by our Advisory Committee for funding in 2004. I encourage you to visit our website and see which of your colleagues serve and have served as members of our Award Programs Advisory Committee.

Raymond Kellman

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$857,139. In addition, nine Discretionary Awards for the year totaled $105,075. totaled year the for Awards Discretionary nine addition, In $857,139.

Also in 2004, five Special Opportunity in Science Awards were awarded, totaling totaling awarded, were Awards Science in Opportunity Special five 2004, in Also

OTHER AWARDS OTHER

assessment of the feasibility of this award, it has been suspended for 2004–2005. for suspended been has it award, this of feasibility the of assessment

encourages innovation by scientists early in their academic careers. During an an During careers. academic their in early scientists by innovation encourages

Awards program is open to beginning faculty at Ph.D.-granting institutions and and institutions Ph.D.-granting at faculty beginning to open is program Awards

Research Innovation Awards were instituted in 1997. The Research Innovation Innovation Research The 1997. in instituted were Awards Innovation Research

RESEARCH INNOVATION AWARDS INNOVATION RESEARCH

awards in 2004, eight proposals were funded for a total of $399,147. of total a for funded were proposals eight 2004, in awards

institutions. Out of twelve candidates nominated by their department chairs for for chairs department their by nominated candidates twelve of Out institutions.

productivity who seek to explore new experimental research at Ph.D.-granting Ph.D.-granting at research experimental new explore to seek who productivity

Research Opportunity Awards support midcareer faculty of demonstrated demonstrated of faculty midcareer support Awards Opportunity Research

RESEARCH OPPORTUNITY AWARDS OPPORTUNITY RESEARCH

$825,000.

six requests submitted, eleven Cottrell Scholar Awards were made, totaling totaling made, were Awards Scholar Cottrell eleven submitted, requests six

totals $75,000, to be used largely at the discretion of the scholar the of discretion the at largely used be to $75,000, totals . Out of ninety- of Out .

chemistry, physics and astronomy at Ph.D.-granting institutions. Each award award Each institutions. Ph.D.-granting at astronomy and physics chemistry,

Cottrell Scholar Awards support excellence in both research and teaching in in teaching and research both in excellence support Awards Scholar Cottrell

COTTRELL SCHOLAR AWARDS SCHOLAR COTTRELL

averaging $35,317 per award. per $35,317 averaging

featured each year; in 2004, the foundation granted a total of $2,896,032, $2,896,032, of total a granted foundation the 2004, in year; each featured

funded eighty-two out of 258 faculty applicants. Two cycles of awards are are awards of cycles Two applicants. faculty 258 of out eighty-two funded

institutions. The program, which encourages student research involvement, involvement, research student encourages which program, The institutions.

faculty in chemistry, physics and astronomy at primarily undergraduate undergraduate primarily at astronomy and physics chemistry, in faculty

Cottrell College Science Awards are the foundation’s largest program, supporting supporting program, largest foundation’s the are Awards Science College Cottrell

COTTRELL COLLEGE SCIENCE AWARDS SCIENCE COLLEGE COTTRELL

totaling $962,214. totaling

programs noted below totaled $4,120,179. Fourteen additional awards were made, made, were awards additional Fourteen $4,120,179. totaled below noted programs

enhanced teaching and special projects in science in 2004. Funding for the foundation’s foundation’s the for Funding 2004. in science in projects special and teaching enhanced

One hundred and three awards were made in support of faculty research, research- research, faculty of support in made were awards three and hundred One PROGRAM SUMMARY PROGRAM COTTRELL COLLEGE SCIENCE AWARDS Acadia University Calvin College Eastern Michigan University Amitabh Jha, Department of Chemistry: Douglas A. Vander Griend, Department of Harriet A. Lindsay, Department of Design, synthesis and bioevaluation of Chemistry and Biochemistry: Exerting Chemistry: A versatile approach to potential antibacterial agents –$30,606 mathematical and chemical control to polyhydroxylated pyrrolizidine alkaloids rationally synthesize discrete and infinite via an aza-Cope rearrangement-Mannich Berea College coordination networks –$38,606 cyclization–$32,684 Kingshuk Majumdar, Department of Physics: Study of vortex deconfinement in condensed Central Michigan University Eastern Washington University matter physics –$22,184 Marco Fornari, Department of Physics: Jamie L. Manson, Department of Chemistry: Interacting pseudo Jahn-Teller effects: Hydrogen bonds and other weak intermolecular Boise State University Application to perovskite alloys –$24,218 interactions as magnetic exchange Jeffrey McNamara Peloquin, Department of mediators in complex materials –$34,770 Chemistry: The applicability of photoexcited Central Washington University manganese salts in the treatment of water Eric L. Bullock, Department of Chemistry: Mixed Franklin and Marshall College contamination –$34,608 thiolate self-assembly on gold and silver surfaces Edward E. Fenlon, Department of Chemistry: –$37,899 Polymethylene knots via a metal-templated Boise State University synthesis –$38,088 Don L. Warner, Department of Chemistry: Colby College Investigation of alkyl migration from silicon to Jeffrey Katz, Department of Chemistry: Franklin and Marshall College carbon for the stereocontrolled synthesis of Synthesis of azacalixarenes, oxocalixarenes, and Scott M. Lacey, Department of Physics and carbon-carbon bonds –$37,036 dicalixarene cages –$39,684 Astronomy: Wave-chaotic dynamics in three- dimensional asymmetric optical resonators Brock University Colgate University –$40,963 Stuart M. Rothstein, Department of Kenneth J. Segall, Department of Physics Chemistry: Towards generating the complete and Astronomy: Nonlinear dynamics in Franklin and Marshall College structure distribution of a protein: Exploiting superconducting networks –$36,109 Jennifer L. Morford, Department of novel and established pattern recognition Chemistry: Investigating the utility of silver techniques –$18,420 College of the Holy Cross and rhenium as complementary tracers for Kevin J. Quinn, Department of Chemistry: changing reducing conditions –$24,463 Bucknell University Synthesis of dihydropyrans by ring expansion of Eric S. Tillman, Department of Chemistry: vinyl epoxides –$35,040 Gustavus Adolphus College Anthracene photodimers in atom transfer Scott K. Bur, Department of Chemistry: radical polymerizations –$41,566 Denison University The development of vinyl glycine derivatives Steven D. Doty, Department of Physics for use in 1,5-electrocyclizations and their California State University, Long Beach and Astronomy: Thermal balance in three- application to natural product synthesis Michael P. Myers, Department of Chemistry and dimensional sources: The next step in –$36,218 Biochemistry: NOCKS- Nitric Oxide Chemistry modeling and understanding the structure and K+channels role in umbilical cord Stem cell of star-forming regions –$42,000 Harvey Mudd College differentiation –$37,840 Ann Esin, Department of Physics: A study Denison University of photometric variability of stars in nearby California State University, Long Beach Prabasaj Paul, Department of Physics and star-forming clusters –$31,218 Zoltan Papp, Department of Physics and Astronomy: Investigation of the scattering of Astronomy: Integral equation approach light at photonic crystal interfaces using Padé Hobart and William Smith Colleges to the three-body coulomb scattering approximation techniques –$23,682 Justin S. Miller, Department of Chemistry: Solid- problem –$37,682 phase synthesis of cyclic, cysteine-containing Dickinson College natural products and analogues –$40,218 California State University, Long Beach R. David Crouch, Department of Chemistry: Krzysztof Slowinski, Department of Chemistry Design, synthesis and assay of cyclopropane- and Biochemistry: Conductivity of two- containing agonists of α-adrenergic agents component monolayers at the air-water –$36,101 interface –$38,944 East Carolina University California State University, Los Angeles Kwang Hun Lim, Department of Chemistry: … THE ONLY WAY OF DISCOVERING Krishna L. Foster, Department of Chemistry and NMR studies of ligand recognition properties of Biochemistry: Laboratory studies on the affect of SH3 and WW proline-rich binding domains: THE LIMITS OF THE POSSIBLE IS TO substrate on the kinetics of PAH oxidation Structure and dynamics –$35,000 –$42,603 VENTURE A LITTLE WAY PAST THEM INTO THE IMPOSSIBLE.

— Arthur C. Clarke, Profiles of the Future

[ 24

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storage –$33,494 storage planets orbiting nearby stars –$38,803 stars nearby orbiting planets

Porous heterobimetallic oxides for energy energy for oxides heterobimetallic Porous and Astronomy: Detection of “hot Jupiter” Jupiter” “hot of Detection Astronomy: and –$36,815

Keenan E. Dungey, Department of Chemistry: Chemistry: of Department Dungey, E. Keenan Physics of Department Fischer, Debra microscopy fluorescence biological high-pressure

University of Illinois at Springfield at Illinois of University Development of a novel imaging chamber for for chamber imaging novel a of Development San Francisco State University State Francisco San

Paul Urayama, Department of Physics: Physics: of Department Urayama, Paul

redox-active multi-metallic porphyrins –$30,548 porphyrins multi-metallic redox-active extrasolar planets –$37,850 planets extrasolar Miami University University Miami

acidic solution at electrodes modified with with modified electrodes at solution acidic transiting of modelling and Observations

2

in in O of reduction the of studies Mechanistic William F. Welsh, Deparment of Astronomy: Astronomy: of Deparment Welsh, F. William –$33,939 molecules diatomic

Shawn M. Swavey, Department of Chemistry: Chemistry: of Department Swavey, M. Shawn Polarization spectroscopy of highly excited state state excited highly of spectroscopy Polarization San Diego State University State Diego San

University of Dayton of University S. Burcin Bayram, Department of Physics: Physics: of Department Bayram, Burcin S.

helix in mixed cosolvent systems –$35,218 systems cosolvent mixed in helix Miami University University Miami

aureus –$41,884 aureus double DNA the of Stability Chemistry:

Staphylococcus from homologs peroxidase of Department Schwinefus, J. Jeffrey $35,007

glutathione of activity Biochemical activation of caspase(s) in apoptotic cells – cells apoptotic in caspase(s) of activation St. Olaf College Olaf St.

Chemistry: of Department Luba, P. James The regulatory role of cellular thiols on on thiols cellular of role regulatory The

University of Arkansas, Little Rock Rock Little Arkansas, of University Yuh-Cherng Chai, Department of Chemistry: Chemistry: of Department Chai, Yuh-Cherng twin-rainbow metrology –$38,138 metrology twin-rainbow

using measurements line contact Moving John Carroll University University Carroll John

quantum paraelectrics –$41,000 paraelectrics quantum Physics: of Department Adler, Charles

3 -based SrTiO in anomalies dielectric –$33,484 St. Mary’s College of Maryland of College Mary’s St.

induced of mechanism physical the of planetary disks orbiting intermediate-mass stars stars intermediate-mass orbiting disks planetary

Study Physics: of Department Chen, Ang –$41,530 proto- of characterization Spectroscopic

University of Akron of University channels BK mammalian in inhibition and Physics: of Department Keller, D. Luke

Determining the mechanism of heme binding binding heme of mechanism the Determining Ithaca College Ithaca

containing noncovalent interactions –$37,000 interactions noncovalent containing Mark F. Reynolds, Department of Chemistry: Chemistry: of Department Reynolds, F. Mark

Synthesis and assembly of block copolymers copolymers block of assembly and Synthesis lattices –$40,000 lattices St. Joseph’s University Joseph’s St.

Chemistry: of Department Lin, Shirley Brownian particle streams in tuned optical optical tuned in streams particle Brownian

United States Naval Academy Naval States United cycle due to composition effects- –$37,224 effects- composition to due cycle Physics: of Department Spalding, C. Gabriel

variation of ion cyclotron waves during the solar solar the during waves cyclotron ion of variation Illinois Wesleyan University Wesleyan Illinois

of 2-phase manganites –$36,468 manganites 2-phase of Jim Crumley, Department of Physics: The The Physics: of Department Crumley, Jim

Photoresponse and electrical noise in thin films films thin in noise electrical and Photoresponse novel solvents for organic synthesis –$29,019 synthesis organic for solvents novel St. John’s University/College of St. Benedict St. of University/College John’s St.

Physics: of Department Rajeswari, M. of ionic liquids as environment-friendly and and environment-friendly as liquids ionic of

Towson University Towson ultracold plasmas –$41,176 plasmas ultracold Use Chemistry: of Department Mohan, S. Ram

Physics: Fast recombination in strongly coupled, coupled, strongly in recombination Fast Physics: Illinois Wesleyan University Wesleyan Illinois

polymer nanocomposites –$37,316 nanocomposites polymer Michael J. Lim, Department of Chemistry and and Chemistry of Department Lim, J. Michael

in transport gas for model theoretical electron systems –$34,018 systems electron Rowan University Rowan

a of Development Biochemistry: and Relativistic quantum dynamics of one-and two- one-and of dynamics quantum Relativistic

Chemistry of Department Beall, W. Gary using antimicrobial peptides –$45,465 peptides antimicrobial using Physics: of Department Su, Charles Q.

Texas State University, San Marcos San University, State Texas recognition and biological function at interfaces interfaces at function biological and recognition Illinois State University State Illinois

Solid-state NMR investigations of molecular molecular of investigations NMR Solid-state

magnetic semiconductors –$34,604 semiconductors magnetic Myriam Cotten, Department of Chemistry: Chemistry: of Department Cotten, Myriam –$37,643 reactions oxide

dilute oxide-based in Ferromagnetism Computer simulations of atmospheric sulfur sulfur atmospheric of simulations Computer Pacific Lutheran University University Lutheran Pacific

Science: Materials and Astronomy Jean M. Standard, Department of Chemistry: Chemistry: of Department Standard, M. Jean

Physics, of Department Ghosh, Kartik supersymmetric Yang-Mills theories –$34,980 theories Yang-Mills supersymmetric Illinois State University State Illinois

Southwest Missouri State University University State Missouri Southwest Astronomy: Non-perturbative calculations in in calculations Non-perturbative Astronomy:

Uwe Trittmann, Department of Physics and and Physics of Department Trittmann, Uwe –$35,000

–$42,000 semiconductor nanocrystals by 3-D simulations simulations 3-D by nanocrystals semiconductor Otterbein College College Otterbein

nanocomposite and nanolaminate coatings coatings nanolaminate and nanocomposite

Investigations of phonon modes in in modes phonon of Investigations

study of the growth of nitride/metal nitride/metal of growth the of study

quasihexagonal patterns –$30,684 patterns quasihexagonal Physics: of Department Ren, Shang-Fen

time spectroscopic ellipsometry ellipsometry spectroscopic time

Sequential fragmentation and the origin of of origin the and fragmentation Sequential Illinois State University State Illinois

Samir M. Aouadi, Department of Physics: Real Real Physics: of Department Aouadi, M. Samir Physics: of Department Rojo, G. Alberto

2

Southern Illinois University at Carbondale at University Illinois Southern –$40,000 )Yb(µ-H)] [(Tp Oakland University University Oakland

tBu,Me

complexes and the divalent lanthanide hydride, hydride, lanthanide divalent the and complexes

in two-dimensional flows –$50,184 flows two-dimensional in nature repairs damaged DNA purines –$21,089 purines DNA damaged repairs nature lanthanide porphyrin N-confused by mediated

σ Sheared-flow suppression of turbulence turbulence of suppression Sheared-flow

how of study computational A Chemistry: reactions metathesis -Bond Chemistry:

Paul W. Fontana, Department of Physics: Physics: of Department Fontana, W. Paul of Department Wetmore, D. Stacey of Department Ferrence, M. Gregory

Seattle University University Seattle Mount Allison University Allison Mount University State Illinois

motor control system –$25,682 system control motor novel indium radio-pharmaceuticals –$28,000 radio-pharmaceuticals indium novel –$28,583 chains spin coupled weakly

Neuromodulation of sensory feedback in a a in feedback sensory of Neuromodulation Synthesis and characterization of models for for models of characterization and Synthesis on disorder and frustration geometric of Effect

John Birmingham, Department of Physics: Physics: of Department Birmingham, John Glen G. Briand, Department of Chemistry: Chemistry: of Department Briand, G. Glen Physics: of Department Starykh, A. Oleg

Santa Clara University Clara Santa Mount Allison University University Allison Mount University Hofstra COTTRELL COLLEGE SCIENCE AWARDS (continued) University of Louisiana at Lafayette University of Texas at San Antonio William Paterson University Radhey S. Srivastava, Department of David M. Johnson, Department of Chemistry: Song H. Chung, Department of Physics: Chemistry: Copper-catalyzed allylic amination Fundamentals of radical copolymerization: Do Ionic transport in phosphoric acid in of olefins –$41,783 penultimate units exert an electronic effect on aqueous media –$39,984 propagation kinetics –$24,884 University of Memphis Williams College Andrew Richter, Department of Physics: University of Wisconsin, Eau Claire David Tucker-Smith, Department of High-resolution, time-resolved, in situstudies of Michael J. Carney, Department of Chemistry: Physics: Phenomenology of warped protein adsorption onto functionalized surfaces Octahedral coordination geometry and its unification –$31,218 using X-ray reflectivity –$39,912 impact on polymerization catalysis –$30,000

University of North Carolina at Greensboro University of Wisconsin, Eau Claire Gregory M. Raner, Department of Nathan A. Miller, Department of Physics COTTRELL SCHOLAR Chemistry: Stopped-flow and freeze and Astronomy: Probing the temperature AWARDS quench techniques for the study of transient structure and geometry of hot star x-ray cytochrome P450 intermediates –$36,074 emission –$23,218 Cornell University Paul J. Chirik, Department of Chemistry and University of North Carolina at Greensboro University of Wisconsin, La Crosse Biochemistry: Nitrogen fixation with group 4 Jason J. Reddick, Department of Chemistry Todd Michael Weaver, Department of transition metals –$75,000 and Biochemistry: Polyketide biosynthesis Chemistry: Structural studies of fumarase in Bacillus subtilis: New chemistry from a familiar C mutants and transition state analogue Northwestern University bacterium –$41,984 complexes –$30,874 Vassiliki Kalogera, Department of Physics and Astronomy: Genetic algorithms in University of North Carolina at Wilmington Vassar College gravitational wave astrophysics –$75,000 Paulo F. Almeida, Department of Chemistry and Zachary J. Donhauser, Department of Chemistry: Biochemistry: Dynamics of membrane domains Characterization of molecular-level Purdue University –$39,682 inhomogeneities in the structure of microtubules Garth J. Simpson, Department of Chemistry: –$35,666 Nonlinear optical probes of structure and University of North Carolina at Wilmington function in biological systems; anatomy of a Sridhar Varadarajan, Department of Western Kentucky University green laser pointer –$75,000 Chemistry and Biochemistry: Design of Colin D. Abernethy, Department of Chemistry: molecules forming cytotoxic DNA-adducts in N-heterocyclic carbene complexes of early State University of New York at Buffalo pancreatic b-cells –$41,968 transition metals in high oxidation states John Cerne, Department of Physics: Infrared hall –$39,672 effect in strange magnetic metals –$75,000 University of North Florida Lev Gasparov, Department of Natural Western Kentucky University University of California, San Diego Sciences: Raman and infrared studies of the Christopher J.A. Daley, Department of Seth M. Cohen, Department of Chemistry layered transition metal chalcogenides –$40,384 Chemistry: Nitrile hydratase active site models: and Biochemistry: A bioinorganic approach for Study of structure, function, and role of post- designing improved matrix metalloproteinase University of Portland translational modification using the synthetic inhibitors –$75,000 Kevin Cantrell, Department of Chemistry: An analog approach –$40,803 investigation of the redox driven University of Chicago biogeochemical cycling of iron in the Western Kentucky University Rustem F. Ismagilov, Department of Chemistry: subsurface environment –$31,218 Ralph Nicholas Salvatore, Department of Using minimal chemical model to understand Chemistry: Investigations in organobarium complex biochemical networks and to create University of San Diego chemistry: Novel mechanistic concepts and biomimetic functional systems –$75,000 David O. De Haan, Department of synthetic applications –$34,958 Chemistry: Secondary organic aerosol University of Massachusetts, Amherst formation by acid-catalyzed surface Westmont College Anthony D. Dinsmore, Department of reactions –$42,754 Allan M. Nishimura, Department of Physics: Photonic glasses: Influence of the Chemistry: A study of water-halobenzene topology of random media on light propagation University of San Diego –$75,000 clusters on Al2O3(0001) surface by Peter M. Iovine, Department of Chemistry: emission and cavity ringdown spectroscopy- Synthesis and spectroscopy of conjugated light- $36,218 University of Missouri-Rolla harvesting compounds containing boroxine Carsten A. Ullrich, Department of Physics: cores –$35,706 Wheaton College New approaches for electron dynamics in Daniel L. Burden, Department of Chemistry: semiconductor nanostructures and for teaching One-color, single-molecule optical and electrical modern condensed-matter physics –$75,000 recording of protein channel dynamics –$42,804

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torquing and nanofluidics –$49,771 nanofluidics and torquing

– Leonardo da Vinci da Leonardo –

Keith D. Bonin, Department of Physics: Optical Optical Physics: of Department Bonin, D. Keith

Wake Forest University Forest Wake NOT YET. NOT

IS LATER SEE WILL YOU WHAT chemometrics –$49,376 chemometrics

Characterization of drug metabolism using using metabolism drug of Characterization

SAW IS NO LONGER THERE; AND AND THERE; LONGER NO IS SAW

Sarah C. Rutan, Department of Chemistry: Chemistry: of Department Rutan, C. Sarah

Virginia Commonwealth University Commonwealth Virginia

THEN LOOK AGAIN: WHAT YOU YOU WHAT AGAIN: LOOK THEN

and applications –$50,000 applications and BEAUTY. CLOSE YOUR EYES, AND AND EYES, YOUR CLOSE BEAUTY.

Organometalic heterocycle: Synthesis, structure, structure, Synthesis, heterocycle: Organometalic

LOOK AT LIGHT AND ADMIRE ITS ITS ADMIRE AND LIGHT AT LOOK John P. Selegue, Department of Chemistry: Chemistry: of Department Selegue, P. John

University of Kentucky of University

enzyme kinetics measurements –$50,000 measurements kinetics enzyme

Levitated drop reactor: Towards highly parallel parallel highly Towards reactor: drop Levitated

Alexander Scheeline, Department of Chemistry: Chemistry: of Department Scheeline, Alexander

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Urbana-Champaign at Illinois of University

copolymers as lipid bilayer mimics –$50,000 mimics bilayer lipid as copolymers

Design and preparation of ABA triblock triblock ABA of preparation and Design

Rebecca L. Braslau, Department of Chemistry: Chemistry: of Department Braslau, L. Rebecca

University of California, Santa Cruz Santa California, of University

vinyl ethers –$50,000 ethers vinyl

Biochemistry: Copper promoted synthesis of of synthesis promoted Copper Biochemistry:

Craig A. Merlic, Department of Chemistry and and Chemistry of Department Merlic, A. Craig

University of California, Los Angeles Los California, of University

into acetic acid –$50,000 acid acetic into

greenhouse gases methane and carbon dioxide dioxide carbon and methane gases greenhouse

acid synthesis catalysis: Transforming two two Transforming catalysis: synthesis acid

Alan Cutler, Department of Chemistry: Acetic Acetic Chemistry: of Department Cutler, Alan

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Polytechnic Rensselaer

quantum computing –$50,000 computing quantum

“scaling-up” problem for ultracold atom atom ultracold for problem “scaling-up”

lattices on chips: A possible solution to the the to solution possible A chips: on lattices

Gregory Lafyatis, Department of Physics: Optical Optical Physics: of Department Lafyatis, Gregory

Ohio State University, Columbus University, State Ohio

AWARDS

RESEARCH OPPORTUNITY OPPORTUNITY RESEARCH

nano-magnets –$75,000 nano-magnets

of properties magnetic and structural

Physics and Astronomy: Investigating the the Investigating Astronomy: and Physics

Rosa Alejandra Lukaszew, Department of of Department Lukaszew, Alejandra Rosa

University of Toledo Toledo of University

inhibitors of influenza hemagglutinin –$75,000 hemagglutinin influenza of inhibitors

Chemistry: The development of rigid bivalent bivalent rigid of development The Chemistry:

Christian E. Schafmeister, Department of of Department Schafmeister, E. Christian

University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh of University

of dark energy and cosmology –$75,000 cosmology and energy dark of

probe a as lensing Gravitational Astronomy:

Bhuvnesh Jain, Department of Physics and and Physics of Department Jain, Bhuvnesh University of Pennsylvania Pennsylvania of University Research Corporation’s condensed financial statements of financial position and of activity for the years ended December 31, 2004 and 2003 are presented in this section.

The Foundation’s audited financial statements for 2004 and 2003 can be viewed online at www.rescorp.org/financials

CONDENSED STATEMENTS OF ACTIVITY AND CHANGES IN NET ASSETS YEARS ENDED DECEMBER 31, 2004 AND 2003

2004 2003 REVENUE UNRESTRICTED REVENUES AND GAINS: Investment income, net $15,801,148 $34,276,554 Other income 11,100 785,785 Total unrestricted revenues and gains 15,812,248 35,062,339 Contributions released from restrictions 250,000

TOTAL REVENUE 16,062,248 35,062,339

EXPENSES Grants approved 4,954,942 6,305,473 Science advancement 1,392,532 1,072,600 Program-related 475,875 1,561,330 Information and communications 192,085 90,619 General and administrative 1,822,190 1,355,152 Interest and other expense 387,918 547,958

TOTAL EXPENSES 9,225,542 10,933,132

INCREASE IN UNRESTRICTED NET ASSETS 6,836,706 24,129,207

(DECREASE) INCREASE IN TEMPORARILY RESTRICTED ASSETS — Contributions received for restricted purpose (250,000) 250,000

INCREASE IN NET ASSETS 6,586,706 24,379,207

NET ASSETS — Beginning of year 135,101,123 110,721,916

NET ASSETS — End of year $141,687,829 $135,101,123

[ 28

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$154,107,995 $154,107,995 $154,535,723 TOTAL

135,101,123 141,687,829 TOTAL NET ASSETS NET TOTAL

5,0 250,000 restricted Temporarily

3,5,2 134,851,123 141,687,829 Unrestricted

ASSETS: NET

1,0,7 19,006,872 12,847,894 TOTAL LIABILITIES TOTAL

,2,6 2,925,762 2,377,192 Other

,8,5 1,982,459 1,414,459 payable Notes

90000 9,000,000 4,500,000 credit of Line

50861 $5,098,651 $4,556,243 payable Grants

LIABILITIES: LIABILITIES:

LIABILITIES AND NET ASSETS NET AND LIABILITIES

$154,107,995 154,535,723 $ TOTAL

172 31,712 64,525 assets Other

12500 1,295,000 1,143,780 cost pension Prepaid

60344 6,043,404 4,318,404 receivable Notes

5,5 255,154 424,045 equipment—net and Property

5,6 257,461 317,012 receivable interest and dividends Accrued

5,0 250,000 1,028,880 cash Restricted

,1,5 3,513,753 118,338 equivalents cash and Cash

INVESTMENTS 4,6,1 142,461,511 $ 147,120,739 $

2003 2003 2004 ASSETS

2003 AND 2004 31, DECEMBER ODNE TTMNSO IACA OIIN POSITION FINANCIAL OF STATEMENTS CONDENSED OFFICERS Patrick S. Osmer is Chair and Professor in the Brent L. Iverson is a Professor of Chemistry and Department of Astronomy at Ohio State University. Biochemistry at University of Texas at Austin. Herbert S. Adler Chairman He is a member of the Research Corporation John P. Schaefer President Audit and Finance Committee, Governance and Michael A. Morrison is a Professor of Physics Raymond Kellman Vice President Nominating Committee and Science Advancement and Astronomy at the University of Oklahoma. Committee. Suzanne D. Jaffe Treasurer Mats A. Selen is a Professor of Physics at the Sherri R. Benedict Secretary John P. Schaefer is President of Research University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Corporation. He is a member of the Research Daniel Gasch Chief Financial Officer Corporation Executive Committee, Audit and Thomas D. Tullius is a Professor of Chemistry Finance Committee, Science Advancement at Boston University. Committee and Governance and Nominating BOARD OF DIRECTORS Committee. Timothy S. Zwier is a Professor of Chemistry at Purdue University. Herbert S. Adler is Managing Principal of Halcyon Management Co. LLC. He is a member of the Research Corporation Executive Committee, Audit DIRECTORS EMERITI SCIENCE ADVANCEMENT PROGRAM and Finance Committee and Science Advancement R. Palmer Baker Jr. is President of the Committee. Raymond Kellman Vice President Baker Company, Inc. Patricia C. Barron is a Corporate Director. She Jack R. Pladziewicz Program Officer Carlyle G. Caldwell is Chairman Emeritus, is a member of the Research Corporation Audit Leon Radziemski Program Officer and Finance Committee and Science Advancement National Starch and Chemical Corporation. Committee. Silvia Ronco Program Officer Paul J. Collins is Vice Chairman of Citibank. Brian Andreen Consultant Stuart B. Crampton is the Barclay Jermain Professor Burt N. Dorsett is Chairman of the Board of of Natural Philosophy in the Department of Pamela Busse Program Assistant Dorsett McCabe Capital Management Inc. Physics at Williams College. He is a member of the Shannon Ritchie Program Assistant Research Corporation Executive Committee, Audit William G. Hendrickson is Chairman Emeritus of and Finance Committee and Science Advancement Christina A. Scavo Program Assistant St. Jude Medical Inc. and Chairman of Intellinet. Committee. Dana Speed Program Assistant Coordinator John W. Johnstone Jr. is Chairman of the Peter K. Dorhout is a Professor of Chemistry, Patricia Maguire Program Assistant Coordinator Governance and Nominating Committee at Interim Vice Provost for Graduate Education and Arch Chemicals Inc. Sofia Fontana Support Services Coordinator Assistant Vice President for Research at Colorado Tommy Goodenow Technical Assistant State University. He is a member of the Research Frederick Seitz is President Emeritus of Corporation Governance and Nominating The Rockefeller University. Dena McDuffie Editor and Archivist Committee and Science Advancement Committee. George L. Shinn is Chairman and Chief Executive Randy Wedin Science Writer Robert B. Hallock is Distinguished Professor in Officer Emeritus of The First Boston Corporation. Kelly Leslie Designer the Department of Physics at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. He is a member of G. King Walters is the Sam and Helen Worden the Research Corporation Science Advancement Professor Emeritus of Physics at the Department Committee. of Physics and Astronomy at Rice University.

Robert Holland Jr. is an Industry Partner at Williams Capital Partners. He is a member of the Research Corporation Executive Committee, Audit AWARD PROGRAMS ADVISORY and Finance Committee, Science Advancement COMMITTEE Committee and Governance and Nominating Committee. John P. Schaefer is Chairman of the Award Programs Advisory Committee and President of Research Gayle P.W. Jackson is Managing Director of Corporation. FE Clean Energy Group Inc. She is a member of the Research Corporation Audit and Finance Donald R. Deardorff is a Professor of Chemistry Committee and Science Advancement Committee. at Occidental College.

Suzanne D. Jaffe is President of S.D.J. Associates. She Peter K. Dorhout is a Professor of Chemistry at is a member of the Research Corporation Executive Colorado State University. Committee, Audit and Finance Committee, Science Nancy M. Haegel is a Professor of Physics at Advancement Committee and Governance and the Naval Postgraduate School. Nominating Committee.

[ 30 IMAGE CREDITS: Front and back covers: Photogenic drawing by Ellen Carey. Page 6: Self Portrait with Balloon and Bullet, 1959, by Harold Edgerton, © Harold & Esther Edgerton Foundation, 2005, courtesy of Palm Press, Inc. Page 7: Large Binocular Telescope Observatory. Page 8: Camera obscura, from Johannes Zahn’s Oculus artificialis teledioptricus, 1685, Würzburg. Page 9: Top, Portrait of Johannes Kepler, The Observatory of Kremsmünster; Bottom, The Arnolfini Marriage, 1434, by Jan van Eyck. Page 10: Early eighteenth-century illustration comparing the function of the camera obscura and the function of the eye. Page 11: Virgin and Child with St. Anne and St. John the Baptist, 1499–1500, by Leonardo da Vinci. Page 12: Diana and Her Companions, ca. 1653-1656, by Johannes Vermeer, Mauritshuis, The Hague. Page 13: Top, Portrait of Louis-Jacques Mandé Daguerre, 1844, by Jean- Baptiste Sabatier-Blot; Bottom, Galloping Horse, 1878, by Eadweard Muybridge. Page 14: Top, Albrecht Dürer’s interpretation of Leon Battista Alberti’s “Reticolato,” a transparent grid that could be placed in front of a scene as an aid to drawing in perspective, a precursor of the camera lucida; Bottom: “Haystack” series, 1890–1891, by Claude Monet. Page 15: Exponential, electrons launched from the upper right fan out and then form branch, as indirect effects of traveling over bumps, by Eric J. Heller. Page 16: M.C. Escher’s “Rippled Surface,“ 1950, Linoleum cut, © 2005 The M.C. Escher Company-Holland. All rights reserved. www.mcescher.com. Page 17: Rotating Rotator II, by Eric J. Heller. Page 18: Starbirth in the Milky Way, © 2001 by Lynette Cook. Page 19: Portrait of Ansel Adams, ca. 1980, by John P. Schaefer. Page 20: Top, Magnify, 2005, Dena McDuffie; Bottom, Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc, France. Page 21: An atomic force microscope image of a hexagonally-ordered array of alumina nanopores that were fabricated by anodization, as viewed from the top. The size of the image is 1 micron by 1 micron. Robert M. Metzger, University of Alabama; National Science Foundation. Research Corporation 4703 East Camp Lowell Drive Suite 201 Tucson, Arizona 85712 www.rescorp.org