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Home , Anesthetic, Club drug, Drug culture, Hallucinogen, Hippie, Peyote

ENT OF M JU U.S. Department of Justice T S R T A I P C E E D

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O J C S Office of Justice Programs F A V M F O I N A C I J S R E BJ G O OJJ DP O F PR National Institute of Justice JUSTICE National Institute of Justice R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f Jeremy Travis, Director October 1997

Issues and Findings Rise of Use Discussed in this Brief: The history of hallucinogen use in the United by Dana Hunt States, a comparison of past and present user groups, and the im- In the public imagination, few periods in ing as the U.S. Naval Academy1 highlight pact of today’s use and distribution history have been so linked to a type of the return of these among student patterns on law enforcement and public health and safety. as the were to psychedelics, populations. In addition to familiar hallu- or . Widespread experimen- cinogens, newer compounds have surfaced Key issues: Psychedelic drugs fig- tation with drugs such as LSD, , (see “Drugs Classified as Hallucinogens ured prominently in the cul- and (“magic ”) in- or Psychedelics”). ture of the 1960s and 1970s, but fluenced many aspects of American pop their popularity declined during the —, music, art, and lan- This Research in Brief traces the histori- 1980s. Recent studies reveal that cal use of hallucinogens in the United hallucinogen use is on the rise in the guage. Many people discussed but few States and discusses the implications— 1990s, particularly among young followed ’s advice to “tune adults of the same socioeconomic in and turn on.” Americans nevertheless in terms of law enforcement and public class as those who embraced these tried psychedelic drugs at an unprec- safety—of their current popularity among substances in previous decades. edented rate. According to the first Na- youths and young adults. To conduct the While current hallucinogen users tional Household Survey on Drug Abuse analysis for the study summarized here, seem to have little involvement in (NHSDA) in 1972, 5 percent of Americans, researchers from Abt Associates Inc. re- criminal activities, their drug-taking almost all of them under the age of 18, had lied on national survey data and two tele- behavior places them at risk of used psychedelics at least once; by 1979 phone surveys conducted specifically for harming themselves or others. lifetime prevalence was reported as 25 this report (see “Data Sources”). Key findings: Five sources were percent among young adults ages 18–25. used to study the resurgence of Recent history of hallucinogen use hallucinogen use in this country. In the mid-1980s the use of psychedelics Data from these sources indicate that: dramatically declined as became Hallucinogens are not new. Many natu- rally occurring substances such as peyote, • Hallucinogens are relatively inex- the drug of choice. Law enforcement sei- psilocybin, or have long been pensive, domestically produced, and zures of LSD and other hallucinogens used in cultural and religious contexts, not part of a network of distributors dropped precipitously, as did emergency battling over markets or territory. room reports of adverse effects of halluci- and LSD was synthesized in in the nogen use. However, by the early 1990s, late 1930s. However, until the 1950s, • Between 1991 and 1996, the when psychiatric researchers investigated percentage of Americans who interest in hallucinogens seemed to resur- the possible therapeutic of LSD, rec- had used psychedelics at least face among users whose demographic ognition that certain drugs had hallucino- once in their lives grew from 6 to profile was similar to that of users in the 14 percent. 1960s—young men and women, often genic properties was very limited. • The percentage of high school , who typically declined to LSD did not receive popular attention until seniors who believe that trying LSD use or cocaine. Reports of LSD the early 1960s when the late Timothy or using it regularly is a “great risk” use and distribution at places as surpris- Leary and Richard Alpert, his colleague continued… R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Issues and Findings at , began experimenting preparation of hallucinogens through continued… with the drug on themselves, other aca- popular publications of the era. demics, local artists, and students. Leary has declined significantly. Between How many people actually used halluci- 1991 and 1996, the percentage of was dismissed from Harvard for promot- ing LSD, but he continued to advocate its nogens during the 1960s and 1970s? In seniors who said they disapproved 1974, 17 percent of all Americans re- of LSD use even once or twice fell use as a positive -altering experi- ported they had used a hallucinogen in from 90 to 80 percent. ence and identified psychedelics as part of a countercultural or lifestyle choice. their lifetime. According to NHSDA, life- • Thirty-four percent of college and time prevalence among the young adult university officials reported that hallu- Although nonmedical use of LSD contin- ued to rise throughout the 1960s, scientific population rose to 20 percent in 1977 cinogen use, particularly of LSD and and 25 percent by 1979. psilocybin, is increasing on their cam- interest declined. In 1974 the National puses. Campus sources identified hal- Institute of Mental Health concluded that During the same period, other surveys made 2 lucinogen users today as LSD had no therapeutic use. similar findings. In 1975 the Monitoring students, not the more marginal or the Future (MTF) study reported that 16 “hippie” students of the 1960s. Pri- The interest in LSD during the 1960s vate and public campuses are equally also prompted users to seek out naturally percent of high school seniors across the likely to report hallucinogen use; re- occurring substances that produced the country had used hallucinogens at some ligious schools are most likely to re- same experiential effects. In fact, a vari- point. A 1980 survey of State port little or no use. Larger campuses ety of substances in nature produce tran- high school students showed that, by age 3 and institutions in urban areas report sitory visual or auditory distortion, e.g., 18, 25 percent had used hallucinogens. the widest range of drug use. , thornapple, peyote, and jim- These figures represented a remarkable • The rise in hallucinogen use co- sonweed. One of the oldest hallucinogens rise in the use of drugs that less than 15 incided with the growth of “,” known to Western scientists is mescaline, years earlier had been virtually unknown. underground dance parties that ca- a derivative of the peyote , used for ter to those under age 21. centuries in natural medicines and reli- Who is using hallucinogens now? • Systemic violence associated with gious ceremonies. Substances such as Until the late 1980s and early 1990s, the trafficking of heroin and cocaine peyote, mescaline, and a variety of exotic hallucinogens appeared to be out of has not been found with hallucino- fungi (e.g., psilocybin mushrooms) can be vogue as the generation of original users gen trafficking. The Drug Enforce- smoked, brewed in , chewed, and in- ment Administration reports that a aged. By 1982, 6 percent of adults over corporated into food. In the 1960s users 26 years old reported that they had used relatively small number of producers exchanged and published recipes for and distributors located in Northern hallucinogens at least once, but fewer have controlled the LSD market for a number of years. Exhibit 1: Use of Hallucinogens by High School Seniors • Repeated doses of hallucinogens or ingestion of multiple substances 20 can produce highly adverse effects, Lifetime Use Prior 12 Months including death. In addition, the au- ditory and visual distortion resulting 15 from hallucinogen ingestion can last for 10 to 12 hours, thus endanger- ing a user who drives, his or her pas- 10 sengers, pedestrians, and the occupants of other cars in proximity. 5 Target audience: Drug enforcement and drug treatment practitioners, college and university officials, high Who Reported Use Percentage 0 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1994 1995 1996 school administrators, public health officials, coordinators, Source: Monitoring the Future Study, University of Michigan. and researchers.

2 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f than 1 percent reported use in the year (1975) of the survey produced the rise in the use of any hallucinogens is prior year.4 In 1992, however, drug highest lifetime use (16 percent), fol- also apparent. ethnographers reporting to Pulse lowed by a gradual decline that contin- began noticing increased availability ued until the end of the 1980s. In Data from a 1992 Dade County, Florida, of hallucinogens in many areas of the 1991 the percentage reporting lifetime survey showed an even higher level country. At the same time, researchers use again began to rise, reaching 11 of use among high school and college studying the emerging music and percent in 1993, 13 percent in 1995, students. The Dade County student dance phenomena known as “raves” and 14 percent in 1996. Use in the survey indicated that 17 percent of found LSD, MDMA, , and prior 12-month period also declined high school seniors reported using –B playing a significant part in throughout the 1980s, reached a low of LSD at least once, a figure almost five these activities.5 6 percent in 1985, then rose to 8 per- times the 1991 level and considerably cent in 1993 and 1994, 9 percent in higher than the level reported in the 6 National survey data supported this 1995, and 10 percent in 1996. Exhibit national MTF study. observation. Exhibit 1 shows high 2 indicates that LSD has typically school seniors’ self-reported hallucino- In recent years, increased hallucino- been the most commonly used halluci- gen use has been concentrated prima- gen use for selected years of the MTF nogen, although a similar but smaller study. As these data indicate, the first rily among white students, a group that

Drugs Classified as Hallucinogens or Psychedelics

The terms “hallucinogen” and These substances were originally tested in drugs.9 Hallucinogens as a group pro- “psychedelic” refer to both synthetic and humans for their use during duce varying levels of visual, auditory, organic substances that can produce vi- minor surgery, but use was eventually re- and tactile distortions and/or “out of sual, auditory, and tactile distortions in stricted to the tranquilization of large ani- body” sensations. As with all drugs, the users. The group of drugs so designated mals in veterinary medicine. PCP and intensity of effect depends not only on generally includes:7 ketamine appear most often in powder ingestion of a specific drug and dose form (“dust”), but they can also be found but also on the user’s or ex- • LSD (d-lysergic acid diethylamide) as liquids. pectation of the .10 and Nexus (4-bromo-2,5 dimeth- oxyphenethylamine)—synthetic or labora- • MDMA (methylene dioxymeth- Hallucinogens differ in several ways from tory-derived substances that at varying ), or Ecstasy—a synthetic other commonly abused drugs such as dosages produce degrees of perceptual compound that pro- heroin or cocaine. Although their - distortion. LSD is most often soaked into duces both psychedelic and ef- distorting effects may make them attrac- patterned paper, though it may also be fects. MDMA was used clinically until tive and reinforce repeated usage, most distributed in tablet, crystalline, or liquid 1988 when the Food and Drug Adminis- hallucinogens are not physiologically ad- forms. Nexus is structurally related to tration reclassified it as a Schedule I con- dictive in the same way that or mescaline and produces sensory distor- trolled substance (i.e., one with no even are; that is, if tolerance is tion lasting 4 to 8 hours. approved use) because of its abuse po- established, hallucinogens do not pro- tential. MDMA is most often found in the duce long-term physiological craving af- • Mescaline, peyote, bufotenine, bella- form of tablets or capsules. ter their effects have worn off.11 They donna, and various fungi—substances also differ in the duration of drug action. derived from or other sources in Hallucinogens are defined more by the Unlike the effects of cocaine, which last nature that, when smoked, eaten, or oth- effects they produce than by any com- for only minutes, and those of heroin, erwise ingested, quickly produce altered mon chemical structure. In part the term which last for a couple hours, the active perceptual states. “hallucinogen” refers to a drug’s ability to distort reality. Although persons with effects of hallucinogens can continue for • PCP () and ketamine hy- psychotic disturbances may hallucinate several hours. Only methamphetamine drochloride (Special K)—central nervous without an external stimulus, normal in- can produce a similar long-lasting effect system agents that produce anesthetic, dividuals can induce the same (but tem- from a single ingestion. 8 , and hallucinogenic effects. porary) effect using hallucinogenic

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Data Sources D ata for this report came from the survey has also included samples of 8th- drug program officers or counselors, stu- following five sources: and 10th-grade students. dent health directors, student affairs of- ficers) were interviewed by telephone in • National Household Survey on • Pulse Check. Conducted quarterly October 1995. Questions were asked Drug Abuse. First conducted in 1971, since 1992 and semiannually since spring about which drugs were used most often NHSDA is supported by the Substance 1996 by the Office of National Drug Con- on campus and what types of students Abuse and Mental Health Services Ad- trol Policy (ONDCP), Pulse Check gathers were using them; if applicable, more de- ministration and is a national probability information from telephone interviews tailed information was sought on halluci- sample of household members 12 years with 15–20 ethnographic sources, 10–15 nogen use. Of the 100 institutions and older. Respondents are interviewed police agencies, and 50–60 drug treat- sampled, approximately 60 were deter- about their current and past use of a ment providers from across the country. mined to be eligible for inclusion in this wide range of illegal and legal drugs, While not a probability sample, it is nev- report.12 including . ertheless a timely report from persons working “on the front lines” of law en- • Survey of drug treatment pro- • Monitoring the Future Study. Sup- forcement and drug abuse research and grams for adolescents. The 1992 NIDA ported by the National Institute on Drug treatment. National Drug Abuse Treatment Unit Sur- Abuse (NIDA) and conducted annually vey was also used as a framework to de- since 1975, this survey administers ques- • Survey of colleges and universities. velop a random sample of adolescent tionnaires to a national probability A random sample of 4-year colleges and drug treatment programs from across the sample of high school seniors in the universities was developed for this analy- . Twenty-five program or United States. Questionnaires are also sis. The sampling was distributed evenly clinical directors were interviewed by tele- mailed to a sample from each of the pre- between public and private institutions in phone using the same guidelines de- vious senior class samples for up to 10 all geographic areas. Sources knowledge- scribed above for college sources. years after high school. Since 1991 the able about student drug use (on-campus

has the highest rates of use (both life- Exhibit 2: Prior-Year Use of Hallucinogens by High School Seniors time and annual) for hallucinogens, , and tranquilizers. Accord- ing to the 1994 national survey of high 15 Any Hallucinogens LSD school students, 8 percent of white se- PCP niors reported using LSD in the prior 12 months compared with less than 1 10 percent of African-American and 5 percent of Hispanic seniors. Use also appears to be related to socioeconomic status (SES). Data indicate that as the 5 overall use level of LSD began to in- crease in the late 1980s and early

Percentage Who Reported Use Percentage 1990s, a positive relationship between socioeconomic status and use 0 1975 1980 1985 1990 1993 1994 1995 1996 emerged. Students from the highest in- come groups are now twice as likely as Source: Monitoring the Future Study, University of Michigan. those from the lowest SES group to have used LSD in the previous 12 months. This relationship, however, has nothing to do with price; the cost of hallucinogens is lower than that of both cocaine and heroin.13

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1991, 90 percent of high school se- Exhibit 3: Prior-Year Use of Hallucinogens, Cocaine, and by High School Seniors niors reported that they disapproved of LSD use even once or twice. That number had dropped to 83 percent in 45 Any Hallucinogens 1994 and to 80 percent in 1996. The 40 Cocaine percentage of high school seniors who Marijuana 35 said none of their friends uses MDMA 30 decreased significantly from 88 per- cent in 1990 to 76 percent in 1996. 25 20 The report also indicates that halluci- nogens are increasingly accessible to 15 high school students. In 1992, 45 per- 10 cent of high school seniors described

Percentage Who Reported Use Percentage 5 LSD as “easy or fairly easy to get”; in 0 1996 that percentage had risen to 51 1975 1985 1990 1994 1996 percent. The survey authors speculate that although attention has been fo- Source: Monitoring the Future Study, University of Michigan. cused on cocaine and crack for many years, little media coverage has been Although interest in hallucinogens is The high school senior survey provides devoted to hallucinogens and fewer resurgent, it is difficult to quantify use data on noncontinuation rates of drug opportunities have existed to observe that continues beyond initial experi- use.14 Unfortunately, data show that their adverse effects. This situation mentation or to determine whether the many of these teens persist as users may have added to “generational for- rise in hallucinogen use is part of a beyond experimentation. Since 1992 getting”16—today’s teens knowing less general upswing in the use of all ille- noncontinuation rates for LSD have than teens from the previous genera- gal drugs. Exhibit 3 shows trends in been the lowest reported in 10 years;15 tion—to the point that hallucinogens hallucinogen, cocaine, and marijuana that is, more students are starting to surpass cocaine in popularity for all use among high school seniors in the use hallucinogens and fewer are stopping. groups except Hispanics. year prior to the survey. Not surprisingly, data on juveniles in- NHSDA data (see exhibit 5) depict a The overall increase in illicit drug use volved with the criminal justice system similar, although less dramatic, time by teens and young adults is driven by show even higher rates of illicit drug trend than that reported in the MTF significant growth in the use by high consumption. Exhibit 4, which reports studies. In the first year of this survey school students of marijuana, halluci- data from 12th graders who have been (1972), 5 percent of youths under 18 nogens, and, to a lesser degree, crack arrested and tested for drugs as part said they had used a hallucinogen one cocaine. From 1993 to 1996, the per- of the juvenile Drug Use Forecasting or more times. That figure peaked by centage of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders (DUF) program and from the MTF 1979 (7 percent of respondents under who reported using marijuana in the study, shows that use of all illicit drugs age 17 and 25 percent between the previous year rose steadily, reaching has increased in the 1990s, but use of ages of 18 to 25), began to decline, 18 percent, 34 percent, and 36 percent LSD and has doubled. and dropped dramatically for those un- respectively. Daily use of marijuana der 25 in 1985. In the late 1980s and also rose in all high school grades sur- Renewed interest in hallucinogens co- early 1990s, however, the trend began veyed. As is true for marijuana, the incides with a perception of reduced to change somewhat. Among young figure in 1996 for prior-year use of risk and greater peer support for use. adults (ages 18–25), lifetime preva- hallucinogens continued to rise to levels The high school survey data indicate a lence began to rise from 12 percent in statistically and significantly higher significant decline in the percentage of 1985 to 15 percent in 1994. In the than 1995 levels among all grades. seniors who feel that trying LSD or us- most recently published survey, 14 ing it regularly is a “great risk.” In percent of respondents between the

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Variations across the Exhibit 4: Thirty-Day Prevalence for 12th Graders, by Drug and Year United States Percentage Reporting Past 30-Day Use 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 National probability samples have lim- Any illicit drug? ited ability to reflect recent changes in DUF 37.0 44.3 53.7 58.2 62.7 drug use because of the time needed to MTF 16.4 14.4 18.3 21.9 23.8 conduct the survey, analyze the results, Any illicit drug other and report the findings. Therefore, the than marijuana? following sources were used to examine DUF 12.1 14.5 16.9 19.1 22.3 MTF 7.1 6.3 7.9 8.8 10.0 hallucinogen use across the United Marijuana States in 1996: the ONDCP Pulse Check DUF 34.9 41.4 51.0 55.2 59.5 series, Community Epidemiology Work MTF 13.8 11.9 15.5 19.0 21.2 Group (CEWG) at NIDA, and two tele- LSD DUF 3.3 4.3 5.1 5.0 7.2 phone surveys conducted for this report. MTF 1.9 2.0 2.4 2.6 4.0 Although these sources reveal that a re- PCP newed interest in hallucinogens is na- DUF 2.0 1.8 1.9 1.8 3.7 tional in scope, they also show regional MTF 0.5 0.6 1.0 0.7 0.6 variation. Epidemiologists reporting to Cocaine DUF 4.5 5.3 5.9 5.7 4.9 CEWG from New York, Atlanta, San MTF 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.8 Francisco, Seattle, Miami, and cities Crack in noted increased hallucinogen DUF 3.5 2.6 2.5 4.0 5.5 use.18 Other areas, such as New Orleans MTF 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 Heroin and , report that LSD is widely DUF 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.1 available for purchase, but indicator MTF 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.6 data do not reflect any changes in use. Amphetamine/Stimulants DUF 2.9 4.0 6.2 10.2 7.9 LSD is produced in domestic labs con- MTF 3.2 2.8 3.7 4.0 4.0 centrated in Northern California and Methamphetamine/Ice DUF 2.3 3.0 4.6 8.1 7.8 shipped by mail or couriers through MTF 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.7 1.1 what law enforcement officials de- Sources: Drug Use Forecasting Program and Monitoring the Future Study. scribe as a well-established network of distributors.19 Pulse Check and Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) ages of 18 and 25 and 5 percent be- mentions for LSD or PCP in the Drug sources report that LSD is sold prima- tween the ages of 12 and 17 reported Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) are rily in paper or blotter form, with each using a hallucinogen at least once. As low (fewer than 0.01 percent); this has sheet divided into squares of single is true for the high school survey data, been the case throughout the past two dose units containing approximately NHSDA data indicate that much of decades. However, notable increases in 25–60 micrograms of the substance. It this increase has been among whites ER mentions have been seen in four may also be sold as “microdots” (small and Hispanics (see exhibit 6). The cities: Atlanta, Washington, D.C., Chi- tablets) or in gelatin squares (“window greatest concentration of reported life- cago, and Seattle. Although hallucino- panes”). A dose (approximately 55 mi- time use is found among two groups: gens have long been known to produce crograms) sells for $1–$10. white youths ages 18–25 (19 percent) some adverse reactions in users, par- and Hispanics ages 18–25 (9 percent). ticularly over time, the lower potency of The unit dosages consumed by users today’s hallucinogens may not produce in the 1990s are less concentrated Although the NHSDA and MTF surveys acute incidents requiring emergency than those taken in the 1960s—the show increases in hallucinogen use, medical attention. There is increasing heyday of LSD consumption—when particularly among the young, data from anecdotal evidence, however, that the dosages were typically 100–200 mi- emergency rooms (ERs) across the lower dosage drug is simply being con- crograms. In the area, country do not. The percentages of ER 17 sumed more frequently than in the past. Pulse Check ethnographers report that

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Exhibit 5: Lifetime Prevalence of Hallucinogen Use by Age Age 1972 1977 1979 1982 1985 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

12–17 Any Use (Hallucinogens) 4.8% 4.6% 7.1% 5.2% 3.2% 3.3% 2.6% 2.9% 4.0% 5.4% 18–25 Any Use (Hallucinogens) – 19.8% 25.1% 21.1% 11.6% 13.2% 13.4% 12.5% 14.5% 14.1% 26–34 Any Use (Hallucinogens) – 2.6% 4.5% 6.4%* 16.7% 15.5% 15.6% 15.9% 15.5% 15.2% 35+ Any Use (Hallucinogens) ––––2.2% 5.2% 5.2% 6.6% 6.2% 7.6%

* Includes all users over 26 years old. Source: National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (1972–1994). users experience shorter “trips,” last- generally toxic. Other drugs that have have surfaced in recent years include ing only a few hours, and milder hallu- been mentioned in both sources in- Nexus and ketamine. Ketamine use cinogenic effects than was true of LSD clude peyote, mescaline, psilocybin, has been reported in New York for trips 20 years ago. Interviews with and bufotenine, all of which have been more than 2 years, and it is increas- -goers also indicate a milder and relatively absent from the ingly being used as a “” in shorter effect from today’s LSD.20 for many years. New Jersey, Delaware, Washington, However, Miami CEWG data show D.C., Florida, and Georgia. Ketamine that users may increase the number of New synthetic drugs have generated is packaged in baggies or capsules and doses to make up for reduced potency, renewed interest in hallucinogen use. sells for approximately $10–$20 per dose. thus producing new patterns of use. MDMA is one of the most popular of LSD may also be combined or se- these newer drugs; other drugs that quenced with other drugs to enhance or extend its effect. For example, one study describes young users who prac- Exhibit 6: Lifetime Prevalence of Hallucinogen Use by Ethnicity tice “candy-flipping,” or combining in sequence MDMA or methamphet- 15 White 21 amine with LSD. African-American Hispanic Both Pulse Check and CEWG sources report user interest in naturally occur- 10 ring hallucinogens such as peyote or mescaline. In the October 1994 Pulse Check, three sources reported that youths had come into emergency 5 rooms exhibiting symptoms brought on by ingesting jimsonweed, a in Percentage Who Reported Use Percentage the deadly nightshade family whose active ingredient, belladonna, has hal- 0 19851991 1992 1993 1994 1995 lucinogenic properties. Even in rela- tively small quantities, however, it is Source: National Household Survey on Drug Abuse.

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Hallucinogen use on college that 10 percent of students had tried culture, today hallucinogens are used campuses hallucinogens at some time, but only 2 among mainstream students. percent had used one of these drugs in In October 1995 telephone surveys the prior 30 days. Similar figures from Private campuses were as likely as conducted with 59 college and univer- other campus surveys were reported, public ones to report hallucinogen use, sity officials knowledgeable about ranging from 3 percent to 19 percent and religious schools were least likely student drug use indicated that hallu- lifetime prevalence. Many officials to do so. Because of student accessi- cinogens, particularly LSD and psilo- stressed that although hallucinogen bility to the off-campus urban club cybin, are popular in many areas of the use was appearing on campus, it was scene, larger campuses and institu- country. Of the campuses surveyed, 34 still confined to a small segment of tions in urban areas reported the wid- percent reported increasing hallucino- students and dwarfed by marijuana est range of drug use. gen use, 7 percent reported decreasing and alcohol consumption. In several use, and 39 percent reported no instances campus officials also believe Young users and treatment change. Exhibit 7 shows the drugs that, although hallucinogen use has used most frequently on campuses Drug treatment programs across the only recently resurfaced, it may al- across the country. Alcohol and mari- United States that specialize in treating ready have peaked. juana are the most commonly cited (83 substance abusers under 18 years old and 78 percent, respectively). How- Campus sources reported that indi- were surveyed about their current popu- ever, 44 percent of campuses reported viduals of both genders and all ethnic lation of patients. These sources said student use of hallucinogens; all cited groups in the student body are halluci- their clients use a variety of drugs, al- LSD and 57 percent cited psilocybin nogen users, although the greatest in- though alcohol, marijuana, and halluci- and MDMA as the specific hallucino- terest seems to be concentrated among nogens (particularly LSD) are the most gens students use. Officials at one younger students. Unlike the 1960s frequently abused substances. For most large Midwestern university claimed when hallucinogens were identified youths in treatment, hallucinogen con- that their own campus survey revealed with the more marginal or “hippie” sumption is part of an extensive drug use history; rarely do counselors see Exhibit 7: “What types of drugs are used most often by students on your adolescents who abuse only hallucino- campus?” gens. Anecdotal reports from some counselors indicate as many as 80 per- Drug Region Ia Region IIb Region IIIc Region IVd Total N = 15 N = 17 N = 11 N = 16 N = 59 cent of clients have used hallucinogens; others report diagnosing as many as Opiates 00112 Cocaine 147416three or four cases per week of adoles- Crack 15118cents with hallucinogen-related percep- Marijuana 12 12 11 11 46 tual disorders. The anecdotal reports Hallucinogens 2 8 6 10 26 attribute the visual system damage to Inhalants 20215the number of “trips” (including con- Tranquilizers 20013 Methamphetamine 303612secutive multiple doses of LSD) that Alcohol 15 12 11 11 49 teens often take. The media have re- Other 10012ported similar patterns of abuse among No drug use 14049young party-goers who ingest large aRegion I: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, amounts of Ecstasy (seven or eight Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Vermont doses) that may result in long-term, b Region II: Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, harmful effects on mood, , appe- Mississippi, North Carolina, , South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Wash- 22 ington, D.C., and West Virginia tite, and impulse control. c Region III: Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin What are “club drugs”? d Region IV: Arizona, California, , Idaho, Montana, , New , , Utah, Washington, and Wyoming Hallucinogens are often reported as Source: Survey of Colleges and Universities. part of the “club drug scene”—a term

8 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f that refers to the use of particular phenomena indicate an active nostalgia • Pharmacologic: related to a drugs by teens and young adults who for that era: its , emphasis on the drug’s pharmacological effects on the frequent music or dance clubs geared “” of attending raves, promo- user. to their age group. In general, these tion of , and the use of mari- • Economic: crime associated with a are the same youths found in the cam- juana and a variety of hallucinogens. drug’s costs to the user. pus survey: young, often fairly affluent men and women who have limited his- Abt Associates Inc. researchers exam- • Systemic: crime associated with traf- tories of using drugs such as heroin or ined rave activity in New York and ficking of a drug. cocaine. Urban-area ethnographic San Francisco, informally interviewing participants as well as organizers Hallucinogens have not been linked to sources for Pulse Check report halluci- pharmacologic crime primarily be- nogen use among patrons of the many about various aspects of rave activity, 25 cause of their effects. They that cater to persons under including drug use. They found that the drugs most commonly associated cost relatively little ($1–$5 per unit 21 years of age. Many such clubs serve dose) for the long-lasting results they no alcohol and can attract clientele as with raves are marijuana and halluci- nogens, although produce, and their use is concentrated young as 13 or 14 years old. In New among middle- to upper-income York City, heroin or cocaine may also and alcohol were evident. Among the hallucinogens, MDMA and LSD were youths with greater access to funds, a be part of the club drug scene, al- fact that reduces the likelihood that though this seems to be the exception. the most popular drugs—the ones some participants associated with the economically driven crime would be The most frequently reported club associated with their use. drugs are LSD, MDMA, Nexus, and spiritual ethos attached to the events. ketamine. In fact, young club partici- As was true in the earlier era of hallu- The systemic violence connected to pants in Miami actively scorn “harder” cinogen use, some rave participants heroin and cocaine trafficking has not drugs but embrace LSD, MDMA, and associated a range of benefits, includ- been found with hallucinogen traffick- other hallucinogens as “safe.” ing personal enlightenment, with the ing. DEA reports that a relatively use of these drugs. The researchers small number of producers and dis- A study conducted by Abt Associates also found that participants were un- tributors located in Northern Califor- Inc. in 1994 examined “raves,” phenom- aware of the possible harm that re- nia have controlled the LSD market for ena closely tied to the club culture and peated or uncontrolled use could a number of years.27 A handful of 23 the drugs that may be used there. A produce. chemists, some of whom have been rave is a large party where participants working since the 1960s and 1970s, often dance all night to “,” Implications for law synthesize the bulk of the drugs pro- technically synthesized rhythms of enforcement and public safety duced and distribute them throughout 120–180 beats per minute played at the country. Quantities are shipped earsplitting decibel levels. Raves were The nature of different drugs (e.g., physical effects produced, costs) is of- from suppliers to known contacts (of- fashionable in Europe during the late ten on a prepaid basis) and distributed 1980s and have become popular in the ten directly linked to the problems they present for law enforcement. through established user networks. Al- United States in recent years. They at- though some local production of hallu- tract a predominantly middle-income Stimulants (e.g., methamphetamines) cinogens exists, the chemists or audience, often high school and col- and (e.g., alcohol) produce unique psychopharmacological effects producers involved in such enterprises lege students. Whereas they were once generally confine their products to lo- 24 (such as agitation, , or irrita- “underground” —the whereabouts of cal markets and therefore pose little the events passed by word of mouth— bility) in users that may make them more difficult for law enforcement of- threat to established traffickers. LSD raves are now openly advertised and may also be distributed at , al- discussed on electronic mail services. ficers to restrain. The expense of a drug may also predict users’ involve- though ethnographic research indi- Although the music and frenetic activity ment with income-generating . cates that much of the hallucinogen of raves have little in common with the One researcher characterizes three use associated with raves occurs prior almost dreamy pace of the hallucinogen types of violence or crime associated to attendance. culture of the 1960s, other aspects of the with drugs:26

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Threats to the safety of users and those tion and distribution of hallucinogens, a 8. Because PCP is often included in with whom they come in contact are small number of manufacturers have datasets with hallucinogens, it is in- major problems associated with hallu- provided a relatively steady supply, dis- cluded in this analysis even though cinogen use. Health risks for drugs tributed through local user networks, for PCP users are demographically differ- such as MDMA include dehydration, more than 20 years. Although rising use ent from other hallucinogen users. Its appetite suppression, and heartbeat may not pose severe threats to law en- use is more geographically limited, and disruption. Adverse psychological re- forcement, it does present problems for PCP use constitutes a small portion of actions, which some users experience public health officials in terms of the reports in the hallucinogen category. with high and/or repeated doses of hal- health and safety of young users who lucinogens, are well documented; they are rediscovering this family of drugs. 9. Szara, S. (1994). “Are hallucinogens include psychotic episodes, panic dis- psychoheuristic?” In G. Lin and R. Glennon (eds.), Hallucinogens: An Up- order, and long-term sensory distortion. Notes date. NIDA Research Monograph Se- In addition to health risks, concerns 1. Bradsher, K. (1995). “All midshipmen ries 146, Rockville, MD: National for public safety are related to halluci- drug tested after two caught with LSD.” Institute on Drug Abuse, pp. 33–52. nogen use. The use of multiple sub- New York Times, October 18, A18. stances is troubling. Any of the club Some users report experiencing “flash- drugs taken alone can impair motor 2. Henderson, L., and W. Glass (eds.) backs” of distorted perception long af- skills; in combination they can pro- (1994). LSD: Still With Us After All These ter the drug is taken, and these often duce deadly synergistic effects. The Years. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. long-delayed reactions are not well un- derstood. Strassman, R. (1984). “Ad- enduring effects of drugs such as LSD 3. Kandel, D. (1982). “Epidemiology or MDMA can pose special problems. verse reactions to psychedelic drugs: and psychological perspectives in A review of the literature.” Journal of For example, ingestion of a drug with adolescent drug use.” Journal of the the potential to cause visual and audi- Nervous and Mental Disorder American Academy of Child 172:577–595. tory distortion lasting 10–12 hours 21(4):328–347. may mean that the user will drive 10. Zinberg, N. (1984). Drug, Set and home from a party while still under its 4. Miller, J., et al. (1982). National Setting. New Haven, CT: Yale Univer- influence. The opinion of one experi- Survey on Drug Abuse: Main Findings. sity Press. Zinberg called this the im- enced State police source quoted in Washington, D.C.: National Institute pact of “” on drug use. the October 1994 Pulse Check reflects on Drug Abuse. The set is the expectation the user a concern shared by several respon- brings to the experience, e.g., the user dents: “Kids think they’re fine to 5. Harlow, D. (1994). “Raves and drug use: An exploratory study.” A Research is expecting to get high. The setting drive, but their reaction time is all off, is the context in which the drug is and they get into trouble.” Application Review working paper for internal distribution prepared by Abt taken—at a party, while alone, in the Associates Inc. hospital. Both have a direct influence Summary on the perception of its effect. As crack has been the drug of the in- 6. Community Epidemiology Work Group (1995). Epidemiologic Trends in 11. Glennon, R. (1994). “Classical ner city for a decade, hallucinogens hallucinogens: An introductory over- appear to be a popular drug among Drug Abuse. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse. view.” In G. Lin and R. Glennon (eds.), today’s young, more affluent users. Hallucinogens: An Update, NIDA Re- All sources reported their popularity 7. There has long been debate whether search Monograph Series 146, Rockville, among nonminority high school and marijuana and should be in- MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, college users who often reside outside cluded in the hallucinogen category pp. 4–33. the inner cities. The drugs are relatively because the active ingredient in both inexpensive, domestically produced, (, or THC) pro- 12. Institutions that offered almost ex- and part of a stable, noncompetitive duces some hallucinogenic effects. clusively graduate or continuing edu- distribution network. Despite law en- They were not included in this report. cation programs were eliminated from forcement efforts to disrupt the produc- the analysis in this report because they

10 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f served a different, older student popu- 20. Harlow, “Raves and drug use: An Dana Hunt, Ph.D., is a Senior Sci- lation than were found in 4-year exploratory study.” entist with Abt Associates Inc. This institutions. 21. Ibid. study was conducted under coop- 13. Johnston, L., P. O’Malley, and J. erative agreement 94–IJ–CX–C007, Bachman (1995). National Survey Re- 22. Blakeslee, S. (1995). “Popular awarded to Abt Associates Inc. by sults on Drug Abuse from the Monitor- drug may damage brain.” New York the National Institute of Justice. ing the Future Study (1975–1993). Times, August 15, C5. Rockville, MD: National Institute on 23. Harlow, “Raves and drug use: An Drug Abuse. exploratory study.” Findings and conclusions of the research re- 14. Ibid., 54. Noncontinuation rates ported here are those of the author and do not 24. The underground nature of the ini- necessarily reflect the official position or poli- are calculated as the percentage of tial raves had less to do with drug use cies of the U.S. Department of Justice. those who report that they have used a and more to do with the fact that initial drug at least once in their lives but not promoters, often not professional pro- in the 12 months prior to the survey. moters or club owners, did not have The National Institute of Justice is a 15. Ibid., 54. permits to hold large gatherings. component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau 16. Ibid., 12. 25. Harlow, “Raves and drug use: An of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Justice exploratory study.” Statistics, the Office of Juvenile Justice and 17. Community Epidemiology Work Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Group, Epidemiologic Trends in Drug 26. Goldstein, P. (1985). “The drugs/ Victims of Crime. Abuse. violence nexus: A tripartite conceptu- alized framework.” Journal of Drug Is- NCJ 166607 18. Ibid. sues 15:493–506. 19. Drug Enforcement Administration 27. Drug Enforcement Administration, (1995). “LSD in the United States.” “LSD in the United States.” Drug Intelligence Report, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice.

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