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Alcohol Fuels for Spark-Ignition Engines: Performance, Efficiency, and Emission Effects at Mid to High Blend Rates for Ternary Mixtures

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Alcohol Fuels for Spark-Ignition Engines: Performance, Efficiency, and Emission Effects at Mid to High Blend Rates for Ternary Mixtures energies Article Alcohol Fuels for Spark-Ignition Engines: Performance, Efficiency, and Emission Effects at Mid to High Blend Rates for Ternary Mixtures James W. G. Turner 1,* , Andrew G. J. Lewis 1, Sam Akehurst 1 , Chris J. Brace 1, Sebastian Verhelst 2 , Jeroen Vancoillie 2, Louis Sileghem 2, Felix C. P. Leach 3 and Peter P. Edwards 3 1 Institute for Advanced Automotive Propulsion Systems, University of Bath, Bath, Somerset BA2 7AY, UK; [email protected] (A.G.J.L.); [email protected] (S.A.); [email protected] (C.J.B.) 2 Department of Electromechanical, Systems and Metal Engineering, Campus UFO, Ghent University, T4, Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 41, B-9000 Gent, Belgium; [email protected] (S.V.); [email protected] (J.V.); [email protected] (L.S.) 3 Departments of Chemistry and Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK; [email protected] (F.C.P.L.); [email protected] (P.P.E.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +44-1225-383466 Received: 21 October 2020; Accepted: 25 November 2020; Published: 3 December 2020 Abstract: This paper follows on from an earlier publication on high-blend-rate binary gasoline-alcohol mixtures and reports results for some equivalent ternary fuels from several investigation streams. In the present work, new findings are presented for high-load operation in a dedicated boosted multi-cylinder engine test facility, for operation in modified production engines, for knock performance in a single-cylinder test engine, and for exhaust particulate emissions at part load using both the prototype multi-cylinder engine and a separate single-cylinder engine. The wide variety of test engines employed have several differences, including their fuel delivery strategies. This range of engine specifications is considered beneficial with regard to the “drop-in fuel” conjecture, since the results presented here bear out the contention, already established in the literature, that when specified according to the known ternary blending rules, such fuels fundamentally perform identically to their binary equivalents in terms of engine performance, and outperform standard gasolines in terms of efficiency. However, in the present work, some differences in particulate emissions performance in direct-injection engines have been found at light load for the tested fuels, with a slight increase in particulate number observed with higher methanol contents than lower. A hypothesis is developed to explain this result but in general it was found that these fuels do not significantly affect PN emissions from such engines. As a result, this investigation supplies further evidence that renewable fuels can be introduced simply into the existing vehicle fleet, with the inherent backwards compatibility that this brings too. Keywords: alcohols; gasoline-alcohol blends; ternary blends; renewable fuels; e-fuels 1. Introduction The affordability of transport for the end-user is the key factor in the success of the motor vehicle, which has accelerated mankind’s economic development since its inception; cheap transportation is a driver of economies worldwide and this was not possible before the internal combustion engine (ICE). This state of affairs has arisen solely because of its cost-effectiveness and the resulting affordability and utility of the vehicles it is fitted to, coupled to the fact that liquid fuels make the storage and distribution of the energy that they require similarly cost-effective. This overall transport system cost-to-utility Energies 2020, 13, 6390; doi:10.3390/en13236390 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies Energies 2020, 13, 6390 2 of 31 Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 32 millionratio has vehicles given risewere to manufactured, a situation where, representing for the firsta year-round time in 2016, rate of almost three 95vehicles million per vehicles second, were and onemanufactured, billion passenger representing and commercial a year-round vehicles rate of had three been vehicles built perby 2010 second, [1]. andFurthermore, one billion in passenger a recent study,and commercial Gutzmer of vehicles INA-Scha hadeffler been presented built by data 2010 showing [1]. Furthermore, that car production in a recent rates study, are accelerating Gutzmer of andINA-Schae analysisffler of presented his data data yields showing an estimate that car productionthat the second rates arebillion accelerating vehicles and will analysis have ofbeen his manufactureddata yields an estimatein the 2021–2022 that the second time frame billion [2]. vehicles He estimates will have the been ratio manufactured of ICE-only, in plug-in the 2021–2022 hybrid electrictime frame vehicles [2]. He (PHEVs) estimates and the battery ratio ofelectric ICE-only, vehicl plug-ines (BEVs), hybrid and electric analysis vehicles of his (PHEVs) figures andshows battery that ifelectric there vehiclesis no paradigm (BEVs), shift and analysisin customer of his behavior figures showsthen three that ifbillion there vehicles is no paradigm will have shift been in customer built by 2030behavior [2]. Figure then three 1 presents billion the vehicles data of willGutzmer have in been these built terms; by 2030 Figure [2]. 2 shows Figure 1that presents even with the datasuch ofan optimisticGutzmer in view these of terms;the take Figure up of2 showspure BEVs, that eventhe IC withE will such continue an optimistic to domina viewte oflight-duty the take propulsion up of pure forBEVs, years the to ICE come, will continueand that toeven dominate if whatlight-duty might be propulsiontermed “peak for engine” years to come,occurs and in 2020, that eventhen ifstill what in 2030might nearly be termed as many “peak combustion engine” occurs engines in 2020, will then be still made in 2030 as nearlywere in as 2014, many when combustion they engineswill be manufacturedwill be made as at were a rate in of 2014, 2.66 when per second. they will While be manufactured there are many at a estimates rate of 2.66 in perthe second.literature, While this theredata hasare manybeen chosen estimates because in the INA-Schaeffler literature, this datais one has of been the Tier-1 chosen suppliers because INA-Schaewith a greatffl erinterest is one in of the accelerationTier-1 suppliers of electromobility, with a great interest and inso thethey acceleration can be assumed of electromobility, to present aand scenario so they with can a be rapid assumed take upto presentof electric a scenario vehicles with and a rapidcorresponding take up of substitu electric vehiclestion of ICEs. and corresponding Plainly, despite substitution various political of ICEs. pronouncementsPlainly, despite various concerning political the demi pronouncementsse of the ICE, concerningthe automotive the demise industry of and the ICE,its observers the automotive believe thatindustry they andwill itscontinue observers the believe foreseeable that theyfuture; will ot continueher estimates the foreseeable by industry future; observers other put estimates a global by penetrationindustry observers of PHEVs put and a global BEVs penetration combined ofat PHEVsslightly andless BEVsthan 20% combined by 2030 at [3]. slightly One lessmight than therefore 20% by suggest2030 [3]. that One reports might of therefore the impending suggest death that reportsof the ICE of theappear impending to be greatly death exaggerated of the ICE appear [4]. to be greatlySynergistic exaggerated with [4 ].the vehicle manufacturing industry developing over time, the fuel supply industrySynergistic has kept with pace. the vehicleBecause manufacturing there was noindustry fossil hydrocarbon developing overfuel time,supply the industry fuel supply then, industry early engineshas kept used pace. bio-sourced Because there fuels was and no fossil the hydrocarbonswitch to fossil fuel fuels supply was industry made then,early earlyon, despite engines early used concernsbio-sourced that fuels demand and the would switch toou fossiltstrip fuelssupply was [5]. made Ch earlyeapness on, despiteof the earlyenergy concerns store thatboth demand in the infrastructurewould outstrip and supply aboard [5]. the Cheapness vehicle is ofone the factor energy in the store affordability both in the of infrastructure the system, and and the aboard favorable the economicsvehicle is one of liquid factor infuel the supply affordability has given of the rise system, to a situation and the where favorable the economicsauthors’ analysis of liquid of fuel the supplyglobal usehas givenof oil risesuggests to a situation that it is where used continuously the authors’ analysis at a volume of the flow global rate use equivalent of oil suggests to 7.4% that of it isthat used of Niagaracontinuously Falls. at a volume flow rate equivalent to 7.4% of that of Niagara Falls. 100 5000 80 4000 60 3000 40 2000 20 1000 Cars / [Millions] Manufactured Year per Cumulative Cumulative Cars Manufactured / [Millions] 0 0 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 Year / [-] BEVs HEVs and PHEVs ICE-only Cumulative Cars Manufactured Figure 1. Projected productionproduction volumes volumes of of cars cars split split into in ditoff differenterent propulsion propulsion types types (data (data adapted adapted from fromthat giventhat given in [2]). in BEV: [2]). batteryBEV: battery electric electric vehicle; vehicle; HEV: hybridHEV: hybrid electric electric vehicle; vehicle; PHEV: PHEV: plug-in plug-in hybrid hybridelectric electric vehicle. vehicle. ICE: internal ICE: internal combustion combustion engine. engine. Energies 2020, 13, 6390 3 of 31 Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 32 100 5000 80 4000 60 3000 40 2000 20 1000 Cars / [Millions] Manufactured Year per Cumulative Cumulative Cars Manufactured / [Millions] 0 0 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 Year / [-] ICE (all) Cumulative Cars Manufactured Figure 2. Data from Figure1 reworked to show vehicles with an internal combustion engine fitted Figure 2. Data from Figure 1 reworked to show vehicles with an internal combustion engine fitted (i.e., pure ICE and hybrid vehicles). The values for cumulative cars built is the same as on Figure1. (i.e., pure ICE and hybrid vehicles). The values for cumulative cars built is the same as on Figure 1.
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