HERBACEOUS PLANTS Herbaceous Plants Cultivated by Commercially Purchased Seed the Ni-Vanuatu Before European for Subsequent Sale in Markets

HERBACEOUS PLANTS Herbaceous plants cultivated by commercially purchased seed the ni-Vanuatu before European for subsequent sale in markets. contact were few, and the major- However, we draw attention it y of herbaceous species culti- to the existence of two major vated nowadays, such as onions, herbaceous food plants that are chives, carrots and radishes, local: sugar cane ( Saccharum have been introduced. They officinarum ) and pitpit are generally propagated from (Saccharum edule ). A I N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

222 Genus Allium

Family Liliaceae

The genus comprises over 600 species spread through the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. Among these 25 species are edible and eight are of economic importance. Five species are present in Vanuatu.

Species present Allium ampeloprasum L. var. porrum (L.) J. Gay Leek (minor species; see CD-ROM)

Allium cepa L. var. ascalonicum Backer Shallot, eschalot (aggregatum group)

Allium cepa L. var. cepa L. Onion (common onion group)

Allium fistulosum L. Spring onion, bunching onion

Allium sativum L. Garlic

Allium tuberosum Rottler ex. Sprengler Garlic chive, Chinese chive

Of all the introduced Allium species onion is the most valued. Garlic is very uncommon, and garlic chives (or Chinese chives) are mainly eaten by the Asian population.

References De Candolle (1883), Encyclopédie des aliments (1997), French (1986), Hanelt (1990) , Ochse & Bakhuizen van den Brink (1980), Phillipps (1982), Rabinowitch & Brewster, eds (1990), Smartt & Simmonds, eds (1995), Viard (1995), Weightman (1989), Zeven & de Wet (1982), Zohary & Hopf (1994). A. fistulosum : the above references plus: Inden & Asahira (1990), PROSEA (1994), Täckholm & Drar (1954). A. sativum : the above references plus: Jayaweera (1981), Philipps & Dahlen (1985). S T N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

223 Bulbs very variable in shape, Complementary food plant, size and colour. Leaves (three to introduced eight) cylindrical and hollow, Allium cepa slightly flattened in cross section, (aggregatum group and 30–50 cm long. Spherical umbel common onion group ) on a long, erect stalk that can reach 1 m in length, bearing Onion, shallot, eschalot 50–2000 greenish or purple flowers. Fruits globular, tiny History (0.5 cm in diameter), containing six black seeds. The eschalot is The onion appeared in the centre distinguished by having several of Asia, probably in Turkestan tiny bulbs closely joined to each and more widely in a region other instead of a single bulb, encompassing Afghanistan, and by flowers that are always Uzbekistan and the Tien Shan greenish. region of Kyrgyzstan. From there it spread to the Mediterranean region very early on. It is one of Morphological variability the most ancient of cultivated The intraspecific variability of plants. The Greeks and the the species is such that it has Romans acquired it, and their not been possible to develop morning snacks then were often a classification of the varieties raw onion and bread. Charle- that are found. The common magne, who held the onion in onion (var. cepa ) can be high regard, ordered that it be distinguished from the eschalot planted throughout his lands. (var. ascalonicum ). Both of th In the 12 century the eschalot these groups are themselves appeared in France, derived from very variable. Around the world the onion. Nowadays the onion a great diversity of onions exists, and the eschalot are cultivated according to bulb shape (elon- in numerous countries. They were gate or round), colour (yellow, introduced to Vanuatu at the end red, white, straw-coloured) and th of the 19 century, and although taste (mild or pungent). For the majority of the onions that example, there is the Italian red are consumed are still imported, onion (a large red onion, quite the Department of Agriculture strong, which keeps well), the is encouraging its cultivation, Spanish onion (coppery yellow, particularly in the southern with a mild and sweet taste) and islands where it grows best, as the white onion (quite mild). do all the other Allium species. The variability of the eschalot is also very great. Moreover, Description numerous onions produced nowadays in North America, Herbaceous plant with an edible Europe and Japan are hybrids.

A bulb, made up from the bases of I Since some local businesses in N leaves rolled around each other. A Vanuatu import commercial seed , E C O F O S N E D R A G

224 the ni-Vanuatu plant a variety The plant is very rich in vitamin of seed each year according C. Recent studies have shown to what has just arrived. that regular consumption of onions reduces the risk of atherosclerosis. Mature bulbs Cultivation and of eschalot are not used much. production On the other hand the leaves, Vanuatu, like all tropical coun- sold with their immature bulbs, tries, imports the majority of the are much sought after. They are onions that are eaten there, even sold under the name of ‘green though the plant is cultivated in onion’. the gardens, mixed among other plants, from the second year Food plant occasionally eaten, after the harvest of the yams. introduced The Department of Agriculture Allium fistulosum in Tanna set up demonstration plots to promote the cultivation Spring onion, bunching onion of onion. After Independence it continued to encourage onion History growing, suggesting in particular the varieties Red Creole, Tropic This is a cultivar from an Red and Yellow Granex. However, unknown wild species, originally even these varieties which are from Siberia and central China described as ‘tropical’ have great where it was domesticated. The difficulty in forming bulbs, and a first mention of it is in a Chinese mistake in the growing schedule book dating back to 100 BC. It (for example a delay in the date was introduced to Japan around of sowing) can bring disaster to 700 AD. Since then it has been the crop, which is really only the main onion in Asian gardens, possible to grow in winter. The used as a condiment and even onions resulting from seeds can as a vegetable in certain dishes. also be multiplied by vegetative The spring onion reached Europe means. The eschalot is also via Russia in the Middle Ages. propagated vegetatively by It was introduced to Vanuatu transplanting the lateral bulbs. by missionaries.

Alimentary uses Description

On an international scale the Perennial herbaceous plant with onion is undoubtedly the spec ies a bulb that is not very clearly that is most widely produced differentiated. Bulb not very and most eaten of all the Allium distinct, protected by thin, papery species. The plant is very popular membranes, reddish. Leaves in Vanuatu, and above all is an cylindrical and hollow, circular ingredient in the preparation of in cross section, pointed at their new dishes, corned beef stews, tips, 30–50 cm long. Umbel almost S T

spherical, bloom centrifugal, N curries and other casseroles. A L P S U O E C A B R E H

225 3–7 cm in diameter, bearing Alimentary uses small greenish or white flowers, In Vanuatu the leaves with or without bracts, 0.5–1 cm. Fruits without the bulbs are sold in round, 0.5 cm in diameter, with small bundles under the name minute black seeds. of ‘green onion’ ( oignon vert ), like A. cepa var. aggregatum Morphological variability and A. cepa var. ascalonicum . However, they are quite The spring onion has two main uncommon. They are added to varieties: the common spring soups and sauced dishes, and onion, which has a slight swell- they may replace coriander in ing at the base of the leaves, salads. They are often used in and the St Jacques spring onion Asian cuisine but not much which has numerous elongate in others. bulbs that are brownish in colour . In Indonesia and Japan several forms are distinguished according Other uses to the width and colour of the The spring onion is used very leaves. The numerous Japanese much in Chinese medicine, but cultivars are also classified does not seem to be used this according to the type of environ- way by the people of Vanuatu. ment to which they are adapted. Finally, A. fistulosum has been crossed with A. cepa to produce Plant occasionally eaten, fertile hybrids that are propa- introduced gated by seeds. Allium sativum

Garlic Cultivation and production History The spring onion tolerates heat Garlic is not found in the wild very well and yields quite well in state apart perhaps from in the northern islands, especially the deserts of Kyrgyzstan. It is Santo. It is grown from seed or believed to have come from an vegetatively. Sowing is followed ancient species ( A. longicuspis by thinning out of the seedlings, Regel) which originated in central and then earthing up in such a Asia. In the earliest times it sprea d way as to produce long, whitened to the eastern Mediterranean. stalks. The total duration of the Dried garlic was found in the growing cycle from sowing to tomb of Tutankhamen (1325 BC) harvest of the bulbs varies from and carbonised bulbs in sites in 140–170 days. No serious diseases Iraq dating back to 2000 BC. The occur in Vanuatu, where spring Egyptians, Greeks and Romans onions may be grown through- used the plant as a therapeutic out the year intercropped with

A food, and it has been grown for I root and tuber crops. N an equally long time in India and A E C O F O S N E D R A G

226 China. The Crusaders introduced Cultivation and th e plant and its therapeutic uses production to France, but although its use spread around the countries in This frost-resistant plant likes the Mediterranean ring, it was cool climates. Since the seeds not similarly adopted by the are sterile, garlic is propagated Anglo-Saxon world. It was thus using fractions of the bulb probably the French and the (cloves). The garlic cloves Vietnamese who introduced it are planted with the pale green to Vanuatu. It is still little used sprouting tip pointing upwards in rural areas, even though the and flush with the soil surface, country as a whole uses over 20 cm apart. Growth takes 60– ten tonnes per year. 100 days, but it is necessary to avoid the summer months with heavy rain that rots the bulbs Description before they are fully developed. Herbaceous plant 30–60 cm tall. As with the eschalot, there is a Bulb (or ‘head’ of garlic) rounde d, direct relationship between the 2–7 cm in diameter, covered with weight of the clove planted and a thin, papery membrane, white the yield obtained. After Vanuatu’s or rosy; made up of 10–16 cloves, Independence, the Department ovoid, packed tightly together of Agriculture encouraged and themselves covered by a thi n commercial production of white outer skin. Leaves flat or this plant, which stores well. It folded into a V-shape, with two was developed in the centre of veins that meet together at the Tanna during the 1980s, and in tip, bright green. Flower stalk 1983 four tonnes were exported 1 m long, with a round umbel to the market in Port Vila. Nowa- (2 cm in diameter) at the top, days, however, it appears that bearing numerous small, rose or these initial steps have failed, purple coloured flowers. Fruits and apart from a few scattered mauve, often sterile, sometimes and sparse crops in some gardens, containing black seeds. the bulk of the garlic is imported.

Morphological variability Alimentary uses

There are more than 30 varieties The bulb is used as a condiment of garlic in the world, the best to give extra flavour to all sorts known of which are the white of dishes. It may be crushed, cut garlic and the rose-coloured into small slivers, chopped, or garlic. Each region of the world used whole with or without its has its own particular varieties. membrane. The leaves, which are milder in flavour, are sometimes preferred by the local people. S T N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

227 Other uses in diameter, bearing numerous star-shaped flowers, white, Garlic is a well-known medicinal scented, with petals 5 mm long. plant, and was widely used in Fruits ovoid, with small black ancient times. Nowadays it is seeds. recognised that garlic guards against atherosclerosis by reducing the amount of fats and Morphological variability lipids in the blood. However, in One variety exists with green order to achieve this it is neces- leaves and another with yellow- sary to eat over 20 cloves a day! green leaves. Numerous other It also possesses antibiotic cultivars have been produced properties thanks to the allyl in the regions where the plant sulphides that it contains. is cultivated.

Plant occasionally eaten, introduced Cultivation and production Allium tuberosum The seeds of the garlic chive are Garlic chive, Chinese chive not viable, and it is propagated by fragments of stem-base or History pieces of rhizome. The leaves are picked after three to four This species returns so quickly to months, until they become too the wild state that it is impossible cramped together. The plant is to determine its centre of origin then pulled up and replanted. with any certainty. Nowadays it The garlic chive, or Chinese is found from Mongolia to Japan chive, does well in the north in the east, to the Philippines of the archipelago throughout in the southeast and to India the year. In summer there is a in the southwest. It is an Asian risk of fungal and/or bacterial condiment, cultivated for a very diseases. long time in China. It was doubt- le ss introduced to Vanuatu by the Vietnamese and Chinese Alimentary uses communities. In Asia the small flowers and the leaves, which have a slight Description taste of garlic, are used to flavour salads or hot dishes. In Vanuatu Herbaceous plant growing in the plant is very popular among large clumps, furnished with Vietnamese and Chinese cooks, a rhizome from which the who use it in the same way. It is roots emerge. The bulb is sold in small bundles, without almost absent. Leaves flat, the bulbs. 13–45 cm long. Umbel, 3–5 cm A I N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

228 Genus Ananas

Family Bromeliaceae

The genus comprises seven species, all originating from South America. One species is present in Vanuatu.

Species present Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Pineapple

This fruit, introduced to Vanuatu at the beginning of the 19 th century, rapidly spread throughout the country. It is nowadays a common seasonal plant in rural gardens, grown as much for family consumption as for sale in the markets.

References Barrau (1962), de Candolle (1883), Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge et al . (1997a), French (1986), Hill (1952), Ochse et al . (1961), Parham (1972), Purseglove (1988), Sauer (1993), Smartt & Simmonds, eds (1995), Smith & Downs (1979) , Viard (1995), Weightman (1989), Zeven & de Wet (1982).

diversified in tropical America. Complementary food plant, The companions of Christopher introduced Columbus discovered it in Ananas comosus Guadeloupe in 1493. Such an attractive fruit was rapidly spread Pineapple by the first voyagers throughout the tropical world. It reached the History Philippines by 1558, Cook planted it in Tahiti, and it entered Aust- Pineapple is originally from the ralia in 1839. In the 1850s James Orinoco Basin of Venezuela and Paddon introduced pineapple to Guyana. Domestication, by vege- Anatom, and it was found a little tative reproduction and selectio n later (1870) being grown in a of mutants, has influenced the plantation in Tanna. Several appearance and quality of the subsequent reintroductions fruit. The growers have favoure d brought in different varieties. types that have few spines or The development of commercial none at all. When the Europeans cultivation of pineapple in arrived, Ananas comosus was S

Vanuatu seems feasible. T already widely distributed and N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

229 Description turns from dark grey-green to yellow and green as it ripens, Herbaceous plant about 1 m high . from the base upwards. The Rosette of leaves in a spiral, eyes of the fruit are not very variable in length (50–200 cm), protuberant, and the flesh is with smooth or spiny margins. firm, juicy and pale yellow. It Flowers numerous (100–200), weighs around 2 kg. Queen is an pale violet in colour. Syncarp ancient cultivar in Australia and formed by fusion of all these South Africa. The edges of its little flowers and their bracts; short, silvery leaves have small shape of syncarp (roughly cylin- spines. The smaller fruit (1 kg) drical) and colour (yellow-green is golden yellow in colour and or orange-yellow) varying accord- has protuberant eyes. Its flesh in g to cultivar. It is surmounted is golden yellow and its taste by a crown of young leaves which exquisite, less acid and less continue growing until the fruit sweet than that of Cayenne. is mature. Seeds small in size and Red Spanish is mainly grown in dark brown in colour, generally the Caribbean and Mexico. Its absent from cultivated forms, but long leaves have spiny margins. very numerous when the fruit Its fruit, intermediate in size has resulted from pollination. between Cayenne and Queen, is almost square, orange-red, Morphological variability and has eyes that are not very numerous but are broad. Its A large number of cultivars exist flesh is pale yellow or golden around the world, but over 90% yellow, fibrous, and has a of world production derives from slightly spicy taste. Abacaxi cultivation of a single clone: is grown mainly in Mexico. smooth Cayenne. The cultivars Its leaves have spiny margins. Cayenne, Queen, Spanish and The pyramidal fruit weighs on Abacaxi are found in Vanuatu. average 1.5 kg and bears small Despite its somewhat insipid eyes. Its flesh is very pale yellow, taste, Cayenne has been chosen contains small fibres and has a as the priority clone for prom- mild flavour. Finally we mention otion because of its high yield. Victoria, which comes from Selected a very long time ago by the islands of La Réunion and the Maipure Indians of Venezuela, Mauritius. Its apical crown is this cultivar was subsequently made up of long leaves with distributed to Europe, Australia spiny margins. The fruit is small, (1858) and then to Hawaii almost round, and furnished (1885–1895). The edges of its with protuberant eyes, strongly long, dark leaves are smooth, yellow in colour. The flesh is the flowers are fairly pale violet- likewise quite yellow. blue, and the cylindrical fruit A I N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

230 Cultivation and complain about the lack of pine- production apples at other times of year. No serious diseases are known, Resistant to drought, pineapple but large fruits sometimes suffer grows in acid and well-drained from sunburn which turns their soils. In Vanuatu it is grown by fibrous centres brown. all households, within the mixed gardens or in small, individual fields. Mainly geared to producing Alimentary uses fruit for fresh consumption, pine - Pineapple is very popular in apple has become an important Vanuatu, and is eaten regularly crop, and the number of small and everywhere when it is in commercial plantations is season. The huge production increasing in periurban areas. allows the local population to Wild escapes from ancient crops eat this sweet fruit in abundan ce, are sometimes found in open to such a point that it is some- forest areas. Propagation is by times used as the base food of vegetative means, using offsets, a meal, as in Pentecost. In Santo small shoots produced at the it is also cut into pieces and base of the stem close to the then boiled in salted water, soil, or (most often) the crown as an accompaniment to a of leaves cut from the apex of dish of root crops. the syncarp. These propagating materials are left to dry for several weeks upside down, and Other uses are then replanted. Harvesting In certain countries (the takes place between one and two Philippines, Taiwan and China), years after planting according to two year-old leaves are used for the weight of the material planted extraction of excellent quality and the season when planted. fibres – white, pliable and Large shoots provide fruits faster strong. Joined end to end, then than small ones, but the plant is woven, they produce a material sensitive to photoperiodicity . that is strong and much sought It is thus important to induce after. It is also used to make flowering artificially with the fishing lines and hammocks. aid of hormones (ethrel) in order Pineapple is used in medicine to obtain fruits year-round. This “to treat fatigue and indigestion. technique is hardly used at all in The pharmaceutical industry Vanuatu, with the result that the extracts a chemical, bromel- markets of Port Vila and Lugan- ianine, from the stems and the ville are saturated with fruits hearts of the fruit for use as a during the harvesting period, cardiac accelerator. while the hotels and restaurants S T N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

231 Genus Arachis

Family Fabaceae

The genus comprises 4–80 species according to different authors, the majority not being well described. They are all originally from South America. A single species is present in Vanuatu.

Species present Arachis hypogea L. Peanut, groundnut

Commercial cultivation of peanut started soon after European contact, but it did not really expand until the 1960s. The main producers, located in Santo and Efate, supply the markets abundantly. In parallel, the local population eats ever-increasing quantities of peanuts.

References De Candolle (1883), Clavel & Gautreau (1997), French (1986), Gregory et al . (1980) , Hammons (1994), Krapovickas (1969), Ochse & Bakhuizen van den Brink (1980), Parham (1972), Piperno & Pearsall (1998), PROSEA (1989), Purseglove (1991), Smartt & Simmonds, eds (1995), Smartt & Stalker (1982) , Stalker (1980), Viard (1995), Weightman (1989), Zeven & de Wet (1982).

(A. monticola ). From there it Complementary food plant, spread through the southern introduced part of the American continent, Arachis hypogea and nowadays six centres of secondary or tertiary diversity Peanut, groundnut are recognised in that region. In the 16 th century the Portuguese History brought it from Brazil to West Africa, where it underwent huge Vanuatu received the peanut from development, and then to India; Europeans, who themselves the Spanish spread it from Mexico brought it from South America. into the Pacific as far as the Phili- The species was domesticated ppines. The plant then reached in prehistoric times in the Gran the countries of Asia. Very soon Chaco region (and more widely after European contact the species in southern Bolivia and northwest A I was grown in some villages in N Argentina), from a wild ancestor A Vanuatu, for export to Australia E C O F O S N E D R A G

232 up to 1914 and then to New the ground to a depth of 2–7 cm. Caledonia. But the production, It is in this position that the fruit which is not great, is mainly develops to maturity. The light for the local market. Since the brown, lignified outer casing, 1960s the main producer has furnished with conspicuous been the village of Fanafo which wrinkles, contains 2–4 elongate – curiously – considers it to be seeds that are covered with a an indigenous crop of Vanuatu, red epidermis. in contrast to copra, coffee and cacao which in the villagers’ eyes Morphological variability are European crops. In 1974 a Port Vila businessman decided The numerous cultivars to start peanut as a commercial present around the world crop and stimulate production may be divided into two main in Fanafo and surrounding groups: Virginia–Peruvian (ssp. areas. Some years later producers hypogea ) and Spanish–Valencia who had appeared in Efate were (ssp. fastigiata ), both of which supplying the Port Vila market. are present in Vanuatu. Apart In 1978 and 1979 high-yielding from varied introductions on seeds were imported from South specific occasions, we note the Africa, multiplied at the Saraoutou arrival of seeds of Virginia in 1961 experimental station and then from Australia for planting in distributed to farmers in Efate Tanna, and then the introductio n and Santo. Santo became the of seeds of Valencia to the Tagabe most important area of prod- experimental station in 1968. uction, and improved varieties The Virginia–Peruvian varieties were distributed to the producers produce sprawling forms, with of Fanafo by the IRHO agronomic long lateral branches and dark research station at the beginning green leaves. The fruits contain of the 1980s. They came from two seeds which germinate after the CIRAD seed laboratory at a period ranging from one month Montpellier. to one year. The Valencia varieties produce erect forms, with short lateral branches and light green Description leaves. The fruits contain three Annual, erect or sprawling to four seeds which germinate herbaceous plant (50 cm tall). immediately. Composite leaves with two pairs of opposite leaflets, 4–8 cm lon g, Cultivation and with elongate stipules at the bas e of the petiole. Flowers sessile , production spaced out on the plant, yellow; The plant prefers well-drained, narrow tubular calyx, 5 cm long, fertile soils, and rainfall of one lobe of which is curved 500–1,000 mm followed by downwards; long style. After a dry period. Propagation is by flowering, the peduncle curves planting the seeds in their pods, S T downwards and buries itself in N

at a shallow depth and 40 cm A L P S U O E C A B R E H

233 apart. The rows are hoed and peanut has discovered a new slightly mounded up, especially life thanks to the multiplication after fruiting which takes place of kava bars – the kava drinkers in the soil. They reach maturity like to nibble peanuts to take in 4–5 months, which allows away the taste of the kava brew. several harvests per year. Worldwide, peanut is the second Harvesting is by pulling up the most important source of oil entire plant, with the leaves and after soybean. By crushing the stalks then being left on the soil seeds it is also made into the surface. famous peanut butter, which was first made a long time ago by the Incas. Alimentary uses

In Vanuatu peanut is eaten raw, Other uses or roasted in its shell which makes it more digestible. Grown Like all legumes, peanut fixes mainly as a commercial crop, atmospheric nitrogen in the it is not used much by villagers soil, and its introduction into in their everyday consumption. the subsistence cropping cycle, Quite early on the health service s which has been encouraged in tried to make them part of the Vanuatu, contributes to soil local diet because of their high fertility. protein content. In actual fact A I N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

234 Genus Brassica

Family Brassicaceae

The genus comprises around 40 species, originating for the most part from northern Europe. Vanuatu has received various varieties of Brassica oleracea as well as various Asian green brassicas.

Species present Western green brassicas:

Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata L. Cabbage, head cabbage, Savoy cabbage, red cabbage

Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis L. Cauliflower

Brassica oleracea L. var. gongylodes L. Kohl-rabi

Brassica oleracea L. var. italica Plenck Broccoli

Asian green brassicas:

Brassica juncea (L.) Czernjaew & Coss Indian mustard, Chinese mustard

Brassica rapa L. ssp. chinensis (L.) Hanelt 20 Bok choi (or choy), pak choi

Brassica rapa L. ssp. parachinensis (Bailey) Tsen & Lee Choi (or choy) sum

We also note two plants found in supermarkets in Vanuatu, imported and hardly grown at all in the country:

Brassica oleracea L. var. gemmifera L. Brussels sprouts

Brassica rapa L. ssp. pekinensis (Lour) Olsson Chinese cabbage

All the green brassicas of Vanuatu have been introduced from Europe or Asia. The European ones belong to the species B. oleracea while the Asian ones are combined under the species name B. rapa . The various different sorts are nowadays establishe d S T N A L P S U O

20 E The taxonomy of Chinese B. campestris which was for a C long time accepted. It includes A cabbages is still very complex B and less well elucidated than four subspecies, among them R E

that of the Western green bok choi and Chinese cabbage . H brassicas. The name B. rapa is One may still find it in the an ancient name that taxo- literature as B. chinensis (or 235 nomists have proposed to B. pekinensis in the case of use as a replacement for Chinese cabbage). in the country and grown to varying degrees, either for family consumption or for sale in the urban markets. The most popular and frequently grown are the various Chinese cabbages, of which the bok choi has become a common food among the ni-Vanuatu.

References Barrau (1962), de Candolle (1883), Encyclopédie des aliments (1997), French (1986), Gray (1982), Hervé (1992), Ochse & Bakhuizen van den Brink (1980), Parham (1972), Phillipps & Dahlen (1985), Prakash & Hinata (1980) , PROSEA (1994), Purseglove (1991), Smartt & Simmonds, eds (1995), Snogerup (1979, 1980), Snogerup et al . (1990) , Viard (1995), Weightman (1989), Zeven & de Wet (1982), Zohary & Hopf (1994).

in the markets of Vanuatu. Many Occasional food plant, introduced research centres, especially in Brassica juncea Canada and India, have bred improved forms of this species. Indian mustard, Chinese mustard

Description History Main stem robust, notched, dark The centre of origin of this green, branched in its upper part. species is uncertain, but it is Leaves broad and oval; midrib generally accepted to have come extending well along the petiole, from the only region in which the leaf crimped between the leaf two supposed parents – Brassica veins, dark green; margins den- rapa and Brassica nigra – both tate; petiole thick, winged, white, grow: the Himalayan region of 10 cm long. Flowers arranged in central Asia. B. juncea probably a terminal raceme, yellow, small appeared at two different times. in size (less than 1 cm). Fruits First of all, a mutation of B. rapa narrow, with a slight beak-like gave rise to a new plant which structure, yellow-green. then hybridised with B. nigra to Numerous small seeds. give the species that we know today. This ancient plant spread quite early on to India, China and Morphological variability the Caucasus, where it was culti- Forms are recognised that are vated either for its oily seeds or more or less robust, and with its leaves according to region. leaves more or less developed. Chinese peasants selected forms China possesses numerous with large leaves which fed them varieties with edible leaves. over the centuries. These are the

A These are distinguished by I forms that are found nowadays N the morphology of their leaves. A E C O F O S N E D R A G

236 Cultivation and History production Brassica oleracea L. is a very The plant is grown from seed, ancient European species, though sown in rich, well-drained soil. It no archaeological traces of it hav e grows best in the cool, dry season . been found. It is estimated as After one month the leaves can having been cultivated for 4,500 start being harvested, and picking years. Very polymorphic, over tim e can be done a number of times. it has produced a wid e variety of The plants are grown as inter- forms in different regions, used crops between legumes and as human food or as forage for produce modest yields, of the animals. All these f orms derive order of 200–500 g per cut. The from a wild ancesto r that was whole plant is regularly sold in originally from coastal Great the markets. Britain and the Atlantic coasts of Europe from Denmark to the Charente region in the mid- Alimentary uses Atlantic coast of France (even The leaves, well washed and with to Spain). It has been cultivated part of their petiole removed, and progressively diversified in are chopped up if they are large each location, people preferring or left whole if they are small. the forms with leaves tightly They are then boiled in a little packed against each other. Some salted water, which is changed among these then spread to the once if there is any concern about Mediterranean where other bitterness. They are served as species of Brassica grew (for accompaniments to dishes of example B. cretica in Greece), rice or root crops, or they are and the Atlantic forms exchanged added to soups. The species is genes with the Mediterranean high in iron and potassium, and ones. The Greeks then developed also in vitamin C. and differentiated all the forms by selecting them for leaf morphology Plants occasionally eaten, (head cabbage, red cabbage, introduced Savoy cabbage), for the inflorescences (cauliflower and broccoli) Brassica oleracea or for the stem (kohl-rabi). Two var. capitata hundred and fifty years ago the Cabbage, head cabbage, Savoy Europeans introduced all these cabbage, red cabbage varieties to their colonies, from India to Australia from where var. botrytis they also reached the islands of Cauliflower the Pacifi c. Edible brassicas were var. gongyloides introduced to Vanuatu by the first missionaries, and by ni-Vanuatu Kohl-rabi returning from plantations in Aust- ralia or New Caledonia. Later on

var. italica S

the Department of Agriculture T Broccoli N A

attempted to promote its culti- L P S U O E C A B R E H

237 vation. Nowadays these vegetable s • var. italica : broccoli has a can be found on the shelves of mass of true flowers that are certain groceries, imported from greenish or purple, arranged overseas for the most part. The in loose aggregates that are ni-Vanuatu, particularly those slightly spaced out on the close to towns, also grow some stems. varieties of cabbage from Japan- ese or Taiwanese hybrid seeds Morphological variability purchased in groceries. They grow these for their own use • head cabbage was developed or for sale in the markets. in the Middle Ages by the peoples of southwest Europ e, from numerous forms spread Description by the Romans. It quickly • var capitata : plant with a became an important vege- stalk so short that the leaves table in the diet. Its leaves overlap tightly to form a ball- are smooth and green, then like head of cabbage. Leaves white, red or curly. Numerous green or red, smooth, crinkled cultivars of head cabbage exist and with wavy margins. The around the world, and there- inflorescence continues to fore also numerous different grow during flowering, so that types of seed offered for sal e. new flower buds sit above Distinctions are made betwee n the flowers that have opened the head cabbage with green out, with pale yellow petals. or white leaves (f. alba ), the The cylindrical fruits measure red cabbage with purplish about 10 cm and contain leaves (f. rubra ) and the small beige or brown seeds. Savoy cabbage with crinkly leaves. The head cabbages • var. botrytis : the inflore- of Vanuatu are small in size. scences of cauliflower bear They have slightly wavy flowers that are atrophied leaves, less tightly packed and fused to their peduncle than in the country of origin and to the young leaves, and slightly more elongate. forming a compact, white mass of densely aggregated • cauliflower probably origin- flowers packed together. ated in Italy, from ancient Brassica greens spread by • var. gongylodes : the short the Romans. It could equally stalk is swollen at the base have reached Italy in the 15 th just above the soil surface, century from the Levant or to form a compact globe with Cyprus. Later it spread to a fleshy interior and a fibrous Northern and Central Europe , skin, colour greenish or purple , which regions are major pro- 5–10 cm in diameter. Leaves ducers of the species. It does with a long petiole, arising in a not grow well in Vanuatu, A

I spiral around the swollen stem . N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

238 which regularly imports small are pricked out when 30–40 quantities for sale in super- days old and are intercropped markets. Numerous cultivars with other species. The soil are known. needs to be well weeded and well dug. Cabbages reach mat- • kohl-rabi appeared in the uri ty after three to five months. Middle Ages in Central and Cabbage crops respond to Southern Europe. It has been applications of manure, and spread in Asia for 200 years, the cabbage heads keep well and has become an important at low temperatures. Yields vegetable in China. Introduced of 20 kg per 10m 2 can be to Vanuatu, doubtless with expected in Vanuatu, the other brassicas, it has never most favourable conditions been appreciated for its true being found in the centre of worth. A number of cultivars the island of Tanna where exist. temperatures are cool. • broccoli is an ancient plant • cauliflower and broccoli are of Northern Europe, but the very hard to grow in Vanuatu, form that we use nowadays – where temperatures are too green broccoli with a main high and the variations in head – appeared in Italy at photoperiod are not the beginning of the 20 th sufficiently marked. century, then reached the United States with Italian • kohl-rabi is grown from migrants. From there the imported seed. It is much more improved species reached tolerant of heat than cabbage Northern Europe and then or cauliflower. It is harvested many parts of the world. quite quickly, between 50 and 60 days after planting because it can become very tough if Cultivation and it is left too long in the soil. production Yields of 10–15 kg per 10m 2 • the head cabbage and even can be expected in Vanuatu. more so the Savoy cabbage survive frosts well and prefer Alimentary uses high altitude areas. They are propagated from seed, bought • cabbage, boiled or steamed, commercially or collected from is a European vegetable that plants that have flowered. is very important in its region Some hybrid varieties do not of origin. It may be preserved produce seeds, but robust in the form of sauerkraut. side shoots that emerge from In Vanuatu the white-heart the main stem can be used. cabbage is eaten raw or boiled . In kitchen gardens cabbages In rural areas it is not used are planted in rows, spaced much, and village farmers

about 50 cm apart. The plants grow it mainly to sell. In S T N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

239 season it is abundant in centre. The wild form, which no the markets, and is found in doubt still exists as a relic, has various sizes though all fairly been cultivated since ancient small. In the urban area, head times somewhere in southwest cabbages and Savoy cabbage s Asia. No archaeological trace has are cut in thin strips or pieces been found, so one must deter- that are boiled as an accom- mine the origin of its cultivation paniment to a dish of root crops by studying linguistic criteria. It or mixed into a meat stew. would not have been produced for its leaves but rather for its • cauliflower is eaten raw as a oily seeds. Over time it gave rise salad or boiled as a vegetable . to several subspecies that were Broccoli is boiled or fried. cultivated for their oily seeds, Both are most often impor- their bulbous bases or their ted to Vanuatu, and therefore leaves. In Europe selections fairly expensive and not eaten were made particularly for the much. Asian cuisine uses them root, giving rise in particular to as an ingredient in many dishes. the turnip ( Brassica napus L.), • kohl-rabi is not eaten much while in Asia the selections in rural areas and is grown were for the leaves: bok choi, for sale in the markets. It is, choi sum and pe-tsai. Bok choi, however, a delicious vegetable regarded as a delicacy by the that can be eaten as a salad, Chinese, was mentioned for the grated or thinly sliced, or as first time in a Chinese text dating a vegetable, boiled or fried, back to 500 AD. The Chinese too k to accompany a dish of meat. it to Malacca in the 15 th century, to North America during the Complementary food plant, gold rush, and then to many introduced places in the Pacific including Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu . Brassica rapa Nowadays this vegetable has ssp. chinensis spread to many countries and Bok choi (or choy), pak choi is extremely popular in Vanuatu. Choi sum, often classified as a ssp. parachinensis variety of bok choi, was probabl y Choi (or choy) sum introduced to Vanuatu at the same time as bok choi. Choi History sum is less common than bok choi, but still appears regularly The species Brassica rapa on the market stalls. L. originated from two main centres: the Mediterranean, and the region comprising eastern Description Afghanistan and Pakistan, with • ssp. chinensis : plant reaching Asia Minor, the Caucasus and to 70 cm in height. Leaves in

A Iran possibly as a secondary I a loose rosette, erect, oblong N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

240 Allium sativum, garlic.

Shallot (leaves and bulbs of Allium cepa , var. ascalonicum ) is very popular among the ni-Vanuatu.

HERBACEOUS PLANTS

Allium tuberosum , garlic chive or Chinese chive. © D. Greindl 241 Ananas comosus , pineapple, is very popular in Vanuatu.

Grown everywhere and very popular, pineapple is sometimes used as the main ingredient of a meal.

Raw or roasted in their shells, peanuts ( Arachis hypogaea ) are sold in bunches tied by their stalks, or in little bags.

Cabbages came from Europe and are grown mainly for sale.

Brassica juncea, Chinese mustard.

The brassicas from Asia are the more popular.

Three varieties of Chinese cabbage, Brassica rapa , the best known of which is bok choi. © D. Greindl

Two varieties of chilli ( Capsicum frutescens ) grown in Vanuatu. The green one is the milder.

Turmeric is grown in Vanuatu for its deep yellow colouring agent.

Heads of lettuce ( Lactuca sativa ). Although hard to grow, lettuce is present in many gardens.

Mentha piperita (peppermint).

Carrots ( Daucus carota ) produced in Vanuatu are small in size and are not grown much.

Several varieties of banana ( Musa spp.) grown in Vanuatu. On the left: the variety Popo'ulu. Below: the variety Cuban red.

Preparation of a dish of bananas with fish.

Ocimum basilicum , basil.

Petroselinum crispum , parsley.

Above and right: White radish and pink radish ( Raphanus sativus ). 252 © D. Greindl

Bunches of watercress ( Rorripa nasturtium ).

Solanum melongena, eggplant or aubergine.

Sugar cane and naviso are two important local herbaceous plants.

Saccharum officinarum , sugar cane.

Saccharum edule , naviso or pitpit, is a popular vegetable. Zea mays, maize.

Two species of ginger: zerumbet or wild ginger, an ancient plant, and common ginger, a plant that reached Vanuatu quite late.

Rhizome of wild ginger ( Zingiber zerumbet ).

© D. Greindl 256 or rounded, ending abruptly • ssp. parachinensis : several at the petiole, yellowish cultivars exist, varying from green, large in size (20–50 cm year to year according to long), petiole robust, winged, which commercial seeds convex and crenate at the have been purchased. back, ivory white. Raceme of bright yellow flowers. Fruits Cultivation and with a long beak, containing about 20 round seeds, dark production brown or reddish. Bok choi is often found in the • ssp. parachinensis : disting- mixed gardens of the villages, uished by the stalks, regular, after the first harvest of yams, slightly crenate, greenish and on the holding walls of the irri- tender. The leaves are prolong- gated taro pits or in urban kitchen at ions of a petiole that is only gardens. It is grown from seed slightly winged. Flowers supplied by commercial seed yellow or cream, in a panicle companies in Taiwan. Young at the end of the stalk. seedlings are transplanted into beds 30–50 cm apart. This green vegetable reaches maturity after Morphological variability three months, or sometimes two • ssp. chinensis : two main and a half. The majority of forms exist, one with rounded varieties bear flowers, and in leaves, dark green and with Vanuatu produce attractive a milk white petiole , the other yellow flowering stalks and with pale green leaves and fertile seeds. The farmers do a cream or greenish petiole not have any problem in getting (Shanghai bok choi). Howeve r, supplies, and sow seeds all the there are numerous commer- year round. The yields, however, cial, cultivated varieties which are better in the cool season. Apart differ according to the height from the giant African snail, which of the plant, the degree of eats the young plants, no serious erectness of the leaves, their natural enemies or diseases are shape and their size, and the known. Choi sum is often grown colour and size of the petioles . as an intercrop with other species, Several of these are seen in using pricked out seedlings. The the urban markets, the most seedbeds are sown with seeds popular among them being either collected from plants that the Waet bon , which is a have flowered or bought from form with a white petiole. stores. They are harvested three to four months after planting, and yields of 10–15 kg per 10 m 2 are usual. The young plants require early weeding to avoid S T N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

257 them being quickly smothered petioles are cut into small pieces. by weeds. No serious diseases These are then boiled for some are known, but the rose beetle minutes, or even fried. According (Adoretus versutus ) eats the to individual taste the green parts soft leaves. of the leaves may be added towards the end of the cooking, since they cook very quickly. Alimentary uses Bok choi is available abundantly Chinese cabbage is used in throughout the year in the urban Vanuatu like island cabbage markets. In the case of choi sum , (aibika; Abelmoschus manihot ). which has a more delicate flavour , It is cut into thin strips and boiled , everythin g is eaten. The bases mixed with meat stews, fried of the stalks and the leaves are dishes and soups. However, its washed carefully, then all cut into tough leaves do not lend them- pieces , flowers included, and selves to the making of lap-lap . boiled in a little salted water or After the toughest leaves have fried on the stove. This vegetable been removed it is carefully is also used as an ingredient of washed, the ends of the green soups and Asian dishes. leaves are pulled off and the A I N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

258 Genus Capsicum

Family Solanaceae

The genus comprises 25–30 species, five of which have been domesticated in Central and South America. Two species have reached Vanuatu, though they are sometimes considered to be one single species.

Species present Capsicum annuum L. Capsicum, green pepper, red pepper, sweet pepper

Capsicum frutescens L. Chilli

Capsicum is grown in urban areas for the markets, where they are sold in large quantities. Chilli, more or less naturalised for a long time, was first grown as an ornamental bush before being exploited commercially. The former is increasingly eaten, the latter not very much.

References Andrews (1984), Eshbaugh et al . (1983), Govindarajan (1985 , 1986), Messiaen (1998), Neal (1929), Ochse & Bakhuizen van den Brink (1980), Pickersgill (1969, 1988 ), Pickersgill et al . (1979), Piperno & Pearsall (1998), PROSEA (1994), Purseglove (1988, 1991), Rubatzky & Yamagushi (1997), Smartt & Simmonds, eds (1995), Viard (1995), Weightman (1989), Zeven & de Wet (1982).

South America, it was domesti- Plant occasionally eaten, cated in the northern part of its introduced area of distribution, probably Capsicum annuum 21 around eastern Mexico. Its evol- ution then becomes complicated. Capsicum, green pepper, red pepper, sweet pepper Dispersed at the same time as humans and birds, this plant has been subjected to diverse History selections. When Christopher This species was one of the very Columbus discovered America first grown in Latin America. it was already widespread,

Distributed from the southern and the great navigator brought S T

United States to the north of back some of the fruits to Spain N A L P S U O

21 E Although some consider C A

C. annuum (capsicum) and B R

C. frutescens (chilli) to be a E single species, we treat them H as separate here. 259 from his first voyage. Following squarish fruits (from America this the species was spread by or Italy), with large, globular red sailors travelling to the tropics. fruits (from Spain or Argentina), Capsicum first reached the with elongate fruits (from central Pacific in the 16 th century with France) and with sharp-tasting the Portuguese, and it came fruits. to Vanuatu with the first missionaries. Cultivation and production Description Capsicum grows in all sorts of Branching herbaceous plant or soils, but does not tolerate frost shrub, 0.5–1.5 m in height; leaves or heavy rain that leads to rots. simple, lanceolate or oval, variable It is largely grown in the peri- in size. Flowers terminal; calyx urban zone to supply the market s persistent as a cup-shape; one of Port Vila and Luganville. It corolla with five or six lobes, is grown from seed (which the colour whitish. Fruits upright or farmers save from one crop to pendant, solitary, hollow, variable the next), sown into a seedbed in shape (conical, globular, and later transplanted. The sometimes twisted), very variable harvest of green capsicums in size (1–30 cm long) and colou r. begins after three weeks, and Numerous seeds set on white continues at intervals of one to partitions inside the fruit; small, two weeks for three months. Its smooth and flat, beige in colour. production is very irregular, and the yields are better during the Morphological variability cool, dry season.

This variability is very important . The cultivars are distinguished Alimentary uses according to the sweet or sharp Capsicum, particularly the red taste of the fruits and according one, is a good source of vitamin to their shape, size and colour. A, vitamin C and potassium, but All these varieties can intercross the contents of these vary with and give rise to numerous distinct variety and degree of maturity. morphotypes and to intermed- Western cuisine uses them raw iate forms. Varieties exist that in salads, or cooked in all sorts are green, yellow, red, orange, of dishes. They are also used in violet or brown when mature. numerous Asian dishes, fried or Numerous seed firms offer an sauté, after the thin skin has enormous choice of varieties been removed. Vanuatu cuisine whose characteristics suit uses it less often. After the seeds Vanuatu to a greater or lesser and the white internal partitions extent, and these are tried have been removed, it is cut out by farmers each year. For into thin strips and added in A I example we note varieties with small quantities to beef stews. N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

260 which can be more or less hot. Plant occasionally eaten, Without doubt the hottest is introduced habanero , quite small, round and Capsicum frutescens vermilion coloured, followed by Cayenne pepper, wrinkled, curved Chilli and bright red. The bird’s eye chilli ( piment oiseau or piment History enragé ) small, elongate and brig ht red, is very hot; the banana chilli, The history of chilli is the red and as large as a small same as that of capsicum, but capsicum, and conical in shape, its natural area of distribution is is mild like most African chillis. situated further south, extending In Vanuatu the main forms grow - from the Amazon basin to the ing are a small pointed chilli that West Indies. It was domesticate d grows wild, the variety baccatum in lowland areas of northern and a large green chilli that is South America. Capsicum and quite mild. Increasingly all sorts chilli were spread together around of forms can now be found that the world. Asia and India in part- come from commercial seed icular gave rise to hot (peppery) supplies. forms, selected for the heat and dryness of some of the regions. Asia is nowadays a secondary Cultivation and centre of diversity of the species . production In the Pacific and in Vanuatu chilli was adopted very early Chilli grows in the wild state in on, but more as an ornamental all the islands of Vanuatu, close than as a food plant. It is found to gardens and in the villages. growing spontaneously in Originally garden escapes, these traditional gardens. are nowadays an integral comp- onent of the local flora. They prefer very sunny positions and Description dry weather. They are prone to Very branched shrub root rots, nematodes and bact- which resembles capsicum erial wilt, so rotation with other (C. annuum ), from which it market garden crops is therefore is distinguished by its greenish avoided. Yields are high, and it flowers and the narrow, elon- is common to see bushes heavil y gate fruits that arise in pairs laden with fruits. Some private or in clusters. Only the variety enterprises harvest the chillis for baccatum has rounded fruits 22 . use in the dried state, as a powder or a paste. This crop, although it has potentially good financial Morphological variability rewards particularly for export A great variety of chillis exist to the Indian community of Fiji, according to the size and shape has not been exploited much. S of the fruit, as well as the taste T N A L P S U O

22 E Some botanists consider this C A

to be a separate species, B R

Capsicum baccatum , which E was domesticated in Bolivia. H 261 Capsicum frutescens

Alimentary uses more attractively – in plaited garlands. They are also sold Harissa, Tabasco and pili-pili are in bottles or dried. manufactured spices made from chilli. Not found much in the rural populations of Vanuatu, it Other uses is used more and more in meat In Vanuatu it is used first and stews, and sometimes raw as an foremost as an ornamental accompaniment to a dish of root shrub, and for marking the crops. It is sold regularly in urban boundaries of plots of land. markets, in small sachets or – A I N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

262 Genus Coriandrum

Family Apiaceae

The genus contains two species, one of which is cultivated. It has been introduced to Vanuatu.

Species present Coriandrum sativum L. Coriander, cilantro, Chinese parsley

In Vanuatu coriander is grown for its leaves that are used to flavour many dishes, but the ni-Vanuatu only eat it in moderate quantities. Its seeds are not used as a food.

References Boisvert & Hubert (1977), Encyclopédie des aliments (1997), French (1986), Norman (1991), Ochse & Bakhuizen van den Brink (1980), PROSEA (1999) , Purseglove (1991), Purseglove et al . (1981), Zeven & de Wet (1982).

in Asian countries and then Plant occasionally eaten, America, for both its seeds and introduced its leaves. This European plant Coriandrum sativum reached Vanuatu with the arrival of Asian people. Coriander, cilantro, Chinese parsley

History Description Erect and branched, annual Coriander, a weed of cereal crops herbaceous plant, 30–70 cm tall. in the Middle East, became one Coriander is heterophyllous . of the oldest spices of the Medit - Leaves flat with dissected margins erranean region. It was grown (upper leaves) or lobate margins as a medicinal and food plant (lower leaves). Inflorescence by the Egyptians, Greeks and an umbel bearing white or pink Romans. Its name comes from flowers, small in size in the middle the Greek koris , which indicates and broad at the periphery. Fruits bed bugs, from the characteristic rounded, small, yellowish and odour of the young plant. It later grooved, containing two seeds. spread throughout Europe, S T N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

263 Morphological variability does not tolerate very strong sun and its cultivation is tricky. Several varieties exist, disting- It is grown from seed, mostly uishable by the height of the bought commercially. The plant plant, the morphology of the reaches maturity in three months, leaves and the fruits, and above but leaves can be harvested after all by the chemical composition. 60 days. In Vanuatu nematodes We note among others Moroccan weaken the plant roots, and a coriander with spherical, grooved bacterial wilt impairs their good seeds, and Indian coriander with development when they are more elongate and smooth seeds. grown in the hot and wet season, A distinction is also made between namely November to April. C. sativum var. sativum (weight of 1,000 fruits over 10 g and average diameter of fruits over Alimentary uses 3 mm) and C. sativum var. In Vanuatu coriander leaves, microcarpum (weight of 1,000 which are very rich in vitamin fruits less than 10 g and average A, are sold fresh in bunches in diameter of fruits less than 3 mm). the markets. They are used in Asian cuisine and for seasoning Cultivation and salads, soups, fish and various production other dishes. Coriander seeds are imported and are sold in In Vanuatu coriander is grown groceries. They are purchased for its leaves which are supplied by the expatriate population to the markets. It is also planted which uses them in their cuisine. in kitchen gardens. The plant A I N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

264 Genus Curcuma

Family Zingiberaceae

The genus comprises about 70 species, mainly originating from the Indo-Malayan Region, with some species from Madagascar and Southeast Asia. Vanuatu possesses at least one species.

Species present Curcuma longa L. Turmeric

Present in Vanuatu from olden times, turmeric is naturalised there. It is grown for the colouring agent extracted from its roots, and to a lesser extent as a spice.

References Barrau (1962), Boisvert & Hubert (1977), de Candolle (1883), French (1986), Norman (1991), Ochse & Bakhuizen van den Brink (1980), Peekel (1984), Pétard (1986), PROSEA (1999), Purseglove (1988), Purseglove et al . (1981), Sastri, ed. (1950) , Smartt & Simmonds, eds (1995), Sopher (1964), Zeven & de Wet (1982).

naturalised there. This auto- Plant occasionally eaten, local chthonous (or indigenous) pla nt, Curcuma longa which is used as a food colorant and a pharmaceutical (food Turmeric additive E-100 in the EU list), is certainly worth developing History into a commercial crop.

Unknown in the wild state, turmeric has been cultivated for Description a long time in India from where Perennial herbaceous plant it probably originates. It has been with a straight and tough stem, domesticated in Southeast Asia, reaching up to 1 m in height. and early on reached China wher e Central rhizome surrounded at a it was already seen by Marco right angle by numerous, smaller, Polo, and then the countries of lateral rhizomes, smooth but Oceania. The Arabs introduced furnished with flexible scales, it to Europe in the Middle Ages. straight or slightly curved, orang e It reached Vanuatu with the first S

or yellow. Leaves sheathing the T human migrations, and became N

stem with their slightly winged A L P S U O E C A B R E H

265 petioles, lanceolate, longitudinally Alimentary uses striated, pale green, 30 x 7 cm. Used in India and Asian countries Long terminal inflorescence as a fragrant flavouring for food, bearing white or yellow, tubular turmeric is used as an ingredient flowers separated by large brac ts. in curries and in Worcestershire Fruits absent. sauce. It is one of the rare spices that was used in Melanesian Morphological variability cuisine before the arrival of Europeans and Asians. With a Several cultivars of turmeric mild flavour, it gives meat dishes exist in India, but the diversity a subtle fragrance, slightly tangy , of the plant in Vanuatu has not and an attractive yellow colour. been studied. In earlier times in the centre of Santo a ritual existed in which Cultivation and men cooked large roots of production turmeric in an oven of hot stones and then ate them 23 . The plant likes hot and wet climates, and aerated and well- drained soils. It is propagated Other uses from pieces of rhizome. In A dark yellow colouring agent Vanuatu this plant grows spont- (curcumine) is extracted from aneously, and is not really culti- the root, which can be used to vated but is simply propagated. dye vegetable fibres, wool and It is, however, the object of silk. Nowadays in Vanuatu the occasional small trade. It is plant is used for dyeing the found hither and thither, and pandanus fringes of certain as an intercrop in gardens, ceremonial mats, and wooden particularly in Fanafo and objects used in dances, and for on the island of Santo. making coloured designs on the faces and bodies of the dancers. It is also used as a medicine and a cosmetic. A I N A E C O F O S 23 N Though this could have been E

D Curcuma angustifolia R

A Roxburgh. G

266 Genus Daucus

Family Apiaceae

The genus comprises 22 species, mainly European and Mediterranean. Daucus carota is itself a complex of 13 species. Vanuatu has only the cultivated carrot with the orange root.

Species present Daucus carota L. subsp. sativus (Hoffm.) Thell Carrot

In Vanuatu carrot is not grown much because of its poor agronomic performance. The carrots are small and thin. Always popular as a food, however, the great majority are imported.

References De Candolle (1883), Cullen (1972) , Heywood (1983) , Ochse & Bakhuizen van den Brink (1980), PROSEA (1994), Purseglove (1991), Smartt & Simmonds, eds (1995), Viard (1995), Villeneuve & Leteinturier (1992), Weightman (1989), Zeven & de Wet (1982).

yellow carrot, the greater part Plant occasionally eaten, of which grew above the soil, and introduced finally by the orange carrot that Daucus carota we know today which appeared in the Netherlands after much Carrot selection. All the varieties of orange carrot cultivated today History throughout the world derive from this last selection. It was It was in Afghanistan that the this form that was introduced carrot, originally violet or straw- to Vanuatu by missionaries in coloured, was first cultivated over the middle of the 19 th century. 2,000 years ago. It reached succe s- sively Iran, China and Turkey, and then the Arabs spread it to the Description Mediterranean basin. In the 16 th Plant reaching to 1 m in height. century this vegetable appeared Leaves composed of leaflets that on the tables of Europe, and it are themselves made up of smalle r was then introduced to America . segments that in turn are made The violet carrot was gradually S

up of lanceolate segments; T

replaced in Europe by a pale N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

267 petiole long. Umbel reaching 37 centre of Tanna and in peri-urba n cm in diameter bearing flowers zones. It is grown from seed with five white or pink petals, bought commercially, sown with a toothed calyx. Small, into well-dug and well-drained oblong fruits a few millimetres ground. The young seedlings long. Root swollen, variable are thinned, and the plants are in size, squat and dumpy or later harvested before they have elongate, yellow or orange. reached full maturity, while the roots are still tender. The cultivation of carrot is made difficult Morphological variability by the fact that it is prone to D. carota is a complex comprising nematode attack, and its roots very variable species, wild or are never very large. Carrots are cultivated. There are two major sold in the markets during the groups of cultivated carrots. The cool season, generally in small first, which is Asian, encompasses quantities. The supermarkets the forms with a yellow or purple import larger and more tender root, divided; the second, which varieties from Australia, and is western, contains the forms these are generally preferred with orange roots, sometimes by consumers. yellow or white, not divide d. In Turkey the two forms coexist Alimentary uses and hybrids between the two groups occur. The cultivated This vegetable is not eaten much forms cross easily with the wild by rural people or by those who forms, and numerous cultivars do not have the means to buy have been selected around the the imported varieties. Carrots world. The Vanuatu carrot is are eaten raw, in salads, or always cultivated, and varies cooked. They are boiled after according to which seeds have being cut into pieces or into been available to purchase. strips. They are added to meat stews or are mixed with other vegetables and boiled or sautéed. Cultivation and production Other uses In Vanuatu the carrot is a plant of market gardens, grown in the The leaves may be fed to animals. A I N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

268 Genus Lactuca

Family Asteraceae

The genus comprises about 100 species, many of which originated from northern Europe or western Asia. A single species is present in Vanuatu.

Species present Lactuca sativa L. Lettuce

Lettuce is a popular vegetable, present in all the villages. However, its sensitivity to low temperatures and to nematodes makes its cultivation in open soil difficult. It is, however, sold regularly in the markets.

References De Candolle (1883), Ferakova (1976) , Harlan (1987), Lindqvist (1960), Ochse & Bakhuizen van den Brink (1980), Purseglove (1991), Robinson et al . (1983), Smartt & Simmonds, eds (1995), Viard (1995), Weightman (1989), Wien (1997), Zeven & de Wet (1982), Zohary (1991), Zohary & Hopf (1994).

no longer clear. The Persians, Complementary food plant, the Romans and then the Arabs introduced selected a number of forms, with Lactuca sativa dense foliage and short stems. The Roman legions introduced Lettuce them to Europe, then the first navigators took them to America History where they became very popular. They reached China in the 7 th Lettuce is depicted on Egyptian century AD. The human selection s monuments and mentioned in were for characteristics of the Greek and Roman literature. seeds, and then the shape of the A plant of western Asia and leaves (flat or curly, ability to the Mediterranean, it was first form a heart, colour), finishing produced for the oil extracted up with a great diversity of forms from its seeds. The exact path that are often grouped within of hybridisations that led to the a complex, L. seriola-sativa . lettuce that we know today is S T N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

269 Description morphotypes in Vanuatu according to which particular seeds This herbaceous plant initially have been imported that season. forms a dense rosette of leaves arranged in a spiral around a short, squat stalk. Their shape, Cultivation and size, colour and texture are very production variable. The leaf blade is whole, Lettuce is a plant of temperate segmented or slightly undulating . countries, and no variety is really The long flower stalk (1 m in adapted to the tropics. In Vanuatu height) appears later. It is made the leaves have difficulty forming up of numerous flowering heads hearts and the plants have a bearing small yellow flowers. tendency to produce long stalks. Fruit an achene 24 , oval, sur- Principally grown in the centre mounted with a plume of hairs. of Tanna, and by market gard- eners around Port Vila, lettuce Morphological variability is also grown by women in peri- urban villages for sale at markets This kitchen garden plant has during the cool season from May a multitude of varieties. The to October. It is grown from see d, forms that are closest to the sown in seedbeds and then trans- ancient species, with leaves that planted into growing beds after are erect, thick, narrow, stiff an d six weeks. It is harvested three crisp (for example cos lettuce months after sowing. Since the which is common in northern 1970s it has been produced by Europe) are grouped together hydroponic 25 culture and sold in under the variety longifolia plastic bags in the supermarkets. Lam. The Americans prefer Despite its proneness to nema- forms with dense hearts and todes, many growers sow it in tightly packed leaves, pale green their gardens for their own and crisp (var. capitata L.), or home consumption. heading lettuces. Europeans particularly like butter lettuce (likewise var. capitata L.), with Alimentary uses broad, flexible leaves, slightly Lettuce is eaten raw, seasoned open, in various shades of with a little salt and lemon juice green. The forms with a curly or vinaigrette. The leaves are head (var. crispa L.), which never also cooked as a vegetable, alone form a heart and have broad, or mixed with other vegetables. wavy leaves, have quite recently Without being very common, become popular in the countries consumption of cooked lettuce of northern Europe. Lettuce is is regular in rural regions. In grown from seeds purchased urban areas it is most often commercially, and one may served as a salad. therefore find numerous different A I N A E C O F O S 24 25 N A dry, indehiscent fruit with Culture without soil, where E

D a single cavity and a single the roots develop in nutrient R

A seed, the pericarp of which is solutions. G not fused with the seed (the 270 hard seeds that are found on a strawberry are achenes). Genus Lycopersicon

Family Solanaceae

The genus comprises the cultivated tomato, and seven wild species which grow in a coastal belt of land stretching from the Equator to northern Chile. The cultivated tomato is present in Vanuatu.

Species present Lycopersicon esculentum Miller Tomato

Formerly known as the love apple, the tomato, which is introduced, is nowadays grown in all the gardens. It is mostly eaten cooked, in meat or vegetable dishes.

References Anaïs (1997), Atherton & Rudish, eds (1986), Hawkes et al ., eds (1979), Jenkins (1948), Mathon (1981), PROSEA (1994), Purseglove (1991), Ochse & Bakhuizen van den Brink (1980), Smartt & Simmonds, eds (1995), Taylor (1986) , Viard (1995), Weightman (1989), Zeven & de Wet (1982).

It was from there that the Spanish Complementary food plant, took it to Europe. For a long time introduced this plant, which was reputed Lycopersicon to be poisonous, was not eaten esculentum outside Italy but was instead used as a medicine or an ornamental Tomato plant. At the end of the 18 th century the Europeans intro- History duced it to the United States where its improvement really The tomato as we know it is began, giving the round, fleshy, the cultivated form of a wild sweet tomatoes that we know species with small, acid fruits today. The Spanish introduced it (L. esculentum var. cerasiforme ), to the Pacific and the Philippines originally from the equatorial after 1650. It spreads easily in th e and Peruvian Andes. This weed subsistence gardens and often plant spread throughout tropical becomes naturalised. Finally, th e

America, and was then domesti- S

improved varieties of tomatoes T cated and improved in Mexico. N

were introduced to the islands A L P S U O E C A B R E H

271 of Oceania. Nowadays in Vanuatu throughout the tropical one may find spontaneously world and nowadays is often growing forms with small fruits naturalised. The flowers have and cultivated forms with large five petals and the yellow fruits in the indigenous gardens, or red fruits are small in mainly in the peri-urban zone. In size (2 cm in diameter). In season, tomatoes (cherry tomatoes Vanuatu it is found in all the or round ribbed) appear in large gardens, along footpaths and quantities in the markets. around houses;

• var. pyriforme Alef.: pear Description tomato. The flowers have five petals and the yellow or Plant shrubby, reaching up to red fruits are pear-shaped. It 2 m in height, or scrambling, is not grown much in Vanuatu; with a robust, hairy stalk and a strong smell. Leaves made up of • var. commune Bailey: common 6–9 leaflets, lobed or entire, oval, tomato. The flowers usually with short hairs; margins with have six petals and the fruits small teeth. Flowers hermaphro- are variable in shape and dite, in flower spikes separated size. It is grown in all the by three leaves (indeterminate islands of Vanuatu. The pattern) or two leaves and then ribbed form is very much one (determinate pattern); calyx predominant. persistent, made up of six pointed Besides these, very many other lobes; five to six recurved petals, cultivars have been produced yellow. Fruits variable in shape, in temperate regions since the rounded (smooth or ribbed), end of the 19 th century, varying elongate or pear-shaped, yellow according to the shape, colour or red in colour, size likewise and size of the fruit, the taste variable (1–10 cm in diameter), and the vitamin content, the containing numerous small degree of precocity (early brown seeds. maturity), whether the growth form is erect or scrambling, Morphological variability and the disease resistance.

Two to five varieties of tomatoes are known, according to the mode Cultivation and of growth of the plant and the production morphology of the fruit. The Tomato is adapted to many following three varieties are environments, but in hot and present in Vanuatu: humid tropical regions such as • var. cerasiforme (Dun.) Alef.: Vanuatu it produces fewer fruits cherry tomato. Originally from and more leaves. In the islands Peru and Ecuador, this wild it is grown in the mixed gardens form (subsequently improved that are planted after the first A I

N and cultivated) is spread harvest of yams. It is grown from A E C O F O S N E D R A G

272 seed, most often bought commer- from Taiwan were distributed cial ly or collected from the fruits to growers. The hardiest of and dried, or by grafting on to these have fruits of medium size eggplants (aubergines) which (5–8 cm in diameter), and were are more resistant to bacterial popular with the producers who diseases. The seeds germinate continue to grow them using the 7–10 days after being sown into seeds collected from the fruits. seedbeds. The young seedlings are transplanted after five weeks Alimentary uses into prepared beds of soil. Although under some conditions The small cherry tomatoes which the plant can give three harvests grow spontaneously in garden per year, in Vanuatu the fruits areas are eaten raw between generally appear only once a meals. It is often children who year in the markets, from June pick them and eat them as snacks. to November. In the 1980s the They are also cooked before they Department of Agriculture are fully ripe, as an accompani- began trials to produce high ment to a dish of root crops. quality tomatoes throughout The improved forms with larger the year, resistant to bacterial fruits, grown in the gardens, are diseases and nematodes. sprinkled with salt and eaten Numerous resistant varieties raw, or cooked in meat stews. S T N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

273 Genus Mentha

Family Lamiaceae

Twenty-five species of mint exist, plus very many cultivars. Two species are particularly important in Vanuatu.

Species present Mentha piperita L. Peppermint

Mentha spicata L. Spearmint, garden mint

Mentha spicata is the commonest mint in Vanuatu, but other cultivars and other related species are also found, spontaneous or cultivated.

References Encyclopédie des aliments (1997), French (1986), Harley (1972) , Hill (1952), Purseglove (1991), Ruttle (1938), Tucker & Fairbrother (1990), Tucker et al . (1980).

vars. Accordingly, M. piperata Plants occasionally eaten, is a sterile hybrid resulting from introduced the crossing of three species Mentha piperita of mint, one of which is M. Mentha spicata spicata . Mint is generally grown in kitchen gardens or in pots Peppermint close to houses. Introduced to Spearmint, garden mint the United States in the 19 th century, it was improved and is History widely grown there. In Vanuatu it is naturalised but also cultivated Known since biblical times in the gardens. and originating from temperate Europe and Asia, the different species of mints have been Description progressively spread around • Mentha piperita L.: herb- the world. They have undergone aceous plant with a square numerous interspecific hybrid- stem 50 cm long, green- isations with parental and/or A

I mauve, branched and erect; secondary (derived) species, N

A stolons leafy. Leaves with

E yielding new species and culti- C O F O S N E D R A G

274 a strong smell, lanceolate, Cultivation and dentate, hairy, bright green, production quite large (5 cm). Violet flowers in terminal heads. Naturalised in Vanuatu, mint is found in all garden areas and in • Mentha spicata L.: leaves damp places. It is cultivated both with a less strong smell, from seed and from planting of rounded, slightly dentate, stolons in the vegetable gardens. grey-green, smaller. More or The species that is commonest less violet flowers in heads. in rural areas and that is most often seen in the wild state is Morphological variability M. spicata .

Very important and occurring almost continuously, but not Alimentary uses studied in Vanuatu. Mint leaves are used to flavour soups, salads, food dishes, sauces and some ices. Rural people use it in moderation. S T N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

275 Genus Musa

Family Musaceae

Bananas are hybrids between different species. In Vanuatu both cooking bananas and dessert bananas are found, as well as the celebrated Fe’i .

Species present Musa spp. Interspecific hybrids

Musa fehi Bert. ex. Vieill.

In some of the islands of Vanuatu bananas are the staple food plants, essential for the food security of the local people. The plantains are often made into lap-lap , and the dessert varieties are eaten throughout the day. The various species of banana are treated together here.

References Bakry et al . (1997), INIBAP/IPGRI (2001), Lebot et al . (1994), Sharrock (1995), Stover & Simmonds (1987) .

in Tahiti and the Marquesas. Staple food plant, local This section in fact originated (and introduced) in Melanesia where wild and Musa spp. cultivated individuals coexist. The great majority of banana Banana, plantain cultivars belong to the section The genus Musa is divided into Musa , which is also the most four sections which include forms important in the genus and the with seeds and seedless forms. most widely distributed. It is Two sections have a base chromo- found from India to Southeast some number of 10 ( Callimusa Asia and certainly in the Pacific. and Australimusa ) and the The most ancient cultivated other two sections ( Musa and bananas originated from Papua Rhodochlamys ) have a base New Guinea and Melanesia, but number of 11 chromosomes. domestication has occurred for The section Australimusa is tens of thousands of years across endemic to Oceania and does to India and southern China. The not exist in Asia, and includes Austronesians introduced it to A I the famous Fe’i banana with its Madagascar, and from there to N

A erect bunches that is so popular Africa where the population E C O F O S N E D R A G

276 adopted it as a staple food plant , and is rich in starch. The seeds of particularly in East Africa and bananas are numerous, the size the equatorial region. Marco Pol o, of a lentil, not very nice on the Arab traders, the Portuguese and palate and very hard between the then other Europeans spread teeth. The first selections were them endlessly around the world . therefore towards sterile forms Nowadays 80% of the world prod - that did not have these seeds, and uction is of the variety Cavendish, were diploids of M. acuminata which is a cultivar originally (AA). It is, above all, this parth- from southern Yunnan in China. enocarpy (fruit development without the need for pollination) Description that makes banana appealing and edible. At some moment or othe r Giant herbaceous plant, with a in their history, the diploid and trunk-like pseudostem formed triploid cultivars of M. acuminata from many leaf sheaths tightly exchanged pollen with M. balbi- rolled around each other. Leaves siana to give rise to interspecifi c are produced by the terminal hybrid cultivars that were diploid meristem of the underground (AB), triploid (AAB, ABB) and stem (or corm) that is reduced in even tetraploid (AAAB, AABB, size. The root system is shallow ABBB). The banana varieties and the number of shoots varies most grown in Vanuatu belong to according to variety. The vertical the group called “Pacific plantains” inflorescence forms a cluster in international nomenclature. or bunch, made up of imbricate They comprise three triploid (partially overlapping) spathes AAB varieties, the fruiting stalks arranged in a spiral, in the axils of which carry bunches of large of which arise rows of flowers. cooking bananas, and they are The female flowers are made up staple food plants. These varieties of a basal ovary, and staminodes are known by experts under their or reduced, functionless stamens. Hawaiian names of Maia Maoli , Female sterility is absolute in Popo’ulu and Iholena . Maoli many clones. In the commercial (= Maori banana) is the variety cultivars, the ovaries fill with with the largest fruits, and corre- flesh to make the fruit, without sponds to Mao’i of the Marquesas, pollination and without seeds Ma’ohi of Tahiti and the Chef being formed. The growth of the banana of New Caledonia. inflorescence continues and it Popo’ulu are short, fat, squat produces a male flower, which bananas, sometimes as broad as is generally purple and hangs they are long, known under the beneath the bunch of fruits. name Po’u in Tahiti, Po’upo’u in the Marquesas and Poingo in New Morphological variability Caledonia. Finally the Iholena of Hawaii, or Ore’a of Tahiti, The cultivars derive from are remarkable for their deep two species: Musa acuminata orange flesh which, like the (genome A), fragrant and rich in Fe’i bananas, gives a fluorescent S T

sugar, and M. balbisiana (genome N

yellow colour to the urine, which A

B), which is relatively tasteless L P S U O E C A B R E H

277 surprises even regular eaters. in their turn. The plant becomes Within each of these varieties, a perennial and remains in the Maoli , Popo’ulu and Iholena , th e soil for three to five years, the farmers distinguish numerous time that it takes for a cyclone to forms according to the colour of come and knock it down . Black the plant, the epidermis and the Sigatoka disease (Mycosphaerella flesh of the fruit. Because of the fijiensis ) is the most serious linguistic diversity of Vanuatu, problem, and banana weevil these forms are known under (Cosmopolites sordidus ) bores dozens of different names in into the bases of the stalks and the vernacular languages. The can lead to them falling over. missionaries introduced numerous cultivars of dessert bananas that are also now very popular. Alimentary uses One may find Ney Pouvan (Lady Omnipresent in the markets, Finger), the very small fruits of the Pacific plantains, which have which are quite fragrant; also yellow flesh, are sold as cooking the Brazilian, which has a more bananas and for preparation of acid taste, and the Cavendish lap-lap , and are very popular which has a rather bland taste with consumers. These bananas but yields exceptionally well. may be boiled and then mashed The number of varieties has not for children, or cut into slices been tallied exactly but easily and fried. They are very rich exceeds 50 or so, and distinct in complex carbohydrates and morphotypes can be counted therefore nutritious. Dessert in the hundreds. bananas, which are eaten when fully ripe, are eaten by the ni- Cultivation and Vanuatu at any time of day as snacks. production

Banana is one of the most Other uses important food plants of Vanuatu . It is regularly planted in the Banana leaves are used mainly borders of gardens, either as as table mats, plates or dishes. a windbreak or simply to mark They are sometimes used instead the border. The species is plante d of Heliconia leaves for wrappin g using large suckers cut from the foods before or after cooking, bu t base of a mother plant. The they are not as strong. The sap suckers are usually placed at of certain varieties, particularly the bottom of holes 30 cm deep the Fe’i bananas, is a popular dye made with a crowbar. The first for colouring mats to an attractive bunch appears after 8–10 month s. purple. Finally, the trunk-like At each harvest the pseudostem stalks may be crushed in order to is chopped down, but the daughter obtain long fibres, used as string sh oots are left and they then fruit or rope or for weaving skirts. A I N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

278 Genus Ocimum

Family Lamiaceae

The genus comprises 30 species spread around tropical and subtropical regions. Three species are present in Vanuatu.

Species present Ocimum basilicum L. Basil

Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Basil (very close to O. basilicum and difficult to distinguish from it)

Ocimum gratissimum L. Wild basil (foraged species; see CD-ROM)

Basil is found in all urban gardens, but also frequently in rural areas. It is regularly used, in small quantities like all aromatic herbs.

References Darrah (1974), Germosen-Robineau, ed. (1999), Grayer et al . (1996), Messiaen (1998), OMS (1998), Paton (1992) , Paton & Putievsky (1996), Pétard (1986), PROSEA (1999), Purseglove (1991), Pushpangadan & Bradu (1995).

comprises numerous cultivars. Plant occasionally eaten, It is nowadays present through- introduced out the world. It was introduced Ocimum basilicum to Vanuatu where it grows abundantly, often spontaneously. Basil

History Description Aromatic herb with a robust Originally from west Asia, basil stalk, erect and quadrangular. was cultivated by the Egyptians, Leaves simple, decussate , oval then by the Greeks and Romans. or elliptical, dentate or entire, From there it reached the rest of reaching 8 cm in length. Inflore- Europe and then the continent scence terminal, reaching up of America. Grown for a long to 30 cm, with three spikes of

time as a medicinal plant and S

purple, white or cream flowers; T an aromatic herb, the species N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

279 calyx fringed; pedicels very seeds bought commercially or short. Fruits consisting of four collected from mature plants. small, dark maroon nuts, 1 mm The seeds germinate in about in diameter. five days, the plant grows quickly, and picking of the leaves stimu- lates further growth. It flowers Morphological variability after three months. The species, whose taxonomy is not well known, may be confused Alimentary uses with other closely similar species (O. tenuiflorum in particular). The leaves have been used for Moreover, it is extremely vari- a long time to flavour soups, able, with the cultivars being sauces and various different differentiated mainly by the dishes. They are the basic ingre- content of aromatic compounds. dient in the famous pesto sauce Thus many forms of basil exist in of Italy and southeast France. In Vanuatu, and they have not been Vanuatu they are used in small studied in any detail. One may quantities to flavour soups and distinguish, however, a form with certain stews. However, it is broad leaves, and a form with mostly the Asian and European small, oval leaves which is more expatriate populations in the shrubby. urban areas who use it to flavour their dishes. Cultivation and production Other uses

Basil grows in all the villages Oil extracted from the leaves is and gardens, but above all in used in the cosmetic industry, pots or in kitchen gardens in in particular to scent soaps. urban areas. It is grown from It is also a medicinal plant. A I N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

280 Genus Petroselinum

Family Apiaceae

A single species occurs in Vanuatu.

Species present Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Nyman ex. A.W. Hill Parsley

Parsley is a European introduction to Vanuatu.

References PROSEA (1999) , Purseglove (1991), Smartt & Simmonds, eds (1995), Zeven & de Wet (1982).

flattened umbels 2–5 cm in Plant occasionally eaten, diameter, small, yellow. Fruits introduced ovoid and laterally compressed, Petroselinum crispum 1–2 cm long, containing the seed.

Parsley Morphological variability

History Parsley is a very ancient cultivated plant, which varies Parsley, originally from the according to its habitat and to western Mediterranean, was the size and shape of the leaves. already known to the Greeks Three main groups of cultivars and the Romans. It is nowadays may be distinguished: spread throughout the world, and is naturalised in most of • flat-leaved parsley (var. the temperate zones. neapolitanum Danert), preferred by continental Europeans, with flattened Description and well spaced out leaves, Biennial or perennial herb with strongly flavoured; a hollow stem, 70 cm high on • curly-leaved parsley (var. average. Leaves arranged in crispum ), preferred by Anglo- rosettes, made up of three leaflets Saxons, with compact, curly with deeper and shallower inden - leaves, mildly flavoured; tations (particularly on the lower leaves), flat or curly, bright green , • parsley with a tuberous root, S not found in Vanuatu. T

1–2 cm long. Flowers borne on N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

281 2 82

GARDENS OF OCEANIA s pr d Par Cu W h th p o pi agricu wh h s gro th ed cen ifcu ave lan f ead ck i in ey th cu oduc ich wers sley lt n e ted s, ces in s fo lti ed six d ivat l b lty. h whic tu rm. vars each as eing i ave into out. to s alow leavs ral ti ne When grown io In devlop, on exist, ben resach e gr removd a Leavs n de germinat the bed, oup some and they d, the by gardens dev many wi th a or plantes h a sowing are number infl re staion. owevr , whenvr at loped fl of then or with tr ow least the an e - er in s i - n g n seaonig d cu P Al it o f mainly market t it h th t an germinat o ab o o ecoratin f o arsley, re with may e isne d i t lows, A p le men markets. ben roduce sian maint m gardens a be any in in gardens of so or but incorpated tar ly found w Vanut. for spontaeuly regulaity. comn on sed European el-drain gr it In y the o or sauce, a w is u t in plate he n by not se crop tha who in the rual Only peri-uban as u used or It h orign . wil rba , gardens, i sel as a moist n is a to ares peol n stil ther much. it vege the use in - - Genus Raphanus

Family Brassicaceae

The genus contains six species originally from the shores of the Caspian Sea. The only cultivated species has been introduced to Vanuatu.

Species present Raphanus sativus L. Radish

Only the varieties of radish with large roots are eaten by the ni-Vanuatu, though various sorts may be grown within a garden for sale in markets or for experimenting with new plants.

References Messiaen (1998), Pistrick (1987) , PROSEA (1994), Purseglove (1968), Rubatsky & Yamagushi (1997), Smartt & Simmonds, eds (1995).

opened up. Progressive selectio n Plant occasionally eaten, split the cultivated radish into introduced two forms – one with a small Raphanus sativus root, predominant in temperate regions of Europe, and the other Radish with a large root and predominant in Asia. The small red radish tha t History appeared in the 16 th century belongs to the first group. Radish Radish originated between the is nowadays grown throughout Mediterranean and the Caspian the world, and both forms have Sea. A weed among cultivated been introduced to Vanuatu. crops and harvested for its oily seeds, it was finally recognised as a vegetable by the Egyptians Description and then the Greeks and Romans. Pilose herbaceous plant, It was at that time a black radish . 20–100 cm in height. Base of the Parallel to that development stem and hypocotyl swollen, another centre of domestication cylindrical or round, white, blac k appeared in China, with the two or red in colour, variable in size. groups of plants later exchanging S

Leaves in a rosette, oblong, T genes after the Silk Road had N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

283 downy; margins crenate . Long Cultivation and raceme bearing small, scented, production white or violet flowers. Fruits flattened, long (10–30 cm), Cultivation of radish is only containing 6–12 yellowish seeds. successful in the cool season. Commercially bought seeds are sown in beds whose soil has bee n Morphological variability well worked. After germination The group of small radishes the seedlings are thinned, and the comprises several types accord- most vigorous ones are replanted ing to shape (long or round) and with 20 cm spacing. Radishes colour of the epidermis (white need to be hoed a couple of or red). The group of radishes times to remove weeds, and with large roots ( Raphanus are harvested ten weeks later sativus var. longipinnatus ) before they become too fibrous. is even more polymorphic, No serious pest or disease comprising types that are elon- problems are known. gate in shape, with the epidermis yellow, green, black or violet Alimentary uses and the flesh white, red, purple or green. Forms also exist in The small red radishes are eaten which the root is not swollen, raw, but are not used much by and these are grown for their rural populations. The large leaves. In Vanuatu one finds the radishes are more common and forms that are round and red are eaten cooked. Peeled and (Cherry belle type), ovoid and cut into pieces or small rings, white with a red collar (Pernot they are added to dishes with type), and elongate and white sauces and are an ingredient (Daikon or Japanese radish type). of many Asian dishes.

Other uses

The leafy cultivars are grown for use as a green manure. A I N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

284 Genus Rorripa

Family Brassicaceae

A single species exists in Vanuatu.

Species present Rorripa nasturtium (L.) Mensfeld Watercress

Watercress, regularly sold in buckets in the markets, is eaten cooked as a vegetable or raw in salads. It is grown mainly in irrigated taro pits for home consumption or in peri-urban villages for supply to the markets. It is grown commercially in Efate and Santo.

References Bailey (1992), Guillaumin (1946), Jonsel (1988) , Messiaen (1998), Ochse & Bakhuizen van den Brink (1980), PROSEA (1994) , Purseglove (1991), Rubatzky & Yamaguchi (1997), Zeven & de Wet (1982).

Description Complementary food plant, introduced Aquatic herbaceous plant with Rorripa nasturtium a hollow stem 10–60 cm long, producing roots at each node. Watercress Leaves composite with 3–9 leaflets, round or oval, wavy, light History green, 3 x 3 cm. Inflorescence terminal, bearing numerous sma ll Originally from west Asia and white flowers 5 mm in diameter. the eastern Mediterranean, Fruits minute, less than 2 mm this aquatic plant is nowadays long and longer than broad. present throughout the world, naturalised or cultivated. It is sometimes – e.g. in New Morphological variability Zealand – a weed of riverbanks. Poorly known in Vanuatu. At most It was introduced to Vanuatu at one may distinguish forms that th the beginning of the 19 century. vary in the size of the leaves. S T N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

285 Cultivation and Alimentary uses

production The young leaves, the stem tips The plant likes clear water and often the whole plant are with no stagnation and not very eaten raw in salads or cooked deep, such as that in irrigated as a vegetable. In Vanuatu, taro pits, but it grows equally where local people do not eat well in water-saturated soils and many salads, the plant is usually flooded banks of watercourses. boiled, alone or mixed with taro It is very common in Vanuatu. leaves to accompany a dish of Cultivation may be from seed root crops. In some regions, such (often commercially bought), as the west coast of Santo where but is most often from stem it is grown in irrigated taro pits, cuttings. It does not flower it is served several times a week. much in the tropics. Harvesting Its fresh and slightly tangy taste may begin after a month, and goes well with dishes of taro. It the more the stem tips are cut is necessary to wash the water- the more the plant branches and cress well in clean water in case grows. It is sold throughout the the water in which it was growin g year in the markets, in large was muddy. In urban areas, expat- bundles. riate and Asian people mostly eat it raw in salads or sometimes in a soup. A I N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

286 Genus Saccharum

Family Poaceae

The genus comprises six species. Two of these are found in the wild state – the rest are only known in cultivation. Two species are present in Vanuatu.

Species present Saccharum edule Hasskarl Naviso, pitpit

Saccharum officinarum L. Sugar cane

These two species have been present for a long time in Vanuatu, and are an integral part of traditional crop systems. Naviso is a popular vegetable, and sugar cane is chewed throughout the year.

References Barrau (1962), Brandes (1958), Daniels & Roach (1987) , Fauconnier & Bassereau (1970), French (1986), Galloway (1989), Hill (1952), Ochse & Bakhuizen van den Brink (1980), Purseglove (1988), Roach (1995), Sauer (1993), Weightman (1989).

people into the land, and it Complementary food plant, local is nowadays found in all the Saccharum edule gardens. This ancient plant did not spread beyond Vanuatu, or Naviso, pitpit according to some authors Fiji.

History Description The species originated in New Large herbaceous plant with Guinea. It is probably from a a tall stalk (2–3 m), slender, sterile form of S. robustum , a wil d growing in clusters of three or species of cane found only in New four stalks together. The pale Guinea and the adjacent islands, green leaves are slightly hairy or even the product of introgress - and rough. The stalks are often ion between S. officinarum and streaked with different colours other genera . It entered Vanuatu according to the variety. The with the movement of aboriginal

terminal inflorescences abort S T N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

287 before reaching maturity, and the numerous flower buds are pressed tightly together inside a white or cream sheath.

Morphological variability

Several distinct forms of naviso exist but they are poorly known at this time. They are distinguished by the colour of the stalk.

Cultivation and production

This species never produces seeds and is propagated vegetatively. The slender and dry stalks do not lend themselves to the production of cuttings, so instead suckers are used and are transplanted into gardens or close to homes. The suckers are planted directly into the soil in pairs, often tilted, after the soil has been somewhat broken up. The inflorescences are harvested after six months, and then regularly over two to three years after which the planting is replaced. No serious diseases or pests are known.

Alimentary uses

The sterile inflorescence, delicate and fragile, is extracted from its sheath and then braised in small bamboo containers or boiled in a marmite . It is then sprinkled with coconut milk and served as an accompaniment to a dish of root crops. It may also be grilled on hot stones, still enclosed in Saccharum edule its sheath. Naviso is sold in urban markets, in large bundles. A I N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

288 Description Complementary food plant, local Herbaceous plant with clumps Saccharum officinarum of 3–5 strong, thick stalks about Sugar cane 5–8 cm in diameter, fibrous; epidermis with a base colour of yellow-green, green, purple and History violet. Internodes 10–30 cm long. Saccharum officinarum exists Pale green leaves long and narrow, only in the cultivated state, and with the mid-vein white or yellow. its centres of diversification and Inflorescences feathery and domestication are incontrover- decorative, producing seeds tibly New Guinea; its ancestor only under exceptional circum- was S. robustum . This species stances. The clumps are pere- probably corresponds with a nnial, and re-shoot regularly complex of species that includes after the mature stalks have spontaneous populations derived been cut. from spontaneous hybridisations between S. spontaneum and Morphological variability other genera ( Erianthus and Miscanthus ) present in a region Numerous varieties exist, recog- stretching from the Sunda island s nised according to the size and to New Guinea. Repeated select- colour of the stalk, the length of ions for high sugar content by the internodes, the colour of the regular chewers of the cane main- pith and the sugar content of the tained, through cloning, the forms juice. All have been selected of S. officinarum that were low since ancient times for high in fibre content. Sugar cane was sugar content and relative part of the freight carried by the flexibility of the stalk. Cuttings first canoes of the peoples who of a number of these varieties progressively colonised the entire have been taken by overseas Pacific. It is thus found in Vanuatu scientific missions in order to and in all the islands to Hawaii. establish collections. Australia It also moved northeastwards. in particular has used Melanesian Papuan farmers grew a tall variety varieties in its programs of sugar of sugar cane, and likewise thos e cane improvement. The varieties of Vanuatu. It is worth noting that do not fruit in the gardens, and the manufacture of sugar in India probably result from mutations must have been from cane intro- selected by the farmers in the duced from New Guinea, but the gardens. Melanesians never attempted suc h a process. The large colonial plantations of sugar such as those of Fiji were not developed in Vanuatu. S T N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

289 Saccharum officinarum

Cultivation and Alimentary uses

production Sugar cane, sold in long sticks Sugar cane is propagated from over 1 m in length, is cut into cuttings of young, immature chunks and then crushed to stalks. Its cultivation was more extract the sugary juice. The abundant in earlier days, when bark is torn away with the teeth, it was the sole source of sugar – the juicy fibre is crunched and nowadays sugar is bought from chewed, and then spat out when groceries. It is planted each year it is dry. Sticks of sugar cane in all new gardens and harveste d are carried on all journeys, are a year later, and it continues to chewed in the gardens or along

A footpaths, are sold in urban I be cut for a number of years in N

A gardens that are in fallow. markets and are munched in the E

C evenings while drinking kava. O F O S N E D R A G

290 Genus Solanum

Family Solanaceae

The genus comprises close to 1000 species and its classification is not stable. Two species have been introduced to Vanuatu.

Species present Solanum americanum Miller American black nightshade (minor species; see CD-ROM)

Solanum melongena L. Eggplant, aubergine

Solanum torvum Swartz Devil’s fig, turkeyberry, prickly solanum (foraged species; see CD-ROM)

Solanum tuberosum L. Potato (minor species; see CD-ROM)

Eggplant and potato are not used much in Vanuatu cuisine. They are mainly grown in commercial ventures by some farmers for supply to urban centres and their expatriate populations.

References D’Arcy (1979), D’Arcy, ed. (1986), Daunay (1997), Fernandez- Munoz (1978), Hawkes (1990), Hawkes et al ., eds (1979) , Lebot (1988), Messiaen (1998), Pearce & Lester (1979), PROSEA (1994), Purseglove (1991), Rubatzky & Yamagushi (1997), Sauer (1993), Siemonsma & Piluek (1993), Smartt & Simmonds, eds (1995), Symon (1979, 1981 ), Weightman (1989).

East Africa. They moved very Plant occasionally eaten, early, in a natural progression introduced following the movement of Solanum melongena humans, towards the region of Indochina. They were progress- Eggplant, aubergine ively domesticated in the Indo- Burmese region, then Arabia, History Japan and China. The cultivated forms migrated westwards The ancestral forms of eggplant following the Silk Route, and (nowadays grouped under the

then the Moors introduced them S name S. incanum ) appeared in T N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

291 in the 9 th century to the whole in size, white, mauve, purple or Mediterranean basin and Spain. bicoloured, marbled or striped. Eggplant, introduced to Vanuatu Among the main varieties are: in the 19 th century by mission- Violette longue (early maturing, aries, is nowadays grown in all South of France), Zebrina (striped tropical and temperate regions. violet-white or brown-green, Spain), Black Beauty (late maturing, black with green Description flesh, American) and Porcelaine Herbaceous plant about 1 m in (white and round, West Indies). height; stem hairy, rugose, green or violet. Leaves simple, oval, Cultivation and hairy, cordate at the base; petiol e production 2–10 cm; margins broadly toothed . Flowers solitary, with five lobes, Eggplant in Vanuatu is a perennial mauve or violet, broad (5 cm in plant that is propagated from diameter); calyx tubular, woody seeds or by transplantation of and persistent, with 5–7 lobes. lateral shoots. The seeds germ- Fruits pendant, very variable in inate in two weeks, the seedlings shape (ovoid, oblong, globular, are transplanted after three weeks, very elongate), smooth, shiny, and harvesting begins three white, yellow, mauve, purple or months later. Picking continues black, sometimes bicoloured, up for three to four months as the to 40 cm long; flesh white or green. fruits become large enough. Numerous light brown seeds. Attention is needed to pick the fruits while they are still immature, or the skin becomes too thick and Morphological variability the seeds too hard. Eggplants The phenotypic variability is are hardy, and more tolerant extensive and covers the weight, than tomatoes to bacterial wilt colour and shape of the fruit. and nematodes. In reality eggplant belongs to a species complex whose limits Alimentary uses are not well determined. In Vanuatu imported commercial Occasionally eaten by the local seeds include all sorts of varieties people, eggplant is cut into distinguished mainly by the shap e pieces or slices, then fried or and colour of the fruits varying boiled in a sauce. They can be from black to dirty white. Thus used to make excellent curries. over different years one may see They can also be added to many eggplants that are round, ovoid, sorts of meat stew. oblong or elongate, small or large A I N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

292 Genus Zea

Family Poaceae

The genus comprises four species originally from Central and Latin America. One species has been introduced to Vanuatu.

Species present Zea mays L. subsp. mays Maize

Introduced to Vanuatu in the 17 th century, maize has been adopted by the ni-Vanuatu who nowadays grow it in all the gardens. It is mostly eaten as a vegetable or simply nibbled while still on the cob.

References Beadle (1977), Buckler & Holtsford (1996), Doebley (1990) , Freeling & Walbot, eds (1994), Galinat (1992, 1995), Goodman (1995), Iltis & Doebley (1980) , Mangelsdorf (1974, 1986), Mangelsdorf et al . (1964), Marchand et al . (1997), Ochse & Bakhuizen van den Brink (1980), Piperno & Pearsall (1998), Purseglove (1988), Weightman (1989).

multiplied, resulting in a first Complementary food plant, population of maize with bare introduced seeds and a soft glume. This Zea mays initial population, born in the valley of Balsas in central Maize Mexico, then became dispersed, giving rise to a number of secon- History dary, local populations, adapted to the ecological conditions Maize derives from teosinte, a and progressively improved by wild species of maize, or (nowa- farmers. Initially a complementary days thought less likely) from food plant in the diet, it later an extinct species. It is possible became a staple food in certain that this ancient teosinte was regions. Since the discovery of first collected for its fruits and the Americas these many varieties its sweet stem, or maybe just for of maize have been spread around its seeds. But much later, at the the world, and have been hybri- start of the Holocene, a form dised and greatly improved. with a number of rows of seeds Maize reached Vanuatu in 1606 S was selected and apparently T N

when Queiros established a small A L P S U O E C A B R E H

293 plantation of it near Matantas, of different forms of maize and and then came in much later but natural hybridisation within on a much greater scale in the gardens has produced some second half of the 19 th century. local variability of the species. It was adopted – as a complemen - The forms vary in the size of the tary food plant – by the ni-Vanuatu spikes, the colour of the seeds, who planted it in all their gardens, the time taken to reach maturity, but the plant was not subjected and the taste. The two most wide- to any particular selection. The spread varieties are Tuxpeno first colonists made maize a from Hawaii and Philadelphie, favoured commercial crop, introduced and distributed by exported to New Caledonia the Department of Agriculture and Australia. during the 1960s. Since then they have been the objects of numerous spontaneous hybridisations, Description and as farmers mix the varieties Erect annual herb, reaching and replant their own seeds, the up to 3 m in height. Stalk rigid, result is quite heterogeneous with internodes. Leaves arising populations but with selection at each internode, long, narrow tending to be for fresh usage. strips in shape, with their bases In fact maize in Vanuatu is sheathing the stalk, variable in hardly grown for dry seed. A size (30–150 cm x 3–15 cm). very common variety is Dent Inflorescence in male and fema le de cheval (Horse Tooth maize), spikes on the same plant; males which produces long cobs and grouped in a terminal panicle at whose plants are very tall (over the end of the stalk and furnished 2 m). The dried stalks of this with lateral branches; females robust variety are used as axillary and solitary, enveloped stakes for yam vines. by about ten thick bracts, rachis white, yellow or violet; styles Cultivation and filiform (threadlike) and close to 45 cm long, all emerging at the production top of the spike, green, yellow, Maize is planted in new gardens red, brown or violet. Fruits with at the beginning of October, from seeds arising in multiple rows, seeds stored in small baskets. It rounded and compressed, is often intercropped with other yellow, white or violet. plants, and its dried stalks make good stakes for yams. The seeds Morphological variability are hand-sown directly into the soil, three per hole, about 5 cm Maize is an allogamous plant, deep. The plants are not thinned and cross-pollination followed by and generally grow in clumps. repeated selection has produced Yields per plant are reasonable forms that adapt quickly to local and no serious diseases are A I conditions. Repeated introduction known. The local varieties N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

294 have cycles ranging from 100 to embers, or boiled in a marmite . 130 days, and better yields are It is a complementary food that obtained in winter. Heavy rain is very popular in season. It is causes the stalks to lodge. eaten during a meal, accompany - ing or replacing root crops, or it is nibbled between meals Alimentary uses especially by children. Many In Vanuatu maize is picked at also grow it for sale in markets. maturity for home consumption. It is grilled on hot stones or S T N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

295 Genus Zingiber

Family Zingiberaceae

The genus comprises 85 species spread through Asia and tropical Australia. Two edible and cultivated species occur in Vanuatu.

Species present Zingiber officinale Roscoe Common ginger

Zingiber zerumbet (L.) J.E. Smith Wild ginger, Shampoo ginger, pinecone ginger, zerumbet ginger

The wild or zerumbet ginger is an ancient Melanesian plant, while the common ginger was introduced in the 19 th century. The latter is nowadays grown commercially, and appears in abundance in the markets, together with a few rhizomes of zerumbet which itself is always grown in the villages.

References Bois (1934), Clair (1963), Germosen-Robineau, ed. (1999), Lagriffe (1968), PROSEA (1999), Purseglove et al . (1981), Smartt & Simmonds, eds (1995), Theilade (1996) , Weightman (1989).

as for flavouring their dishes. Plant occasionally eaten, Fresh, dried or processed, it was introduced one of the main commercial Zingiber officinale spices of the Middle Ages. In the 17 th century Francisco Common ginger de Mendoza introduced it to America and it then spread to History all tropical regions. Its arrival in Vanuatu, which already had Ginger has not been found in other species of ginger, was the wild state but it probably quite late. originated in India. It was cultivated early on in China and then introduced to the Description Mediterranean. From there the Erect herbaceous plant reaching Arabs took it to Europe. The up to 1.5 m, grown as an annual. Greeks and Romans used it for

A Tuberous rhizome, irregular in I its medicinal properties as well N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

296 shape and aromatic, growing Alimentary uses horizontally, very pale yellow. Ginger is used throughout the Lanceolate leaves, 30 x 2 cm, world as a spice, and is used with parallel veins. Cylindrical in the preparation of beverages, and fleshy flower spike, 20-30 cakes and pastries. In Vanuatu it cm high, bearing pale yellow is mainly used in Asian cuisine. flowers, arising under yellow- It is grown in one commercial green bracts, slightly convex. enterprise in Fanafo, but the Fruits red with small seeds. outlets are at present limited.

Morphological variability Other uses Two groups of cultivars exist, The plant is also medicinal, and one with very pale yellow the rhizome tenderises meat rhizomes (cv. officinale ) and with which it is cooked. the other with smaller, reddish rhizomes (cv. rubrum ). Only the former occurs in Vanuatu. Plant occasionally eaten, Ginger varies in its aroma introduced amongst other features. Zingiber zerumbet

Wild ginger, shampoo ginger, Cultivation and pinecone ginger, zerumbet ginger production

Ginger is propagated vegetatively History through pieces of rhizome planted Originally from India, this ginger in soil and then mounded up. Th e is grown throughout Asia. It mounding up is important becaus e was probably introduced by the it allows the buds to initiate more ancestors of the ni-Vanuatu, and stems which makes the plant is found in all the islands in a more vigorous, and it protects spontaneous or cultivated state. the rhizome from light which would increase the chlorophyll content and alter the taste. If Description the mounding up is not done, in Perennial plant with a tuberous Vanuatu as elsewhere the result rhizome, yellow and then whitish . is rhizomes that are small in size . Erect leafy stem reaching to The main constraint on the crop is 1.5 m. Leaves lanceolate, nematodes that attack and spoil 20–40 cm long, veins parallel. the plant roots. After ten months Flowering head cylindrical and the rhizomes are carefully har- fleshy, 12 cm high, bearing whit e vested. It is then either sold fresh or pale yellow flowers arising after being washed, or commer- under green or reddish bracts, cially as a powder after being slightly convex. Fruit red with chopped into pieces and dried. small seeds. S T N A L P S U O E C A B R E H

297 Morphological variability Cultivation and

The species is extremely production variable. At least four varieties The species grows in damp, are recognised: rich forest soils. It is propagated • var. americanus : ellipsoidal with pieces of rhizome, and its flower head; cultivation is identical to that of common ginger. • var. aromaticum : ovoid flower head; Alimentary uses • var. zerumbet : globular flower head; The rhizome is used in certain meat dishes, after having been • var. littorale : oblong flower washed and sliced up. head.

Other uses

The plant is often used in traditional medicine. A I N A E C O F O S N E D R A G

298